The Masses and the Elite Is the Constituting Formula by Which The

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THE MASSES and AND THE ELITE The Conception of Social Inequality in 1840s e Elite Scandinavian Literature [ JOACHIM SCHIEDERMAIR

ABSTRACT The opposition between the masses and the elite is the constituting formula by which the

classic texts of elite theory justiﬁed social inequality around 1900. Nowadays, contemporary theorists of social inequality interpret this opposition primarily as a panic reaction to

demographic developments that occurred towards the end of the 19th century. Uncovering the same mechanisms in ﬁction from that period is an obvious task for literary scholars. In

] the present article, however, it will be argued that the ‘true’ contemporaries of elite theories

are already manifest in texts from around 1840 – texts that are usually regarded as belong- ing to the Romantic period. The argument is based on Johan Ludvig Heiberg’s essay ‘Folk

og Publicum’ (1842) [The People and the Audience] and the drama ‘Den indiske Cholera’

(1835) [The Indian Cholera] by Henrik Wergeland. Heiberg’s and Wergeland’s texts will not

be read as anachronistic reﬂections of 1900 elite theories, but rather as complex analyses TRANSLATED BY LAURA ZIESELER BY LAURA TRANSLATED of precisely those bourgeois concerns that led to the emergence of elite theories toward the end of the century.1 ...... KEYWORDS Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo Pareto, elite, masses, Johan Ludvig Heiberg, theatre, Henrik Wergeland, freedom, Den indiske Cholera.

The Anachronistic Relationship between Elite Theories from around 1 900 and Romantic Literature of the 1 840s

Among the persistent facts and tendencies of public life, one is particularly obvious: each society, from the most primitive at the dawn of civilisation to the most advanced and powerful, consists of two classes: the ruling and the ruled. The ﬁrst one is always fewer in numbers; it is in charge of all political functions, monopolises power and enjoys its privi- leges, whereas the second class, though stronger in numbers, is under the command and leadership of the ﬁrst one. (Mosca 53)

This quotation is taken from the second chapter of Gaetano Mosca’s magnum opus Elementi di Scienza Politica (1896), which can be regarded as the founding text of elite theory. Mosca is the ﬁrst in a series of authors from around 1900

JOACHIM SCHIEDERMAIR, Professor of Modern Scandinavian Literature, Greifswald University Aarhus University Press, Romantik, 01, vol. 01, 2012, pages 125-138 125

4 900s. 1 9th century. 9th century. 1 According to these to writers, According 2 [The people and the audience],

Folk og Publicum 900 could be seen as a classic case of bour- 900 could be seen as a classic 1 The triumph of the media and industrial mass 3 6). A rising birth coupled with a concurrent rate 1 3- 900, but in an earlier period,900, but in an earlier among the authors of 1 1 9th century within the framework of classic elite theory, I do elite theory, of classic 9th century within the framework 1 842 paper entitled ‘Folk og Publicum’ 842 paper entitled ‘Folk 1 Johan Ludvig Heiberg’s How relevant is this finding for literary studies? One suggestion would be to to be would One suggestion literary is this studies? finding for relevant How 9th century (cf. Hartmann Rather, I intend to use these two texts to uncover the in the analogies construc- uncover texts to Rather, use these I intend to two aspects of Romantic literature and thus highlight to tion of social hierarchies studied. been sufficiently not have so far which Romanticism, to whom the idea of a stratified society was still self-evident. This self-evident. still was society whom theRomanticism, to idea of a stratified and a fictional text from By comparingis the a factual basic thesis of this paper. the middle of the mass production resulted in an uncertain drive towards cultural unification and cultural in an uncertain resulted drivemass production towards the theorymassification. The beginnings of elite of channelling a way presented the masses as a necessary conceptualising by coun- of revolution fear bourgeois Mosca’s repeat terpart thus superiority, rendering To bourgeois to it acceptable. facts’ masses, it is one of ‘the there that are where persistent an elite will words, the At same time, elite theoryemerge. ignored the it very which phenomenon to of massification as ‘same old, same – it dismissed the its existence novelty owed against the by opposition of the is characterized few and every society’ ‘Each old’. Thus, elite theory around the many. merely to have power sufficiently justifies wielding it. Today, just over a century just Today, it. wielding sufficiently justifies power have to merely elite theorists contemporary the interpret of their beginnings field primar- later, that place during took the to developments demographic the as a reaction ily late In his 1 who view the opposition between the masses and the start- as an inevitable elite thewho view between opposition era of Europe’s – at the and who fascist eve society, on reflections ing point for of leadership. legitimations Machiavellian – endorse Herfried Münkler, however, points out that Mosca and Pareto at least were react- were at least points out that Mosca and Pareto however, Herfried Münkler, ‘a country phenomenon, that an Italian a situation in which ing to is, to which had been lagging behind its northern in terms neighbours of modernization was an agricultural from an industrial to nation’ (Münkler 77). developing eventually based their observations model on the obsolete Mosca and Pareto words, In other Münkler’s From that it can be concluded argument, society. class of a stratified ‘true’ among be found to Mosca’s and Pareto’s not are literary contemporaries the authors writing around Heiberg’s intention is to analyse the relationship of the many to their to elite, or the of the analyse relationship many intention is to Heiberg’s that in finding out about the rather: change kind of structural he is interested not mean to imply that there is a truth imply on elites which mean to thenot to Italian perspective authors of the mid- Scandinavian been anticipated by had somehow see thesociological discovery of the and to elite as a time-bound phenomenon of the literature in contemporary preoccupation an equivalent look for geois repression, i.e. as a defence mechanism to exclude taboo and threatening exclude to mechanism i.e. as a defence repression, geois identity maintenance. ensure but also to conscious perception, issues from drop in the mortality rate led to an unprecedented and socially unmitigated pop- unmitigated and socially in theunprecedented an mortality led to drop rate areas. urban ulation explosion in

ROMANTIK · 26 01 1 JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ROMANTICISMS 7 2 1 (Heiberg 267) (Heiberg 5 The second opposition is a temporal one – between the the and – past present one – between is a temporal The second opposition The systematic and temporal aspects of Heiberg’s opposition are both intimately intimately both are opposition aspects of Heiberg’s and temporal The systematic that of ‘the It could be claimed the people’ elite theory. notion connected to also theincludes of ‘the elite, while the audience’ notion the does not; here, masses – maintain- the as the stage audience faces the thein much elite face same way the the masses, of ‘the organism people’ing a critical Unlike distance. is deﬁned regard elite; if we a representative to its voluntary subordination by precisely Auto- ‘undvære nation and theatre cannot them then as an organism, church, Superioritets-Forhold til Individerne, i et som maa staae riteten, og nødvendig authority shirk de Subordinerede’ [cannot (269) and necessarily in a rela- stand tionship of superiority elabo- the to Heiberg individuals as their subordinates]. Although true is national literature. to literature on this idea withrates reference becomes an author be that as seems to everyone imply this does not literature, de … har emanciperet the case in the Litteratur mass media: ‘den journalistiske og gjort til Skribent’ Publikum Individer, (273uberettigede f.) [journalistic lit- … has emancipated the unauthorizederature individuals and turned the audi- ‘the authors]. Instead, people’ence into write ‘ved in an unconscious fashion Digtere kalder Forstand Dem, som man i egenlig Organer, Hjelp af sine bevidste og Skribenter’ (273) and as poets [with the known help of its conscious organs theauthors resembles in the audience, which true The good sense of the word]. manner and respects recipient in a purely thanpeople rather the masses, behaves Idet man paa den ene Side bør indrømme, at Folkets Opløsning til et Publicum, Organ- Opløsning til et at Folkets bør indrømme, man paa den ene Side Idet – at Publicums og Kunst til Litteratur ismens til en Masse, eller – med nærmest Hensyn repræsenterende Intet Representation til en atomistisk, en organisk fra Overgang egen Tilbageskridt: et Desorganisation, saa bør man igjen paa den som enhver er, Mængde, af Tidsalderens Følge anden Side indsee, at en saadan Gjæringstilstandnødvendig er en Organisa- og fuldkomnere til en ny Overgang vistnok og Emancipations-Idee, retmæssige tion. needs to take place within the group of ‘the many’ in order for it to start to it rebelling for place within the in order take groupneeds to of ‘the many’ concep- is based on two His argument authority. and aesthetic political against the he people, which between distinguishes Heiberg First, opposing pairs. tually harmonic parts, comprised of different, sees as an internally organism consistent terms, and which and an amorphous deﬁned in quantitative is only which mass this opposi- treats as the systematic to Heiberg audience. he grudgingly refers especially every in sphere, social operating notion tion as an all-encompassing the is and artistic of these social reality political, religious ones. In each spheres, the so despises. dominated by audience that Heiberg the people and the masses into opposition between and puts the aforementioned whereas In the the an organism, past, people constituted order. a chronological that stresses Heiberg an amorphous into it is dissolving mass. Nonetheless, today this of the state masses’ ‘dull permanent, be seen as a crisis is not but needs to indicates the merely dialectic point of view a Hegelian from phenomenon which another: to state organizational of one transition (Heiberg, (Heiberg, 6 ) 1 (§ 2042), another classic text. Pareto text. Pareto classic another (§ 2042), 6 will come to be named ‘elite circula- 6 will come to 1 9 1 826) [On Vaudeville], Heiberg replaces this replaces Heiberg 826) [On Vaudeville], 1 842. After all, Heiberg allays the fear induced by induced by the fear allays 842. After Heiberg all, 1 (Heiberg, ‘Om Vaudevillen’ 7 ‘Om Vaudevillen’ (Heiberg, 7 e .... Trattato di Sociologia generale di Sociologia generale Trattato komme tilbag komme However, the most remarkable aspect is the role given to theatre in Heiberg’s theatre in Heiberg’s to given aspect is the role the remarkable most However, In his essay ‘Om Vaudevillen’ ( ‘Om Vaudevillen’ In his essay Though he concedes that the zeitgeist champions a legitimate interest in a legitimate interest he concedes that champions theThough zeitgeist interpretation of elite circulation. He states that it had only taken a few years to to years a few that taken states it had only He of elite circulation. interpretation the people represented actually an audience which from theatre-goers change mass: an atomised into tion’ in Pareto’s tion’ in Pareto’s uses this describe an elite either renews model to in which constantly a process the incorporating ruled elements from and integrating itself by or is com- classes, elite. a new supplanted by pletely behagede ikke blot Hoffet og de høiere Cirkler, men den blev sungen paa Gadehjørnerne sungen men den blev Cirkler, og de høiere Hoffet blot ikke behagede Klasse, som aldrig den fra eller en Indtægt, selv Theaterkassen og i Kjelderne, og skaffede som i dannede Mennesker, Mængde en stor Comedien, medens tillige sjelden besøger dette forførtes ved Interesser, og dets Theatret fra sig tilbage trukket Aarmange havde til at Stykke Of course, what Heiberg describes in this passage is a feudal representation describes representation what Heiberg Of course, in this is a feudal passage the in which (with elite scheme the the king at the nation dur- represents top) theatre). ing public acts (at court, Thus, the theatre audience elitist in the royal the itself. which served people became visible to as a medium through Dengang var det almindeligt, at man i Litteratur, Kunst- og Theaterverdenen … betrag- og Theaterverdenen Kunst- almindeligt, at man i Litteratur, det var Dengang som Folkets man det betragtede idetmindste som identisk med Folket; tede Publikum og tilfæl- ubetydelige i ganske endog denne Repræsentation ja erkjendte Repræsentant, i den Tids ikke det almindeligt var hvor Exempel, eneste et Masser;dige at vælge thi for sam- Aften vare som paa en enkelt Mennesker, hundrede de faa at give Leilighedspoesie man naivt kunde Og ganske Folk? danske af det Navn Theater, kjøbenhavnske lede i det høist i et en saadan ringe at behage Menneskemasse at man ved Tanke, sig til den overlade sin Nation. behaget Tid, have rum indskrænket par Timers og i et indskrænket ‘Litteraturens Autoritet og Superioritet’ Autoritet ‘Litteraturens (273) authority [literature’s and superiority]. of the the end of the proclaim elite in favour does not emancipation, Heiberg writesa complete as masses. He that this of crisis be understood to state is not in an evolutionary step as a single structures, but merely in social power change ultimate concern Heiberg’s is another. by one elite is supplanted in which circle as he anticipates essential insofar elite. This is remarkable of a new the advent ideas of elite theory as as early ‘Folk og Publicum’ 264-265) og ‘Folk obsolete model of elitist representation with a model of average-based represen- with a model of average-based representation of elitist model obsolete in its audience can the its theatre is represented regain if every class tation. Only maintains Heiberg the as a place where nation recognizesstatus itself. However, ex- For aesthetics. a particular – Vaudeville that this kind of aesthetics requires Salomon’ piece ‘Kong his ample, the masses with in model which a social

ROMANTIK · 28 01 1 JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ROMANTICISMS 9 2 1 . In the follow- post hoc Wergeland always took took always Wergeland 9 Den indiske Cholera [The Indian Cholera] was published on 24 published was [The Indian Cholera] June 930s, Fredrik Paasche argues in the vein of genre-essentialist of genre-essentialist argues in the vein 930s, Fredrik Paasche 1 then it has to become a medium of the masses that captivates then a medium of the become it has to masses that captivates 8 10 Den indiske Cholera The Discourse of Freedom in in The Discourse of Freedom Henrik Wergeland’s This verdict assumes that Wergeland actually intended to revisit the subject revisit intended to actually assumes that Wergeland This verdict These few illustrations should suffice. Johan Ludvig Heiberg’s text exempli- text Heiberg’s Johan Ludvig should suffice. illustrations These few But however closely this drama follows the much praised poetry of freedom, the praised much follows this drama closely But however 835, he had already established himself as a poet of revolutionary freedom – and freedom of revolutionary himself as a poet established 835, he had already 9th century. In the following passages, I want to highlight the same connection highlight to I want passages, In the9th following century. matter of freedom without changing it. This might be possible, of course. None- be possible, of course. without This might it. matter of freedom changing verify author’s an to theless, it is impossible intentions an old topic. revisiting merely that beyond the I will show text goes ing passage, elite theories, in the if it is read context of Mosca’s and Pareto’s it becomes For that of libertyclear based on a second, opposing the rhetoric is actually staple lite- by been overlooked that discourse has obviously better-informed and much all social strata. This is Heiberg’s basic idea, although he himself did not verbalize verbalize he himself did not basic idea, although This is Heiberg’s all social strata. perspective It also means a shift in the dangerous masses’ potentially it that way. theatre If the audience: theatre becomes a mass on the feudal-elitist formerly medium, then This the the masses and the the onto stage. elite share view same forms unity. of national the view shared foundation as the mid- as early on elites reflection the of the provoked masses fear fies how it has not received equal praise from the perspectives of literary history. For ex- For of literary history. the perspectives from praise equal received it has not the in early ample, 1 so far. it is with this in mind that has been received reputation this play Henrik Wergeland regarded his political and literary his political and the commitment to cause of regarded Henrik Wergeland national independence as a contribution peace movement. a global to Norway’s befriede (‘Det Eu- writing he was in France Whether about the Revolution July I (‘Cæsaris’) Nikolaj or the South-Amer- uprising Tsar the Polish ropa’), against Spain (‘Bolivar’), independence from ican struggle for 1 a substantially this fictional text requires a fictional text. However, analysing by that obvious it deals with the it is not elite glance, at first analysis: complex more of the that the evident it is actually fear phenomenon, and nor is it immediately acts as the inner masses which behind the of the driving message drama’s force of communication. and outer systems If the theatre audience is to once more become a place where theIf thebecome a place where recog- masses once more theatre audience is to a become once more to if it wants as the words, people, in other nize themselves theatre, founding the side of the rebels striving to throw off the yoke of foreign of yoke rule. When the off of thethe side the striving throw rebels to melodrama Hegelianism that Wergeland had failed to cast his idealist content adequately content adequately his idealist cast to had failed that Wergeland Hegelianism is a poem about the form. price His ‘drama peace and dramatic of freedom, into the by poet’ neglected are lyrical the and rather than characters dramatic; love, considered, properly not having for Wergeland reproaches 229). Paasche (Paasche as Wergeland [extemporized] his drama, slung out or ‘extemporeret’ but rather himself puts it. Den indiske 22) [Set India’s millions 22) [Set 1 23) [Once by God, as the23) [Once by diamond’s 1 er farsotten de undertryktes er farsotten forbundsfælle, Den indiske Cholera 59) [Thence / like the stone forming the rings stone 59) [Thence / like in calm water 1

Den indiske Cholera

, the pandemic is the ally of the oppressed, India’s weapon against English English against , the pandemic is the of the India’s weapon ally oppressed, Elite Circulation in The secret the governor is so eager to know, concerns trea- an immeasurable know, to is so eager the governor The secret This time, the story of a just struggle for national freedom is situated in a This time, thenational freedom struggle story for a just of sure allegedly kept hidden by the hidden by Raja. arrives warship in or- kept When an English allegedly sure the rumor. he remembers on the judgement infidel governor, pronounce der to his his embezzlements and thus avert for could help him compensate The gold the finds out about Raja’s a shaft punishment. He and is led to sealed by secret, in the But when the shaft but cholera a stone. is opened, he finds no treasure, discriminate and it does not shape of a demon. The disease is released, between Indian and British will spread has been determined: Cholera The future bodies. colonial rule. thus But the avenging Europe, disease will also lay throughout and escape the Sami, the chaos: Raja’s lovers daughter, two India. Only to waste their against long been in love who have the governor, son of the English Francis, their to parents’ the counterbalance fathers’ utopian hatred. represent will. They society: the a new On an island that by pandemic, they found has been spared / uddød Jord over / vi atter sprede Vand, stille i det Cirkler ‘Derfra, / som Stenen ( Velsignelse’ en voxende core / in life’s first quivering moment / embedded inextricably, it [= freedom] was was it [= freedom] moment / embedded inextricably, quivering / in life’s first core him [= man]]. to given / we will once again spread out across deserted out across earth spread will once again blessing]. / we / a growing If we read the text as an extension of the aforementioned freedom poetry, then poetry, the freedom read text as an extension of the aforementioned If we the be constructedthis governor needs to reading via the opposition between Cholera fac- On one side is the of an English corrupt governor and fraudulent tyranny]. John. On the is the other villainous administrator, supported his equally by tory, and places politi- deposed Raja old and freedom India’s for who fights venerable, his son Sewaji release to offers When the matters. governor personal cal above if the Raja death row from the tells him a particular Raja secret, defiantly and if the his country Only British cooperate. is he willing to leave to refuses nobly af Indiens Forbjerg the ‘Frigiv secret: Indiens Millioner; yderste reveal det / og paa Britte’ den sidste det (Wergeland jeg tilhvidske / skal rary historians in their effort to canonize Wergeland as a poet of freedom. Thus, Thus, of freedom. as a poet Wergeland rary historians in theirto canonize effort the establish structures before need to that to responds the reading we classical this it is necessary end, to structures. To alternative or contrasting looking for briefly summarize plot. the drama’s colonial context. ‘I voldsherredømme’ 229) [In (Paasche engelske det mot Indiens vaaben free; / and on the outermost Indian outcrop / shall I whisper it into the / and on the / shall I whisper it into ear of thefree; outermost Indian outcrop him to and freedom Briton].riches offers And when the governor retreating last is a natural that freedom saying Rajaboot, dismisses the the legitimacy of offer, at the af Gud, som disposal of one individual: ‘Engang not right and therefore Øjeblik / uskillelig indlagt, den tindrende første Kjernen i Demanten / i Livets forærtes’ ( [= Friheden] ham [= Mennesket]

ROMANTIK · 3 01 1 JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ROMANTICISMS 1 3 1 (88-89) 11 Her gjemme Natten mig som dyndgraa Slange, Slange, mig som dyndgraa gjemme Natten Her kommer, [= Francis] til Han af Gift igjennembølget, at gribe eftersom vovede og Glemsel ene Trøst Trældoms min Elskov, Levning og Ejendom og sidste og Ret Slaven. kræver Her af Menneskenatur. jeg, kræver Og Sami af Naturen Thi skjænke. den mig skal den ene Fryd som har gjort Aaget, os lige. jeg elsker ja høibaaren er hun lavest; Høibaaren er en Fødsel, da Trældom hun er ei meer, værre Tilvær. til et Guds forskjellig, fra Frihed. Mens er en Slaves Den Liighed Fribaarnes er som Træernes Liighed Bølgers, regelløse Fjeldes, og takkede paa Siden af hverandre ved som Straae jo staae. Trællene en maalløs Slette 02) [the victory last earth referring on course of the belongs to slave], 1 There is yet another character in the play who defines himself via the in the dichot- play character another is yet There At this point an opportunity presents itself for him to reach the this object of his de- reach At point an opportunity him to itself for presents is a long time, and his father The old Raja’s for sire. abroad son has been dwelling about the Cholera secret he can pass on the family die before that he might afraid is, afterDemon, which less than the all, nothing the against Indians’ weapon last the intruders. Raja his English Therefore, a suitable husband for is looking for Sami – an heir who can be trusteddaughter His criterion: with the secret. his son- needs Vakiti Thus, India’s freedom. passion for his ardent share to ought in-law and the Raja, as previously hinted at. However, one must not overlook the fact the fact overlook not one must and the Raja, However, hinted at. previously as i.e. statements, on the is predicated characters’ reading that this dichotomic of this interpretations their is the interpretation all following starting point for as opposing the Raja themselves words, stage In other and the governor drama. on amply drawing by and the the tyrant, fighter and evil, freedom of good forces of servant in their the example, and master ripostes. governor For the dichotomy Her- dialectics: ‘Frygter his son in Hegelian and teaches sees all Indians as slaves then / the Herre’ slave the slave, (93) [If the fears da / er Slaven master Slaven, ren is the And the bliver master]. Raja that paa Jorden Seir ‘[d]en siste is convinced ( Slavens’ omy of slave and master: the Malay Vakiti. Vakiti is introduced as a character as a character is introduced Vakiti and master: Vakiti. the Malay of slave omy with that she is in love The fact Sami, the Raja’s for lusting maniacally daughter. on his situation. When he appears the governor’s improve Francis, son, does not monologue: the following delivers time, Vakiti the first for stage to the victory of the colonized over the colonial power. The dichotomy derives its The dichotomy theto victory the colonial power. of the colonized over of dis- the that belong to the same universe figures both fact from persuasiveness thatcourse, is, they support the of freedom, same semantization of the concept opposing angles. albeit from Guided by Guided by 36). In order 36). In order 12 1 34) [in ancient 1 37). What is even 37). What is even 1

The negative role assigned to Vakiti makes it easy to miss the fact that miss the it easy to this fact makes assigned Vakiti role to The negative the no means applicable to villain alone (if this is by This interpretation were 37) [despised, homeless and hated] – a description that clearly refers to the to Sinti 37) refers – a description [despised, homeless and hated] that clearly 1 Brahma, the forefather of the the Raja forefather outwit him and pushes him into Brahma, to manages a shaft his spirit is then There, on as a cholera which sealed with lives a stone. as India’s elite while status legitimates the family’s myth demon. This founding who survived the since the Tsengari at the social hierarchy, same time justifying hjemløs og forhadt’ the either nation ‘foragtet, roaming are still Hindu rebellion ( ascending to that, is that important more before the story reveals also indirectly the by Hindus ( had been oppressed themselves the Tsengari power, and Romani – or they belong to the untouchables, the theand Romani – or they Pariah belong to untouchables, ( to present himself accordingly and also to dispose of the newly returned natural natural returned the dispose of to and also newly himself accordingly present to Barm’ ind til [… Samis] enter [… Sami’s] (89) [to bosom]. ‘trænge to son in order failed the that have end of the all of his schemes drama towards When he realizes people with as him as many take he decides to his downfall, and that he is facing is he who opens thepossible; and so it shaft the will and releases demon which Britonswipe out Indians and alike. the gov- between opposition undermines actually the straightforward character ernor and the the Raja, and his noble victim. For oppressor villainous between of the the rivalsvillain while at the role for the same time be- governor Vakiti Pariah) (a and thusing untouchable sharing the Raja’s of the As an unfree. role the al.), he thwarts interpretative party third et (cf. Esslinger incommensurable and the the Raja. grounds by governor structure on reciprocal established In this on the the Raja’s light new Like rhetoric. function he sheds an entirely freedom interpret him, he does not but unlike himself oppressed, considers Raja, Vakiti of the ruling him it is a and thethe ruled For dichotomy on a national level: British welcomes rule He above. as can be seen in his speech social distinction, attainable: ‘Thibecause it deposes the Sami socially old elite and thus / jeg makes that us equal]. has made the som har gjort yoke Aaget, os lige’ / I love elsker [For construed the of the is not out of place, colonization point of view socially From which – a perspective in elite circulation step another as just but rather as slavery, could be credo with elite theories. nicely the aforementioned Vakiti’s dovetails reformulated with the this to help of Mosca’s sentence cited in the introduction one is the most tendencies of public life, and facts the persistent paper: ‘Among the classes: ruling of two and the […] consists ruled.’ society each obvious: From of Regardless is of no consequence. the of power legitimization this perspective, everything will it is thewhether Raja who wields political power, or the governor part in thehimself becomes a movable unless he process Vakiti the same for stay of marrying way by Sami (89). becomes feasible This of elite circulation. be very it is an restricted); ultimately would the drama for the case, its validity borne – a fact of thefreedom of national discourse (albeit hidden) component Raja’s son Vakiti out by he tells his supposed new monologue in which major that ‘i Indiens Old’ says ( He Demon’s secret. about the Cholera India] a tribe of Tsengari had subjugated the Hindus. One of the Tsengari sul- the had subjugated Hindus. One of the Tsengari India] a tribe of Tsengari tans surpassed in his cruelty all of his predecessors and inhumanity.

ROMANTIK · 3 01 1 JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ROMANTICISMS 33 1 which which residues 36) [into victorious36) [into 1 37) [From the woods the Hindu the woods 37) [From 1 454). In Pareto’s voluntarist theory voluntarist 454). In Pareto’s 1 4). And indeed, the victory of the Hindu 1 3- 1 to denote norms or rationalizations used by norms used by denote or rationalizations to derivations constructions In disguising the irrational actual, motivation. post-hoc The Masses 900s: ‘[T]hey do not only state the power of the elites, but also the powerlessness of the also the elites, but powerlessness the state power only do not 900s: ‘[T]hey reality, the actions of both individuals and societies are steered by by steered are the and societies individuals actions of both reality, ‘The derivations VI-VIII). keep (ch. a timeless logic of instincts in turn follow the same’ while the stay changing residues (§ cheers the has been turned, mourningcheers in honour a thou- / clad the of wretched a small of disdain]. The Raja’s only is therefore freedom sand years struggle for call need to terms would we in Pareto’s which narrative longer much of a passage The Raja’selite circulation. story a succession of legitimization alone recounts Hindu, British. the background Against Tsengari, elites: Hindu, four of at least the Raja’s can monologue dichotomy, disruption of the master-slave of Vakiti’s in elite circulation but of oppression, from of deliverance as a storybe read not – and oppression the thing is thewhich only that distribution changes of power thata reading strips terms, the monologue of its pathos In Pareto’s of freedom. the Raja’sbe decoded as a derivation, can of national freedom while rhetoric expose the behind that function is to residuum derivation with regard Vakiti’s A short as a whole. theto drama explanatory on these terms note is necessary uses the term Pareto here. these deriva- IX and X). However, its actions (ch. a means of motivating as society tions are However, when the text (through Vakiti) unmasks the Raja’s as deriv- motivation Vakiti) when the text (through However, fill in as an alternative since he is obviously cannot and when the governor ative, is it necessary then why preservation the of mere of power, by residue motivated of voice as the isn’t he presented drama’s act as the to villain? Why Vakiti for truth? people sallied forth; / and revenge led them, victory followed them]. led them, victorypeople sallied forth; followed / and revenge 1 of the masses. The elites rule the “dull masses” in turn over make which do not change’for social ( to push effort any to ingratiate himself with the Tsengari sultan, the forefather of the sultan, the Raja forefather himself with ingratiate depicts to the Tsengari their ‘til Seiersjubel oppression: for victory act of vengeance as an the Tsengari Aars tusind ( Foragt’ hyllet gjort / i Hæder de Usles Klage, hero of liberty over the Tsengari sultan has the Hindu refugees return immedi- return sultan has the Hindu refugees the of liberty Tsengari hero over / frem; Hindufolket brød Skogene their ‘Fra hideouts in the from ately woods: førte, fulgte dem’ (Wergeland Sejren og Hevnen of action, political action – and here one could also include the could also include one Raja’sof action, political action – and here narrative and metamorpho- of masquerades arsenal of legitimization – is seen as a ‘mere Kurt Lenk (32). It is precisely to power’ according will for ses of man’s constant that bear in Raja’s comes to this founding power aspect of the timeless will for of one elite replacing circle as an unchanging history where is understood myth, of one particular legitimization a derivative by (supplemented, of course, another ‘History’ the the – including story by told cite Pareto: to elite, the Hindus). Or, Raja – ‘is a cemetery of elite of the overview elites’ readable (§ 2053). In her highly of theories the feature common theories, another from also notes Beate Krais 39) 1 ( 13 (88-89) 14 … Mens Fribaarnes er som Træernes Liighed Bølgers, regelløse Fjeldes, og takkede paa Siden af hverandre ved som Straae jo staae. Trællene en maalløs Slette naar sammen reen och ureen Kaste slettes slettes Kaste ureen och naar sammen reen Vei; brød en Strøm som Sæd og Ukrud hvor naar Aag og Paria sammenbinder; Brahmin fri ingen bærer Mahrat; naar Sletten Rajah har sin Stat;naar sidste mistet men og Nationer, ikke … naar Fyrster igjen [.] Masse gaaer lige Trælles kun Even in this regard, the Raja’s in this comments a telling hint as it regard, Even offers monologue on the utmost evil conceivable within the elitist frame of interpretation (i.e. thatof interpretation within the frame conceivable on the evil elitist utmost of the the Raja social variable masses as an independent that defies and Pareto): of the release calamity that the The only could justify catastrophic regulation. of the power the nor the occupation of India, foreign demon is not oppressive within Indian the nor colonialism, but of social differences dissolution Tsengari, this, come, comes to If it the open the time to shaft demon’s will have society. If, in analogy to Pareto, the text were to be read as an analysis of elitist struc- of elitist as an analysis be read to the text were Pareto, If, in analogy to between be surprising relationship not it would find thetures, to paradoxical distances elite theory Thus, Wergeland as well. here and the masses represented On the one hand, this quotation demonstrates the social narrow-mindedness demonstrates On theone hand, this quotation is hierarchically of the Raja’s favours he The social state idea of freedom. elitist och (‘reen rule classes structured and does not the out the of bondage lower On the seed and weed]). ‘Sæd og Ukrud’ caste, and impure [pure Kaste’, ureen that fueling the it clear the actual fear also makes hand, thisother quotation differences Raja’s is that freedom of of the rhetoric abolition of hierarchical Brah- (‘naar Aag og Paria sammenbinder’ Brahmin together bind [when yokes that theman and Pariah]). is driven the discourse by elite’s It shows of elitist fear mas- indifferent will lead to [a torrent]) which (‘en Strøm’ force an uncontrollable Masse’ lige [the uniform masses of the servants]), in which sification (‘Trælles Raja har sin Stat’ ‘sidste [no mistet fri (‘ingen Mahrat’, turn no hierarchy knows reformulated within the the Raja Maratha, Or, last free his kingdom]). has lost the characterizes structure: meaning which masses The indistinctness drama’s the by Raja shared threatens the while at the universe and the discourse governor thesame time making it plausible. The Raja’s unscrupulous is not actual enemy Briton, since he subscribes the to logic of the eternal legitimacy of supposedly ap- in his first Even of massification: Vakiti. it is the advocate the elite – rather, me once more himself in this he presents function. Let on the stage pearance passage: a part the abovementioned from quote

ROMANTIK · 34 01 1 JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ROMANTICISMS 35 1 , og Gouvernørens 58) 1 ( 15 is a text based on an Aasyn. Hans sidste Blik søger Blik søger Aasyn. sidste Hans Vakitis 900. In Sigrid Weigel’s words, lit- words, 900. In Sigrid Weigel’s 1 Den indiske Cholera 900s elite theories this to in the introduction 1 . Nogle flye. … Døden udbreder sig fra Ansigt til Ansigt. sig fra … Døden udbreder flye. . Nogle …. Idet han styrter i Dybet speile alt samme Dødstræk sig i speile alt samme Dødstræk han styrter i Dybet Idet …. 900s. 1 Johns 9th century, lives in fear of the of this, contains the Due to masses. the fear in drama lives 9th century, 1 From this, that it can be concluded From In the context of the drama, the character who embodies this paradoxical who embodies this paradoxical In the the context of the character drama, internal contradiction. The rhetoric of freedom is punctured, its elite-building is punctured, of freedom internal The rhetoric contradiction. the abandon at the does not same time, the drama function exposed. However, that the because of this paradox that elitism. It is precisely justify motivations eventually would which upheaval of a contemporary acts as a seismograph drama thelead to elite theories that around appeared The cholera, spreading from gaze to gaze, thus makes everyone equal; it spares it spares equal; everyone thus gaze, makes to gaze from spreading The cholera, neitherthe British nor the Indians, neither the elite (the Raja and the governor) and John, the The pandemic’s governor’snor the ruled administrator). (Vakiti occurrence as the be interpreted the at has to annihilation of all end of the drama as itself can be seen the most while cholera the (national and social) differences, of massification. figuration forceful [l]øfter Stenen. Døden afbilder sig i fortrukne Træk i sig i fortrukne[l]øfter Døden afbilder Træk Stenen. Gouvernørens derfra i himself from his earlier freedom poetry by characterizing the poetry characterizing of free- freedom discourse by his earlier himself from of the puncture rhetoric to is allowed Vakiti dom as a derivation, is why which the remains vil- still thatthe Vakiti fact with it. However, away and get freedom the end of the of towards the bourgeoisie rest like lain indicates that Wergeland, the state of affairs is Vakiti. Unlike in elite theory, the fear of the masses is not ban- fear of the masses is not in elite the theory, Unlike Vakiti. is of affairs state spelt out as a mas- but rather drama, in Wergeland’s the foreground ished from massification becomes real- vision of a leveling Vakiti’s in which showdown sive of making the than pandemic is more British the way Indian’s The cholera ity. the end of thepay; elite- it is the annihilation of social stratification, dreaded the drama, Throughout the Raja between and the governor. based dichotomy However, on stage. present or three characters than no more two usually there are in the and final act, that third number rises. enter the and sailors stage. Soldiers Demon’s shaft. the Cholera assembled around are all of the characters Finally, And then Vakiti paper; the was it although amorphous massification that social threat posed by rise theory a to originally gave the of derivations, and elite circulation, residues actual purpose of this theory that very threat. deny is to erary the and the texts ‘relate prelude aftermath of terms, theories and concepts, as their imple- as well paradigms interpretation the of cultural conflicted genesis ceases to Wergeland this perspective, (64). From mentation in social interaction’ Romantic movement Norwegian of the tardy advocate act as a freedom merely is the instead with common ground he shares – and what becomes obvious Hei- position. Thus, the authors texts of both can be read Hegelian berg’s conservative of elite theories analyses as anachronistic and hence fear of bourgeois as analyses the from very in connection I identified

. 837 1 950. 1 832- 1 . Oslo: Asche- in der dänischen in der dänischen 59. 974. . Vol. 6. Copenhagen: 6. Copenhagen: . Vol. Gründungsmythen, 1 1 - . . Berlin: Suhrkamp, Suhrkamp, . Berlin: 1 Hoch, Ebenhoch, der Dritte. Ebenhoch, Hoch, Supplement to the weekly theSupplement to weekly . München: Francke, Francke, . München:

999. 920. 8 . Literatur als Voraussetzung der als Voraussetzung Literatur 1 1 An der Spitze. Von Eliten und An der Spitze. Von corps politique (2000): 76-88.

39 1 . Vol. 6. Copenhagen: C. A. 6. Copenhagen: Reitzels . Vol. Prosaiske Skrifter 957. . Ed. Wilhelm Heizmann and Joachim and Joachim . Ed. Wilhelm Heizmann . Oslo: Cappelen, 1 . Ed. Gottfried Eisermann. Stuttgart: . 7–62. , vol. , vol. 1 826). Ed. Adam ArminEd. Adam and Martin Stingelin. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2004. 63-85. 2004. Verlag, Fink Wilhelm Munich: 1

. . Übertragung und Gesetz Übertragung -284. 1 Kursbuch 2. 26 Prosaiske Skrifter 1 . Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag, 2004. Verlag, Campus York: . Frankfurt/New Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte Aus Politik 850-Aarene (= Norsk Litteratur Historie, Vol. 3) Historie, Vol. Litteratur 850-Aarene (= Norsk 842). Kollektive Gespenster. Die Masse, der Zeitgeist und andere un- Die Masse, der Zeitgeist Gespenster. Kollektive 1 1 . Oslo: Aschehoug, . Oslo: Aschehoug, . Ed. Constanze Gestrich and Thomas Mohnike. Würz- Gestrich and Thomas Mohnike. . Ed. Constanze Samlede Skrifter. Trykt og utrykt II, Digterverker, 3. Bd., og utrykt Digterverker, II, Trykt Samlede Skrifter. 800 4 til 1 . Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, am Main: Peter . Frankfurt 1 8 982: 27-37. . Spec. issue of 1 1 -39. 830 1 1 . 111 - 1 Manddommen 995. 3 . 1 , B42/32 1 86

1 Die Figur des Dritten. des Die Figur Ein kulturwissenschaftliches Paradigma . Ed. Beate Krais. Konstanz: UVK, 200 Konstanz: . Ed. Beate Krais. . Vol. 2, . Vol. Die neuen Eliten Elitesoziologie. Eine Einführung Metropolis und nordische Moderne. Großstadtthematik als Herausforderung literarischer literarischer Moderne.Metropolis Großstadtthematik und nordische als Herausforderung . Ed. Michael Gamper and Peter Schnyder. Freiburg im Breisgau: Rombach, 2006. Rombach, im Breisgau: Freiburg Schnyder. and Peter Gamper . Ed. Michael Norges Litteratur. Fra Fra Litteratur. Norges Die herrschende Klasse. Grundlagen der politischen Wissenschaft der politischen Klasse. Grundlagen Die herrschende Vilfredo Paretos System der allgemeinen Soziologie der allgemeinen System Vilfredo Paretos . 263-283. 1 Das Parlament Norges litteraturhistorie, Bd. 2. Fra Wergeland til Vinje Wergeland Bd. 2. Fra litteraturhistorie, Norges Wergeland

86 1 932. 932. 1 1 Faszination des Illegitimen. Alterität Genealogie, HerkunftFaszination in Konstruktionen und Ursprünglichkeit von 27. 1 0. 1 05- Literature herrschenden Klassen herrschenden ville’. ville’. seit Literaturen in den skandinavischen 20 Kriegstheater Institutionen und Unterwerfungsstrategien von Akademie Verlag, Berlin: Ed. Herman Jæger and DidrikEd. Herman Jæger Arup Forlag, Seip. Kristiania: Steenke Ästhetik von Andersen bis Kierkegaard’. bis Kierkegaard’. Andersen von Ästhetik Körper fassbare newspaper houg, Forlag, Forlag, Enke, Enke, eratur des Idealismus als anachronistischer Kontext früher Elitetheorie’. früher Elitetheorie’. Kontext als anachronistischer des Idealismus eratur und Kulturwissenschaft Literatur- Elite als Thema skandinavischer Innovationen in Skandinavien seit Innovationen 1 20 Utz Verlag, Herbert Munich: Schiedermair. nition von Eliten’. Eliten’. nition von Skueplads. En dramaturgisk Undersøgelse’ (December Undersøgelse’ En dramaturgisk Skueplads. C. A. Reitzels Forlag, burg: Ergon, 2007. 39-59. 2007. burg: Ergon, der Zirkulation’. die Gesetze über Verhandlungen von als Schauplatz Shakespeare bis Benjamin von Schauplätze Kulturgeschichte. Krais, Beate. ‘Die Spitzen der Gesellschaft. Theoretische Überlegungen’. Überlegungen’. Beate. ‘Die Spitzen der Gesellschaft. Theoretische Krais, Wechsel, Kirsten. ‘Herkunftstheater. Zur Regulierung um die Gattung Vaude- Legitimität im Streit von ‘Herkunftstheater. Kirsten. Wechsel, Kabell, Aage. Mosca, Gaetano. Esslinger, Eva et al., eds. al., et Eva Esslinger, Vogl, Joseph. ‘Gründungstheater. Gesetz und Geschichte’. und Geschichte’. Gesetz Joseph. ‘Gründungstheater. Vogl, Müller-Wille, Klaus. ‘Phantom Publikum. Theatrale Konzeptionen des Konzeptionen Theatrale Publikum. Klaus. ‘Phantom Müller-Wille, Paasche, Fredrik. Paasche, Lenk, Kurt. ‘“Elite” – Begriff oder Phänomen?’. Heiberg, Johan Ludvig. ‘Folk og Publicum’ ( Johan Ludvig. ‘Folk Heiberg, Hartmann, Michael. Michael. Hartmann, Beyer, Edvard. Edvard. Beyer, Pareto, Vilfredo. Vilfredo. Pareto, Die Lit- Freiheit). eines Sklaven Frihed” ist (Gleichheit er en Slaves ‘“Liighed Joachim. Schiedermair, Glienke, Bernhard. Glienke, Sozialwissenschaften der mit der Deﬁ- Über die Probleme Leistung. Herfried. Status, ‘Werte, Münkler, Heiberg, Johan Ludvig. ‘Om Vaudevillen som dramatisk Digtart og om dens Betydning paa den danske paa den danske Digtart som dramatisk og om dens Betydning Johan Ludvig. ‘Om Vaudevillen Heiberg, Weigel, Sigrid. ‘Zur Differenz von Gabe, Tausch und Konversion. Shakespears The Merchant of Venice of The Merchant Shakespears Konversion. und Tausch von Gabe, Sigrid. ‘Zur Differenz Weigel, Henrik. Cholera’. ‘Den indiske Wergeland,

ROMANTIK · 3 01 1 JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF ROMANTICISMS 37 1 Den indiske meget tilbage at ønske at ønske tilbage meget . Den indiske Cholera 3). 11 2- 11 Digte – Anden Ring 834 in 49) [‘The is intricate scheming depic- and the character 1 1 6. 1 4- 1 leaves a lot to be desired in dramatic terms’]. in dramatic be desired to a lot leaves Notes ism’s disintegration into a mass, or – especially with regard to literature and fine arts – that literature the to with a mass, or – especially regard into ism’s disintegration mass is a retro- featureless an atomic, to representation an organic audience’s from transition then as is every concede, on the kind of disorganisation, one has to hand, step, other gressive the legitimate idea of emancipation enter- from follows inevitably state that a volatile such tained at that complete and more time, and thus a new can certainly to be seen as the transition organization.’ function of the people, its representing as a representative regarded the it was people; at least, one pick in the masses; after insignificant to most all – just and random even acknowledged was a few occasional poetry address in contemporary to it common practice – wasn’t example single And one could people assembled at the as thehundred theatre of Copenhagen Danish People? in such entertain pleased one’s the crowd a small naively idea of having pleasing such nation by a confined location during a short such time-span.’ of by members those office being spent at the money box corners and saw and in basements, while at the a large same time winning back see a comedy, to went or rarely who never classes number of educated but lapsed theatre-goers.’ innovation of the broad public (Müller-Wille public (Müller-Wille of the broad innovation sentanter mer enn enkeltmennesker‘( sole comfort / slavery’s /and right and oblivion and love, arrives my for grasp to / who dares it’s demanding. / And I demand Here, / of human nature. remainder theproperty and last slave that has made the yoke / I love me. For give to She ought Sami, / the delight only Nature from is a slavery high-born for / she is no-more, of all; yes / High-born she is theus equal. lowest While / the free- a slave. to is freedom / This equality existence. birth God’s, a worse to / unlike borns’ that mountains, that of the / and that is like of the trees of the unruly equality ragged do stand.’ side on / an endless plane the side by slaves stalks / like waves, tiania can be found in Glienke in Glienke tiania can be found mair. mair. tion simple, they are representatives rather than rather individuals’]. Cf. also Aage representatives they Kabell: ‘Som en are tion simple, sildig frugt og ideer lader fantasier af ungdommens and ideas, a late fruit fantasies ( 59) [‘Like of juvenile synsvinkel‘ under dramatisk Cholera [=Francis] until He with venom, / heaving a mud-grey snake like conceal me here the night ‘May 2 with crocodiles. and sexual intercourse anthropophagy things, Among other enjoy he is said to 0 er repre- personene ‘Intrigen Beyer: enkel, er innfløkt og menneskeskildringen Edvard Similarly focus cf. Schieder- of this German article with version a different comprehensive a more For 5 on the admit, ‘If one has to one hand, that the people’s an audience, the into organ- dissolving 6 the art audience with equate and theatre to in literature, the common practice time, it was ‘At 7 also sung on street but was please at court circles, only or in higher Salomon] did not ‘[Kong 8 text. on Heiberg’s and also Wechsel cf. Vogl, theatre’, On ‘founding 9 published in All of these were poems 4 this text in its context of the sets aesthetic Klaus Müller-Wille Publikum’, In his paper ‘Phantom 1 1 11 1 2 and Robert Michels. Pareto Le Bon, Vilfredo Other authors in this Gustave group are 3 and Kris- Stockholm cities Copenhagen, on the of the big Scandinavian urbanization Statistics

that of the unruly waves, / like stalks side by side on / an endless plane the slaves do stand.’ side on / an endless plane the side by slaves stalks / like that of the unruly waves, the rictus same morbid in the down, as he tumbles is reﬂected governor’s … Even governor eyes face.’ to face there in John’s. Some ﬂee. … Death from and from is spreading its way; / when yokes bind together Brahman and Pariah; / when the Brahman Maratha no free plane bind together / when yokes its way; / when the Rajabears; last / … when neither princes hath his kingdom; lost nor nations, but / thejust uniform of the masses servants return.’ 4 ‘… while / the free-borns’ that mountains, of the / and that is like trees of the equality ragged 5 seek those of the dying eyes His distorted features. ‘lifts Death the is mirrored in Vakiti’s stone. 3 a torrent where forces seed and weed out / like leveled are caste and impure pure together ‘when 1 1 1

ROMANTIK · 3 01 1