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1986 AdolphCoofBCompany, GoWen. Cototedo80401 :%^-v" ->:^- NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1986 AMERICA'S VOLUME 31, NUMBER 6 LEADING MAGAZINE cflFRICfl ON AFRICA
A Publication of the Interview Flt.-Lt. Jerry Rawlings, Chairman, The Provisional National Defence Council, Ghana 4 African-American Institute Interviewed by Margaret A. Novicki Chairman West Africa Randolph Nugent Houphouet's Region 9 President By Howard French Donald B. Easum Togo Eyadema's Nightmare 14 By Richard Everett Publisher Frank E. Ferrari Nigeria The Year of the IMF? 18 lvorian Preeminence? Editor By Peter Blackburn Page 9 Margaret A. Novicki Guinea Conte in Control 21 Assistant Editor Paula Hirschoff By Howard Schissel Women Editorial Assistant Josephine Ouedraogo, Minister of Family Affairs Andre Astrow and National Solidarity, Burkina Faso 26 Production Editor Interviewed by Margaret A. Novicki Alana Lee Liberia Art Director A Seven-Cornered Solution? 31 Joe Pomar By Larry James A Tribute to Samora Moises Machel 34 Advertising Manager Update Terry Rosen Women in Burkina Editor: I'aula Hirschoff Intern Page 26 Assistant Editor; Andre Astrow 35 Demetrios Mihailidis Mozambique The Malawi Connection 51 By Allen Isaacman Africa Report (ISSN 0001-9836). a non- partisan magazine of African affairs, is Interview published bimonthly and is scheduled Uenis Sassou-Nguesso, President, the People's Republic of the Congo; to appear at the beginning of each dale period a! 833 United Nations Plaza, Chairman, Organization of African Unity 55 New York, NY. 10017. Editorial corre- Interviewed by Andre Astrow spondence and advertising inquiries should be addressed to Africa Report. Non-Aligned al the above address. Correspon- dence regarding subscriptions, distri- High Hopes in Harare 59 bution, and other business matters By Andrew Meldrum should be sent to Transaction Periodi- cals Consortium, Dept. 8010, Rutgers Press University, New Brunswick, New Jer- sey 03903. Telephone: (201) 932- In Memoriam Joe Thloloe, Features Editor, the Sowetan 63 2280. Subscription rates: Individuals: Interviewed by Margaret A. Novicki U.S.A. $21. Canada $27, air rate over- Page 34 seas $45. Institutions. U.S.A. $28. Canada $34, air rate overseas $52 Kenya Second-class postage paid at New "Hear No Evil" 67 York, NY. and at additional mailing of- By Michael Maren fices. POSTMASTER: If this magazine is undeliverable, please send notice to Africa Report, Transaction Periodicals North Africa Consortium (address above). Tele- Oujda on the Rocks 72 phones: Publisher (212) 949-5719; Ed- itor (212) 949-5731. Copyright INTERVIEWED BY MARGARET A. NOVICKI usual." No! The period since December 31, 1981, has cer- tainly not been a "business as usual" period. Many changes Africa Report: It has been nearly five years since you called are taking place in the attitudes of people. There is a growing for "nothing less than a revolution" to transform Ghana's soci- recognition that our economic reality is what we make it, how ety and economy. Have you achieved the transformation in much productivity we generate, how the rewards we expect Ghanaians' attitudes that you sought, and if not, who is to are related to what we have produced, etc. But of course, old blame—you and your government or the Ghanaian people? attitudes remain and what is worse, influential groups in our Rawlings: That call for "nothing less than a revolution" re- society are sometimes manipulated against their own interest mains valid. It is a challenge to the Ghanaian people as well as and into opposing necessary progress. We could have moved the government. A total transformation of Ghana's society further ahead within this period—sometimes we take a couple and economy was needed to reverse the dramatic decline. It of steps forward and then we are pulled back a step. was not to be a coup—the replacement of one set of people But you must not forget that there have been powerful holding political office with another lot, and then "business as forces against us from the beginning, determined that we do Shortly after the coup attempt in Lome, Flt.-Lt. Rawlings answered the Togolese government's charges in an exclusive interview with Africa Report. The Ghanaian leader also comments on his country's troubled relationship with the United States and outlines new initiatives in the political and economic spheres. AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 not survive, and they have not stopped. A personal disap- even at the level of nations and cultures, and those who only pointment I have is about how much time I have had to devote search the world for masters and their slaves will not find us! to the issues of our nation's security instead of being out there Africa Report: Your economic recovery program continues with the people, securing the future of our children through a to win you praise from Western donors and creditors, yet massive effort of mobilization for productivity. Significantly criticism from certain sectors of Ghanaian society, i.e. the though, our people themselves have made security their re- unions, which have suggested that you have sacrificed their sponsibility. Our security is not from any elaborate apparatus interests to the IMF. Has your economic program given you we have created—it is from the confidence that we have more headaches than concrete achievements? What advice gained in ourselves as a people, in our ability to create the new would you give other African governments contemplating an Ghana, from our determination to be satisfied with nothing equally rigorous IMF-supported economic reform effort? less than a revolution! Rawlings: It is not advice that we would give to other African Africa Report: Your efforts have come under a lot of scru- governments—they have their own reality and can negotiate tiny—and criticism—from Western observers of varying po- that with as much conscientiousness as we are trying to do. litical persuasions. Some analysts have called Ghana a "split But it is clear to me how important it is for us to exchange personality nation," citing what they perceive as a contradic- ideas, to compare notes on our experiences and not make the tion between your government's capitalist economic policies same mistakes, whether these are mistakes of technical ap- and your staunchly anti-imperialist foreign policy. Leftist ana- preciation or of negotiating strategy, or even of a more politi- lysts have said that you have been won over by the right in cal kind. In dealing with donors, the IMF or what have you, we what they have termed as an internal struggle between social- must remember that they have interests which will need to be ist/Marxist thinkers and "economic pragmatists." Is there any molded to our particular situation. There may even be dogmas truth in either of these analyses? that our practical situation refutes and we need to make for- Rawlings: Shouldn't the analysts and observers be asking eign agencies sensitive to what our reality is. This requires a themselves whether their categories for analyzing us are not constant vigilance as well as close attention to technical detail. defective? For instance, we identify with the struggle of the Loan institutions should not set our priorities, but that is Nicaraguan people to be a free and sovereign nation even if always the danger, and we must admit in all honesty that when they are in the "backyard" of a superpower; we make no our preparatory work has not been as thorough as it should compromises with apartheid in South Africa; we remain true have been, we have sometimes given in to conditionalities that to our foundation membership in the Non-Aligned Movement, we should have thought through more fully. and some observers see this as being anti-West and hence do not understand that we can have economic relations with institutions like the World Bank or the IMF. But this is strange. Many people in the United States support the strug- "The effort of economic recovery can gles of the Nicaraguans and of black South Africans. The be painful given the background of House of Representatives and the Senate have overturned laxity, but these headaches will be President Reagan's veto on the sanctions legislation. Many of overcome by the lasting pain-killer of the congressmen and senators are even Republicans, mem- success in building a strong, bers of the President's party who even admire their presi- dent. Are they schizophrenic to part company with him when efficient, more self-reliant economy principle demands it? in which the freest possible rein will The causes that we defend in our foreign policy and our be given to the creativity and economic policy are wholly consistent. We aspire to establish initiative of the working people." an economic system that caters for the needs of our popula- tion. But our economy is part of the world economy, and we are hit by external constraints, such as the prices of cocoa and But the criticisms that you refer to from some sectors of gold. We have also been hit by natural disasters such as bush Ghanaian society must be carefully assessed. Let me point out fires and drought. And we have said: Here's what we are that some so-called spokesmen of the unions should not be doing, any help from outside, from countries that we have had equated with the unions. You see, the trade union movement, centuries of economic interaction with, is most welcome as like other institutions—the military, political parties, etc.— long as it is consistent with our objectives. When any country has had it own history of power being exercised by a few who has said, "Go down on your knees before we help you with do not always express the real interests of that constituency. morsels of food," we have said, "No way!" Some of these spokesmen do not see beyond the short-term; You know, many of these critics do not really understand they will not analyze the implications of purely wage claims the psychology of the downtrodden—we demand our free- within an economy in which production is declining. We have dom to be, to create, and to trade the products of our creativ- not sacrificed the interests of working people to the IMF. We ity with even the most powerful. We will not be cowed by their have certainly asked for restraint as far as immediate and sheer power because we believe that however powerless we often unreasonable demands are concerned, so that we can are, we share a common humanity, a desire for dignity, and a have a sustainable economic recovery in which workers will measure of independence. This is what makes for individuality benefit the most. We must not forget that by restraining infla- AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 tion alone, this government has protected that worker's wage. And for the overwhelming majority of working peo- ple—the peasants—we have ensured from the very begin- ning a fairer price for their produce. The producer price of cocoa has increased about four times since December 31, 1981. These are reaJ gains even in the short-term. The effort of economic recovery can be painful given the background of laxity, but these headaches will be overcome by the lasting personal disappointment pain-killer of success in building a strong, efficient, more self- , about how much reliant economy in which the freest possible rein will be given have had to devote to the issues nation's security instead to the creativity and initiative of the working people. out there with tr Africa Report: Nevertheless, some critics maintain that as a consequence of your tough economic policies, your credibility with the nation's working classes—once the bedrock of your support—has eroded considerably, citing as evidence your difficulties with the Trades Union Congress. How would you respond? Do you think the Ghanaian people at large support the economic recovery program? Rawlings: I think so, but I would also be the first to admit that people are entitled to expect more by way of improve- ment in their conditions of life. But the Ghanaian people un- derstand that it is only out of their own sustained efforts—not from government handouts—that further improvements can come. The resources at government's disposal are what the nation produces. The difficulties with the Trades Union Con- gress have often come from a communication gap. For in- stance, when we tried recently to begin a process of stream- lining allowances that are paid in the public as well as private sector by abolishing the leave allowance, we should have Demonstration in Accra after U.S. attack on Tripoli: "I have often provided the explanations very fully before the event. As it asked myself why Ghana should be of such interest to the CIA" turned out, when the Secretary for Labor eventually went on the air about this issue, many workers wished they had known We are determined to make the official banking system the earlier. In fact, there have been some extremely frank discus- only foreign exchange market and not give easy money to sions between members of government and the Trades Union those who engage in parallel market activity, who are only Congress in recent months on the economic recovery pro- concerned for their private profit. The second window makes gram and there is growing understanding of what we are the determination of foreign exchange not just a subjective trying to do. I like to think that there is no longer an attitude of matter decided from time to time by the government. There confrontation which some elements tried hard to instigate for are aspects of the functioning of the economy over which their own purposes. government really has little control. Africa Report: What is the economic rationale behind the Africa Report: On the political front, your government is weekly foreign exchange auction you have just introduced and criticized for having failed to achieve its goal of "participatory how will it further the goals of your recovery program? democracy," that there are no avenues for the expression of Rawlings: Foreign exchange is a scarce resource in Ghana political views. Some see the National Commission for De- and if the official banking system fails to recognize its scarcity mocracy as bereft of any new political initiatives. What is your premium, an avenue is provided for racketeers to exact rents. response? Providing foreign exchange at rates well below the actual Rawlings: It is true that we have not quite institutionalized transaction prices really means that the government is subsi- the new forms of participatory democracy that we are com- dizing such racketeering instead of appreciating the need to mitted to developing, but the building blocks are being put bi generate more foreign exchange for national needs. We have place, and in many ways, there is real participation in the instituted the "second window" as a way of letting the value of affairs of government, particularly by sections of the commu- official foreign exchange also be determined by first, those in nity who previously would not have been allowed a voice. I the economy who need the foreign exchange to sustain their wish you had been here a few months back when the regional productivity, and second, those who generate the foreign conferences of the Committees for the Defense of the Revo- exchange through their export activities. If the rate at the lution [CDRs] were held. Representatives from all walks of second window can provide us with additional resources to life and all corners of the regions came together with their compensate better those who produce non-traditional exports PNDC regional and district secretaries, regional heads of gov- like copra, that way we will ensure more foreign exchange and ernment departments, as well as some participants from cen- remove the premium that is obtained on the parallel market. tral government, to thrash out problems and work out policies 6 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 some foreign model or an abstraction on our situation. I know the commission has been interacting with people throughout the country so that they can express the deepest aspirations, values, and traditions of the nation. But I am also the first to urge the commission to speed up its work and enable us to move further to a clearer articulation and institutionalization of an authentic national democratic experience. I will have less work to do then! Africa Report: Judging by the number of plots against your government which have been based in neighboring countries, it does not appear that your neighbors have become any more vigilant in controlling these elements. On the other hand, your government has been highly effective in aborting these at- tempts and in some cases apprehending the culprits, yet ef- forts to destabilize you continue unabated. Why, considering that you have signed security agreements with your neigh- bors with respect to these attempts? Rawlings: We know who have been involved in these plots and we have often notified our neighbors to the west and east, Ivory Coast and Togo, about the activities of some of these people. It is clear that substantial funds are being invested in the activities of these people, in purchasing tons of arms and ammunition for them, in facilitating their movement in and out of various capitals trying to coordinate their subversive acts. Our own security agencies have been vigilant enough to keep us ahead of them, but we have certainly expected cooperation from our neighbors, particularly when we provide detailed facts and figures of what is going on from their territory. and plans that would respond to their situation. And at the When we signed the quadripartite agreement between national level, these regional representatives of the CDRs and Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria in Lagos in December 1984, regional and national officials attended an expanded meeting of I made some observations I would like to recall: AH too often the PNDC which discussed only a few weeks ago major issues criminality is defined in terms of the small fry after whom law of national economic policy. enforcement agencies go with great enthusiasm. When it Of course, for those who are looking for participation in the comes to the big fish who have connections and are regarded form of a Westminster-style parliament where politicians vie as respectable even though their activities do more serious against each other for the limelight, there is no participation. harm to our countries, there is a lot of hesitation and even The starting point is the grassroots where the people are. Our covering up—this is true of cooperative efforts in tracking decentralization policy will soon receive a new momentum down crime, as well as local law enforcement. with an effort to link up the important initiatives that are taking As to why destabilization attempts continue against us, one place at the grassroots into a national planning system. The basic factor is simply desperation. Those involved have al- basic element of participation that is often overlooked is the ready compromised themselves and have to go on as a way of participation of the people in wealth generation. To have had, life—a rather comfortable way of life, I might add, especially in spite of that, political institutions which did not respect that for the leading elements. With the financing they obtain from participation, but which ensured that the wealth created by certain quarters, they cannot be idle—they must have some- the people was skimmed off by an urban, educated elite, has thing to show! been the model of colonial domination. This structure of rela- Africa Report: How do you react to the accusations by the tions lias continued in various forms after independence. We Togolese government about Gliana's alleged involvement in do not see how real democracy can emerge from that struc- the recent attempted uprising in Lome? ture—for real democracy, there must be accountability to the Rawlings: A host of contradictory and wild allegations have producers of the wealth. Our objective has been to strengthen been made by the Togolese authorities, insinuating possible the capacity of those producers to have a say and to make involvement of Ghana in the recent incident. We have been national leadership participate with the people in the task of restrained in our reaction to these ridiculous and insulting nation-building. Throughout the country, I have seen definite accusations because we knew they were a pretext for intro- signs of undertaking shared objectives. The political initiatives ducing into this sub-region the armed presence of a big power. are emerging from the grassroots, from the rural majority that In fact, the whole story as it has been presented by the is outside Accra. Togolese government is not really convincing. How can you Of course, the work of the National Commission for De- believe that a group of "well-trained and well-equipped profes- mocracy is not an easy one; we do not expect them to impose sional fighters," as they presented them, could be responsible AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 for such a muddled fiasco? It is even harder to believe that any against Nkrumah stopped after Mahoney's visit to Washing- serious country could have backed them! I am sure you know ton. But you know that after Nkrumah's overthrow, there the standards of professionalism and expertise that Ghana's have been detailed revelations by American journalists about security forces have developed. Even France, which overre- the complicity of the CIA in the plot that led to his overthrow. acted to Eyadema's SOS call, has been extremely cautious Recently, a group of American mercenaries arrested in Brazil about mentioning any external implication. It is anyway a wor- on a ship carrying tons of arms destined for a destabilization rying fact for all the region that a country can so easily and attempt here had been told that they had the backing of the without any proof of external threat bring in extra-African U.S. government. troops and means. The whole affair was strangely enough not On our side, we are a small country trying to achieve a life a surprise for the Togolese authorities since a senior French of dignity for our people in a rather hostile international envi- officer close to Eyadema said to the public that they "were ronment. We have a great deal of respect for the American waiting for them." people and for their rich traditions of revolutionary indepen- In fact, Togo's attitude seems to be aimed at provoking a dence, creativity, and democracy. Our people, as I'm sure stronger reaction from our side. How else to understand that you've noticed, are very warm to Americans, particularly our 16 days after the coup attempt, four Togolese jets flew over black American cousins. We represent no threat whatsoever our Volta Region, many kilometers within our borders? We to the U.S. and we remain vigorously non-aligned. Why warned the Togolese authorities to put an end to their "show should the U.S. government or its agencies want to over- of strength" and rather to ensure our citizens' security. Presi- throw us? If any agency of the U. S. government is indeed bent dent Eyadema personally gave our diplomatic mission in Togo on supporting destabilization moves against us, I can do no assurances which we expect to be made real. Our compatriots better than echo the words of a former U.S. assistant secre- are still victims of unjustified harassment. tary of state: "It'sthe wrong game foragreat country, and the We have requested the Togolese government to provide players you have chosen are the wrong players!" information to assist investigations that we ourselves initiated Africa Report: Are there any particular misconceptions you to ascertain the possible involvement of, for instance, Togo- feel the American public has about your government and is lese exiles who may have passed through Ghana. Unfortu- there any message you would like to get across to them? nately, we have not received a response from the Togolese. Rawlings: Well, I hear a judge who tried a number of Ghana- We absolutely do not believe in stirring up any problems for ians including a former finance minister involved in arms traf- other countries and we will not be an alibi for any country's ficking with a view to overthrowing the government of Ghana internal worries. Our adherence to the principles of the OAU made some strange remarks about us and applauded our op- and the UN is clear in the record of our political practice. ponents as "freedom fighters!" I don't really know what he Africa Report: American policy toward Ghana appears knows about Ghana except perhaps what the good connec- somewhat schizophrenic—on the one hand, the U. S. praises tions of the accused may have told him. Incidentally, doesn't your economic policies and on the other, you uncovered the the result of that trial illustrate my earlier point about the big existence of a substantial CIA network in Ghana, and Ameri- fish generally having ways of slipping out! can involvement in a mercenary attempt to overthrow you has You see, I think Americans should learn more about other been documented. How do you explain this? Do you believe countries and not interpret the world too simply in terms of the U. S. government is bent on overthrowing you, and if so, superpower rivalries. Perhaps the media in the U. S. can help why? by being more informative about our countries instead of im- Rawlings: Could it be that when you imagine somebody to posing superficial interpretations on events they report. We have a "split personality" as you mentioned some observers have a visit from President Ortega, or President Nujoma of believe about Ghana, you may also react in a split way to the Namibia, or Colonel Qaddafy and all they see is red! At the different perceived sides of the personality! I don't know the same time, they hear that we have agreements with the IMF answers to your questions. I have often asked myself why and the World Bank to support our economic recovery pro- Ghana should be of such interest to the CIA and I have won- gram and they can't reconcile this to their earlier prejudices. dered to what extent the other organs of American foreign But the problem must be their oversimplified world view, not policy—the ambassadors and aid agencies for instance— us! I believe that the public in countries like the U.S. and knew of the CIA network that was admitted to exist by the indeed the Soviet Union must really try to understand the U.S. itself some months back. reality of small countries like ours—our history, our prob- I recently read an account of American foreign policy in lems, and our objectives. I have been impressed by the tre- Africa during the Kennedy era by an old school mate of mine, mendous sympathy expressed in the U.S. for the famine in William Mahoney, in which he reveals the ignorance of his Africa and the support for the struggle of black people in South father, who was then the U. S. ambassador to Ghana, about Africa against the apartheid regime. This shows how commit- certain activities of the CIA in Ghana against Nkrumah. Ap- ted the American people continue to be to the ideals of the parently, when Ambassador Mahoney got to know, he took a American revolution. We share those ideals and hope that our plane to Washington and complained to President Kennedy continent will find Americans continuing to live up to these who gave new foreign policy instructions that brought the ideals, defending the cause of the oppressed and supporting activities of the CIA under the control of the ambassador. The our struggles for liberation as Abraham Lincoln would have book does not go on to say whether the CIA's activities wished to see. • 8 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 West African politics have long been dominated by the towering presence and influence of the Ivorian leader. In the autumn of his career, however, Felix Houphouet-Boigny confronts an evolving regional political context in which Cote d'lvoire's preeminence is no longer assured. Houphouet's Region West Africa BY HOWARD FRENCH according independence to France's sub-Saharan empire. Houphouet- vorian President Felix Houphouet- Boigny intended that the RDA would IBoigny has always been a man of serve as the platform from which he grand visions and grand ambitions. would influence the modalities of that Since his emergence as leader of his independence. country's nascent political scene in the The post-World War Ii decade proved 1930s and 1940s, Houphouet has be- to be a prosperous time for Cote d'l- come accustomed to—some would say voire. By the mid-1950s, the colony had obsessed with—-being seen as the re- become more well-off than its French gion's preeminent leader. West African rivals, including Senegal, By the mid-1950s, Houphouet had al- France's administrative base for the re- ready succeeded in virtually quelling any gion. With the Ivorian economy boom- serious political challenge to his leader- ing, Houphouet became obsessed with ship of Cote d'lvoire. Since that time, he the idea of preventing his country's re- has energetically prevented the emer- sources from being redistributed by gence of potential rivals, neutralizing or France for the benefit of the rest of the eliminating from the political scene, as region. His particular wariness of Sene- the case may be, all those who risked gal, where the elites of all of fran- becoming threats to his power. cophone West Africa received their edu- Having succeeded in mastering the cation, made him determined to free domestic political milieu, the Ivorian Cote d'lvoire from Dakar's fiscal and ad- leader set his sights around him to the ministrative control. West African region, where he would Ghana's independence and Kwame likewise employ almost any means to Nkrumah's role as the self-appointed ad- achieve and consolidate his preemi- vocate of universal independence from nence. colonial rule set three francophone lead- On the eve of the West African inde- ers down different paths toward inde- pendence era, the Ivorian leader pendence. France had proposed that its founded the Rassemblement Demo- colonies opt for independence within a cratique Africain (RDA), an alliance of French-sponsored "Community." In- newly formed political movements from spired by the example of independent several of the region's former French Ghana, Guinea's leader, Ahmed Sekou colonies. With Ghana's attainment of in- Toure, rejected the French proposal. dependence in 1957 and France's diffi- Guinea was granted independence in culties with its North African and Indo- 1958 with no assurances of French sup- chinese colonies, President Charles de port. Gaulle began to see the handwriting on Senegal's Leopold Senghor accepted the wall and contemplated formulas for the idea of a "Community" with France, President Felix Houphouet-Boigny "set but sought to prevent the balkanization his sights around him to the West African Howard French reported for stx years from Cote region where he would employ almost any d'lvoire as a freelance journalist. He now wntes of French West Africa by urging that the means to achieve and consolidate his pre- in New York. region be consolidated into one entity, eminence" AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 with Dakar as its political capital, as it ing any political resources to less well- the Mali Federation (some claim he had been the administrative capital un- endowed states. promised jobs for Dahomean teachers der colonialism. Houphouet-Boigny failed to convince and civil servants who had recently been Houphouet, on the other hand, moti- the French of the need to create a com- expelled en masse from Cote d'lvoire). vated by the desire to be independent munity based on the Commonwealth Houphouet's refusal to acquiesce was from Senegal (more than from France), model. Bitter from this defeat, he a key element in the demise of both the argued for a Franco-African Federation refused to join the Community as pro- French "Community" scheme and inspired by the British Commonwealth, posed by France. Senegal, which had Senghor's Mali Federation, neither of in which each former African colony accepted the Community, was busily which could sustain momentum without would retain its own government, shar- building toward its goal of a unified the Ivorian leader's cooperation. Al- ing some degree of sovereignty with French West Africa. In 1959 and I960, ready in 1960, Houphouet had proven France. Senghor convinced Mali and Dahomey himself to be the force to be reckoned In the ensuing melee of rival inter- to join the "Mali Federation," whose with in regional politics, and the French ests, none of the African leaders clearly goal was to be the building block for a president's adviser on African affairs, prevailed. Houphouet never forgave regional unitary state. Guinea, though Jacques Foccart, began to study ways of Sekou Toure his defiance, not only not a member, looked favorably on the employing the stubbornness and vanity against de Gaulle, but against himself. Mali Federation. of the Ivorian leader to French advan- Toure's Parti Democratique Guineen The Ivorian leader felt it was crucial tage. At the creation of the Entente (PDG) was a member of the RDA, and to block the consolidation of the Mali Council, Malian President Modibo Keita to Houphouet's line of reasoning, Federation, whose success he feared characterized Houphouet as "anti-Afri- Toure, the younger of the two men, would consolidate Senegal's grip on the can," saying that the Ivorian had "al- should have bowed to his leadership. region and possibly engulf his country. ways been for the division of Africa." Houphouet resented Toure's new- At the same time, anxious to protect The Entente Council would prove to found stature, and most of all his bud- himself from accusations that he was a be the only long-lived instrument of in- ding alliance with Nkrumah, whose balkanizer, he sought to link himself to fluence built by Houphouet until 1973, prestige had already made him the Ivor- some of the weaker states in the region. although not for lack of trying. In the ian leader's major rival. He would come For this purpose he created the Entente early 1960s, he championed the found- to fight every attempt by Nkrumah and Council, enlisting as members Upper Toure to bring about political unification Volta, Niger, and Dahomey, the latter of "Kwame Nkrumah's prestige made him in Africa, fearful as he was of relinquish- which he persuaded to break away from the Ivorian leader's major rival" 10 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 ing of the Union Africaine et Malgache Houphouet used isolation to cripple munity of West African States (ECO- (UAM), which attempted to align sup- these two rivals, encouraging mistrust WAS) in 1975 and the adoption of an port for the French position on interna- of them by the Entente countries, and in increasingly vocal and Africanist foreign tional issues among former colonies, i. e. the case of Guinea, by using his consid- policy during the same decade. Nigeria's adoption of soft language encouraging erable influence in France to prevent a oil boom further haunted Houphouet Algerian independence, as opposed to healing of the rift between Conakry and with fears that Lagos would become the strong condemnations of French coloni- Paris. The Ivorian supported exiled rev- region's pole of attraction and economic alism in the UN or Organization of Afri- olutionary movements, obliged Mali to powerhouse. can Unity (OAU). keep its distance from Se kou Toure, and In anticipation of Nigeria's creation of The UAM died due to dissension used lobbying to persuade the U.S. not ECOWAS, Houphouet engineered the over political positions and because a to replace France as a major donor. establishment of a rival community, the number of its members thought that it Sekou Toure's isolation was an unat- Communaute Economique de l'Afrique was inappropriately usurping the role of tended success, and with Nkrumah de 1'Ouest (CEAOj, in 1973. The idea the newly formed OAU. Then in 1964, overthrown in 1966, Houphouet turned for an economic community, in fairness Houphouet torpedoed Mauritania's cre- his attention to Nigeria, the region's de- to the Ivorians, was not new, nor was it ation of the Union Africaine et Malgache mographic and geographic giant, which stolen from the Nigerians. Houphouet- de Cooperation Economique (UAM- he was determined to prevent from be- Boigny had long cherished the notion of CE), whose vocation, against coming an economic or political giant. linking the other CFA franc countries of Houphouet's liking, was purely eco- With the outbreak of the civil war in the region into a common market which nomic. 1966, the occasion presented itself to would provide most favored nation trad- The Ivorian leader badly wanted to encourage the disintegration of Nigeria, ing status among member-states, thus create and maintain a political organiza- and hence the elimination of the most giving Cote d'lvoire—with its relatively tion of former French colonies that he redoubtable challenge to his preemi- developed industry—a captive market could use to force his views on the OAU. nence. base on which its economic growth Failing that, he had no use for the conti- Considerable evidence exists to show could depend. nental organization and in fact has at- that Houphouet was instrumental in Already in late 1965, Houphouet pro- tended only three OAU summits since convincing France to back the Biafran posed according dual nationality to resi- the body was founded in 1963, even or- rebellion by supplying arms, merce- dent nationals from [then] Upper Volta, ganizing a boycott of the 1965 Accra naries, money, sympathy, and propa- and was quickly petitioned by the heads summit to prevent Nkrumah from en- ganda. Houphouet and his long-time of state of the other Entente Council joying the prestige that its hosting would ally, President Omar Bongo of Gabon, countries for the same status for their have conferred upon him. eventually recognized Biafra and al- countrymen. To the dismay of the Ivor- With the creation of the OAU in lowed their countries to serve as the ian president and the Franco-Ivorian in- 1963—and partial credit for its creation staging grounds from which vital supply dustrialist class, the Ivorian people in- is due to Houphouet—the Ivorian presi- operations into Iboland were organized. stantly manifested their discontent over dent devoted his energies to countering In this conflict, they found themselves the proposed dual nationality plan and the goals of some of its more forceful allied with the likes of fascist Portugal, forced the idea to be dropped. Dual na- members—bringing about meaningful Rhodesia, and South Africa, all of which tionality was, in effect, the political political unity. The principal means he wanted to see a diminished Nigeria sweetener offered to his Entente Coun- employed toward this obstructionist aim emerge from the civil war. cil counterparts to get them to accept was not by attending OAU summits and Cote d'lvoire's economic dominance petitioning his counterparts, but rather and Houphouet-Boigny's political pre- by systematically opposing those two "The Ivorian leader eminence in the region. leaders who most incarnated the idea of badly wanted to create The backfiring of the scheme spelled political unity—Nkrumah and Toure. and maintain a political the instant retirement of the Entente The leaders of Ghana and Guinea rep- Council from the region's list of impor- resented double threats to the Ivorian organization of former tant active political organizations. It has president. First, he saw any increase in French colonies that he never been officially disbanded, how- their prestige as directly affecting his could use to force his ever. Meanwhile, the CEAO, shortly own, and could not tolerate being out- views on the OAU." after its inception, seemed to be a re- done by them. Secondly, these neigh- markable success, in the words of West boring countries were similarly en- Africa magazine, "linking Ivory Coast, dowed with rich agricultural lands and To Houphouet's dismay, Nigeria em- Benin, Togo, Mali, Niger, Mauritania, were immeasurably richer in terms of erged united and ultimately stronger Guinea, Senegal, and Burkina to France known mineral reserves. Should either from the Biafran war, and eventually be- in a linguistic, monetary, economic (and or both achieve political stability, gan to assume the mantle of regional for many political) unit." Such a linkage Houphouet feared they would attract in- leadership that he had always feared of sovereign states with France was af- vestors away from Cote d'lvoire. with the creation of the Economic Com- ter all what Houphouet had craved since AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 11 Francophone leaders at 1983 summit: "In 1957, President Charles de Gaulle began to see the handwriting on the wall and contemplated formulas for according independence to France's sub-Saharan empire" independence, and now he had achieved ber-states had become accustomed. ganization of that body to the summit of it with its clear economic and political Corruption and patronage hiring be- CEAO heads of state. Since that time, leadership emanating from his country. came rampant within the CEAO and fi- the CEAO reform plan has gathered The CEAO worked by exempting the nally, Houphouet began to distort its ec- dust as Houphouet, Traore, and per- industrial exports of member countries onomic function. haps other heads of state as well, anx- from most of the taxation to which ex- In 1984, Houphouet-Boigny sought ious to avoid crediting Sankara with sav- tra-regional industrial products are sub- to employ the CEAO as a political in- ing the organization, have preferred to ject. Here again, a "sweetener" was re- strument, leading it away from its in- let it once again lie dormant. quired to get the non-industrial mem- tended economic vocation and eventu- In the autumn of his long political ca- bers to swallow the CEAO package. ally precipitating a crisis which would call reer, Houphouet-Boigny finds his once- Since Cote d'lvoire, and to a much into question the future of the organiza- legendary influence in the region vasdy lesser extent, Senegal, are the only in- tion. By attempting to isolate Burkina diminished. His most recent coup was dustrial members of the community, Faso's President Thomas Sankara by pulled off when his foreign minister, Si- they agreed to pay the bulk of the capital arranging for his country's turn as head meon Ake, rushed into shuttle diplo- to the various CEAO regional develop- of the organization to be skipped in favor macy to bring about a cease-fire be- ment funds. of Malian President Moussa Traore, tween Mali and Burkina Faso last Janu- As long as these two economic mo- Houphouet fueled the antipathy be- ary. Nigeria and Libya had already tors were able to keep the organiza- tween the two men and set off a cycle of prepared terms agreed upon by both tion's machinery oiled by constantly in- mutual recriminations that would end sides for a truce, but when the Ivorian creasing contributions to the solidarity two years later in war between the leader persuaded Mali of the peril of al- funds, the CEAO functioned smoothly, neighboring states. lowing a Libyan role in the peace pro- and the Nigerian "ogre" with its sup- When Sankara finally assumed the cess, the Libyan-Nigerian talks mysteri- posed designs of economic dominance presidency of the CEAO in 1985, he ously fell through. (and "its" organization, ECOWAS) was launched an investigation into corrup- Just as relations between Hou- kept at bay. tion which uncovered evidence prejudi- phouet's Cote d'lvoire and those Unfortunately, the CEAO, like the cial to both Mali and Cote d'lvoire. Fol- countries where Ivorian influence has Entente and the UAM before it, began lowing the Burkina-Mali war of Decem- traditionally been great has changed, so to fall apart and lose momentum. Eco- ber 1985, a trial of those implicated in have relations with those countries that nomic crises in the early 1980s left Cote the CEAO's corruption scandal was held have been traditional "rivals" to that in- d'lvoire unable to sustain the level of in Ouagadougou, and a commission pre- fluence. contributions to which the other mem- sented recommendations for the reor- While relations with Ghana warmed 12 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1936 Houphouet-Boigny and Ahmed Sekou Toure at the first OAU summit: "With the creation of the OAU in 1963, the Ivorian president devoted his energies to countering the goals of some of its more forceful members" somewhat in the post-Nkruniah era, tacts between the two governments Toure's death, Houphouet felt that he Ivorian-Ghanaian ties have remained and periodic visits by Diouf to Yamous- had finally forced the Guinean leader to rocky. A seemingly permanent obstacle soukro, where, in the obligatory airport accept his view of the world, and is to better ties is the clandestine cocoa press conference, he unfailingly praises quoted as having said that Sekou Toure traffic from Ghana to Cote d'lvoire the Ivorian president's wisdom. was now in the camp of Africa's "moder- which Ivorian authorities have done lit- ate" leaders. After an initial bid to ex- tle to arrest. tend Ivorian influence over Toure's in- Houphouet has also repeatedly har- experienced successor, Conakry has bored opponents to whoever has been "Motivated by the shown itself to be uncontrollable—at in power over the years in Accra—per- desire to be least from Abidjan or Yamoussoukro. A haps in order to hold in reserve a means independent from sense of drifting entropy, more than any of applying pressure on Ghanaian gov- ideological divergence, has led ernments. Another form of pressure Senegal—more Houphouet to realize that Guinea is not the Ivorians have used to punish or than from likely to soon fall into his orbit. sway Accra has been the periodic clo- France—Houphouet The region now looks very different sure, or tlireat thereof, of the long bor- argued for a to Houphouet from the time when the der shared by the two countries. In Franco-African leaders of Upper Volta, Togo, and Niger 1982, this was done in conjunction with Federation." were steady allies, and the regimes of Togo, thus cementing a warm relation- Mali, Benin, and even post-Nknunah ship between Ghana and its only other Ghana were usually sympathetic to his neighbor—Burkina Faso. positions. At present, an independent Since Senghor's retirement from the The two leaders differ starkly, and leftist Sankara government prevails political scene in Senegal, relations be- though, in several areas, including "dia- to the north; Togo's government—re- tween Dakar and Abidjan have im- logue" with South Africa, the use and cently his closest ally—rocks insecure; proved. Abdou Diouf enjoys Hou- meaning of democracy, and their styles and with the possible exception of Mali, phouet's respect, perhaps in part of rule. Diouf has also turned a deaf ear no other government in the region goes because of his formal adherence to the to the Ivorian leader's lobbying for rees- further than performing an occasional vaunted African respect for elders. This tablishment of relations with Israel. bow in deference to Le Vkux for his en- respect takes the form of extensive con- In the two years before Sekou durance. • AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 13 The 1987 anniversary celebrations of President Eyadema's 20 years in power will be overshadowed by September's coup attempt. Togolese allegations of the involvement of its neighbors and its reliance on French military support highlight the political insecurity that has long plagued Eyadema's rule. Eyadema's Nightmare Togo BY RICHARD EVERETT he recent quashing of yet another Tcoup bid in Togo will only add to the popular Togolese myth, encouraged by President Gnassingbe Eyadema him- self, that the military leader is fated to survive any attempts to assassinate him or otherwise topple him from power. Like his survival of a mysterious plane crash in 1973, Eyadema has walked away unscathed from what he has called an attempt by "armed terror- ist commandos" to assassinate him and overthrow his government. Less than one week after the attack, foreign jour- nalists were shown seized weapons, cowering captured "terrorists," and a jubilant president, who said the plotters had "not a single accomplice among the military and civilian population." According to Togolese Interior Min- ister Kpotivi Tevi-Djidjogbe Lacle, on "Just one week after the attempt, ditch attempt by the assailants. One the night of Tuesday, September 23, a Eyadema led his ministers on an im- promptu walk through the streets of Lome hundred fifty French paratroopers and group of 60 heavily armed men at- to demonstrate his popularity and self- four French air force Jaguar jets arrived tempted to kill Eyadema and overthrow confidence in public" Thursday night from Bangui and Li- the government by seizing a military izing what Togolese officials said was a breville to help restore order, although barracks, the ruling Togolese People's main assembly point for the assailants. by the time they had landed, Togolese Rally headquarters, and the country's Scattered gun battles continued security forces had regained control of television and radio stations. throughout the night as the military en- the seaside capital. Togolese security forces, tipped off in countered other groups of attackers Togo's director of national security, advance to the attack, ambushed a moving about the city. Seye Memene, told Africa Report that Lome villa, capturing a number of men The situation appeared normal by 27 people had initially been taken into and large quantities of arms and neutral- Wednesday, however surprise out- custody. He said that 19 were captured breaks of gunfire Thursday morning ter- in the villa, while another 10 were ar- Richard Everett, an Abidjan-based freelance journalist, contributes to the Associated Press, rified Lome residents and sent the army rested between Tuesday and Thursday. The Times of London, and the Voice of America. out again to mop up an apparent last- Two of those arrested in the villa later 14 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 died in the hospital, reportedly from harassment of Ghanaians in Togo fol- Sgt. Eyadema, and Lawson, a former wounds suffered when security forces lowing the attack. However, reports army captain, have been implicated in rushed the house. that hundreds of Ghanaians were seek- previous coup plots, most notably the Another six, all said to be Ghanaians, ing refuge at the Ghana embassy in so-called mercenary plot of 1977. including two with Ghanaian military Lome proved false, and Ghana's charge The two men have never concealed IDs, died in the initial attack when their d'affaires in Togo, Victor Djisan, said their dislike of Eyadema, and many To- landrover was hit by army gunfire. At only eight Ghanaians had sought refuge golese interviewed in Lome said they least eight civilians, including a French- following the attack and border closure. would not be surprised to find them man and a German businessman, also The Burkinabe government also de- somehow involved. However, it is only died in the fighting. No mention was nied any involvement. Number-two the declarations of some of the captured made of army casualties. man Capt. Blaise Compaore said, "Only assailants that point to them as possible Togolese authorities immediately the shock and psychological effect of accomplices. The two have yet to pub- closed the border with neighboring what [Togo] has just experienced can licly comment on the accusations, al- Ghana, saying the attackers had infil- explain the cascade of incoherent accu- though the Movement for Togolese De- trated from the Ghanaian town of Aflao sations from the Togolese authorities." mocracy, a Paris-based opposition which lies 50 meters across the border Burkina leader Sankara responded to group which Olympio has ties to, de- on the outskirts of Lome. Ghana has charges that 200 Burkinabe support nounced Togo's claims as a fabrication. since responded by closing its side of the troops had been mobilized in the village Lade said the attackers had identified border. of Dialo by inviting the Togolese to Olympio as the ringleader and financier At a news conference on Monday, bomb the village if they could find it, as of the plot. He purportedly paid for September 29, Lade said the attackers Sankara said no such village exists in his Amah Ayayi, a Togolese resident in claimed they were trained and armed by country. Ghana, to recruit and train Togolese and Ghanaian and Burkinabe military offi- Through it all, the three govern- other West Africans for a commando cers in those two countries. Lade ments have expressed the desire to re- raid. Ayayi, allegedly working in collu- avoided directly accusing the two gov- main good neighbors, and despite the sion with Ghanaian army officers at maintenance of tr AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 15 the coup plot, aided by French intelli- "Most of the details of the plot and all of news conference, but were led away as gence and paid informers, showed that the accusations come from the mouths of journalists pressed forward to ask ques- the captured attackers" Togolese security can adequately keep tions. tabs on dissidents, inside or outside the As a result, it is difficult to judge the country. A French military officer said President Maj.-Gen. Ibrahim Babangida veracity of their statements, especially there was no doubt that Togo knew and a visit from Liberian President Sa- those about the training, and how they about the attack at least a week in ad- muel Doe, another West African leader were elicited from the men. The seven vance, although not all the details about prone to security problems. Finally, he showed no signs of having been beaten, timing and logistics were known. received overwhelming support from but it is nol; known if they were coerced In addition, the attack brought an out- Europe and North America, with U.S. into making their accusations. pouring of support from Eyadema's al- President Ronald Reagan sending a In addition, there are some doubts as lies. France, the former colonial power, team of "experts" to help the Togolese to the "professionalism" of the so-called showed its support with its rapid de- with their security operations. commandos. Despite an impressive ar- ployment force which Lacle pointedly Following the attack, Eyadema pre- ray of Kalashnikovs, rocket launchers, noted was there more for "psychological sented himself to journalists as a self- grenades, ammunition, and walkie-talk- and diplomatic than tactical" reasons. assured leader who never doubted he ies, the small number of men used to Togo is to host the Franco-African sum- had the upper hand in the affair. Just one seize a number of major well-guarded mit of France and its former African col- week after the attempt, he led his minis- targets like the barracks and the radio onies later this fall, and the two coun- ters on an impromptu five-kilometer station seems poorly planned. In addi- tries have a strong interest in ensuring walk through the streets of Lome to tion, the different groups, although hav- that any security problems are ironed demonstrate his popularity and self-con- ing an elaborate system of code names out well in advance. fidence in public. Meanwhile, the Wash- and key commands, appeared to be Eyadema's "grand freres" and coun- ington-based public relations firm of wandering around the city out of contact sellors in the region, Cote d'lvoire's Fe- David Apter and Associates, charged with each other once the attack began. lix Houphouet-Boigny and Zaire's Mo- with showing visiting journalists around However, the fact that most of their butu Sese Seko, immediately sent dele- Lome, did its best to sell the idea that arms and the main command post, as gations expressing their support. privatization and tourism were more in- well as one-third of the force, were Mobutu himself arrived for a two-day teresting stories than a successfully seized two hours before the attack be- visit less than a week after the attempt, handled security problem. gan may have been the cause of the con- bringing 50 Zairois paratroopers in a However, a number of aspects about fusion. Journalists present at the press symbolic gesture recalling Eyadema's the affair leave room for questions, conference agreed however that the dispatch of Togolese troops to help Mo- most notably the fact that most of the sorry bunch of prisoners hardly looked butu during the Shaba disturbances. details of the plot and all of the accusa- like a band of professional terrorist com- Eyadema also received gestures of tions come from the mouths of the cap- mandos. support from other neighboring coun- tured attackers. A small number of pris- Lacle and Eyadema have carefully tries, including a message from Nigerian oners were exhibited to the press at the avoided directly accusing their neigh- 16 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 bors, while presenting an apparently de- advocate of dialogue. out his near 20 years in power. The cap- tailed case against members of their Interestingly however, on August 11, tured attackers have said that they were armed forces. In naming Gondar bar- the same day that the Togolese authori- responsible for last year's bomb explo- racks, Accra's central military installa- ties convened international journalists in sions in Lome, thus apparently linking tion, as the training center for the at- Lome to reveal an alleged plot by Lib- the attack and those events as the work tackers, the Togolese are suggesting yan-backed "terrorists" to bomb the of one group. However, the authorities that if the allegations prove true, senior American embassy and Lome's central have made no connection between this Ghanaian military officials knew of the market, Eyadema and Houphouet— incident and the bomb plot revealed in plot. along with Mobutu and Gabonese Presi- August. Some captured assailants said they dent Omar Bongo—met in Yamoussou- More importantly, although Eya- were trained by a Ghanaian army cap- kro to discuss "security issues"—a dema has at least the passive sup- tain and Michael Soussoudis, a cousin of gathering distinctly outside the frame- port of his countrymen, his regime will Fit.-Lt. Kawlings who was arrested last work of any of the regional organiza- continue to be menaced by potential year in the U.S. on espionage charges tions. threats as long as there is a well-fi- and later released in trade for Ghanaians Following the September attempt, nanced opposition to his rule. For a detained in Accra for alleged CIA con- Nigeria's dispatch of a senior military number of years, Eyadema has asked nections. By naming Soussoudis, the delegation and an ensuing exchange of the French to deport Olympio and other implicit suggestion is that Rawlings was messages with Eyadema about regional Paris-based opposition figures. It re- aware of the plot. security suggest that President Ba- mains to be seen if the heightened Relations between Rawlings and bangida Ux) would like to use his influ- French support will include this further Eyadema have always been tense, with ence to resolve the dispute in his capac- step, something the French have until each one claiming the other is harboring ity as head of the 16-member Economic now been reluctant to do. political dissidents. Between his two Community of West African States, the Moreover, it seems clear that despite tenures as head of state, Rawlings was only regional organization which in- a lack of popular support for their activi- once briefly detained by Togolese au- cludes Ghana as well as Burkina and ties—which perhaps stems from fears thorities while returning overland from a Togo. of further internal repression—there visit to Benin. However, diplomats in Finally, the Togolese people are ask- will always be a group of dissidents who the region express skepticism that the ing themselves if their country will ever will continue to hatch new plots against two young radicals—Sankara and Rawl- solve its ongoing security problems, Eyadema, leaving the prospect of many ings—would actively pursue the over- which have plagued Eyadema through- more sleepless nights. Q throw of their older, more conservative neighbor. But they say it is clear that this latest incident will poison relations The book thai commemorates the Peace Corps'25th Anniversary for some time to come. "Journalists present at (ME AS YOU ARE the press conference agreed that the sorry THE PEACE CORPS STORT bunch of prisoners "Savor just a little ol what the Peace Corps generation felt back there so long ago, the joy of hearing a new idea, a challenge, from an exciting hardly looked like a young adventurer, and the greater joy of watching that idea become a band of professional political reality and lift the world. Don't let it be forgot, that once there terrorist commandos." was a spot...." —HughSidey "Coates Kedmons often humorous account of the unique character of the Corps... makes lively reading!' —Publishers Weekly The aborted attack also raises ques- "A wealth of anecdotes!"—Kirkus Reriews tions for the Togolese themselves, in- cluding the sticky issue of how to react by COATES REDMON to what has become a regional incident. Now at bookstores At least officially, Eyadema has shown a HARCOURT strong inclination to avoid direct conflict and to instead seek satisfaction through BRACE various regional bodies, including the JOYANOVICH ANAD defense and non-aggression pact and the Entente Council, both of which fall under the watchful eye of fran- cophone doyen, Houphouet-Boigny, an AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 17 Despite the Nigerian people's overwhelming opposition to an IMF agreement, the Babangida government has gambled that its recent economic reforms, including a de facto devaluation of the naira, will be sufficient to attract new revenues and open credit lines. Is a deal with the IMF around the corner? lose more than it gained from devalua- tion, given that over 95 percent of its exports are oil and denominated in dol- lars. At the same time, the cost of im- ports of food, raw materials, capital goods, and consumer items would rise sharply, they predicted. Year of The more cynical Nigerians argued that the inflow cf new IMF/World Bank and other international aid would largely be wasted due to the lack of an honest and efficient civil service. There was also widespread skepticism as to whether IMF medicine could indeed IMF? cure the Nigerian economy given its mixed record elsewhere in Africa. "Is it Nigeria worth the pain?" many Nigerians asked. Babangida—described by observers as an astute politician beneath a rotund BY PETER BLACKBURN and jovial exterior—beat a tactical re- President Ibrahim Babangida "beat a treat in mid-December last year, an- igeria's President, Maj. -Gen. tactical retreat in mid-December last nouncing that negotiations with the IMF Ibrahim Babangida, has taken a year, announcing that negotiations with had been suspended. This helped to un- N the IMF had been suspended" courageous political gamble in carrying dermine popular support for an at- out a major devaluation of the local cur- cline during his 20 months in office. tempted military coup which was in- rency, the naira. His move toward a "Austerity without structural adjust- tended to exploit the government's more realistic exchange rate, by intro- ment is no solution to our economic pre- "softness" with the IMF. duction of the Second Tier Foreign Ex- dicament, " Babangida declared. He Shortly afterwards, undaunted by the change Market (SFEM), has broken the spoke of the need to break the deadlock negative outcome of the IMF debate long deadlock with the country's exter- in negotiations with the IMF over terms and convinced that a "realistic" ex- nal creditors and offers prospects for ec- for a $2.5 billion loan—a stalemate change rate was essential for economic onomic recovery. which had dragged on since April 1983. The gamble is remarkable as it comes Babangida argued that an IMF agree- less than one year after the Nigerian ment would lead to not only a major people categorically rejected the idea of World Bank structural adjustment loan, "Opponents of an IMF an International Monetary Fund agree- but also a rescheduling of the country's agreement, ranging ment—the crucial prerequisite for external debt and possible fresh com- from academics to which was a major devaluation of the mercial credit. market women, argued naira—after an emotional and one-sided But the national debate, intended as that it would surrender debate. The debate was characteristic an exercise in public education, back- 'national sovereignty' of Babangida's more open style of gov- fired badly. Conducted mainly in the to the faceless gnomes ernment and contrasted with the re- country's outspoken press and on radio pression and rigidity of his predecessor, and television, the discussion was from Washington." Maj.-Gen. Muhammadu Buhari. mostly irrational and irate, with the out- Babangida said that a major reason for come never in doubt. his bloodless coup in August 1985 was Opponents of an IMF agreement, adjustment and eventual recovery, Ba- Buhari's failure to halt the economic de- ranging from academics to market bangida introduced a budget incorporat- women, argued that it would surrender ing many of the conditions posed by the Peter Blackburn is a freelance journalist based in Abidjan covering West Africa. He contributes reg- "national sovereignty" to the faceless IMF. ularly to the Financial Times, African Economic gnomes from Washington. Some aca- One of its main features was a sub- Digest, Christian Science Monitor, and Mc- Graw Hill publications. demics contended that Nigeria would stantial cut in the domestic petroleum 18 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 subsidy which resulted in a doubling of market prices, so in fact their purchas- ond tier market reflected the lack of gasoline and tripling of diesel prices. ing power may be little affected. popular enthusiasm for the new system. Other IMF reforms, such as greater fis- Secondly, prices may even drop after The former system of import licenses cal and monetary discipline, reduced a few months as unscrupulous traders and foreign exchange controls gave con- subsidies for parastatals, revision of eventually release hoarded goods onto siderable power and wealth to certain trade tariffs, and introduction of export the market. For its part, the govern- members of the government bureau- incentives, were also announced. ment may be holding stocks of certain cracy and the military establishment. It However, two major conditions re- strategic items, such as sugar, to offload was regarded, especially by southern- mained unfulfilled. The first, trade liber- onto the market when prices start to ers, as benefiting the northern Muslim alization, is considered more a matter of spiral. The rise in imported food prices traders and reflecting the balance of timing than a question of principle. The will also strengthen the government's power in previous civilian and military second, devaluation of the naira, was a campaign to encourage Nigerians to eat governments. Import licenses were of- more complex and politically sensitive more locally grown staples such as cas- ten considered to be pieces of political decision. sava and yams. patronage to be resold to desperate in- Opposition to the SFEM has come dustrialists for huge profits. from many quarters. Manufacturers Finance Minister Okongwu points complain that the cost of imported raw out that one of the advantages of a "real- "Import licenses were materials and spare parts will rise istic" exchange rate policy is that "it will often considered to be steeply, making local production uneco- eliminate bureaucratic controls on for- pieces of political nomical and forcing many bankruptcies eign exchange and trade." In this way, it patronage to be resold unless the government relaxes its price will reduce the possibility for corruption. to desperate controls. However, bureaucrats are already mak- Nigerian industry is about 70 percent ing some moves to introduce "pre-im- industrialists for huge dependent on imported raw materials, port registration" in order to discourage profits." which have been increasingly difficult to the wastage of foreign exchange on friv- obtain because of the shortage of for- olous consumer imports. Controls are eign exchange. In addition, profit mar- also likely to prevent a flight of capital The budget was preceded by a 15- gins have been squeezed during the past out of the country. month "economic emergency" program year by the increase in fuel prices. The According to Okongwu. the govern- which has so far been peacefully ac- government is urging industry to rely ment aims to merge the first and second cepted by the volatile Nigerian people, more on local resources, although busi- tier foreign exchange markets within and lias demonstrated their capacity for nessmen point out that this goal will take one year. The latter covers all transac- Nigerian if not IMF-imposed austerity, several years to achieve. tions except government debt service observers pointed out. The measures According to observers, the govern- and payments to international organiza- included cuts in civil service and military ment's long delay in introducing the sec- tions. Importers who have deposited salaries, a one-third reduction in foreign naira with the banks to cover their for- "The rise m imported food prices will diplomatic staff, and the banning of rice strengthen the government's campaign eign exchange applications are also con- and maize imports. to encourage Nigerians to eat more lo- cerned that they will now have to make Although the SFFM was first an- cally grown staples" extra payments under the new and nounced in the 198(i budget, its imple- mentation was delayed many months due to difficulties in working out modali- ties and pressure from various interest groups which stood to lose by the new arrangement. When finally introducing the measure in September, Finance Minister Dr. Chu Okongwu said that launching the SFEM was like a "military operation," requiring complex planning and tight security. One of the most serious risks is that the devaluation brought about by the SFEM will trigger a steep rise in the price of imported food and essential con- sumer items. However, analysts point out that most consumers in Lagos and other large Nigerian cities are already accustomed to paying inflated black AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 19 higher exchange rate to get their goods into the country. Despite the World Bank's recent ap- proval of a $450 million loan to help fi- nance the second tier market, there are fears of a shortage of foreign exchange to meet the demand at the weekly auc- tions. This could mean that the devalua- tion could spiral out of control as more and more naira bid for ever scarcer amounts of hard currency. With the Ni- gerian economy flush with unwanted naira, this could indeed happen. One group that has been consistently hostile to the IMF and any move toward devaluation is the Nigerian Labour Con- The biggest threat may still come Lagos harbor: One of the mam features gress (NLC). Labor leaders argue that of the new budget was a substantial cut from traditional supporters within the devaluation and the consequent rise in in the domestic petroleum subsidy, re- army and in the Muslim north who have food prices always hit the workers hard- sulting in a doubling of gasoline and tri- seen one of their main sources of enrich- pling of diesel prices est. They regard the second tier market ment evaporate. Babangida is unlikely as a "disguised devaluation" and a secret Latin American standards. "Nigeria has to take time off to celebrate the coming sell-out to the IMF. Indeed, the first plentiful mineral, agricultural, and hu- new year, as it is a favorite time for foreign exchange auction on September man resources. Its present crisis is launching coup attempts. 26, which resulted in a 67 percent deval- largely due to mismanagement and poor Will the "disguised devaluation" uation of the naira reducing it to close to public relations," one banker com- brought about by the second tier market the black market rate, seems to have mented. be enough to secure the IMF's approval borne out their worst fears. In the debt-rescheduling talks, com- for Nigeria's own economic reform pro- The NLC, representing some 3 mil- mercial bankers have refused to treat gram, enable a rescheduling of the ex- lion workers from 70 trade unions, has Nigeria as a "special case," as this would ternal debt, and bring in fresh money? been severely weakened by the eco- set a dangerous precedent for dealings The signs certainly point in that direc- nomic recession that has gripped Nige- with the much larger Latin American tion. ria since the early 1980s. There have debtor nations. In early October, a joint note by the been massive layoffs, especially in the The 90-day debt moratoria are only a IMF and World Bank characterized the private sector, and an estimated 5 mil- stop-gap solution and have done nothing policy reforms, particularly the naira de- lion people are now unemployed, about to meet Nigeria's desperate need for valuation, as a "major turning point in 80 percent of them under age 25. new financial resources to pay for food Nigeria's economic policy," and stated For the past two years, abundant and raw material imports or for longer- that "support from the international fi- food harvests have helped allay social term productive investment without nancial community will be essential in- unrest. The rural population has had which economic recovery is impossible. gredients in the success of the pro- plentiful food supplies, some of which As President Babangida has appar- gram. " To assist in the reform efforts, help to feed the cities, while the govern- ently rejected the "default" solution to the World Bank has agreed to a three- ment has so far been able to finance es- Nigeria's financial crisis, he has sought year $4.3 billion project loan for next sential food imports to make up the bal- to "adjust" the exchange rate in a bid to year, and an economic policy memoran- ance. reach an understanding with the IMF, in dum has been signed with the IMF, However, the collapse in oil revenues the absence of which a rescheduling of clearing the way for a possible debt re- this year has helped to hasten the official debt owed to the Paris Club and scheduling. crunch for the Nigerian economy. A commercial debt to the London Club While skeptical bankers are likely to bunching of medium and long-term debt cannot be achieved, nor new credit lines insist on strict IMF monitoring of the maturities combined with the build-up in extended. adjustment program, Nigerians' pride in trade arrears has brought the country The coming weeks and months could their national sovereignty could make close to financial collapse. be extremely tense as Nigerians adjust this too bitter a pill to swallow. As one Nigeria has already been forced to to the new second tier market, whose Western banker said, "The government unilaterally impose three three-month mechanisms neither officials, bankers, has introduced some impressive budg- debt repayment moratoria, the latest nor businessmen fully understand. The ets in recent years, but they have never one extending until the end of the year. government will be watchful of specula- been properly implemented. We want to Ironically, Nigeria's external debt of tors trying to unduly depress the value avoid the same fate for the adjustment some $14 billion, combined with trade of the naira, inflate food prices, or orga- program, especially if our money is tied arrears of about $6 billion, is modest by nize a flight of capital. to it." • 20 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Guinea Conte in Control President Lansana Conte has not found it easy overcoming the legacies of Sekou Toure's corrupt and authoritarian rule. Emerging strengthened from last year's failed coup attempt, the President is attempting to restore both domestic and international confidence in his ability to rebuild the country. BY HOWARD SCHISSEL and credible leadership. The Military proved to be unwieldy. Personal ambi- Committee of National Recovery tions and ethnic rivalry paralyzed its de- wo and a half years after the death (CMRN), the ruling body created by the liberations. Top officers and their cro- Tof Ahmed Sekou Toure and the armed forces, turned out to be a hetero- nies quickly enriched themselves. The subsequent military coup that swept geneous organ lacking a clear political population became skeptical about the away the debris of his autocratic sys- direction. prospects for positive change. tem, Guinea is still in a state of flux. The In the first heady days of the post- The most serious problem, however, wave of enthusiasm that captured the Toure era, almost all the senior brass, was the sharpening divisions between population, particularly the youth, dur- many of whom played a role in the peri- President Lansana Conte, a Soussou ing the first days of the new government odic purges organized by the late dicta- from a village about 50 miles north of the proved to be ephemeral. It scx>n became tor, were automatically given a seat on dilapidated capital, Conakry, and then- strikingly evident that many long and dif- the CMRN. The aim was to project the Prime Minister Diara Traore, a Malinke ficult years would be required to over- image of a united army and a consensus like the late head of state. The latter, come the handicap represented by the among the country's diverse ethnic impetuous and self-serving, sought to heritage of 26 years of economic misma- groups. Rapidly, however, the CMRN rally support both in the country and nagement and often brutal dictatorship. Guineans wanted not only the guar- antee of respect for human rights, but also improved living standards. Guinea's economy, potentially one of the richest in West Africa thanks to substantial min- eral resources and immense agro-indus- trial possibilities, was largely shackled under the anckn regime by a plethoric bureaucracy and institutionalized cor- ruption. Under the banner of "African social- ism," Sekou Toure fostered a system which benefited a small group of senior bureaucrats and allied traders almost exclusively. The result was that almost 2 million Guineans were forced to seek their livelih(x>ds abroad and the under- ground economy flourished. The reform of the stagnant economy was at the top of the agenda for the new military government. But the applica- tion of a reform program needed strong Howard Schisse! is a Paris-based freelance jour- nalist specializing in French-speaking Africa as well as questions relating to African natural re- President Lansana Conte: "Without any military or civilian rival, he has become the sources. country's uncontested chief" AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 21 abroad to fulfill his ambitions. Fishing boats, Conakry: "The population sums of money which Guinea's first It did not take long before it became has experienced a deterioration in its al- leader reputedly stashed away abroad. ready low standard of living" clear that Guinea's two top officers Instead of precipitously reshuffling were on a collision course. President blame was placed on Traore's ruthless his cabinet after the failed putsch. Presi- Conte took the initiative of eliminating quest for power. In Conakry and other dent Conte took his time. Indeed, he the prime minister's office during a cabi- towns, the population often blamed the required almost six months to decide on net reshuffle at the end of 19H4. At that Malinke for seeking to reestablish their a new government and initiate the first time. Col. Traore was demoted to one dominance lost with the passing of Se- economic reform measures. This ex- of the four newly-created state minister kou Toure. tended delay gave the impression of in- posts. This situation was short-lived, The attempted coup is still shrouded decision and weak leadership. Conte, however. Early in the summer of 1985, in mystery. Hie government initially who prides himself on his peasant ori- Traore spearheaded a failed coup at- promised that the plotters would be gins, tends to deliberate carefully before tempt. The French played a major role brought to public trial. This has never coming to an important decision. But re- in enabling the president to reestablish occurred. Traore's fate remains un- maining firmly in control, he has been his authority. known. In Conakry, most sources able to form a new government de- Many officers close to Traore, as well reckon that he was executed, along with signed to give the country the measure as civilian supporters of the ex-prime all the male members of the Toure fam- of confidence it lacked. minister, were arrested in the wake of ily. Other members of the former first One of the main hallmarks of the gov- the foiled putsch. Most of those ar- family, including Madame Andree ernment that emerged last December rested were of Malinke origin, although Toure, are either in prison or under UN-sponsored fish-smoking project: "In- the government tried to downplay the house arrest. It is believed that they ternational organizations have been as- ethnic nexus behind the coup. The know the whereabouts of the large sisting Guinea on the difficult road to eco- nomic recovery" 22 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 was the decline in the role of the mili- However, it took only a few months would have to create a new political tary—an increase from nine to 19 in the before the first crisis developed. Minis- party and a parliament. For the mo- number of civilian ministers. It also ter of Information Jean-Claude Diallo, ment, however, the main preoccupation marked the entry onto the political the top expatriate Guinean in the gov- appears to be putting into motion wide- scene of a bevy of young teclmocrats, ernment, devised a plan to liberalize the ranging economic reform measures and most of whom owe their promotion to import of basic foodstuffs. Known as the making sure that the transition period the president's good will. Also worth Programme Libre de Commerce does not engender excessive discontent noting was the enhanced role granted (PLC), it was criticized as designed to in the urban areas and possible distur- expatriate Guineans—a number of favor the Peul community and opening bances which could be used to destabi- whom returned after a long exile to ac- the door for all sorts of sundry commer- lize the government. cept cabinet portfolios—meant to reas- cial practices. An influential French ad- Guinea's economy was in shambles at sure wealthy Guinean traders in neigh- viser, Bernard Vatrican, who was given the fall of Sekou Toure's regime. West- boring states and tempt them to invest the sobriquet the "white marabout," ern economists estimate that up to a back home. also backed the PLC. third of the country's gross domestic Conte also used the cabinet reshuffle A coalition of French and indigenous product passed through parallel black as a means of diminishing the influence economic forces convinced President market networks. Due to low domestic of potential rivals in the armed forces: Conte to abolish the PLC and maintain producer prices, farmers often sold Many were sent to the hinterland as state control over vital imports. Diallo, their cash crops in the neighboring resident ministers. Former Foreign who obviously felt targeted by this states of Sierra Leone, Liberia, or Sene- Minister Facinet Toure, a Soussou with action, t AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 23 the same time, the bauxite mining sec- its part, agreed to a $42.6 million struc- tor, representing 97 percent of export tural adjustment loan to support the earnings, operated as a prosperous en- government program. The Paris Club clave in a drained economy. The mines, reached an agreement during the spring operated by foreign partners, had little on the rescheduling of $200 million of impact on the overall economy. Guinea's foreign debt. Once President Conte gave the Guinea owes the Soviet Union around green light to start cleaning up Guinea's $400 million from past purchases of economic morass, foreign experts first arms and industrial equipment; this is had to solve the currency problem. The being repaid by bauxite exports from Guinean syli was massively devalued in the Kindia mine operated by Soviet October last year, bringing its value technicians. Compared to other West broadly in line with the CFA franc. Early African states, Guinea's overseas debt this year, the syli was replaced by the is quite manageable. new Guinean franc and a dual exchange Foreign donors have proven to be rate was established for public and pri- generous with Guinea. With the coun- vate sector transactions. try's overture to the West and its at- In June, this system was abolished tempt to implement free market eco- because of the Guinean franc's remark- nomic guidelines, Guinea has become a able stability, as it maintained its near favorite in the Western donor commu- parity to the CFA franc. This monetary nity. France, naturally, has played a reform went through smoothly and it is leading role: In 1985, for example, likely that Guinea will soon join the CFA Guinea was the second largest recipient franc zone, thereby guaranteeing it a of soft loans from France's Fonds d'Aide convertible and transferable currency. et de Cooperation (FAC) with $88.6 mil- This would certainly bolster confidence lion. The United States, West Ger- in Guinea among potential foreign inves- many, Belgium, Italy, and Arab sources tors as well as the affluent expatriate have also kicked in considerable sums community. for infrastructure and development The banking sector was also over- schemes. hauled. Three new banks were created, Outside the mining sector, there has each under the auspices of a large been little fresh private investment. "Thirty months is a relatively short period French financial institution. French Australia's Bridge Oil has set up a joint to transform an economy and society still under the influence of a quarter-century trading houses established a joint ven- venture, Aredor, to mine Guinea's rich of misgovernment" ture with the government for the import diamond reserves. A Canadian-Swiss of vital foodstuffs. Guinea's parastatals consortium, Chevanning Mining, has dam on the Konkoure river. The weak are being reorganized by the French In- begun prospecting a highly promising price of aluminum on world markets and stitute of Industrial Development. concession in the Siguiri region. Ameri- soft demand does not bode well for the Other French firms have taken over re- can concerns are involved in oil prospec- Ayekoye project. sponsibility for strategic economic sec- tion off the Boe region after a continen- In addition, a $1.5 billion iron ore tors. tal plateau dispute with Guinea-Bissau mine at Mount Nimba, close to the fron- A Frenchman, Leon Chaize, was ap- was settled in a judgment rendered by tier with Liberia, is in suspended anima- pointed vice-governor of the Banque the International Court of Justice. tion. Guinea envisages setting up a joint Nationale de Guinee, although he is offi- Despite immense agro-industrial pos- company with Liberia and associating cially a World Bank functionary. This sibilities, few foreign investors have African and Western interests in the de- sudden thrust of French interests has been tempted. The country's lack of in- velopment of this high grade ore lode. created friction: It is common, for in- frastructure and trained cadres repre- However, as with the proposed bauxite stance, to find Guineans bitterly com- sents a bottleneck. Some firms have mine, iron ore is suffering from weak plaining that France is seeking to make adopted a wait-and-see approach in or- international demand. Guinea also faces up for lost time by "neo-colonizing" the der to judge if political and financial sta- competition from other West and Cen- country. bility can be assured. tral African states—notably Senegal International organizations also have Guinea's other large mining projects and Gabon—who have rival iron ore been assisting Guinea on the difficult are finding it difficult to get off the draw- projects in the pipeline. road to economic recovery. Since the ing boards. A scheme to open a fourth Bringing order to the state adminis- beginning of 1986, the International bauxite mine at Ayekoye has met with tration and parastatals is liable to pose Monetary Fund has granted a $33.6 mil- little success. This $2.2 billion project some delicate problems. A study of the lion 13-month s^tandby loan to help im- involves the construction of an alumi- administration revealed thousands of plement reforms. The World Bank, for num smelter and a large hydroelectric fictitious posts, and those with genuine 24 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 four, and the offering to the private sec- tor of another 13. Manufacturing units, usually working at a quarter of capacity, are over-staffed money-losers. The non-industrial sector, encompassing some 130 state-owned concerns in the import-export, wholesale, and distribu- tion business, is also being rationalized. As Guinean economist Diallo Mama- dou Lamarana suggests, "There is a risk of seeing the development of a speculative market in real estate and im- port-export, two sectors reputed to be highly profitable. Investment in indus- try, profitable in the long term, will be the practical monopoly of foreign inter- ests. And a situation could develop where a compradore bourgeoisie would benefit from its position in the state bu- reaucracy to engage in affairism. . . At present, there are few forces ca- pable of resisting such a drift in the econ- omy. Another potential problem is the development of a new system of ethnic nepotism and sinecures modeled on Se- kou Toure's government—but benefit- ing ethnic groups other than the Ma- linke. Yet another question mark concerns the rural economy. Under the first re- public, the peasants were punished by jobs, some 84,000, were under-em- cost of living in Conakry and other urban low producer prices and inefficient gov- ployed or had few real qualifications. centers. The population has therefore ernment services. The result was a vir- Most of these civil servants live in Cona- experienced a deterioration in its al- tual stagnation of subsistence agricul- kry and have only passing awareness of ready low standard of living. To alleviate ture and a regression in the export-ori- the country's realities. This inefficient some of the hardship, the government ented sectors. The new government organization costs the Guinean exche- granted the remaining civil servants a has declared that the development of quer dearly. After payment was ended hefty wage increase. agriculture and livestock is one of its top priorities. Implementing these good in- to fictitious civil servants, a plan to pare As the majority of the population tentions may be more difficult than down the administration was enacted. struggles to eke out a livelihood, a class imagined: The peasantry is extremely The government announced that it ex- ofnouveanx riches has flourished in Con- weary of the central government's ver- pects to reduce the state sector to some akry. Never before have there been so bal commitments. Furthermore, the 50,000 by the end of 1987. many luxury cars and such outward Guinean community could play an im- It is hoped that the private sector will flaunting of wealth in the capital. This portant role in investing in agricultural be able to absorb the laid-off civil ser- has given rise to bitterness among aver- schemes, but until now they have made vants, many of whom were given cash age Guineans who claim that the wealth only timid moves. bonuses to encourage them to open is largely misbegotten. This is often businesses. In particular, it is feared confirmed by official statements pledg- Of course, 30 months is a relatively that disgruntled civil servants could cre- ing to punish corrupt functionaries and short period to transform an economy ate a political backlash which could be traders, but these declarations are and a society still under the influence of a exploited by anti-Conte forces. This is rarely followed by concrete action. quarter-century of misgovemment and all the more the case as Conakry is sub- Growing social inequities could pose se- varied abuses. Bad habits are hard to merged by unemployed youth, many of rious problems for the government and change. While progress has been made, them sch(x)l graduates who are dissatis- discredit free market economics as a the task that lies ahead is immense. The fied with their lot and face a grim future. "panacea" for the country's ills. population cautiously supports Presi- The reform of the monetary system In the industrial sector, the parastatal dent Conte, but the institutions remain and other IMF-sponsored measures reform program has led to the closure of fragile and the shock of change could have resulted in a sharp increase in the seven companies, the reorganization of produce unexpected developments. • AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 25 Women In the first of a series of articles to explore the contributions of African women to national economic and political development, Africa Report talks with Josephine Ouedraogo about the Burkina government's innovative approach to women's issues and the role of donor organizations in supporting these efforts. Josephine Ouedraogo Minister of Family Affairs and National Solidarity, Burkina Faso INTERVIEWED BY MARGARET A. NOVICKI participating in decision-making in any given country, it's be- cause they are not regarded as having the necessary compe- Africa Report: Your government is perhaps the most pro- tence and analytical abilities. Therefore, for us, it is a mark of gressive on the African continent in its commitment to wom- the National Council of the Revolution's [CNR] confidence in en's advancement, evidenced by the fact that there are cur- our women that we have been asked to participate at the rently five women ministers. Could you explain the philosophy highest levels. of your government insofar as the role of women in national One might think—well, it's only the elite of our women who development is concerned? are so privileged. But in reality, women are involved at every Ouedraogo: I think what is important in the Burkinabe gov- level in the country, equally down to the very basic ernment's conception of the grassroots. From the very be- liberation of women is that ginning of its existence, the women must be accepted as CNR decided to organize our partners at all levels. The fact women so that they would be that at the moment there are represented at all levels and five women ministers in our would be able to provide their new cabinet shows that at the views and participate in politi- highest levels, women are ac- cal activities. This is very im- cepted as partners in making portant. Even at the village important political decisions level, women have their repre- and in the conception of the na- sentatives. An office of the Un- tion's development program. ion of Burkinabe Women This is a really extraordinary [UFB] has recently been cre- mark of the confidence the ated in each village. But even government has invested in before that, there was at least we women in Burkina. Not one woman member of the vil- only are there women minis- lage bureaus of the Commit- ters, but also many women ^ tees for the Defense of the who occupy other posts of po- § Revolution [CDRs]. This litical, administrative, and < translates concretely into the technical responsibility, such % fact that in all village activities, as high commissioners and di- I women have the opportunity rectors of companies and de- "Women are accepted as partners in making important political to be present and to partici- partments. If women are not decisionsandin the conception of the nation's development" pate—even in collective ef- 26 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Ouedraogo: Yes, we are, but this is a change that will come about progressively. The NGOs have already been made aware of ourpoint of view. However, we do not yet control all the aspects of project design insofar as women's projects are concerned. Many of these projects are still designed by the NGOs and are already being implemented We hope ulti- mately to arrive at a situation where, if donors want to under- take a project for women in Burkina, they will find an interloc- utor at our national level who will be able to say, "No, we think that this project, given our realities, will contribute to marginalizing our women, and it would be better to change it in such or such a way." Ultimately, we hope to arrive at a situa- tion where even at the level of agricultural projects, their impact upon women will automatically be taken into account, because very often agricultural development projects have Operation Literacy Commando: "At the operations closing cere- monies, a woman delegate stood up and said she wanted to marginalized women, with the end result that they lose their openly register her dissatisfaction that so few women were cho- sole source of income. sen to benefit from the literacy campaign!" Ultimately we need to design the projects ourselves, be- forts, such as the construction of a reservoir, a school, or a cause we have learned that many NGOs really don't believe in well. equality for women, even those which are busy extolling the If they are not doing so, it can only be because perhaps they virtues of "women's projects!" In reality, they fund these haven't understood the opportunity which is being offered projects only to assuage their consciences and to prove to them to participate, because there are too many other con- everyone that they are interested in women's issues. There straints on their time, or because there hasn't been sufficient are NGOs which are funding very interesting programs on the political education. Nevertheless, the door is open to them, economic front, for example, but which admit, "The social and to illustrate this point, I want to tell you a story about implications are not our problem. We are here to build a road, something that occurred during our "Operation Literacy a school, a dam—its social or political implications don't con- Commando," a program we carried out in February and cern us." They forget that the dam they build or the agricul- March to introduce literacy to 36,000 peasants under the tural project they undertake will bring about transformations aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture. At the operation's closing in the society-—whether by marginalizing women, by giving ceremonies, in front of all the members of government, a more authority to men, or whatever. There is not a single woman delegate stood up and said she wanted to openly regis- action that one can undertake that will not have an impact upon ter her dissatisfaction that so few women were chosen to the population and therefore upon the women. benefit from this literacy campaign! She had a good point! She Africa Report: It seems that NGOs often put the cart before felt the program was an important one, she was invited to the horse, in their view that it is the proliferation of these small express her views, and she did so! And although some were projects that will bring about women's advancement, rather embarrassed that she spoke out like that, she proved that the than understanding that a certain level of development and door is really open for women to participate and to express clearly defined development objectives are necessary before themselves. these small projects can have an impact. I think it is this change in perceptions that is essential, because all those "women's projects" sponsored by non-gov- ernmental organizations [NG()s| and governments—we have had so many of them here over the last 20 years—are all very nice, but as long as women are not brought into the decision- making process, are not involved in the modern sector, are not educated, and don't make the decisions, these small pro- jects will never be able to change the status of women! You can launch an income generation or educational project for women, but it will only marginalize them and will never lead to their involvement in the political, economic, or cultural scene as equal partners with men. I think it is this dimension that has been lacking and what the CNR has been able to provide through the revolution. It wouldn't surprise anybody here even if 10 women are named as ministers! Africa Report: As you pointed out, "women's projects" of- Itfl ten tend to marginalize women. Therefore, have you changed "You can launch dit inhume generation or educational project for the policy guidelines you utilize in dealing with NGOs who are women, but it will only marginalize them and will never lead to their involvement in the political, economic, or cultural scene as interested in financing women's projects? equals with men" AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 27 Ouedraogo: Or even before knowing what small projects are needed! These small projects do not bring about develop- ment. I think what you said is especially true for Burkina—a country which has received perhaps the most assistance in the form of these small NGO projects. We have received an enormous amount of assistance at this level. But why hasn't it changed anything? It's because the big picture—development in all its aspects—hasn't been taken into account. Further- more, in the past, there was no precise definition of the form of the population's participation in the development process which clearly spelled out the priorities, and then within these priorities, which small projects were needed. Without such clarity, each NGO comes with its own view of things and chooses its own preferred area, but that doesn't contribute to anything but a dispersal of funds and often a considerable waste of money. Maybe the lot of one group of villagers is improved, but that isn't enough. In the end, however, the effort has to come from us, and as long as a government doesn't have the political will to clearly define its conception of women also have a point of view concerning their health, their development, then you can't blame the NGOs for taking ad- pregnancies, etc. When women have an opportunity to speak vantage of the situation. out, they tell us: "Men regard us solely as baby machines. As Africa Report: Could you outline the priorities of your minis- soon as you are pregnant, the men are satisfied and they ask try insofar as women are concerned, and how these priorities nothing more of you. If you give birth to a son, they are even are addressed by the recently launched five-year develop- happier. But if you don't get pregnant or if you bear only ment plan? daughters, your status is very low." Ouedraogo: My ministry is not solely involved in women's When the women are able to express these feelings, they issues. In tackling specific priority issues, we are involved feel liberated, and the men see that in fact their women are not with a variety of social groups, for example, marginalized machines, that their wives think and speak their minds. This persons such as juvenile delinquents. We believe that through becomes uncomfortable for the men! We think this is very various activities we undertake, we can indirectly contribute important because by enabling women to express themselves to raising the status of women. For example, we are tackling about problems on which they have been obliged to keep the issues of family planning and increasing women's incomes. silent, that contributes to an evolution in thinking. Similarly in Concerning family planning, the objective is not specifically to our project to launch day nurseries for children between the reduce the birth rate, but rather to educate the family to ages of three and six, we are involving both parents—fathers understand that limiting the number of children or spacing and mothers—trying to get them to see the welfare of their births will contribute to their well-being. They must under- children as a family problem, not just a problem for the stand that failure to do so can harm the health of the mother women. and the child and limit the family's access to social benefits. Hence, all these activities contribute to having women ac- Therefore, by educating the family, we will be contributing to cepted as equal partners in the family. We are talking about raising the status of women. We have decided, for example, the qualitative element here—our priority in this ministry is to that our strategy of consciousness-raising on this issue will be have the woman accepted as an interlocutor, as a person with directed at both the men and the women. We will attempt to opinions about her life, her relationship with her husband, and create a dialogue between men and women on this issue. In the education of her children. On the economic front, one of the context of our society, this is something very new, given our priorities, for example, is to raise the personal economic our traditional sexual division of responsibilities. The world of status of women. Here, we are in the midst of defining pro- men is often far apart from the world of women. When society jects which will enable women to earn an income, because it is was purely traditional, there was a certain equilibrium in this a sign of independence for women to earn their own money arrangement. Today, however, it is only the world of men and therefore have their own resources. Traditionally, which is open to societal changes, while the world of women women had this option, but with all the transformations which has remained somewhat forgotten. have occurred for example in the agricultural sector, as I said There has also been a rupture in relations between men and earlier, the women have lost a great deal of their economic women in the household. They don't talk to each other and autonomy. rarely discuss the issues which affect the family, such as, for Therefore, one of the slogans of our five-year development example, the education of their children. Each concentrates plan is "For each woman, an income." We will be looking at on his or her own problems and the children are socially and what types of activities we can undertake that will enable morally abandoned. The extended family system is eroding. women to earn an income. But first, we are organizing a Hence, we want to contribute to creating a dialogue between seminar to be held next year which will bring together women men and women, thereby forcing the men to accept that who are involved in all types of economic activities to provide 28 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 ies to know whether this is feasible for the family. While we're trying to help women earn incomes, we shouldn't put in jeop- ardy the survival of the family. In our cities, many women are involved in commercial activities. I'm talking about the women that you see in the markets—women who are involved in petty commerce and weaving. But when you look at how they're able to do so. . . is it a good thing to ultimately strengthen polygamy because it's necessary for women to earn incomes? There are all these problems to resolve. We can't solve women's economic problems without affecting other cultural and social aspects. Therefore, when I'm asked to outline the concrete actions that we've undertaken, I must admit that they have been few, but this is because there are so many of these basic issues to resolve, among which the quality of women's daily lives is very important. Africa Report: The Union of Burkinabe Women just cele- brated its first anniversary. Can you explain the objectives of this organization? Women lead President Sankara's official motorcade: "The CNR Ouedraogo: The UFB was created to respond to the need to decided to organize our women so that they would be repre- organize our women, so that no matter where you go in sented at all levels" Burkina, when you want to involve the women, you can utilize their views on this project. We are aware, for example, that if this structure. The UFB is a structure for the mobilization and we create additional activities for women without having re- organization of our women. Thanks to the UFB, if any minis- solved their domestic problems, such as the education and try wants to ascertain women's views or if women's involve- care of their children, in fact we will be creating monstrous ment is needed in any particular operation, the women will problems. If women don't have access to an income today, it is already be organized and prepared to express their views. probably because they have to spend too much time on their Thus, the UFB isn't solely connected with my ministry. All domestic responsibilities, and these burdens must be eased. the government departments are required to interact with it. If women aren't trained or educated, it's not because they For example, there is now a national commission on the re- don't want it, but rather because they are already too preoccu- cently elaborated Family Code in which the UFB, my minis- pied. We can't solve this problem for them—the women par- try, and the Ministry of National Education are participating, ticipating in this seminar must do so. We will discuss all these under the leadership of the Ministry of Justice. The UFB was questions. Those women who are already involved in artisanal asked to play a very important role in providing women's activities, for example, will explain how they manage, given views on certain elements of the code. Thanks to the UFB, their domestic responsibilities. Is it that they dump their do- we're able to organize our women at any given moment. We mestic responsibilities onto another woman? In that case, this have gotten, for example, women's views on polygamy, abor- is a justification for polygamy! Is it that they rely on a type of tion, and female circumcision. If the UFB didn't exist, it would family slavery by exploiting their daughters or young girls in have been extremely difficult to gather this information in so order to have the necessary free time? We can't close our little time. The UFB is even able to represent the views of eyes to these questions. Therefore, what must come out of rural women because it is involved all the way down to the this debate is a determination whether the projects that we villages. are going to undertake to increase women's incomes are Africa Report: So the UFB doesn't suffer from the same really going to improve their lives. problems of many of the continent's women's organizations, Africa Report: Could you provide some examples of the i.e. being run by the educated city women who can't relate at types of income generation projects you envision for women all to the problems of their rural counterparts. in the rural areas? Ouedraogo: Yes, you're absolutely right, especially given Ouedraogo: For example, market gardening is an activity that the organization started by electing village delegates, that can increase women's incomes. It can also augment the then departmental, and then provincial delegates. The na- income of the family when men are involved. In regions with tional bureau hasn't even been elected yet. Certainly at the food deficits, like our northern provinces where we are en- national level, there will be women of a certain calibre, but couraging market gardening in order to achieve food self- they will be required to be answerable to all women. Last sufficiency—in these regions where survival itself is a prior- year, when we celebrated National Women's Week, the UFB ity—we're not going to tell women, "You must abandon your was able to bring together delegates from all the provinces. It family plots so that you can earn an income." That would be had to translate everything into four languages so that women very foolish. from Don, Banfora, Fada, would be able to understand what Therefore, even if we design ways that various activities was said and express their views. If we didn't have this organi- can earn an income for women, such as artisanry, cattle- zation, we wouldn't have been able to do that, likewise if we raising, or food processing, we must first do preliminary stud- had many different women's organizations. In the past, there AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 29 were many women's organizations, but none which repre- Ouedraogo: I would first of all tell an NGO that it should have sented the masses of our women. Organizations of profes- a clearly defined sector when it says it wants to do something sional women are still in existence, which in itself isn't a bad for women. Then, depending on the area, it can address itself thing; however, they do defend their own secular interests. to my ministry or to the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Health, or one of the other ministries. It depends on its Africa Report: What are the aims of the Family Code? focus. Hit doesn't have a specific focus, then it should come to Ouedraogo: The Family Code is not yet finalized, because my ministry because my ministry touches on many different we plan on submitting it for the views of many women and a aspects. We will see from there because we already have our certain number of men—for the moment, it is the work of a own projects. If an NGO has its own program, we will deter- commission. Hut in the end, the Family Code will be the first mine whether this is something we want. We're in the midst of time that we will have one single law which regulates the life of setting up a national structure which will define our priorities the family in Burkina. Presently, there are many different as far as women are concerned, and which at any given mo- laws—the Napoleonic Code and various customary laws re- ment can provide the picture of women in Burkina as well as lated to religious traditions, for example—which regulate so- the impact of all that has already been done. Any NGO that is cial and family life in Burkina. For example, whether or not a interested in being involved in women's issues will automati- man is Muslim, he may abide by Muslim laws in running his cally address itself to this structure, at which level we will be in family and in regulating his relations with his wife—her rights, a position to say: "This is what we want to do, and this is how duties, etc. If it's in a man's interest to use this or that law, he you can become involved." And the UFB will be involved as a will do so. If the woman doesn't know any better, it's she who support structure because it is already undertaking work to loses in the end. There are cases of marriages that have been mobilize and conscientize our women. The fight against fe- consecrated under customary law without the woman's male circumcision, for example, cannot be carried out by any- knowledge! A man marries a woman and he is a polygamist. one but the UFB because that is a cultural battle, a battle for When the woman complains about it, he says that Muslim law women by women. The UFB is useful for virtually any techni- allows him to be polygamous. cal activity that one wants to undertake for women. If you Therefore, we will have one Family Code which will apply want to reach women in a certain village, it's possible now to everyone and which we hope will provide equal justice for because the women are already organized by the UFB. men, women, and children. The Family Code says that mo- Africa Report: Is there anything else you would like to add nogamy will be the rule, although we will accept polygamy about women in Burkina? here because we can't just dissolve it like that. In the past, all Ouedraogo: At this point, the impact of what we are trying to polygamous marriages were recognized. But henceforth, al- do, as I said earlier, is above all at the qualitative level. We though you can be polygamous if you choose, in the eyes of believe that at this stage, the qualitative aspect is much more the law, polygamy will not be recognized. While not doing important than any concrete actions we might undertake, away with polygamy, this will allow us to diminish somewhat because it will lead us to a better understanding of our women its negative aspects. Many women have warned that if polyg- and what their real preoccupations are. But it must be the amy is banned, they will be penalized. They say that it's not women themselves who articulate their priorities. Even if polygamy itself, but rather the entire economic system that women aren't at a certain level, they are capable of conceptu- makes them have too much work, it's the social system which alizing and expressing their views on their own situation. makes them have too many children. We accept polygamy as My ministry's predecessor, the Ministry of Women's Sta- insidious, but we can only abolish it progressively. tus, had so conditioned our women to think that sewing and The Family Code will also give women a say in making knitting were the priority that today when we go to a village certain household decisions such as management of the and ask women what they want, they reply, 'Teach us how to household income and in the case of divorce, the disposition of crochet!" Thus, because they have been so brainwashed, our the children. In the past, if a couple divorced, children were women end up by ignoring what their real priorities are! But automatically given to their fathers from the age of seven. A what we're trying to do today is to get our women interested customary law concerning widowhood will also be done away in all issues and to ask themselves to define their own priori- with. This law says that when a woman is widowed, she must ties. Thus, we're in the phase where internal work is the most choose between staying in her husband's family or leaving it. If important. Even if we don't receive much in the way of exter- she chooses to stay in the family, she is required to marry one nal assistance, I say to myself, "Fine, this isn't a problem." of her husband's relatives. She is not allowed to stay in the And if some people don't understand what we're trying to do family as a single woman. Often a woman had to accept this in here, I say: "Too bad!" Later on, the concrete activities that order to stay with her children, because if she refused to we'll undertake will be much clearer, they will be well thought marry a member of the family, she would be required to leave out, and therefore the impact will be much more significant. the family, including her children. This law was very painful for As long as they are well-intentioned, anyone who wants to women. Through the Family Code, women will be given more come and support us today is welcome. We will work together rights than they previously enjoyed. to outline precise areas in which to cooperate, because every Africa Report: What advice would you give to an American day we are learning more and more about what is necessary NGO, for example, which is interested in supporting women's and in which areas we need to act, and well understand this efforts in Burkina? even better in the future. D 30 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 A ' Liberia Seven- Cornered Solution? Political repression and a bankrupt economy have left Liberia with a divided opposition that has failed to provide a credible alternative to President Samuel Doe's government. Critics contend that the short-term efforts to resolve the economic crisis are only leading the country toward further chaos. BY LARRY JAMES ment, which called for new elections to would stop at nothing to keep holding on replace last year's vote which they to the power they have." he chain of events in Liberia, be- claimed was rigged to favor a Doe vic- On October 1st, the Elections Com- Tginning with the October 1985 tory. Johnson-Sirleafs repeated re- mission issued a statement calling on elections followed soon after by Novem- quests for an exit visa were denied. The Doe's NDPL to disband its "task force," ber's abortive coup and the subsequent deteriorating security situation finally set up prior to last year's general elec- imprisonment of opposition leaders, has impelled her to flee without a visa. tions ostensibly to insure a peaceful led to a deepening political crisis pitting hi a late August interview in Monro- campaign. The opposition charged that the government of President Samuel K. via, she described the situation as tense in fact it was the task force which was Doe against his political rivals. and admitted she feared for her life. "It responsible for creating violence and in- The recent flight from the country of isn't Doe I fear," she said. "Strangely timidating anyone who opposed the former Finance Minister Ellen Johnson- enough, after all that has happened, I head of state. Commission Chairman Sirleaf—one of the Doe government's can still talk to him. In fact, he called me Isaac Randolph said the group should be strongest critics—underscores the ex- into the Executive Mansion since I've "When demonstrators gathered in defi- tent of the problem. She was jailed in the been out of jail. It's the thugs in the ance of government warnings, riot po- wake of last year's coup attempt and NDPL INational Democratic Party of lice used tear gas and batons to dis- stood trial on treason charges until she Liberia] who scare me. I believe thev perse the crowd" and a number of others were released under an amnesty announced by Doe. The government claimed the pardon was a humanitarian gesture aimed at na- tional reconciliation. Johnson-Sirieaf contended that the government had not proven its charges in court and released her in order to avoid further embarrass- ment. After her release, she resumed an active role in the opposition move- Larry James is a freelance journalist living in West Africa- He reports fur the Associated Press, National Public Radio, and publications special- izing in African a/fairs. AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 31 banned, as its continued existence The men were confined at the maxi- of freed American slaves who founded would disturb the public peace "to the mum security prison, Bella Yella, in rural the country in 1847. detriment of our political system," he Lofa county. The fact that they were "The indigenous people of Liberia said. held in a penal institution with a notori- have had a taste of power and they are Many Liberians remain unconvinced ous reputation for torture led to opposi- not going to turn the government over of the sincerity of the Doe government's tion charges that the government was to the Americo-Liberians again," says commitment to a truly free political sys- violating their human rights and civil lib- Justice Minister Jenkins Scott. "From tem. In September, a Reuters report erties. When demonstrators gathered now on they will always be a part of the quoted Foreign Minister Bernard in defiance of government warnings, government of this country." Blamo as saying that the government riot police used tear gas and batons to According to Scott, it is the maneu- had uncovered an invasion plot by disperse the crowd. vering of the former ruling class which is rebels, some of whom allegedly took The release of the three politicians the root cause of the country's current part in the abortive coup last Novem- helped defuse the situation somewhat, turmoil. "We wouldn't be having the ber. Skeptics say the threat of invasion but tensions remain high. Opposition troubles we have right now except that was imaginary and reports of it were leaders charge that the Doe govern- Americo-Liberians are behind it. There deliberately leaked to journalists so that ment has no real commitment to any may be indigenous Liberians fronting the government would appear justified sort of national reconciliation and that these so-called parties, but the in further clampdowns on the opposi- the head of state privately taunts them Americo-Liberians are the ones calling tion. with his power while in public affecting a the shots." In August, three opposition politi- conciliatory tone. They have vowed to "People try to give you the impres- cians were jailed for failing to pay a fine suspend the activities of their individual sion that the opposition represents levied on them for creating what the parties until the government yields to some sort of popular movement," Scott court called an "illegal political party." their demands for new elections. says. "Well, it's just the other way This grouping, at one time called the As Kenneth Best, managing editor of around. We're the ones the people of "grand coalition," was made up of the the independent Daily Observer puts it: Liberia are behind, and don't think for a Liberia Action Party (LAP), the Liberia "We have a political crisis on our hands, minute we don't intend to stay. I've Unification Party (LUP), the Unity a situation in which the opposition lead- heard people try to compare what hap- Party (UP), and the United People's ers have not accepted the results of the pened in Haiti or the Philippines with Party (UPP). election. It's an explosive situation." what might happen here. Well, I'll tell The three men, LAP's Jackson Doe, you this. If some U.S. official came up to LUP'S William Gabriel Kpolleh, and the "Sour Grapes" me and said, 'We've got a plane waiting UP's Edward Kesselly, were released Many officials in the Doe administra- for you, let's go,' I'd say shoot me on the in September after each paid the $1,(KX) tion dismiss opposition charges of foul spot and bury me on the spot. I'm not penalty, but not before the situation had play in the October 1985 elections as going anywhere." deteriorated to the point of violent con- "sour grapes." They claim the opposi- Similiar views are expressed frontation between supporters and riot tion is composed of elitists who want to throughout the government. "We don't police. return to the good life they enjoyed be- need these people," says Information "Gabriel Bacchus Matthews of the UPP fore Doe's April 1980 military coup Ministers. MomoluhGetaweh. "I know said his party would form a loyal opposi- ended more than 130 years of rule by them all and not one of them has a plan tion and try to work with the govern- ment" "Americo-Liberians," the descendants for the development of this country. All they are interested in is getting back into power. We need Samuel Doe be- cause he has the power to keep the peace so this country can develop. Peo- ple have so little here that they think their only chance to get anything will be to take it from those in power. It's a sad fact of life about Liberia and it's not going to change overnight." At least one opposition party has moved to distance itself from what was the "grand coaltion"—LAP, LUP, UP, and UPP. Gabriel Bacchus Matthews of the UPP said his party would form a "loyal opposition" and try to work with the government to solve the country's problems. Some fonner UPP supporters 32 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Riot police in Monrovia: "We have a political crisis on our hands, a situation in which the coins, wliicli they claim will only worsen opposition leaders have not accepted the results of the election" the country's cash crunch later on. viewed that action as a self-serving ca- suggested he mint his own money. We Tubman denies the charge. "What pitulation on Matthews' part Those may never get over that blunder." we did was set up a system of priorities critics were not surprised when on Sep- The seven-cornered dollar coin is to make sure the most important debts tember 22, Doe announced the lifting of generally blamed for much of the coun- got paid first," Tubman says. "Before I a 13-month ban on the UPI\ the coun- try's current economic trouble. The t(K)k this position, the policy was to re- try's most popular opposition party. government says there is some $30 mil- spond to foreign creditors first. My be- Doe called his action "another manifes- lion worth of the coins in circulation. lief is that you must pay the people who tation of the government's sincere de- Other estimates put the figure closer to fuel your own economy if you expect to sire to bring about unity and true recon- $50 million. Whatever their number, get that economy moving. That is what ciliation among Liberians." their existence has created a local cur- we did." Last August, the party had been rency in a country where the U. S. dollar Tubman remains optimistic. He be- banned from participating in the 1985 was once the legal tender. The dollar is lieves that the World Bank and IMF may general elections which returned Libe- still officially the legal currency, but it is be ready to do business again with Libe- ria to civilian rule. Authorities charged it increasingly hard to come by. In the past ria now that some of the country's debts with having "aims and objectives detri- year, the Liberian dollar has lost 50 per- have reportedly been paid. Liberia still mental to the peace and stability of the cent of its value and there is now an owes $90 million to the IMF and $1.4 country." At the time, political observ- active black market for greenbacks. billion to the World Bank. Interest on ers said the move was clearly Doe's at- In August, the International Mone- that debt alone exceeds annuaJ govern- tempt to eliminate his only serious oppo- tary Fund sent a team of advisers to ment revenues. At the end of August, nent. Monrovia to assess the state of the the United States granted $28.2 million economy and to evaluate the new pro- to help pay off some of the debt. Economic Uncertainty grams put into effect by Finance Minis- Even with that assistance, however, Since Doe came to power six years ter Robert Tubinan. It is expected that bankers still consider Liberia a basket ago, Liberia has struggled with a stead- those advisers will recommend a reduc- case. There has been virtually no re- ily worsening economy. Even his worst tion in the coinage in circulation, some- sponse to Doe's repeated calls for for- critics will admit that Doe inherited a bad tliing Tubman is not likely to want to eign investment in the country. Con- situation, but they are quick to point out hear. sumers are now hard hit by severe that he has done little to improve it. Critics admit that Tubman, a former shortages of consumer goods, such as "Foreign investors have no confi- financial adviser for the Economic Com- milk and sugar, and common drugs, dence in Doe and until there is a govern- munity of West African States, has been such as chloroquine. Doe put a tempo- ment here they can have faith in, things able to meet the current government rary clamp on opposition activities with are not going to get better," says Unity payroll and has caught up with past pay- the imprisonment of the opposition lead- Party leader Edward Kesselly. "I will roll obligations. Before he took office ers, but intermittant detentions cannot admit he has been given bad advice, but earlier this year, many workers had not be a permanent solution to the country's it was his fault that he took it. The very been paid for four or five months. But political problems, any more than the worst thing he could have done he did, his critics claim he found the money by minting of dollar coins can solve the eco- and that was to listen to the people who simply minting more seven-cornered nomic crisis. • AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 33 S A M 0 R A M 0 I S E S M A C H E L 1933-1 986 "Your life continues in those who continue the Revolution." Samora Moises Machel was born into a peasant family on cil was created, to which Machel was appointed in May 1970. The September 29,1933, in the village of Xilembene, near the fertile Lim- fourth session of the central committee elected Machel president popo Valley in Gaza Province. His forebearers took an active part in of Frelimo. the wars of resistance against colonial conquest. Thus, from an early After the overthrow of the Portuguese dictatorship in 1974, age, he was schooled in the patriotic tradition of his family. Machel led the Frelimo delegation in negotiations with the new During his youth, Machel experienced life under the system of com- Lisbon government. On September 7, 1974, an agreement was pulsory cotton cultivation, in which the monopolies forced the Africans reached that power would be handed over to Frelimo within the to grow vast acreages of cotton which were then bought at starvation year. On June 25,1975, independence was declared and Samora prices. Many people died of hunger as a result of this brutal exploita- Moises Machel became president of the People's Republic of tion. Large numbers of peasants were left with no choice but to aban- Mozambique, in which capacity he served until his death on Oc- don their land and accept being sold to the goldmines on the South tober 19, 1986. African Rand. Machete oldest brother and many close relatives died Allen Isaacman, a leading American authority on Mozambique, in the mines, while others came back as permanent invalids. knew President Machel for many years. He provides the following In the early 1950s, the colonial government expelled the Limpopo tribute to the late President: peasants from their land to make way for landless Portuguese. The "Samora Machel loved life. Anyone who had the privilege of land cultivated by Machel's family was confiscated by the colonialists meeting him could not help but recognize how his eyes radiated and and his family home was demolished. his smile beamed. There was something electric in the way he step- Through an agreement with the Vatican, the Portuguese colonialists ped to the podium and engaged enthusiastic crowds in song and had put African education totally into the hands of the Catholic mis- banter. And there was something reassuring in the way he grasped sions which required that every student be baptised in the church. your hand and while acknowledging the many problems his young Thus, although Machel came from a Presbyterian family, he was country faced, reminded you that these difficulties paled by com- forced to be baptised as a Catholic in order to study. In addition to parison to the hardships the handful of poorly armed young men and paying high fees, the students were forced to cultivate the rich fields women encountered when they began their struggle against Por- of the missions. Since the schools were primarily concerned with tuguese colonialism. Even his harshest critics acknowledged that teaching the catechism, any progress made by students was due en- he was 'a charismatic leader.' tirely to their own effort. "But Samora Machel was more than that. Machel completed his primary education, but His biography encapsulates the struggle of the for an African to go on to secondary school was Mozambican people for a more equal and practically impossible. Nonetheless, the mis- just society. President Machel often recounted sionaries decided that the rebel," as Machel was with pride how his grandfather had played an called, should continue his studies at the important role in the 1895 Maguiguana seminary. Machel refused and decided to go to rebellion —the first of many attempts to work. He finished his secondary studies in nurs- dislodge the Portuguese. He recalled how his ing at night school, paying for his course out of father and brother had no alternative but to his wages. work for meager wages in the South African The late 1950s and early 1960s saw a rapid mines, an ordeal from which the latter never growth of patriotic awareness on the African con- returned. tinent. Ghana's independence in 1957, the con- "And he anguished as he described the flict in the Congo, and the beginning of the hated system of chibalo — enforced cotton Angolan liberation struggle in 1961 were power- cultivation —under which his parents and ful catalysts for the Mozambican patriotic other peasants suffered. In a long interview, movement and filled Machel and his colleagues with enthusiasm. Machel emphasized that his own political education began 'not from Frelimo was formed on June 25, 1962, under the leadership of reading Marx or Engels, but from seeing my father and mother forc- Eduardo Mondlane. Machel joined in 1963 and was among the first ed to grow cotton for the Portuguese and going with them group to be trained in Algeria. He played an active part in launching to the market where they received prices which were appreciably lower the armed struggle on September 25, 1964, working out the plans, than those paid to the Europeans.' selecting the fighters, and organizing their infiltration into Mozambique. "Against all odds, he, along with Frelimo's first president, Eduardo Machel was then entrusted with the responsibility of training Mondlane, led the Mozambican people against the Portuguese colonial Frelimo's forces. In 1965, he directed the launching of the armed strug- regime. Victory did not come easily. He suffered the loss of Mondlane, gle in the eastern section of Niassa, and then organized the Center his close friend, and saw many other compatriots die in battle. He wat- for Political and Military Training in Nachingwea, Tanzania, where the ched helplessly as his father and brother were arrested, and he was cadres of the Mozambican revolution were trained in guerrilla warfare. devastated by the loss of his young wife, Josina, herself a leading mili- Under Machel's leadership, Frelimo began the process of transfor- tant in the anti-colonial struggle. ming the semi-liberated areas. Through the deployment of trained guer- "Independence brought new problems and little relief. Drought, rillas, Frelimo replaced the feudal power structure with people's com- famines, and the flight of virtually the entire skilled labor force left Mozam- mittees. The cooperative campaign aimed to establish the basis for bique's underdeveloped economy paralyzed. Machel's commitment to collective production and trade. aid the Zimbabwean freedom fighters resulted in massive reprisals at Between 1960 and 1970, a power struggle ensued between the the hands of the Ian Smith regime and the Mozambican National moderate and radical forces within Frelimo. When the moderates failed Resistance Movement, which the Rhodesian security forces created to defeat the most politically conscious and organized elements in and the South African military sustained. His outspoken criticism of the Frelimo, they allied themselves with Portuguese colonialism and apartheid regime and support for the African National Congress brought helped assassinate eminent leaders such as Mondlane, Sansao new attacks from Pretoria and its MNR clients which wreaked further Muthemba, and Paulo Kankhomba. Throughout this crisis, Machel havoc on the economy. successfully isolated the moderates and mobilized the patriotic forces "And yet throughout it all, Samora's commitment to building a socialist behind Frelimo. society, free from the grip of the apartheid regime, never wavered. The It was in this context that the third session of Frelimo's central com- energy and hope which he radiated inspired millions of Mozambicans. mittee was held in April 1969. To preserve unity, a presidential coun- His loss will be felt throughout the continent." • 34 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Black activists launch joint nationwide campaign Leaders of the United Demo- will result in the clearer drawing of ing a front for the proscribed Afri- cratic Front (UDF), the Congressof the battle lines in the country." can National Congress. South African Trade Unions, and Less than a week later. President The UDF, a federation of more the National Education Crisis Com- P.W. Botha's government drew its than 700 organizations, has borne mittee emerged briefly from hiding own battle lines by declaring the the brunt of the state crackdown in early October to launch a united UDF an "affected organization"— against anli-apartheid activists resistance campaign at a clandes- a measure that falls short of ban- since the emergency was declared. tine press conference in downtown ning, but effectively severs the most AzharCachalia, UDF national trea- Johannesburg. It marked the first influential multi-racial group in the surer and one of the few leaders not joint effort by the three major black country from foreign funding. The in hiding or detention, said that be- activist organizations to protest restriction could deal a devastating tween 70-80 percent of the esti- against the state of emergency since blow to the UDF, whose domestic mated 20,000 people detai ned under it was imposed in June. fundraising has been severely ham- the emergency were affiliated with Murphy Morobe, UDF acting na- pered by the state of emergency. the UDF "in one way or another." tional publicity secretary, said the Over half the organization's reve- But he promised that the UDF's na- initiative represented a "reorgani- nue has been contributed from tional and regional leadership zation and galvanization of our abroad, mainly by Scandinavian would meet in secret to discuss fu- forces which have been besieged in countries and anti-apartheid groups ture action against the latest gov- the months of the state of emer- in the West. ernment restriction. gency," but he was reluctant to pro- Under the Affected Organiza- Cachalia admitted that "the proc- vide details of the campaign in order tions Act—passed in the early 1970s lamation will certainly hurt the to avoid eountermeasures from the to destroy "un-South African" or- UDF, but not to the extent that it government. The official campaign ganizations—the president is em- will cripple us"—even if it is merely statement simply called on "all pa- powered to take action against any a preliminary move to outlawing the triots" to fight for several key de- group if he is "convinced that poli- organization entirely. As he said, mands, including lifting the emer- tics is being conducted by or "It's going to take more than declar- gency, releasing all political pris- through that organization with the ing us an affected organization; it's oners, establishing "people's help of. . . an organization or per- going to take much more than ban- education," unbanning organiza- son overseas." The government has ning the organization to stop the tions, and the right to strike. frequently accused the UDF of be- tide of resistance in the country." • The three groups—which to- gether claim a following of 3 mil- lion—described the campaign as a significant step toward uniting ex- Pretoria's expulsion of migrant labor tra-parliamentary forces. Morobe said that "a process is now starting deals blow to Mozambican economy whereby we can attain the kind of Pretoria's decision in early Octo- The Mozambican government unity we crave—disparate forces in ber to terminate the employment of viewed the expulsion of workers as the political spectrum can be Mozambicans in the mining and ag- a deliberate effort to further under- brought in. We seek unity not only ricultural sectors of South Africa mine its economy. South African at the leadership level, but also dealt a crippling blow to the econ- Foreign Minister Pik Botha, how- amongst the masses." omy of the frontline state. Remit- ever, justified it as a response to The black activists told the press tances from workers in South Af- Mozambique's alleged support of that the other major goal of the ini- rica comprise Mozambique's larg- violence by the African National tiative was to get moderates to take est single source of foreign Congress (ANC). a stand. As Morobe put it. "We are revenue—approximately one-third The decision followed an incident also implementing a 'fence-shaking of its annual earnings from abroad. in which six South African soldiers process." People who support this The migrant workers must depart were wounded when their vehicle campaign must come out publicly when their current contracts expire, detonated a landmine close to the and distinguish themselves from and none will be recruited in the fu- common border. Charging that Mo- forces still operating under Presi- ture, Pretoria said. The announce- zambican security forces were re- dent Botha's scheme of things. It is ment came just days before Presi- sponsible, Pretoria reiterated ear- no longer good enough to pledge dent Samora Machel was killed in a lier threats of military retaliation. support in the dark. This campaign plane crash in South Africa. Continued on next page AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 35 Mozambique. . . continued expected to grow dramatically as a least 25 percent of their arrears to result of Pretoria's action. Many of the union by the end of 1986. In Sep- "If President Machel chooses ter- them come from famine-stricken ar- tember, the union's ministerial com- rorism and revolution, he will clash eas of Mozambique, and their mittee made a number of major rec- head-on with South Africa," wages represent the only means of ommendations, including a thor- warned Defense Minister Magnus survival for their families back ough review of personnel employed Malan. home. Others are refugees with no by the union and an audit of finan- Officials estimated that up to homes to return to. cial records from 1983-84 and 1985- 100,000 Mozambicans were work- The economic blow coincided 86. ing in South Africa—more than half with Mozambique's worst military The committee also decided to re- in the gold mines of Eastern Trans- crisis since independence, as the duce expenditures by paring schol- vaal. Mozambican workers alleg- South African-backed Mozambique arship programs to a bare minimum edly hold higher-level jobs in the National Resistance Movement and terminating support for the ma- mines than other black miners. In (Renamo) launched an offensive, rine training and forestry institutes addition, they have been less likely capturing strategic towns that link in Liberia and the telecommunica- to join the National Union of Mine- northern and southern Mozam- tions institute in Sierra Leone, stat- workers because of fears of repatri- bique and that control the Beira cor- ing that they should be financed by ation. Mozambicans also form a ridor. The rebels overran key Mo- the individual states. Union priori- significant portion of the labor force zambican bases, built up a large ties have been narrowed down to on farmlands in the Eastern Trans- force in the town of Zumbo at Lake agriculture, communications, en- vaal. Cabora Bassa, and were said to be ergy, industry, and transport. The number of Mozambicans in control of the Zambezi River Val- The union was founded 13 years working illegally in South Africa is ley by mid-October. • ago by Liberia and Sierra Leone, with Guinea joining in 1979. One of its most important goals—con- struction of a highway from Monro- via to Freetown with support from Pact holds hope for Mano River Union the African Development Bank— The Mano River Union non-ag- Mano River Union Secretary-Gen- has recently stalled due to lack of gression and security pact, ap- eral Augustine Caine from funds. The other key project—the proved in September by justice min- Freetown. Twice this year, Mano $2.5 million Mano River Bridge be- isters of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra River Union meetings were can- tween Liberia and Sierra Leone— Leone, is expected to help revive celled when Doe demanded that Si- was completed in 1976. In addition, the troubled economic community. erra Leone admit its complicity in a common external tariff on major The treaty prohibits the member- the aborted coup. imports was established in 1977 be- states from using each other's terri- The animosity between the two tween Liberia and Sierra Leone. tory for subversion or aggression. governments dates back to the Li- Plans for a hydroelectric project to In addition, they agreed to prevent berian military coup of 1980 when serve all three countries and a the official media from "sowing Doe seized power and killed former Freetown-to-Conakry branch of the seeds of discord" in their respective President William Tolbert. Presi- highway are pending. • states and to persuade the private dents Siaka Stevens and Tolbert press to refrain from such activity had been close friends, and Doe as well. The three presidents, who subsequently received less than COTEd'IVOIRE had called for the September meet- what he felt was his due respect Hard times brewing for cocoa ing at a July summit in Conakry, from the Sierra Leonean leader. Agriculture Minister Denis Bra were scheduled to sign the pact by When Momoh took over from Kanon confirmed in early October the end of the year. Stevens, however, he pledged to that for the first time in four years, The agreement is considered an improve relations with his neigh- Abidjan would not raise cocoa and important step toward alleviating bors and made conciliatory over- coffee producer prices for the com- the long-standing hostility between tures to Liberia. Caine returned to ing season due to difficult interna- Liberia and Sierra Leone, which es- his post in March, and with urging tional markets for the two commod- calated when President Samuel Doe from the Organization of African ities. repeatedly accused the Sierra Leo- Unity, he persuaded Guinean Presi- According to President Felix nean government of complicity in dent Lansana Conte to mediate the Houphouet-Boigny's government, the Liberian coup attempt that fol- dispute—an effort that culminated output is likely to drop for both cof- lowed national elections last year. in the July summit. fee and cocoa in the 1986-87 season. Although President Joseph Momoh There are signs that the political As the world's leading cocoa pro- denied the charges. Doe closed reconciliation has already begun to ducer. Cote d'lvoire hit a new rec- their commbn border, sent troops to infuse the financially ailing organi- ord of 580.000 tons in 1984-85. But reinforce border security, and re- zation with new energy. The three because of unusually low rainfall called the Liberian ambassador and members have pledged to pay at this year and the cumulative effect 36 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 of three successive good crops, out- his country to join. has been initiated to make certain put is expected to decline hy at least The new pact, however, which that winning bidders use the foreign 50.000 tons next season. was to take effect in October with exchange for their stated intention BraKanon said the Ivorian coffee the expiration of the previous agree- and to prevent those who have and cocoa plantations faced difficult ment, has yet to come into force hoarded cedis from using the auc- climatic conditions this year, with since too few importers have com- tion to filter their money out of the the main growing regions in the pleted the necessary legal proce- country. southwest, west, and center of the dures. A four-month transitional A spokesman for the PNDC's country receiving only one-third the period has been proposed to allow Structural Adjustment Programme normal annual rainfall. As a result, countries more time to give the UN Team said the new procedure would the 1986-87 coffee crop is also ex- at least provisional assurances that encourage Ghanaians living abroad pected to fall—by as much as 10 they intend to participate. Ivorian to send remittances home through percent from last season's output of cocoa producers contend, how- the banking system instead of 281.000 tons. ever, that the delay will not jeopard- through the black market. The auc- ize implementation of the new tion system should also remove bot- pact. • tlenecks in the long administrative processes through which foreign GHANA exchange is allocated. In pursuing a realistic exchange Window shopping in Accra rate policy through the "second Flt.-Lt. Jerry Rawlings' govern- window," the government has in ef- ment introduced a weekly foreign fect continued its policy of progres- exchange auction system in mid- sive devaluation, which is expected September, aimed at increasing the to produce a new rate closer to that country's foreign exchange re- obtained on the black market of 180 serves, eliminating the foreign cur- cedis to the dollar. The first weekly rency black market, and encourag- foreign exchange auction in late ing exports of non-traditional prod- September produced an exchange ucts. rate of 128 cedis to the dollar, repre- In establishing what amounts to a senting a devaluation of about 30 second-tier foreign exchange mar- percent. By the third week, the rate ket, the ruling Provisional National had jumped to 145 cedis to the dol- Defence Council (PNDC) specified, lar, establishing a pattern which the however, that certain vital transac- government expects will allow it to tions, including the purchase of effectively compete with, and even- crude oil and essential drugs, gov- tually absorb, the black market. ernment debt servicing, and cocoa Proponents of the two-tier for- revenue, would continue to be cal- eign exchange market, however, Houphou&t-Boigny; Swallowing a bitter brew culated at the current rate of 90 ce- have warned that the auction sys- dis to the dollar. The Second Win- tem cannot in itself solve all the The government made its pessi- dow Rate—as the value of the cedi country's economic ills. According mistic forecast only a few months fixed by the auction is known—is to Yaw Manu Sarpong. chairman of after reluctantly agreeing to partici- determined by changes in supply the Foreign Exchange Auction pate in the newly-negotiated Inter- and demand of foreign exchange. Committee. "The new arrangement national Cocoa Agreement in late The auction is open to holders of cannot provide an adequate solu- July. The five-year deal was con- import licenses, who submit their tion to our economic problems. The cluded after the failure of five other bids to the Bank of Ghana. Accord- key to the success of this arrange- attempts by the world's main con- ing to a government communique, ment will depend on our reaction sumers and producers to reach a this is "to ensure that only organiza- and response to the new situations consensus that would stabilize the tions and individuals requiring for- likely to be created." market price of cocoa. eign exchange for priority areas of But the government anticipates Cote d'lvoire—the key producer the economy can participate in the that the second window will help country—had walked out of the auction and prevent speculation in expand the economy's productive United Nations-sponsored talks foreign exchange." capacity, as it gives a competitive earlier in the year when it could not The Rawlings government said edge to locally produced goods be guaranteed a minimum price for that to avoid the problems encoun- against imported substitutes. Ulti- its cocoa. But when producers and tered by other countries with for- mately, the real value of the cedi de- consumers subsequently agreed to eign exchange auctions, adequate pends upon productivity, and there- a compromise pact, BraKanon said safeguards have been built into fore the exchange rate established that although the accord was not Ghana's two-tier system. In partic- by the weekly auction will accu- ideal, it was sufficiently flexible for ular, a method of strict monitoring rately reflect Ghanaians' efforts to AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 37 boost production in all sectors of the economy. As the government communique concluded, hard Visa policy prompts charges of racism work, efficient mobilization of re- The British government's recent decision to require visitors from Nigeria, sources, and the elimination of Ghana, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh to obtain entry visas before travel- waste are the major factors needed ing to Britain has sparked heated debate over immigration policy. Common- to produce a more favorable ex- wealth countries—except for Sri Lanka—had previously been exempt from change rate. • such controls. In defense of the policy, Home Secretary Douglas Hurd claimed that peoples of the Third World are becoming "increasingly footloose" in their GUINEA-BISSAU search for better prospects. The change in policy was partly a response to Trading places the Immigration Service Union's call for action to alleviate "intolerable" Faced with a continuing down- conditions at Heathrow and Gatwick airports, where growing crowds of ward slide of the economy and dete- Third World visitors have created long lines and short tempers. Travelers riorating social conditions. Presi- awaiting processing were being put up in nearby hotels or overcrowded, dent Joao Bernardo Vieira's gov- military-like detention centers. ernment recently announced a Critics of the Tory government policy argue that employing additional major policy change by deciding to immigration officers at the airports might be a more reasonable solution. liberalize most of the country's im- They charge that the visa policy has racist overtones which will exacerbate port-export sector. relations with Third World countries and damage the Commonwealth. This new trade strategy is seen as Shadow Home Secretary Gerald Kaufman said it was "deplorable" for the a major step toward reaching an Home Secretary to implement the controversial policy before it could be agreement with the World Bank debated in the House of Commons. Both the opposition Labour Party and over the terms of a comprehensive the Liberal/Social Democratic Party Alliance described the new policy as adjustment program that will in- "racialist." volve a loan of up to $20 million. A The policy was applied to visitors from the Indian sub-continent on Octo- World Bank mission has reviewed ber 15. In a rush to beat the deadline, thousands of Asians boarded flights for the state-owned sector and the gov- London, creating chaos at British airports and prompting warnings of addi- ernment's public investment portfo- tional stampedes if procedures are not altered before the restriction is im- lio, while proposals for a medium- posed on Ghanaians and Nigerians. term program have already been The debate over immigration from developing countries has also intensi- submitted to the Vieira govern- fied in other European countries. In France, the government expelled 10! ment. illegal immigrants from Mali in October—the first significant application of a Since 1974—when the previous new immigration law that gives the administration full power to oust immi- government of Luis Cabral opted grants who lack proper papers. SOS Racism?, various trade unions, and for a socialist economic orientation other French anti-racist organizations attacked the move. in the post-independence period— The entry visa requirement imposed on 38 countries after the recent wave all of the country's trade was placed of terrorism is part of the French government's tougher stance on immigra- in the hands of two state-owned en- tion and security. However, it has been enforced unevenly as police re- terprises, the People's Stores (Ar- ported that no American had been denied entry into the country since the mazens do Povo) and the Importing policy was initiated, while up to 30 percent of visitors from North and and Commercial Company (So- Central Africa were prevented from boarding flights for France or entering comin). Private traders were re- at the border. stricted to retail shops which had to In mid-October, the Danish Parliament also approved tough new restric- compete with the government's tions on immigration that will cut the stream of refugees by 50-80 percent. As own stores. a result of the government-sponsored legislation, refugees will now be re- But in light of persisting eco- quired to show a valid passport or visa at the border before being allowed to nomic difficulties, Vieira disclosed apply for asylum from inside the country. in August that both import and ex- In West Germany, Chancellor Helmut Kohl's Christian Democratic Party port transactions would be handed is expected to follow suit, pushing fora constitutional amendment to narrow over to private traders who would the right of political refugees to seek asylum in the country. However, liberal have to organize themselves into as- parties have made it clear that they would fight such a change. sociations or into a chamber of com- merce and industry. According to NIGERIA with a view to presenting President observers, nearly 200 businesses Ibrahim Babangida with a proposal are likely to be affected by this new Seeking political consensus by the end of 1986. denationalization strategy. The political bureau which has Babangida had charged the com- Vieira indicated, however, that coordinated national debate on a mittee with assessing the failure of the importation of rice, petroleum, political system for the Third Re- Nigeria's past forms of government. and other essential commodities public over the past year is now Committee members were to seek a would stay under state control • summarizing recommendations new system—"rooted in a truly Ni- 38 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 gerian experience"—to be imple- In one of the last debates—orga- introduced in June have put many mented when the present military nized by the Punch Group of news- goods and services beyond the administration steps down in 1990. papers, Maj.-Gen. David Ejoor ar- reach of the average consumer. The The 17-member team toured the gued against rushing into a new sys- government abandoned currency states to survey local opinion and tem, urging that proposals be tested controls and floated the leone. Ac- collect submissions from individ- first at the local government level. cording to Finance Minister Sheku uals who had played key roles in G.L. Adeola, director of research Kanu, the government and the In- past administrations. However, lo- for the Punch Group, recommended ternational Monetary Fund agreed cal debate was somewhat phleg- a "rootacracy" in which individuals on the floatation in order to stimu- matic, due largely to public disillu- would become eligible for national late exports and make foreign ex- sionment with politics and restric- office at the community level so as change more available. tions Babangida has imposed, to avoid the divisiveness of national In addition, government controls including the recent ban on political party politics. were lifted from key domestic participation by officials who But some commentators have prices and a phase-out of subsidies served in the Shagari administra- charged that the very nature of the on essential items was initiated—a tion. discussion is misguided. Rather measure long advocated by the IMF The debate, nonetheless, was than seeking the perfect political as a major condition for a new kept alive in the press. Academics, system, Nigerians should be standby. Heavy export tariffs were journalists, military officers, politi- searching within themselves for the imposed as a revenue-raising de- cians, market women, and others answer to why they could not make vice, including a 22 percent duty on made proposals, including a return past systems work, they said. • scrap metal, 20 percent on fish and to the British parliamentary system drugs, and 10 percent on semi-fin- that was adopted after indepen- ished goods and raw materials. SIERRA LEONE dence or to the American presiden- The effect of these drastic mea- tial system that was used from 1979 Momoh struggles with reforms sures has been an economic up- to 1983. Some Nigerians have urged In the face of growing public pres- heaval. Traders and shopkeepers that the military retain a role, while sure for improved economic condi- continued to demonstrate confu- others want traditional chiefs to tions. President Joseph Momoh is sion about the real value of the cur- play a part in the Third Republic. pleading for patience and reminding rency several months after the Other issues include the number of Sierra Leoneans that he inherited floatation. Moreover, some power- parties which should be allowed and the problems of corruption and in- ful businessmen have apparently federation versus a decentralized discipline plaguing the country. decided to curtail their investments confederation of states. Responding to recent charges in Sierra Leone, while others are Retired Gen. Theophilas Dan- that the nation is '"unhappy and moving in to fill the gap. In particu- juma, whose proposal in the Lagos restless," Momoh publicly ac- lar. Liat, a firm which reportedly Guardian attracted considerable at- knowledged that his popularity has has close ties to Israel and South tention, suggested the following diminished considerably in recent Africa, is establishing itself in the timetable: elections for governors months. The public turnaround is in agricultural, engineering, mining, and local government councillors in sharp contrast to the enthusiasm and transportation sectors. December 1987, elections to a Sen- that greeted his promises of reform While calling on his countrymen ate and House of Representatives in when he was elected president only to remain patient, Momoh awaits an December 1988, and presidential one year ago. IMF standby and increases in con- elections in August 1990, two Enormous price increases trig- cessional aid from donor govern- months before the military is due to gered by the 1986-87 budget reforms ments and financial institutions. • hand over the reins of power. Anthony Enahoro, a traditional :1 AFRICA chief whose views were solicited, advocated a "hybrid" system that links the unique qualities of Nige- Museveni thwarts coup plotters, rebels ria's political experience with a Three cabinet ministers, six offi- been under government surveil- known system of government, cers from the 35th battalion of the lance for more than four months, in- probably a multi-party democracy. Ugandan army, and more than a clude leaders of several opposition A plurality of parties could eventu- dozen others were charged with parties that were invited to join the ally be consolidated into a two- treason in early October for plotting government after Museveni came to party system, he said, which could to overthrow the government. The power last January. Prominent solve the problem of ethnic bias in accused are suspected of support- among them is Paulo Muwanga, parties that plagued the First and ing the rebels who have launched leader of the Uganda People's Con- Second Republics. Minority groups repeated attacks on President gress (UPC) and former vice-presi- could be ensured government rep- Yoweri Museveni's northern garri- dent, and Anthony Ssekweyama, resentation through the constitu- sons in recent months. editor of the Citizen, the Demo- tion. The alleged plotters, who had cratic Party (DP) newspaper. AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 39 The cabinet ministers—all key share a Nilotic heritage with the and a leading candidate to succeed members of political parties—are Acholis and Langis who comprise President Hassan Gouled Aptidon Commerce Minister Evaristo the majority of the Ugandan rebels. in next year's presidential elections, Myanzi (DP), Environmental Pro- Thus, it is likely that the rebels have Aden Robleh had fled the country tection Minister David Lwanga(Fe- received help from Sudanese in May after being forced out of the demu), and Energy Minister An- sources. The problem has been politburo and learning that he was drew Kayiira (Uganda Freedom compounded by the return of hun- about to be arrested. He crossed the Movement). UFM members com- dreds of thousands of refugees from border to Ethiopia with another prise most of the 35th battalion, Sudan to their Ugandan homelands. party leader. Deputy Omar Elmi which had been stationed in the Meanwhile, pressure for restora- Khaire. before making his way to north. tion of the Kabakaship has intensi- France, where he is reportedly Troops also searched the UPC fied among the Baganda. In early seeking political asylum. headquarters and the offices of In- September, the government ar- ternal Affairs Minister Paul Ssemo- rested 25 plotters for allegedly em- gerere, DP leader. Museveni has ploying witchcraft in an effort to banned party activity, but some par- overthrow the government and re- ties have maintained pared-down introduce the monarchy. New Vi- office operations. sion described them as "the lunatic The accused had banded together fringe" of the royalist movement. to oppose recent government The plot was detected shortly af- actions—such as Col. Muammar ter Museveni rejected a formal plea Qaddafy's visit to Uganda in Sep- to restore the monarchy and just tember and the establishment of vil- two weeks after Prince Ronnie Mu- lage-level committees of resis- tebi's return to Kampala following tance—which they viewed as a slide 20 years of exile. The prince is heir to the left, according to New Vision, to the throne of the late Kabaka who the government newspaper. The died in exile after abolition of the three ministers and others among federal status of kingships in 1966. those arrested are Baganda—gener- Mutebi came home to a hero's wel- ally considered relatively conserva- come. Ten thousand Baganda gath- tive in their political views. ered at a religious service to wel- The conspiracy, rebel attacks, come him, and elders knelt before and growing pressure to restore the him as he climbed the steps to the Baganda monarchy have severely church. undermined Museveni's struggle to Museveni held a series of meet- unify the nation. In the first serious ings with Baganda elders to discuss Hassan Gottted: Confronting his opponents uprising since Museveni's takeover their demands, but maintained that of the north five months earlier, his interim government lacks the Aden Robleh claims he was the rebel troops attacked Gulu, authority to decide such a complex target of a systematic harassment Kitgum, and other northern sites in constitutional issue. The monarchy campaign, particularly after being August. Charging that the Sudanese could be restored as a cultural entity threatened by Hassan Gouled. His government had armed and sup- but not a political institution, he passport was withdrawn and one of plied the rebels, Museveni closed said. The Baganda, however, have his followers was allegedly tortured the border and stationed troops said they would not accept this to extract evidence against him. He along the frontier and routes be- compromise. • is reportedly establishing a broad- tween the northern towns of Gulu, based political movement in exile, Kitgum. Moyo, and Arua. DJIBOUTI the National Djibouti Movement for Sudanese government officials Democracy (MNDID). Based in vehemently dented the charges and Aden Robleh's quick getaway Paris, the front will bring together flew to Entebbe in late September Former Commerce Minister exiled opponents of Hassan to confer with Museveni. Subse- Aden Robleh Awaleh was sen- Gouled's RPP. quently, Uganda reopened the bor- tenced to life imprisonment in ab- Aden Robleh, who played a der and in return. Sudan consented sentia by a state security court in prominent role in the struggle for in- to Kampala's request to pursue the early September, after being con- dependence as leader of the Somali- rebels across the border into terri- victed of "attempting to destabilize based Liberation Front of Somali- tory where the Sudanese People's the regime and murder senior offi- land (FLCS), remained an influen- Liberation Army (SPLA) is waging cials." Five alleged co-plotters also tial political figure even though his guerrilla warfare against Prime Min- received jail sentences—three of party was dissolved when Hassan ister Sadiq al-Mahdi's government. them in absentia. Gouled took over. In 1983, he re- The SPLA draws the bulk of its Third vice-president of the ruling signed as minister of commerce on forces from southern peoples who People's Rally for Progress {RPP) grounds of ill health, but his real 40 AFRICA RE°ORT • November-December 1986 UJ3ATE downfall began in January 1986 The early August failure of Union quently had trouble collecting their when a bomb exploded al RPP Bank of Kenya and its affiliates, benefits from these funds, and as headquarters, leading to the Jimba Credit Corporation, Ltd. and the recent crisis unfolded, the Cen- charges that he had plotted to over- Kenya Savings and Mortgages, was tral Organization of Trade Unions throw the government. • probably due partly to a domino ef- publicly called for action to protect fect set off by public fears. workers' contributions to health, A year and a half earlier, the Ru- social security, and retirement KENYA ral-Urban Finance Corporation, a plans. Banks go bust building society, had gone into re- President Moi responded to the Confidence in indigenous finan- ceivership after suffering serious crisis by declaring it was a plan to cial institutions has been slow to re- troubles. The government has not sabotage Kenya's economy, and he cover following the recent collapse yet worked out a means of reim- ordered drastic action against the of two banks and several credit in- bursing the thousands of depositors responsible parties. The directors stitutions. who lost their savings at that time. of the financial institutions "should New managers were appointed at Rural-Urban, Union, and Conti- not be allowed to sleep after causing the troubled institutions, and Fi- nental are among the dozens of in- heavy inconvenience and suffering nance Minister George Saitoti is digenous financial institutions that to Kenyans," he said. heading a Special Investment Com- mushroomed during the past dec- In mid-August, at least seven di- mittee (SIC) of government and ade, most of them founded by Ki- rectors of Rural-Urban and Conti- Central Bank officials to advise the kuyu businessmen in an effort to nental were held for interrogation. appointees. The committee will try Andrew Kimani Ngumba, Rural- to recover the funds of thousands of Urban president, managed to evade independent depositors and to per- arrest by fleeing to Europe. Only a suade Kenya's public and private week earlier. Ngumba, a member of sectors to refloat the institutions. Parliament, had been removed from Some observers believe that gov- his post as assistant minister of ernment and Central Bank officials planning and development. It is not are partly to blame for not acting clear why certain directors were more swiftly to head off the crisis singled out for questioning, particu- and for possibly colluding with the larly since the problems at Rural- institutions' directors in unethical Urban date back to 1984. or illegal practices. Thus, the SIC is Meanwhile, amendments to Ken- likely to find the restoration of pub- ya's Banking Act—including imple- lic confidence a difficult task, and mentation of a system for insuring the possibility of another run on the individual depositors—are due to banks remains a threat in the finan- take effect soon, just in time to ap- cial community. ply to the Thabiti bank which plans A public stampede in late August to open its doors in 1987—"a bold brought down the Pioneer Building step under the circumstances." Society and its affiliate, the Capital commented The Weekly Review. • Finance Company. Hundreds of de- positors rushed to make with- drawals at Pioneer's Nairobi head- MADAGASCAR quarters, forcing the building soci- Doubts cast on progress ety to close its branches in Eldorel, Saitoti: In search of lost funds This year's food harvest falls Meru, Mombasa, Nakuru, and short of government goals, despite Thika. break the long-time monopoly origi- producer price increases imposed While earlier collapses were trig- nally held by the British banks, Bar- as part of the country's structural gered by similar panics, it was the clays and Standard, and later adjustment program, according to alleged diversion of funds to indi- shared with Kenya Commercial Africa Analysis. viduals and companies linked with Bank and the National Bank of Artificial shortages caused by the directors of the institutions that Kenya—both owned by the Ken- hoarding and speculation have ex- was the root cause of the crisis. For yan government. acerbated the problem, leading to example, the directors of Continen- While these four giants still con- doubts about the real benefits of the tal Bank, which had to close its trol the industry, the newcomers en- International Monetary Fund's doors in July, are said to have with- joyed some success, fueled by structural adjustment program. drawn large sums in low-interest heavy investments from govern- The latest IMF standby arrange- loans, resulting in a shortage of op- ment funds, including the National ment—one of a series initiated in erating funds which triggered panic Social Security Fund and the Na- 1980—followed a 20 percent deval- first in the financial community and tional Health Insurance Fund. uation of the Malagasy franc in Au- then among depositors. Workers and retirees have fre- gust. The IMF will provide SDR 30 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 41 million over 17 months in support of the 1986-87 structural adjustment program. World Bank targets family planning The IMF points to progress in Population growth is thwarting economic and social development in sub- several areas, particularly reduc- Saharan Africa to such an extent that the World Bank has put family planning tions in the fiscal deficit and the rate assistance on the continent at the top of its agenda. In a policy study released of inflation—now 10 to II percent in September, the World Bank says it will increase its assistance as rapidly as compared to 30 percent in 1982. programs can be developed, with a goal of doubling current expenditures However, the balance of payments over the next three years. situation "has remained under con- Al the current average growth rate of 3 percent a year, sub-Suharan Afri- tinuous pressure," the IMF reports, ca's population will balloon from 470 million to 700 million by the year 2000 due to poor weather and marketing and 1.8 billion by 2050, the World Bank says. By contrast, Europe's growth difficulties exacerbated by insuffi- rate during its industrial age seldom exceeded 1 percent, with emigration cient competitiveness, a rigid ex- absorbing about 20 percent of the increase. Although Africa has vast areas of change and trade system, and tight unused land, huge investments would have to be made in roads, irrigation, controls over many areas of eco- seeds, and eradication of disease before they could be habitable. nomic activity. • The report, entitled Population Growth and Policies in Sub-Saharan Af- rica, offers "cautious hope" for the future, however, based on recent atti- tude changes regarding fertility. A decade ago only Botswana, Ghana, and SEYCHELLES Kenya were promoting population control, while today a majority of African Plotters falter, coup fails governments support family planning. Government officials uncovered By the time of the Second African Population Conference in Tanzania in a military plot to overthrow Presi- 1984, the idea of family planning had gained such widespread acceptance dent Albert Rene while he was at- that African governments ratified an action program making population tending Ihe Non-Aligned Summit in growth and distribution a key component of development plans. So far, Harare in September. however, Zimbabwe is the only country where a decline in national fertility The coup was planned by army has been documented. officers loyal to Col. Ogilvy Ber- The World Bank argues that economic and political changes in the status louis, the minister of youth and de- of women are of critical importance in population control. Advances in fense, according to Paul Chow, sec- women's education, for example, are likely to reduce fertility. In 10 African retary-general of the exiled Sey- countries where data is available, women averaging seven or more years of chellois National Movement. education want an average of five children, while those with no education However, the plot failed when the want almost eight. conspirators disagreed over Legislation mandating women's rights can be indirectly helpful, according whether to seize control while Rene to the report. Laws raising the minimum age of marriage, for example, may was abroad or to bide time until his encourage young people to start their families later. Women's organizations return in order to attempt an assas- can also contribute to reducing birth rates over the long term. Nearly 22 sination. Chow said. percent of the members of Maendaleo Ya Wanawake, Kenya's national After receiving word of the plot, women's organization, use contraception, compared with only eight percent Rene cancelled his state visit to nationwide. Kenya and flew back to Victoria in Concrete action by African governments is the most immediate and vital a plane supplied by Indian Prime need, however. The World Bank recommends that each nation design popu- Minister Rajiv Gandhi. He dis- lation programs that conform to its own cultural, social, and economic cir- missed several high-ranking mili- cumstances. Local institutions, including churches, community organiza- tary officers—Majors Raymond tions, and volunteer groups, should be encouraged to help provide family Bonte, Phillip Lucas, and Roily planning services. Marie, but did not detain them. The Currently, only three to four percent of African couples practice birth government subsequently an- control, but that rate could rise to 25 percent wi:hin the next decade solely nounced that Berlouis had resigned through more effective use of existing facilities, the World Bank says. and departed for an unknown desti- nation abroad, while Bonte fled to 1982. Rene took over the defense TANZANIA Kenya. portfolio and appointed seven new Berlouis figured prominently in members to the cabinet, including Weak party support for Mwinyi the 1977 coup which removed Presi- the country's first female minister, President Ali Hassan Mwinyi's dent James Maneham from office Rita Sinon, to head internal affairs. vigorous anti-corruption campaign and brought Rene to power. The Rene government has been in the civil service and parastatals Following the removal of Ber- the target of several aborted coups, has been undermined by the ab- louis and the majors, the President including an attempt to seize power sence of support from Chama Cha announced high-level personnel by a group of South African merce- Mapinduzi (CCM). Tanzania's rul- changes in thearmed forces and the naries led by "Mad" Mike Hoare in ing party. The general public, how- first government reshuffle since November 1981. • ever, appears to be strongly behind 42 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 the drive, demonstrating support the islands, cutting the salaries of of 1986 unofficially estimated at for Mwinyi's effort at recent rallies hundreds of senior and mid-level of- $984,000—a 300 percent increase in Dares Salaam. ficials and suspending others from over the same period last year. In public statements, Mwinyi has theirjobs. The drive has earned him Perhaps more importantly, Israel repeatedly focused on the corrup- the antipathy of a growing circle of has significantly increased its mili- tion that riddles Tanzania's public- critics, many of whom have been tary assistance to Cameroon since sector. "I am (old the peasants can- targeted in his campaign. Biya suppressed a bloody coup at- not get any service in rural areas un- The CCM leadership has also tempt in April 1984. An Israeli mili- til they oil the hands of those con- failed to promote the economic re- tary mission has been training the cerned," he said recently. Tanzani- forms being implemented in con- country's 7.0(H)-strong army in ans must now even pay to exercise junction with the International Yaounde, while many of Camer- their constitutional rights, he told a Monetary Fund (IMF) standby ar- oon's top army brass have been sent Coast Province group which had rangement—finally signed in late to Israel for instruction. Under- come to congratulate him for an August. Observers noted that party scoring the close military coopera- anti-corruption speech. He has also stalwarts are apparently unwilling tion between the two countries, the carried his message to the party, to compromise their long-held op- Biya government recently an- charging that the CCM tends to pro- position to IMF-imposed condi- nounced that it had agreed to buy 12 tect its officials who are known to be tions. Former President Julius Kfir fighter bombers and four Arava dishonest or corrupt. Nyerere, who heads the party transport planes from Israel for an The president has backed his through the end of the year, resisted estimated $50 million. words with action including the sus- the IMF's harsh prescriptions dur- Peres* visit could hardly have pension or firing of public employ- ing his last years as president. been better timed to bolster Israel's ees and a reshuffle of key parastatal The standby for SDR 64.2 million image in the country. The prime directors. In addition. Finance Min- over 18 months will support Tanza- minister arrived in Yaounde with a ister Cleopa Msuya has imple- nia's $4.5 billion Economic Recov- team of doctors and medical spe- mented strict controls, including ery Program, which focuses on in- cialists just as the Biya government quarterly reviews of expenditures, creasing agricultural productivity was appealing to the international on government spending units. and industrial capacity, reviving community for relief in the wake of In a parallel effort. Zanzibar's transportation and communications the toxic volcanic gas leak that Chief Minister Seif Sharrif Hamad infrastructures, and reforming fiscal killed neatly 2,000 people in north- is crusading against corruption on and trade policy. • west Cameroon. The Israeli medi- cal personnel were the first for- eigners to reach Lake Nios. bring- ing with them large quantities of emergency relief equipment. Israel makes a comeback in Yaounde Biya, who agreed to visit Israel at Cameroon has restored full diplo- joined the fold, fueling specu- a later date, said the resumption of matic relations with Israel—a major lation that several more African relations was dictated by "mutual boost to Jerusalem in its drive to re- countries would soon follow. In the national interests." and that the gain official recognition in sub-Sa- meantime, Israel established spe- Arab states" boycott was "limited in haran Africa. The controversial an- cial interest sections in the embas- time," since Egypt and Israel had nouncement by President Paul sies of eight additional African made moves toward mending Biya's government came at the end states, including Gabon, Kenya, fences. Cameroon and Israel agreed of a two-day visit to Yaounde by and Togo, as a first step toward re- to set up a joint commission to pro- Prime Minister Shimon Peres in late gaining full diplomatic representa- mote cooperation in agriculture, August, marking the first Israeli tion. trade, tourism, communications, head of state visit to black Africa in The latest Israeli foreign relations and defense. • 20 years. triumph follows five years of grow- Most African countries severed ing economic and military coopera- ties with Israel following the 1973 tion with the Biya government. Ac- CHAD Yom Kippur war to protest Israeli cording to Israeli officials, the two Shadow boxing with Habre occupation of Egyptian territory. countries initiated secret trade rela- Goukouni Oueddei's Transitional Among Organization of African tions in 1981. Israel was subse- Government of National Unity Unity members, only Lesotho, Ma- quently allowed to establish an in- (GUNT) suffered yet another blow lawi, and Swaziland failed to join terest section in Yaounde when to its credibility when the Chadian the boycott. Biya took power two years later, Liberation Front (Original Frolinat) Israel began its comeback in sub- with a number of Israeli companies pulled out of the Libyan-backed op- Saharan Africa when it officially re- operating in Cameroon under cover position to President Hissene Ha- sumed diplomatic links with Zaire names. Since then, trade between bre's government in mid-Septem- in May 1982 and Liberia in August the two countries has flourished, ber. Several weeks earlier, Acheikh 1983. Earlier in the year, Abidjan with Israeli exports for the first half Ibn Omar's much larger Revolution- AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 43 ary Democratic Council (CDR) an- tinct from the GUNT. At least half A military tribunal handed down nounced that it had decided to leave of the dozen factions which until re- 28-month sentences to other plot- the GLINT, preferring to continue cently have made up the Libyan- ters, including the president's un- its struggle against the Ndjamena backed opposition are expected to cle. Deputy Prime Minister Fruc- government independently. take part, including the Popular toso Mba Onana; Planning and De- While Original Frolinat Secre- Armed Forces (FAP) of Mahamat velopment Minister Marcos Mba tary-General Abdelkader Yacine Issa Idriss and the First Army of Ondo: Finance Minister Guillermo condemned the "lack o\' a clear-cut Mahamat Abba Seid, who also have Nguema Elu; and National Bank position by the GUNT" and "its left the GUNT since mid-August. • General Director Damian Ondo condoning of political stalemate," Mane. the CDR went further. In explaining EQUATORIAL GUINEA The relative speed with which the the decision to break away, Acheikh trial and execution were carried out accused Goukouni and his men of Key coup plotter executed has fueled speculation that the dis- resorting to "torture, arrests, and Eugenio Abeso Mondu, who al- covery of the plot was used as a pre- even killings" in their attempts to legedly masterminded a plot to text to neutralize key government impose factional unity. Neverthe- overthrow President Teodoro officials who posed a threat to less, he said, the CDR would con- Obiang Nguema, was executed by Obiang Nguema. tinue to maintain its links with the firing squad on August 17. Mondu The alleged plot was foiled on fighting forces and political trends was a deputy in the national assem- July 17 when forces loyal to the associated with the GUNT. bly and had served as a diplomat in president intercepted some 30 civil- However, fighting broke out in Havana, Moscow, and Madrid. His ians and military officers as they late August at the Fada oasis in brother, Melchior Ndong Mondu, tried to take over the presidential northern Chad between CDR and was sentenced to 20 years in jail. palace in Malabo. • GUNT units supporting Goukouni. leaving 30 dead and 50 wounded. The CDR seized control of Fada— ;i f; =; : AFJMCA the most important locality in the region after Faya-Largeau—while Mubarak battles fundamentalist fervor Libyan troops stationed there re- President Hosni Mubarak's gov- from the armed forces and the po- portedly observed a strict neutral- ernment has arrested hundreds of lice. In another well-publicized ity. Acheikh and Goukouni subse- Islamic fundamentalists in recent trial, Mubarak issued a decree man- quently went to Tripoli as part of a months in a bid to hold back the tide dating that a military court try 37 Libyan effort to mediate between of religious fervor sweeping the defendants charged with forming a the two opposition factions. country. Interior Minister Zaki clandestine organization to over- Despite the disintegration of the Badr, who took office with a reputa- throw the government. GUNT, Acheikh made clear he tion as a hardliner, has directed the The growing popularity of Is- would not return to Ndjamena, Egyptian government's latest cam- lamic fundamentalism is most strik- claiming the Chadian president has paign to break the stronghold of Is- ing on university campuses where not sought real negotiations. More- lamic militants—particularly on militants have swept virtually all over, said Acheikh of Habre's na- university campuses. student elections despite govern- tional reconciliation policy, "To re- In trying to stamp out what the ment attempts to scratch most of cuperate several personalities does Mubarak government considers a them off the ballots. Said one for- not resolve the problem of the serious long-term political threat, eign professor, "The fundamental- Chadian masses." Badr has said that his mission is to ists dominate the university. They The GUNT, which has suffered a "detect and prosecute" those using do what they like in lectures. They major leadership crisis since the "slogans of Islam to conduct ter- start the lecture by praising Islam, Goukouni failed to show up for a rorist activities and to shake the sta- they interrupt classes. The Chris- March 1986 meeting with Habre in bility and security of this country." tian students live in fear of some- Brazzaville, has been plagued by Although it is unclear how many ar- thing happening." several key defections including rests have been made—Islamic mil- Islamic fundamentalism has also that of its vice-president, Col. Wa- itants claim the total is at least 900— made ils mark at the community dal Abdelkader Kamougue, in June. several major court cases involving level. IT Assiout, south of Cairo, But the pull-out by the CDR—the fundamentalists have made head- several primary schools privately best armed and most organized lines in the local press. run by Islamic groups represent a GUNT faction—leaves Goukouni One case involves 75 defendants growing challenge to the state-run more isolated than ever before. charged with setting fire to a num- education system. The parallel in- Acheikh has already indicated ber of theaters, video rental clubs, frastructure is making in-roads at that preparations are underway for and a grocery store selling alcohol. the grassroots level, due largely to a gathering of anti-Goukouni fac- They were also accused of advocat- the deteriorating quality of most in- tions in an effort to establish a "new ing the overthrow of the regime and stitutions operated by the govern- common platform of struggle" dis- of stealing firearms and ammunition ment. 44 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Islamic alternatives have come to chairman of the Italian motor and set an ominous precedent for Libya. appear increasingly attractive to industrial conglomerate. Libya had Faced with growing Italian hostility, many Egyptians. Islamic institu- earlier rejected all attempts to buy the Qaddafy government acqui- tions, including health clinics and out its 15.9 percent stake in the esced to Fiat's demands, evidently small hospitals, banks, insurance company, but falling oil revenues preferring to stay in the good graces plans, and business services, are combined with the Italian govern- of its number-one trading partner. generally operated more efficiently ment's growing pressure to accept Just as importantly, the deal gave than the slate-run counterparts, the $3.15 billion deal apparently Libya a large sum of much-needed which are breaking down under the forced Qaddafy's hand. cash to compensate for declining oil weight of Egypt's population explo- The Libyan Arab Foreign Invest- revenue. American and European sion and economic difficulties. ment Company (Lafico) bought the cutbacks on imports of Libyan stake for about $400 million 10 years crude oil, together with plummeting ago at a time when the automobile prices, have seriously squeezed the manufacturer was suffering from Qaddafy government as its oil earn- severe losses and labor problems. ings have shrunk from a peak of $22 In the 1980s, however. Fiat made a billion in 1980 to $5 billion this year. spectacular economic recovery, Said one financial analyst in ex- helping transform the Libyan share plaining the deal, "The combination into a secure and lucrative invest- of a huge profit and the absolute ment. need for cash is a pretty powerful But the Libyan link—which in- argument." • cluded the presence of two Lafico members in the Fiat boardroom— became a growing source of embar- MAURITANIA rassment for the car company, par- Second-class citizens on trial ticularly after the Italian govern- The government of President ment accused Tripoli of supporting Maaouya Sid Ahmed Ould Taya ar- terrorism and expelled several Lib- rested more than three dozen peo- yan diplomats and businessmen ple in early September-—including earlier this year. Lafico's Rome of- several leading public figures—for fice manager was deported, while allegedly taking part in an "unau- another Lafico employee was ar- thorized public gathering and dis- rested during an investigation into tributing leaflets aiming to under- terrorist activities. mine national unity." Within two Mubarak: Holding back the tide ot Islam The sale of the Libyan stake re- weeks, 20 detainees were tried and moved a possible barrier to Fiat's convicted in Nouakchott, with sen- The fundamentalists' ultimate effort to gain Pentagon contracts in tences ranging from six months to goal of establishing an Islamic state connection with the U.S. Strategic five years. Their names were not re- in Egypt, however, is a much Defense Initiative. In May, Defense leased, however. longer-term project. As one Cairo Secretary Caspar Weinberger In confirming the arrests. Interior University lecturer put it, "These blocked a $7.9 million contract with Minister Djibril Ould Abdallah said Islamic groups are competing now a Fiat subsidiary to supply bull- a group of "misled persons" had for the loyalty of the average citi- dozers to the Marine Corps, on the been "intoxicating the people with zen, of the layman. They are not grounds that part of the profit from hate and confusion," and "making necessarily pushing for a political the deal could wind up in Libya's contacts outside Mauritania with a confrontation, but rather seeking to hands. Three months later, the Pen- view to sowing seeds of discord." gain the support of the average tagon lifted the ban on contracts He claimed that working from Egyptian, one by one, inch by when Fiat formed a trading com- abroad, the group had produced and inch. . . What we are seeing is an pany in the U.S. to isolate Libya distributed a document aimed at alternative society in formation, an from any profits derived from the "dividing our people." alternative society being born grad- Italian firm's participation in Star Relatives of the detainees sug- ually and incrementally." • Wars projects. gested that the government's After the Libyan government re- clampdown was part of "punitive LIBYA vealed in June that it had no inten- measures against black Africans tion of selling its Fiat stake, Italy who no longer want to be consid- No longer in the driver's seat stepped up its economic pressure ered as second-class citizens in In late September, Col. Muam- on Tripoli. In August, a court in Mi- Mauritania." The document—de- mar Qaddafy's government unex- lan froze $5 million of Libyan assets scribed as a "manifesto of op- pectedly agreed to seli its shares in in a case brought by an Italian civil pressed black Africans"—report- Eiat, following several rounds of ne- engineering contractor. Although edly denounced the ascendancy of gotiations with Giovanni Agnelli, the amount was relatively small, it the Moors over black Mauritanians AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 45 UP'Jiii and criticized the government's pol- icy of arabization—especially in the south where black ethnic groups African leaders at United Nations: predominate. The debt burden of developing nations and the anti-apartheid struggle The majority of those arrested were the main focus of African leaders who addressed the 41st session of the were black Africans, including Taf- UN General Assembly in September and October. Several African repre- sirou Djigo and Mamadou Ly, both sentatives also discussed problems facing their individual countries. business executives and former Prime Minister Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe: "African governments and peo- government ministers. Others de- ples are becoming increasingly aware that they, more than anybody else, tained were Abdoul Aziz Ba, a must play a major role in their continent's economic regeneration. They are former member of the national as- aware of their responsibility to effect and ensure the success of painful sembly, and Oumar Ba, a prominent structural adjustment measures, which may not be without serious political historian and linguist. Several and social consequences. However, there can be no denying that unless our Arab-Berbers were also said to efforts are generously supported and complemented by the international have been arrested, but relatives of community, and especially by the industrialized countries, Africa's eco- the accused have claimed they were nomic recovery, growth, and development prospects will continue to be "only scapegoats," held in an at- remote." tempt to camouflage an anti-black External Relations Minister Leandre Bassole, Burkina Faso: "The fact is that campaign by the government. • Africa has rarely been the master of its own development: Africa's develop- ment has almost always been the brainchild of persons who have had and still have a very questionable understanding of our profound being. So far, Af- SUDAN rica has been content with being a passive consumer of products and ideas Food for thought in the south coming from outside the continent. Therefore, another strategy is required, "Operation Rainbow," the $1 which means breaking with the practices of the past." million relief airlift, finally got un- External Affairs Minister Afonso Van Dunem, Angola: "The People's Repub- derway in mid-October when two lic of Angola continues to be faced with an undeclared war situation created chartered aircraft carrying emer- by the South African racist regime, which has forced the Angolan people to gency food supplies landed safely in endure enormous sacrifices. . . Defenseless children, women, and elderly Sudan's war-torn south despite people are one of South Africa's favorite targets and the racist forces con- threats by the Sudanese People's stantly blow up our bridges, railways, and roads, and destroy our hospitals Liberation Army (SPLA) to shoot and schools, not sparing our industrial installations. Material damage caused them down. to our country has been estimated at $12 billion." The relief operation, sponsored Foreign Minister Maj. Jean Traore, Guinea: "The north-south dialogue has by the U.S., Canada, the Nether- become bogged down and has reached a dead end in all fora of the UN lands, and several private and inter- system. Some countries have even pitted some organs of the system against national agencies, had been sched- others, as though deliberations on international trade, industrialization, fi- uled to begin nearly two weeks ear- nances—for example, in the UN Conference on Trade and Development and lier, but was delayed for "technical the UN Industrial Development Organization—were encroaching on the reasons." Organizers estimate that up to 2 million people face starva- flight as it left the city of Malakal, for a few government-held towns tion in southern Sudan, which has killing all 60 passengers. As a result that are under siege—the only way been ravaged by drought and a con- of the accident, an earlier airlift was to reach people in the rural areas is tinuing civil war between Col. John cancelled. through the SPLA's relief wing, the Garang's estimated 12,000 soldiers While the Mahdi government has Sudan Relief and Rehabilitation As- and Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mah- argued that relief supplies should be sociation. di's government troops. flown to the main towns, the SPLA Although each side has used food Sponsors of the airlift had earlier has said that starvation is much as a weapon of war that has served negotiated an agreement with the worse in the countryside. Garang to polarize the conflict, Garang says SPLA so that food could be flown to has pointed out that if international the SPLA does not want to split the the government-controlled town of aid agencies want to help the great- country along Muslim-Christian Wau and the rebel-held area of est number of people, 'There must lines. Rather, the SPLA seeks to Yirol. But Sudanese authorities re- be a basic agreement on propor- convince leaders in Khartoum that jected the plan and demanded that tions. , . When they talk about re- Sudan can no longer afford to be initial flights go exclusively to gov- lief they talk about relief to the dominated by the north. As Garang ernment-controlled areas. towns, not to the countryside. We put it, "We are not fighting to be in- The SPLA promptly condemned did not cut off relief supplies. It is vited to dinner. We are fighting to the relief sponsors for "capitulating the relief supplies that have never effectively participate in the deci- to the Khartoum government" and come." sion-making of our country, in the warned that they would be flying at Because Garang's forces control restructuring of political power in their own risk. In mid-August, the as much as 95 percent of the mainly Khartoum. Our aims are to create a SPLA shot down a Sudan Airways Christian or animist south—except new Sudan." • 46 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 tives were detained and interro- gated. The residence of his wife, Speaking out on debt, apartheid Fathia Mzali, former head of the competence of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade or the IMF, Ministry for the Family and Wom- while in fact the activities of all these organizations are complementary and en's Affairs, was under surveil- closely interrelated." lance. Two sons, Rafik and Hadem, Ambassador to the UN Wilbert Chagula, Tanzania: There have been ques- subsequently received two-month tions about whether the special session of the General Assembly on Africa suspended sentences for helping was a success or a failure. The adoption of a consensus resolution on the their father escape. From exile, critical economic situation in Africa was, in itself, a positive and significant Mzali denounced the persecution of outcome of (he special session. However, the realization of the success of his family, describing it as an un- the special session is yet to be seen, since it all depends upon how the precedented development in Tuni- international community as a whole will implement the UN Programme of sian history. Action for African Economic Recovery and Development 1986-1990." Government officials have Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi, Sudan: We intend to make "an overall revi- blamed Mzali and his associates for sion of the volume and sources of external debt. However, we will not be in a misdeeds ranging from neglect and position to deal with all our external debts according to the customary com- mismanagement of the country's mercial basis. We will pay what we can in a manner that does not disturb the economic affairs to siphoning off norms of life of our people while bearing in mind the need to provide them public funds over a period of years. with ihe requested level of development. . . We shall also continue to ad- They have also claimed that he dress the rich debtor countries, hoping that they will understand the still aided radical elements in Tunisia's prevailing past circumstances which necessitated the accumulation of these growing Islamic fundamentalist debts, especially with regard to Sudan which actually lost much of its mate- movement. His program of arabiza- rial and human resources during 16 years of disarray and suppression. To tion of public education has come this end. we shall continue to address the rich countries to follow the exam- under heavy criticism and is already ple of Canada and Italy, which took commendable decisions leading to the being reversed by a new emphasis alleviation of these debts or freezing them or cancelling them altogether." on French instruction at the pri- Ambassador to (he UN Farah Dirir, Djibouti: "The Republic of Djibouti is mary school level. situated in one of the most arid regions in the world, and the scarcity and Evidence has surfaced that Mzali irregularity of rainfall are impediments to undertaking any meaningful agri- and Minister of Culture Bechir Ben cultural development. . . Livestock has been the principal livelihood of the Slama used public funds to publish population before the development of urban centers. However, the over- fundamentalist propaganda as well grazing of pastoral land and the recurrent drought have brought about an as their own biographies and an Ital- environmental change which means that livestock rearing is no longer a ian translation of the former prime viable means of subsistence. Consequently the rural population has become minister's works. more and more dependent on urban centers for their sustenance. As a result. . . Djibouti is a nel importer of almost all the food needed for local Meanwhile, investigations were consumption." also underway into the past activi- ties of Bourguiba's ex-wife, Wassiia Ben Ammar, who now resides in TUNISIA Disguised in sunglasses, false Paris. After 25 years of marriage, moustache, and a fez, Mzali slipped their divorce was official on August Mzali blamed for national ills across the border September 3, 11, although she had been expelled Ex-Prime Minister Mohamed spending several days in Algeria be- from the presidential palace last Mzali was sentenced in absentia to a fore flying to Europe. He was January. According to Jeune Afri- year in jail for illegally fleeing the granted a provisional right to re- que. the government has evidence country in early September. The main in Switzerland. He told the to convict her of amassing a per- sentence came after President Ha- press he had not planned to flee un- sonal fortune for herself and her bib Bourguiba decided to expel him til his trip to Switzerland as vice- family, appropriating expensive from the Socialist Destour Party president of the International Olym- gifts presented to the head of state, (PSD), cancel his parliamentary im- pic Committee was cut short at Tu- and various charges of corruption, munity, and pursue charges against nis Airport in mid-August, despite nepotism, and influence trafficking. him. A judicial enquiry into his six his having received invitations from It was her personal forays into in- years in office is foreseen. the committee president and ternational diplomacy, however, The government was expected to French Prime Minister Jacques that were said to have disturbed announce additional charges Chirac. Bourguiba the most—particularly against Mzali, who was unceremo- He also reportedly suspected that her contacts with Algerian officials, niously dumped from power in July, he was about to be arrested after the including an alleged request that only days after the aging Bourguiba government stepped up harassment they assume a direct role in solving had called him, "my son. . . my of his relatives with investigations Tunisia's "crisis of authority," and right-hand man in the party and the into their financial affairs. Three her friendship with Libyan leader state." sons, a son-in-law, and other rela- Col. Muammar Qaddafy. AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 47 In addition, a power struggle be- tempting to undermine the prime led to more than 46,000 deaths in the tween Wassila and Mzali was re- minister's credibility with the presi- gold mines since the turn of the cen- portedly a key factor in their down- dent by emphasizing his obsession tury and some 9,000 in the last dec- fall. Mzali was allegedly preparing a with the succession issue to the ex- ade. As the statement by the United detailed file of charges against her, clusion of other important mat- Democratic Front, the country's while Wassila was said to be at- ters. • major legal anti-apartheid organiza- tion, put it, "Despite all the profits accrued from mining proceeds. South Africa still has the worst rec- ord for mine disasters and Black workers form rival labor giant deaths." • Another chapter in the history of flexed its growing muscle in early South Africa's black labor move- October when about 325,000 miners ment was written in early October staged the biggest-ever stayaway in ANGOLA when the Council of Unions of any one industry to mourn the 177 Stamp of approval on rebel aid South Africa {Cusa) and the Aza- killed in the Kinross gold mine dis- In the final weeks before adjourn- nian Confederation of Trade Unions aster. ment in mid-October, Congress (Azactu) finally merged to launch a According to Cyril Ramaphosa, gave President Reagan a vote of "super-federation." With the amal- general secretary of the NUM, confidence for covert aid to Unita gamation of the black conscious- which called the successful day of and endorsed legislation sending a ness labor groups, the Cusa/Azactu action, "Management should take message of disapproval to Ameri- federation is expected to become a heed that the NUM is prepared to can oil companies operating in An- major rival to the Congress of South take up any issue, be it wages, poli- gola. African Trade Unions (Cosatu), the tics, safety—it can mobilize work- By a 229-186 vote, the House of multi-racial super-union body born ers around virtually any issue." An- Representatives deleted an amend- in December 1985. other 275,000 members affiliated ment to the intelligence authoriza- According to its president, James with Cosatu engaged in unprece- tion bill that would have required Mndaweni, the new federation has dented solidarity action, organizing Congress to openly acknowledge 248,000 paid-up and 420,000 signed- work stoppages, memorial meet- and approve assistance to Unita, up members, linking 23 unions—12 ings, and demonstrations, accord- the South African-backed rebel from Cusa and 11 from Azactu. The ing to federation spokesman Jay group which is waging a war against black consciousness-inspired union Naidoo. the Angolan government. is thus somewhat smaller than Cos- The miners—all but five of them The White House has admitted atu, which represents 450,000 paid- black—were asphyxiated by toxic that it has supplied the rebels with up industrial and commercial work- fumes from a fire in a mile-deep $ 15 million in covert military assist- ers in 34 multi-racial but black-dom- shaft. Said one survivor, "The min- ance, which is said to include inated trade unions, including the ers didn't stand a chance. They ran Stinger missiles and light anti-tank powerful National Union of Mine- into a wall of smoke and must have weapons, as well as training by workers (NUM). dropped like flies." American advisers. Azactu spokesman Pandelani The Chamber of Mines proposed Rep. Lee Hamilton (D-IN), chair- Nefolovhodwe said the new labor a token five-minute silence to com- man of the Intelligence Committee giant would operate on four funda- memorate the dead, but the NUM and sponsor of the amendment, and mental principles: one union for dismissed the employers' sugges- other opponents of aid to Unita em- each industry, worker democracy, tion and called for a one-day work phasized that the aid would escalate financial accountability, and black stoppage. A memorial service orga- the war in Angola and put Washing- working class leadership. Emphasis nized by the mine owners, the Gen- ton in league with South Africa. on black leadership, however, is the eral Mining Union Corporation, "Aid to Unita is aid to apartheid. key provision which distinguishes was similarly condemned. Make no mistake about it," said the new federation from Cosatu, Explained one angry worker, Rep. David Bonior (D-MI). Hamil- whose commitment to non-racial- "We don't respect management and ton blamed the defeat of the amend- ism became a major stumbling we don't respect their memorial." ment to election year pressures and block to uniting the labor movement Hundreds of militant mine workers threats of being "soft on commu- late last year. Cusa and Azactu waving sticks and chanting slogans nism." withdrew or were excluded—the disrupted the ceremony and called In addition, Congress passed two version of each side differs—from on the crowd of 2,000 to walk out. amendments on U.S. oil companies the negotiations leading to the for- "We are not going to pray with doing business in Angola in an effort mation of Cosatu following differ- whites today. We've never been al- to resolve the contradiction be- ences over this issue. lowed to pray with whites. We'll tween military backing for the Despite the political divisions have our own rites," they shouted. rebels and U.S. corporate support that have plagued the black The NUM blamed the disaster on of the Angolan government through workforce, the labor movement slack safety measures which have taxes and royalties. 48 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 The first was a "sense of the Con- gress" resolution—which does not have the force of law—requesting ANC school trains student refugees that the President consider using his Dozens of high schools in Soweto and other townships stood empty in authority under the Export Admin- early October, testimony to the power of a student boycott demanding the istration Act to restrict U.S. busi- release of student and teacher detainees. ness transactions that conflict with The educational process has practically ground to a halt in the townships, U.S. security interests in Angola. even when schools manage to stay open. The current political crisis, set The original version of the legisla- against decades of government neglect of black education, has created an tion would have banned Export-Im- atmosphere in which teaching and learning are virtually impossible. port Bank credit to U.S. oil firms in But thousands of miles to the north in Mazimbu, Tanzania, some South Angola. African students are receiving an uninterrupted education at Solomon The weakened version, nonethe- Mahlangu Freedom College (Somafco), a school run by the exiled African less, sets a bad precedent, accord- National Congress (ANC). Located on a former sisal estate donated by the ing to Steve North, a spokesman for Tanzanian government, Somafco enrolls more than 1.000 students at pri- Chevron, who said that existing mary and secondary levels. loans would not be affected. Instead Some were illiterate when they reached the school, Tim Maseko, Somaf- of seeking new loans from the Ex- co's chief administrator, told Africa Report. Many are orphans or separated port-Import Bank, companies plan- from their parents. Large numbers of the older students have been victims of ning to initiate operations in Angola harassment, detention, and torture in South Africa. The staff—ANC mem- might approach European financial bers as well as expatriate volunteers sent by European and African govern- institutions, "sothe impact could be ments—often have to serve as counselors and parents as well as teachers. damaging to American commercial Somafco provides a sharp contrast to the stifling system of "Bantu educa- interests in Angola," he said. tion," which trains black students to think of themselves as suitable only for Congress also approved an subservient roles, according to Don Ngakana, a Somafco teacher who taught amendment to the Department of in Soweto until 1976. At that time, a student protest against the imposition of Defense (DOD) authorization bill, Afrikaans as the language of instruction prompted a savage government prohibiting DOD from purchasing crackdown, forcing thousands to flee. Angolan petroleum products from Conceived shortly after the Soweto uprising and opened in 1979, Somafco U.S. oil companies in Angola in an was named for a student protester who was later executed by the South effort to "reduce to an absolute African government. The school adopted the British education system with minimum DOD procurement of An- instruction in English, preparing students for university studies abroad. The golan oil products." Originally, the 75-year history and ideology of the ANC are included in a curriculum which measure was worded in much focuses on academic subjects. tougher language, but it was wa- The Mazimbu campus is more like a self-contained community than a tered down after administration school compound. The ANC runs a large farm (which sells its surplus to representatives told members of Tanzanian buyers), a hospital (where Tanzanians can receive free health Congress that it would endanger na- care), carpentry and clothing factories, various shops, and a nursery, as well tional security. as a center for agricultural training and other vocational studies at nearby Meanwhile, the government of Dakawa. Tanzanian troops protect the school. President Jose" Eduardo dos Santos Maseko and Ngakana, who toured the U.S. in October to raise support for continued efforts to establish diplo- Somafco, said the American public as well as the government need to be matic relations with the U.S. gov- better informed about the ANC. The ANC has a two-fold purpose, they ernment. Foreign Minister Afonso explained—not only to destroy the apartheid system, but also to become a van Dunem called for a meeting be- creative force in building an alternative for the future. It is this second goal tween top Angolan and American that Somafco seeks to fulfill by preparing students to play important roles in officials, and the Luanda govern- a future non-racial, democratic South Africa, Maseko said. ment retained former U.S. Defense Secretary Elliot Richardson, who na's 20th anniversary of indepen- try, and average Batswana can ex- held several cabinet positions in the dence in late September. pect to live to age 58, according to Nixon and Ford administrations, to Primary education is now nearly Masire. investigate how best to succeed in universal, and almost every village In addition, the economy is doing this endeavor. • has clean drinking water, President well, largely because of the rich re- Quett Masire said in a celebration serves of high-quality diamonds dis- BOTSWANA speech. When Botswana became covered shortly after indepen- independent in 1966, the country dence. Botswana is one of the few Two decades of progress marked had only three kilometers of tarred African countries with a trade sur- Pride in the country's social and roads, and life expectancy was 35 plus, and the local currency—the economic progress merged with years. Today there are nearly 2,000 pula—is stronger than the South Af- trepidation about the future in kilometers of tarred roads connect- rican rand. According to the World speeches commemorating Botswa- ing every major village in the coun- Bank's 1986 world development re- AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 49 port, Botswana has one of the fast- Mmusi in his 1986-87 budget pre- ney Malunga. In July, about 50 est growing economies in the world. sentation earlier this year. He said lesser-known ZAPU members were It also boasts a multi-party electoral that although diamond reserves are also released. system with a healthy and growing expected to last for 40 years, the Mugabe skid that the government opposition. windfall profits of recent years are had decided to release the political Yet officials in the Masire govern- coming to an end. detainees in the interests of national ment speak cautiously about their Government efforts to revive the unity, because the alternative country's future. Much of Masire's lagging agricultural sector have would have been a treason trial that independence day speech focused failed, due largely to the severe five- might have implicated Nkomo and on the threat of South African retali- year drought, which is expected to terminated the merger talks. The ation for alleged African National last at least two more years and is delicate and protracted negotia- Congress (ANC) activity in Bot- now exacerbated by crop destruc- tions, added Mugabe, have reached swana. In July, Foreign Minister tion from flocks of quelea birds and a "critical stage" and "the atmos- Gaositwe Chiepe warned Parlia- brown locusts. • phere for success must be created." ment thai Pretoria was probably The ZANU government also re- preparing to launch another attack vealed that Zimbabwe's Attorney like the one on a Gaborone suburb ZIMBABWE General Godfrey Chidyausiku in May. Unity on the horizon would begin a complete and imme- Government officials also antici- Prospects for a successful merger diate review of all pending cases of pate economic reprisals, such as the between the ruling Zimbabwe Afri- ZAPU political detainees—esti- possible expulsion of Batswana can National Union (ZANU-PF) mated at under 200—to determine working in South Africa, following and Joshua Nkomo's opposition whether pardons should be granted. the precedent set with the ousting of Zimbabwe African People's Union This could open the door for the re- Mozambicans in early October. (ZAPU) improved dramatically in lease of Dumiso Dabengwa, ZA- Foreign investors—the best pros- late September when Prime Minis- PU's former military leader, who pect for diminishing Botswana's ec- ter Robert Mugabe gained the back- remains the key to the success of onomic dependence on South Af- ing of his central committee for pro- the unity talks. rica—shy away from major com- posals to integrate the two party Arrested in 1982 following the mitments, due to fears of an structures. discovery of arms caches on ZAPU- upheaval in South Africa. Mugabe, who said the unity talks owned farms and charged with plot- had reached an "advanced stage," ting a coup, Dabengwa was subse- is understood to be planning a mer- quently acquitted by the High Court ger whereby Nkomo would be ap- before being re-detained under the pointed to a newly-created post of emergency powers regulations. He second deputy prime minister. As is widely perceived as the one part of the package deal, ZAPU is ZAPU leader with the authority to likely to obtain a small minority rep- end the former guerrillas' dissident resentation in the merged party's campaign that has plagued the Mu- two main executive organs—the gabe government in Matabeleland. politburo and the central commit- Authorities in Harare recognize tee—as well as in the cabinet. Such that an inter-party consensus is es- an arrangement would go far toward sential if Zimbabwe is to success- creating the one-party state long ad- fully defend itself in any showdown vocated by Mugabe. with Pretoria. The Mugabe govern- As the junior partner in the pro- ment has alleged for some time that posed merger, ZAPU has report- dissidents in Matabeleland receive edly agreed that the new party be funds and weapons from South Af- called ZANU. This marks a retreat rica and is concerned that the desta- from Nkomo's earlier insistence bilization campaign could eventu- that the name pay some tribute to ally turn into a massive operation ZAPU's role in the liberation strug- along the lines of the Renamo rebels gle. in Mozambique. Chiepe: Forecasting another raid The latest breakthrough in the In this context, the Zimbabwean long-stalled unity talks followed the government has pushed peace and Most observers say that the eco- government's August release of 10 reconciliation in Matabeleland to nomic progress of the first two dec- prominent ZAPU officials and the top of its agenda. Explained Mu- ades has probably reached a pla- former guerrilla commanders ac- gabe, "With a neighbor like the rac- teau. "To plan on the assumption cused of plotting to overthrow the ist South African regime, division in that these favorable conditions will government. Among those freed our nation can only operate to our continue would be very unwise," were ZAPU National Chairman detriment by playing into [Preto- warned Vice-President Peter William Kona and Chief Whip Sid- ria's) hands." • 50 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Recent revelations of the role of President Kamuzu Banda's government in supporting the Mozambican National Resistance's destabilization campaign, as well as continued South African backing of the rebels, point to increasing security threats for the Maputo government. rity apparatus to Renamo. "We the mili- tary will continue to give them [Re- namo] the support without the consent The Malawi of our politicians in a massive way so that they can win the war." While it is possible, even likely, that differences existed between the South Connection African military and civilian branches of government, they seem to have cen- cord. Each party agreed "not to allow its tered around the level of support South Mozambique territory to be used for acts of war, ag- Africa should continue to provide to Re- gression or violence against the other." namo. At no time after the Nkomati BY ALLEN ISAACMAN From the outset, there has been a glar- ing disparity in the degree to which the On October 19, 1986, shortly outh Africa's continued violation of two countries have implemented the after the author submitted the Sthe Nkomati Accord has taken a agreement. following article on Mozambique to new twist which could spark a regional Africa Report, President Samora Shortly after the accord was signed, Machel was killed in a plane crash conflict. In the face of mounting evi- Mozambican security forces began to in South Africa as he returned dence of collusion between Pretoria and disarm members of the African National home from a meeting in Lusaka, Blantyre, President Samora Machel is Congress. Within a few weeks, the Zambia. As we go to press, the ex- reported to have warned that his coun- ANC presence was drastically reduced, act cause of the crash remains try "will close its border with Malawi and the organization has since been per- unknown. Reports from South and station missiles on the frontier" un- mitted to maintain only a limited diplo- Africa claim that the accident was due to bad weather, and in point of less Life President Hastings Kamuzu matic presence in Mozambique. For the fact, there was substantial air Banda's government ceases its support Frelimo government, this strategic, if turbulence in the region that night. for the South African-backed Mozambi- painful, concession was acceptable only Mozambican officials are with- can National Resistance Movement in the hope of ending the bandit war and holding judgment, but have not (known alternately as the MNR or Re- reversing the spiral of economic de- ruled out the possibility of namo). The ultimatum came at a closed struction; The decision initially strained sabotage. On October 22, the meeting this fall between Banda and relations with the ANC and raised government appointed a high level Machel, who was accompanied by Zim- doubts among many of Mozambique's commission of inquiry headed by Armando Guebeza to investigate babwean Prime Minister Robert Mu- long-time allies. the air crash. gabe and Zambian President Kenneth By contrast, South Africa covertly At this point, there are several Kaunda. violated both the spirit and the sub- troubling questions. What was the The participation of the latter two stance of the accord. Documents cap- plane doing so far off course? Why leaders suggests how seriously the tured at Renamo headquarters inside did Pretoria, which monitored the frontline nations view Malawi's defec- Mozambique reveal that shortly before flight path of Samora Machel's tion. Their presence also raises the the Nkomati agreement, Pretoria pro- plane, fail to inform the Mozam- bican government of the crash for prospect that in an effort to pressure vided Renamo with sufficient arms to nine hours? And finally, there were landlocked Malawi to reverse its policy, pursue military activities for several Samora Machel's own disturbing Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania might months. An entry in one of the captured comments just two weeks before pursue a joint strategy. At present, Ma- diaries noted that Renamo leader his death. According to journalists lawi's ambiguous relationship with Afonso Dlhakama met "on February 23, who were present at a meeting of South Africa threatens the very survival 1984, at 10 a.m. in Pretoria. . . [withj news editors called to discuss the of the regional economic alliance—the the general of military intelligence." South African military buildup, Machel revealed that there had Southern African Development Coordi- The purpose of the meeting was to been a recent attempt on his life. nation Conference (SADCC). "plan the war in the face of the situation In fact, it was the South African In March 1984, Mozambique and taken up by the South African Repub- buildup and Mozambique's fear of South Africa signed the Nkomati Ac- lic"—a euphemism for the impending an impending invasion which in Allen haacman is professor of Afro-American Nkomati agreement. General Van der part had prompted the trip to and African studies in the Department ni History Westhuizen is quoted as reaffirming the Lusaka from which Machel would at the University of Minnesota. He ts the author of never return. several books and articles on Mozambique. commitment of the South African secu- AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 51 agreement did the civilian leadership Comoros, and Malawi. Indeed, Preto- move to disarm Renamo, dismantle its ria's shift in strategy rests on the ex- South African bases, or close down its panded involvement of the Malawian communication centers. To the con- government which, since 1981, had pe- trary, senior civilian officials, including riodically allowed Renamo to launch at- then-Deputy Foreign Minister Louis tacks across its frontier. Nel, as well as a high-ranking military Military bases in Malawi, adjacent to officer, clandestinely visited Renamo the vast border with Mozambique, pro- bases in Mozambique in direct contra- vided an ideal way to surreptitiously re- vention of the accord. supply Renamo. They also offered easy Simultaneously, South African planes access to strategic economic targets in and ships violated Mozambique's air central and northern Mozambique. The space and territorial waters to resupply existence of a South African embassy in Renamo. An entry from one of the cap- Malawi also facilitated the collection of tured diaries dated October 19, 1984— intelligence information, allowing South approximately six months after the African security to coordinate strategic Nkomati agreement—suggests the ex- military planning for Renamo. tent to which Pretoria was committed to In a rare interview, Mozambique's rearming Renamo. The document notes chief of staff, Sebastiao Mabote, that during the week ending September claimed: "Malawi is helping South Afri- 28, South African Dakota and DC-3s air- can-backed guerrillas materially, logisti- dropped supplies to Renamo forces op- cally, and is also providing them with erating in the provinces of Sofala, Ma- travel documents and airport access so puto, Inhambane, and Zambesia. When that they can move around the world." confronted with this evidence, South Af- When pressed for specifics, he cited rican Foreign Minister Pik Botha con- "the presence of Renamo training bases ceded that there had been some techni- in southern Malawi" and the fact that "South African helicopters and DC-3s were using airstrips in Malawi to re-sup- "Malawi's life president ply Renamo forces in Niassa, Zambesia, may simply be closing and Tete provinces." his eyes and giving President Hastings Kamuzu Banda: "On At a news conference in Maputo im- Pretoria a free hand." the face of it, Malawian support for the mediately after his meeting with Banda South African-backed Renamo would this fall, Machel was blunter. He seem inexplicable" charged that "the Malawian police, se- cal violations of the accord, but claimed sectors of the military and security ap- curity, and military are controlled by that the supplies were only for humani- paratus, the right-wing of the National South Africa and are being used to de- tarian purposes. Party, and the increasingly powerful stabilize Mozambique." South Africa's repeated denial of any Portuguese community representing 15 There is mounting evidence to sup- complicity and its refusal to rein in Re- percent of the electorate, all demanded port these claims. Zimbabwean intelli- namo effectively undercut the Joint Se- that Botha escalate support for Re- gence officers who recently returned curity Commission set up to implement namo. from Mozambique confirm the exist- the terms of the Nkomati Accord. In One way to accommodate these po- ence of Renamo bases run by South Af- October 1985, Machel suspended his tentially contradictory pressures was ricans in Malawi. They also report that government's participation in the com- for South Africa to curtail some of the Pretoria is using airstrips in southern mission and announced that Mozam- more visible aspects of its destabiliza- Malawi for covert night flights into Mo- bique would intensify military efforts tion campaign. Although Pretoria con- zambique. In private, some Western against Renamo. tinued to resupply Renamo by subma- diplomats agree that Malawi is harbor- This decision, coupled with Machel's rine and night flights, senior Mozambi- ing Renamo forces, and Britain has re- highly visible Western diplomatic offen- can officials acknowledged that the portedly put pressure on Malawi to cur- sive in the fall of 1985, posed a serious number of airdrops from planes based in tail Renamo activity. problem for the Botha regime. On the South Africa has declined over the past Recently, a journalist for The Ob- one hand, Western governments, espe- year. server of London witnessed Malawian cially the Reagan administration which At the same time, however, there troops fraternizing with Renamo forces had brokered the Nkomati Accord, ex- are indications that South African mili- at the frontier post of Muloza. The Ma- erted pressure on Pretoria not to violate tary intelligence has helped to forge lawian commander was quite candid: the agreement. On the other hand, clandestine supply networks stretching "We are with them all the time and we powerful domestic forces, including key from the Middle East to Somalia, the help them against Frelimo" (The Ob- 52 AFRICA REPOF1T • November-December 1986 President Samora Machel inspecting cap- tured Renamo equipment: "At no time af- server, August 24, 1986). And when Pretoria, Malawi's life president may ter the Nkomati agreement did the South Machel confronted Banda with this doc- simply be closing his eyes and giving Africans move to disarm Renamo, dis- umentation at their recent meeting, the Pretoria a free hand. Others point to mantle its South African bases, or close down its communication centers" Mal;iwian president conceded that there Banda's longstanding claim to much of could be clandestine bases in the south northern Mozambique which he main- playing important roles within the rebel operating without his authorization. tains had historically been part of a movement. Consider the background of On the face of it, Malawian support greater Malawian empire. Control over Evo Fernandes, currently the leading for the South African-backed Renamo tliis territory would give landlocked Ma- Renamo spokesman in Europe. During would seem inexplicable. Not only does lawi direct access to the Indian Ocean. the colonial period, he worked for the such a policy further isolate the Banda In the early 1960s, he proposed to then- Portuguese industrial and newspaper government from its African neighbors, Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere that magnate Jorge Jardim, whom Banda had but Renamo attacks have disrupted Ma- the two countries divide northern Mo- appointed Malawi's consul-general in lawian commerce which relies heavily zambique. Banda subsequently aided a Beira. Orlando Christina, another Por- on Mozambican ports. As a result, Ma- tiny separatist movement (Uniao Na- tuguese who held a leadership position lawian businessmen have had to use cional Africana de Rombezia) as part of a in Renamo, also worked for Jardim and more costly transport routes via South plan to integrate northern Mozambique had close connections to the Malawian Africa and Tanzania. into a greater Malawi. government. Despite his government's repeated In explaining Banda's position, it may Whatever Banda's motives, escalat- public denials, there are several possi- also help to note his well-documented ing Renamo attacks from Malawi in the ble explanations for Banda's policies. ties with Portuguese investors who fled first half of 1985 led to a deterioration of Some observers suggest that because Mozambique after independence and the security situation in central and of close economic and security ties to who are now bankrolling Renamo and northern Mozambique. At an urgent AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 53 meeting in June 1985, the leaders of political agenda, and total dependence forces, even ;iided by Zimbabwe, have Tanzania and Zimbabwe promised to in- on South Africa call into question its the military capacity to blunt Renamo as crease their military support for Ma- credibility as a legitimate opposition long as it remains an arm of the South chel's government. Tanzania, whose force. One Western ambassador put it African military. Moreover, there are own resources are limited, agreed to rather bluntly: "My impression is that indications that the Botha regime is will- train Mozambican recruits fighting in the Renamo is composed of desperate ing to take a higher military profile as the three northern provinces. For their groups of gunslingers, thugs, white Por- conflict escalates. In May and again in part, Zimbabwean officials, who now tuguese opportunists, and other as- August this year, South African trans- privately acknowledge "that they had sorted anti-Frelimo types in the service ports landed men and war materiel in not taken the Rename threat seriously of Pretoria." the central Mozambican province of enough," have moved to rectify this sit- Splits within the Renamo leadership Manica. uation. have compounded its political problems The cumulative effects of this cycle of Since 1984, Zimbabwe has dramati- and frustrated its quest for political legit- destruction and terrorism have been cally increased its military support for imacy. Renamo dissidents organized a devastating. Between 1983 and 1985, Mozambique. The numbers of its sol- meeting in Cologne this spring at which Renamo attacks were responsible for diers deployed in that war-torn country they tried unsuccessfully to purge Evo the closing of more than 1,800 schools and providing logistical back-up from Kernandes and his coterie of Portu- and the displacement of 313,000 stu- Zimbabwe tripled to more than 12,(XX). guese followers, whom they claimed dents, thereby crippling the govern- Most of these forces are used to protect were dominating the movement. ment's rural education and literacy pro- the corridor connecting Harare to the This summer, the Washington grams. In 1985, Renamo activity was Indian Ocean port of Beira and strategic Times, which has enthusiastically responsible for the destruction of more areas in the Zambesi Valley. backed Renamo, expressed concern than 900 stores in the countryside. Senior Zimbabwean military officials that "political in-fighting among exiles A July 1986 report of the Ministry of emphatically deny reports that slow Agriculture revealed that production progress in the war has caused them to plummeted over the past three years in reconsider their commitment. To the sharp contrast to the period from 1977 contrary, they stress the fact that over- "There are indications to 1982. And in late September, the Mo- all military assistance will increase sub- that the Botha regime is zambican government issued an urgent stantially in the near future. "If we lose willing to take a higher appeal for food aid for nearly 4 million Mozambique to .South Africa, we are people who are facing famine. While a landlocked and ultimately will be stran- military profile as the number of poorly conceived and badly gled." conflict in Mozambique implemented state policies have con- To avoid this eventuality, Zimbabwe escalates." tributed to this agricultural crisis, esca- has offered to train several thousand lating violence in the countryside re- Mozambican troops and officers and to mains at the core of the problem. provide greater logistical support and The decision in July to name a prime additional supplies. Hans are also un- from the southeastern African country minister to oversee daily governmental derway for increased Zimbabwean eco- has thrown confusion into conservative operations suggests how seriously Fre- nomic and agricultural assistance in the groups trying to get Reagan administra- limo views the security problem. Re- adjacent Mozambican provinces of tion support for the resistance" (August cent efforts to upgrade the poorly Tete, Manica, and Sofala. 20, 1986). The article went on to note trained and beleaguered army and a With the help of Zimbabwe, Mozam- that Free the Eagle and the Conserva- more aggressive policy toward Malawi bican forces have reversed the deterio- tive Action Foundation are touting dif- both point to a new military offensive. rating military situation in several parts ferent Renamo representatives. The But as long as the South African re- of the country. A sustained Mozambican former has endorsed Luis Serapiao, a gime stays in power and continues to offensive in the southern provinces of professor at Howard University, while support Renamo, and as long as the Inhambane and Gaza has effectively the latter has embraced Arturo Vi- United States ;ind other Western na- eliminated the Renamo threat in those lankulu. The Washington Times re- tions are not prepared to take effective areas. Security is also considerably bet- ported that "each accuses the other of measures against the apartheid regime, ter in the central provinces of Manica being a fraud and lining his pockets with peace in Mozambique and indeed and Sofala, leading American Ambassa- funds raised in the name of resistance." throughout the region, remains illusory. dor Peter de Vos to conclude that "since This in-fighting, however, has not Daily accounts of repression in South January 1985, the military situation has prevented Pretoria from pursuing its Africa, the continued illegal occupation generally improved." He emphasized rather successful policy of destabiliza- of Namibia, attacks against Angola, as that "the Mozambican government is a tion. Indeed, the situation in Mozam- well as recent reports that a large Re- long way from collapsing." bique remains very serious. Despite namo force based in Malawi has invaded Diplomats in Maputo also note that some recent gains on the battlefield, Mozambique, highlight the volatile con- Renamo's terror tactics, problematic there is little evidence that government ditions in this strategic region. D 54 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Denis Sassou-Nguesso President, People's Republic of the Congo Chairman, Organization of African Unity As newly elected chairman of the OAU, the Congolese President outlines the organization's economic and political priorities for the coming year. He also puts Congo's recent agreement with the IMF in perspective and candidly discusses his country's efforts to meet the challenges of the post-oil era. INTERVIEWED BY ANDRE ASTROW we must now go into action. Having mobilized international public opinion through this special session, we must now Africa Report: You have come to the U.S. as the newly press for specific commitments and obtain announcements of elected chairman of the Organization of African Unity. What is contributions. This is the path that I am pursuing with respect your agenda for the coming year? Will it be significantly differ- to Africa's economic crisis. ent from that of your predecessor, Senegalese President Ab- Concerning the issue of southern Africa, we are doing simi- dou Diouf? lar work to mobilize international public opinion by establishing Sassou-Nguesso: I think you may have followed the decla- contacts in the U.S. and other countries. Earlier, I met with ration I made at the 41st session of the General Assembly. In Secretary of State George Shultz and discussed the very that declaration, after having touched on general international issue of southern Africa, to push for the adoption of interna- issues—the crisis in multilateralism, problems of disarma- tional and mandatory sanctions against South Africa. When we ment and others—I also dealt with two essential questions talk of economic sanctions, we mean that countries such as specifically concerning Africa, the continent's critical eco- the U.S. should oppose the importation of strategic raw mate- nomic situation and the dramatic situation in southern Africa. I rials like uranium, gold, steel, iron, and coal, as well as agricul- think these are the two key issues. tural products. They should take concrete measures in this Today, in the aftermath of the United Nations Special Ses- direction. The U. S. should ban investments by companies and sion on Africa's economic crisis, the point is to put into effect banks in South Africa, oppose air and sea traffic destined for Africa's Priority Programme for Economic Recovery and the the apartheid regime, sever all sports links, and put an end to action plan of the United Nations. Therefore, after the conclu- technical and cultural cooperation with that country. sion of this special session under my predecessor's mandate, These are the kind of comprehensive and concrete mea- AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 55 sures that we expect from the U. S. and other countries. We have seen the tentative decisions taken by the European Pxo- nomic Community and we tliink that they will be strength- ened. Thus, we are acting on two fronts: the economic situa- tion in Africa, as well as the eradication of apartheid in South Africa and the independence of Namibia. There are naturally other questions facing the continent. In June of next year, we hope to convene the Congress of Afri- can Scientists. In so far as we are able, we would also like to work toward bolstering pan-African sentiment. Moreover, there are of course specific issues like Chad and the Western Sahara that we must address. Concerning the Western Sa- hara, for example, I had lengthy discussions with the secre- tary-general of the United Nations to continue the work that had been initiated by my predecessor—that of encouraging negotiations between Morocco and Polisario. Africa Report: But some critics of the OAU claim it is a divided and ineffective body which has little power to imple- ment its resolutions. Do you think the OAU is a viable organi- zation capable of tackling the major tasks it faces? Sassou-Nguesso: Yes. To critics we can begin by pointing out that African leaders and the African people can be proud to have established the only viable continent-wide political or- ganization that exists in the world. Other continents have yet Witwatersrand, South Africa: "It is pretentious to claim to know to successfully create such an organization, so this is in itself a better than those who are directly affected, since it is the African people themselves who are asking for the implementation of considerable achievement and an important element to con- sanctions" sider. Every organization has its weaknesses and its strong U.S. policy in southern Africa? Do you think the U.S. can play points. Since its creation 23 years ago, the OAU has neverthe- a positive role in the region? less led numerous countries under colonial rule to indepen- Sassou-Nguesso: All the discussions that I am having at dence, and the OAU Liberation Committee in these cases has present with U. S. authorities are working toward this goal: to played a very important role. ensure that the U.S. has a real influence over the South With respect to the economic crisis, the OAU formulated African regime to help Africa eradicate apartheid. We think the Lagos Plan of Action, outlining a development strategy for that the U.S. can effectively help Africa to achieve this goal. Africa during an OAU economic summit in 1980. And more Africa Report: Ycu have touched on the formidable eco- recently, we drew up Africa's Priority Programme for Eco- nomic tasks confronting the African continent. Perhaps we nomic Recovery. I think these are encouraging signs. Even could discuss more specifically some of the recent economic the United Nations has its problems. It has not resolved all difficulties facing your country. Eor many years your govern- problems in the world, for otherwise Namibia would already ment was one of the few in Africa that had steadfastly opposed be independent. Therefore, I do not think that one should an agreement with t le International Monetary Fund. How do criticize the OAU without examining it in greater detail. It has you explain therefore the recent accord with the IMF? Is it its weaknesses, but it also has many strengths. deteriorating economic conditions that forced this turnabout Africa Report: Earlier you talked about South Africa. At the or does it signal a change in your political approach to the 22nd OAU summit in Addis Ababa, a resolution was passed West? calling for comprehensive mandatory sanctions against Preto- Sassou-Nguesso: No, we have never categorically opposed ria. How do you answer those who claim sanctions would be an IMF agreement. You may recall that in 1978 we came to more harmful to black South Africans and to the frontline terms with the IM?. What we said in 1985 was that our states than to the Botha regime? analysis of the econcmic situation revealed that by implement- Sassou-Nguesso: We say that it is pretentious to claim to ing our own internal measures, we could successfully lead the know better than those who are directly affected, since it is country to economic recovery. This was in June 1985. A few the African people themselves who are asking for the imple- months later, as you know, came this oil crisis: The price of oil mentation of these sanctions. They are the ones who say that nose-dived, and the value of the doJar dropped. These two they will not experience greater suffering than that already factors together produced an entirely new situation, leading caused by apartheid. So to claim to know better than they is us to sign an agreenent with the IMF. But it is not the first absurd. In addition, I don't think it is possible to evaluate the one. It is the second one. It is therefore not a change in effectiveness of sanctions before having implemented them. approach, but rather changing conditions that have justified That is our opinion, which is why we continue to demand the signing of such a pact. We have acted today as we did in comprehensive and mandatory sanctions. 1978. Africa Report: Can the OAU have a meaningful impact on Africa Report: Gilfen the drastic fall in the price of oil, what 56 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 scientifically and make our decisions based on tliis situation without changing our primary orientation for the development of our society. Marxism is not a fetish, it is a social science which develops and which has a living existence. Africa Report: In this respect, you have accounted for the PCTs pragmatic approach in the past by arguing that Congo is presently in the national democratic stage of its revolution, thereby laying the basis for socialism. In what way is Congo concretely pursuing the strategy of scientific socialism? And how do you reply to skeptics who say that developing coun- tries are inevitably forced back along the capitalist path through the pressures of the world economy? Sassou-Nguesso: We say that we are presently in the na- tional democratic and popular stage of the revolution and con- sider this a period through which countries like ours that have suffered from colonial domination and exploitation must nec- essarily pass. We have seen the creation of structures that were never meant for development but rather for exploiting the riches of our countries. To attain socialism, it is necessary to pass through this very delicate and difficult stage, but pass through it we must, by adapting the structures to the realities of what actually exists. When we say that in the course of this stage we will accept measures have you taken to diversify the economy to prepare the coexistence of various sectors—a state sector, a mixed the country for the "post-oil" era? How has this affected the sector, a private sector, a cooperative sector—it reflects a projects initiated in the 1982-8(5 development plan? full set of measures that we are taking that are connected to Sassou-Nguesso: This is the question. We believe that pre- the current stage of the national democratic and popular revo- cisely because of the unpredictable nature of oil revenues, we lution—the stage which prepares the conditions necessary must envisage a post-oil economy. We do not lack the means for socialism. But on this question one must not take a short- to achieve such an objective. That is why during the course of sighted approach, seeking blueprints, or drawing hasty con- the 19H2-198H development plan ending this year, we concen- clusions—that because we are doing this or that it means that trated our energies on developing basic infrastructure in the we are already in the clutches of capitalism. rural areas. We have built many roads, bridges, and airports, In any case, in Third World countries the capitalist option extended the electricity network, and improved the country's has not exactly been a resounding success. We can see here telecommunications. We have thus quietly begun to develop a and there horrible cases of misery in those countries that have basic infrastructure. Today, we believe that we can move opted for capitalism. There is no model that has been a total toward developing various productive sectors, particularly in success. I speak here of the Third World. Maybe one should agriculture, if certain preconditions are met. not draw immediate conclusions. Let's first allow peoples' We have good land, a lot of water, sunshine, and the lives to develop. History will be the judge. workforce required to relaunch our agricultural sector. We Africa Report: Have you got anything to add for our Ameri- have vast woodland reserves with, for example, 20 million can audience? hectares of forests. We have an ambitious reforestation pro- Sassou-Nguesso: I would simply like to say that we ask the gram, as today we have produced nearly 25, (XX) hectares of American people to remember their own history. To recall eucalyptus trees, which will allow us to manufacture paper. that their history is one of a people fighting for independence. Thus the conditions exist in the country to prepare the econ- They fought an intense struggle to create a multi-racial society omy for the post-oil era. which has given rights to all social and racial groups, and Africa Report: Your government has continued to espouse provided them with civil and political freedoms. Marxism-Leninism as a guiding economic and political philoso- The American people must remember that when they phy. Would it not be more accurate to say that on most eco- came to Europe's rescue against Nazism and helped Europe nomic issues, pragmatism has come to override the Congo- to rebuild after World War II, the African continent made its lese Labor Party's [FCT] ideological principles as evidenced share of sacrifices. Although monuments may not have been by the austerity measures along capitalist lines adopted in the erected in their memory, thousands of Africans died in the well-publicized Structural Adjustment Program? struggle against Nazism. But today, Africa is confronted by Sassou-Nguesso: We do not intend to operate beyond the the problem of apartheid, and the economic situation is cata- bounds of reality. You seem to be presenting Marxism a little strophic. So we hope that the American people will side with bit like a fetish, like a dogma. It is a science which is based on the African people. I think the historical facts are there to the analysis of the realities of life. We analyze them contin- show that the American people do not lack the capacity to act ually, and each time a situation presents itself, we analyze it in this way. That is my message. D AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 57 1 f 1 AFRICASIA A fresh approach to the issues of the day in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Arab World AFRICASIA Your Monthly Window on the Third World AFRICASIA Subscription Coupon Please PRINT clearly and return this form with your payment to: AFRICASIA, 13 rue d'Uzes, 75002 PARIS, France Mr/Ms Address City Postal Code Country Payment D Bank Cheque enclosed • International money/postal order * YEARLY RATES: U.K. and Ireland £15 sterling; France, 170FF; Rest of Europe, US$30; Maghreb and Franc zone, 245FF; Rest of Africa and Middle East, US$35; Asia, US$35; North, Central an i South America, US$52. High Hopes in Harare Zimbabwean Prime Minister Robert Mugabe is widely credited with having injected a new dynamism into the Non-Aligned Movement following the eighth heads of state summit. During his tenure as chairman, southern African issues are expected to take precedence in the organization's agenda. BY ANDREW MELDRUM storming of a hijacked airliner in Karaclii declared his satisfaction at the more lim- while Pakistani President Gen. Zia-ul- ited measures taken by the Harare sum- he unfolding South African revolt Haq was attending the summit all made mit to support the anti-apartheid strug- Tagainst apartheid was the central headlines and temporarily took center gle. He said the summit increased the focus for the Non-Aligned Movement's stage in Harare, but those events failed international momentum for sanctions. (NAM) eighth heads of state summit, to divert the conference from its pri- "The focus really was on southern Af- dramatically held in Harare just a few mary task of considering the South Afri- rica," said Mugabe at the predawn hundred miles from Pretoria. can crisis. press conference to mark the end of the A sensational appearance by Libyan There was some disappointment that September 1-7 summit. "There was no Col. Muammar Qaddafy, the continuing the Harare summit did not commit the one who did not make reference to conflict between Iran and Iraq, and the 101 non-aligned countries to imposing South Africa and the region. And we are Andrew Meldrum, an American journalist who sanctions against South Africa, but the very pleased with the declarations and has been based in Zimbabwe for six years, reports new Non-Aligned chairman, Zimbab- resolutions approved. We are delighted on southern Africa forThe Guardian of London, Agence F ranee-Presse, and Voice of America. wean Prime Minister Robert Mugabe, that for the first time in the organization, AFRICA REPORT* November-December 1986 59 we have emerged with a real, viable gust. But the momentum toward sanc- program of action." tions faltered at the summit meetings of Mugabe was referring to the creation the six frontline states and nine SADCC of the Africa Fund to channel non- members held in Luanda, Angola, just a aligned donations of financial and mate- week before the Non-Aligned summit. rial aid to southern Africa's majority- Both the frontline states—comprised ruled frontline states to help them of Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, weather the spill-over effects of im- Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe—and pending sanctions. SADCC—-those six, plus Lesotho, Ma- He cited the creation of the fund as lawi, and Swaziland—stopped short of "the most important achievement" of actually committing themselves to im- the Harare summit because it repre- posing sanctions and instead "com- sents "a bid now by the Non-Aligned mended" and "endorsed" sanctions. Movement to work vigorously and pur- There was some surprise that the more posefully in this region, to aid the front- militant frontline states did not join Zim- line states and other countries that babwe and Zambia in their sanctions might need assistance in fighting apart- stand, but the moderated position heid. . . Almost every area of concern reached in Luanda exactly matched the has been covered: roads, railways, Non-Aligned Movement's sanctions de- transport, communications, and several cision taken in Harare. other areas including trade will all be The non-aligned leaders reasoned supported by the Africa Fund to protect that they could not effectively impose us from the adverse effects of sanctions sanctions against Pretoria without the or of retaliation from South Africa." participation of South Africa's main Mugabe's high hopes for the fund are Western trading partners. In October, somewhat qualified by the fact that no the United States Congress passed a specific pledges of money or material tough sanctions package, but the goods were announced during the sum- Reagan administration remains opposed mit. Outgoing Non-Aligned chairman, to sanctions and would certainly veto a Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, and new UN sanctions move. Other West- Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda will em governments remaining opposed to head the fund, which is to work closely effective sanctions are Britain and West with the Southern African Development Germany. Coordination Conference (SADCC), the To encourage those countries to alter organization striving to make the nine their opposition to punitive measures, Zimbabwe Prime Minister Robert Mugabe majority-ruled countries of southern Af- the non-aligned leaders decided to send "has let it be known that he intends to be rica more economically independent a delegation of foreign ministers to meet an activist Non-Aligned leader" from South Africa. with leaders of industrialized countries centage, ranging from 10 to 30 percent But practical steps to launch the fund in Bonn, London, Tokyo, and Washing- of their annual foreign exchange earn- have begun as Indian Minister of State ton. ings. for Foreign Affairs Edward Faleiro The Non-Aligned summit also Of course, of the 49 heads of state toured the frontline states to study what strongly urged the two superpowers to who attended the Harare summit and specific assistance the non-aligned agree to nuclear disarmament in the in- addressed the meeting, virtually all of group could give to best help those terests of world peace and called for the them attacked the apartheid system in countries. industrialized countries to help bring neighboring South Africa and praised The Harare Non-Aligned summit also about a new world economic order. The the efforts to topple the Pretoria gov- urged the United Nations to impose World Bank and the International Mone- ernment. But it was two South African comprehensive mandatory sanctions tary Fund came under particular criti- speakers who caught everyone's atten- against South Africa and criticized the cism for their economic dictates to Third tion and focused the issues at stake in Western powers that have blocked such World countries. the current anti-apartheid unrest: Afri- action by the world body. Cuban leader Fidel Castro, a previous can National Congress (ANC) President Non-aligned members Zambia, Zim- Non-Aligned chairman, reiterated his Obver Tambo and the Rev. Allan babwe, and India, as well as Australia, call for Third World countries to simply Boesak, a patron of the United Demo- the Bahamas, and Canada, dramatically cancel their huge debts, but the final ec- cratic Front (UDF), South Africa's larg- committed themselves to sanctions onomic document suggested that in- est legal anti-apartheid movement. weeks before the Non-Aligned meeting debted countries follow the proposal of At a packed press conference at the at the special Commonwealth mini-sum- Peru's president, Alan Garcia, to limit start of the summit, Tambo forcefully mit in London at the beginning of Au- their debt payments to a selected per- urged both the West and specifically the 60 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 sions upon non-aligned leaders. He gave ship status in the Non-Aligned, like the a characteristically considered response Palestine Liberation Organization and to a question about the use in South Afri- the South West Africa People's Organi- ca's townships by anti-apartheid youths zation. But the Non-Aligned Movement of the "necklace" form of killing, would have to grant dual membership whereby a petrol-soaked tire around the for South Africa, and was not eager to victim's neck is set on fire to burn the give such status to both the ANC and person to death. PAC. In any case, the ANC announced it "We would rather there is no neck- would not seek membership and no lace, this is a hint," said Tambo, some- more was heard about the PAC's bid. what distancing himself from the grue- some form of execution and apparently sending a message to those in South Af- "The non-aligned rica to discourage its use. But Tambo leaders reasoned that refused to denounce those using the necklace. "The necklace is a recent ap- they could not pearance, it coincides with a period of effectively impose extreme brutality by the government sanctions against against the people. . . its cause is apart- Pretoria without the heid. " participation of South He said that the ANC could not con- Africa's main Western demn the necklace killings of suspected trading partners." government collaborators or other anti- apartheid violence such as landmines and explosions because those in South Africa battling apartheid were operating Robert Mugabe had personally in- against tremendous odds. Other ANC vited South African church leader officials pointed out at the summit that Boesak to Harare to impress upon the the number of necklace deaths are un- leaders how crucial and strategic a mo- der 150, while more than 2, (XX) blacks ment it is for the international commu- have been killed in the past two years of nity to increase its support for the peo- unrest, most of them by police. ple's revolt against apartheid. Tambo also expressed a willingness Although strict NAM regulations for- to meet with top officials of the British bid any non-head of state from address- NAM countries to impose sanctions and American governments, but ing the summit, Mugabe held a special against South Africa. He argued that warned them not to try to divide the dinner where Boesak used his well- sanctions imposed by African and non- ANC into two camps, those who are known oratory skills to describe the aligned countries could be effective, members of the South African Commu- South African people's battle against op- even if they were not joined by the big nist Party and those who are not. "We pression, visibly moving several heads Western economic powers. are all members of the ANC and we of state, according to those present. "I earnestly appeal to this historic as- have one goal, to end apartheid," said Boesak brought eyewitness descrip- sembly of the leaders of two-thirds of Tambo. tions from South Africa of violence mankind to join in action," said Tambo. Shortly after the summit, Tambo met against blacks at a funeral of 15 people "Otherwise, Zambia and Zimbabwe will in London with British Foreign Secre- killed by police during rent protests in stand alone and exposed" to possible re- tary Sir Geoffrey Howe. He was also Soweto. "One does not have to be a taliation from South Africa. expected to meet U.S. Secretary of prophet to see that violence will esca- Although the summit did not meet State George Shultz during his tour of late," said Boesak. Tambo's call for sanctions and although southern Africa, solidifying the wide- "Every single act that the govern- he never directly addressed the sum- spread belief that no serious negotia- ment does is almost calculated to make mit, the Harare assembly was seen as a tions about a settlement in South Africa the level of tension rise in the town- success for the ANC. Tambo was are possible without the ANC. ships. The anger of the people will grow sought after for private meetings with The rival black nationalist movement, more and more, because this funeral has the heads of state, particularly from the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), was already given rise to another and so will Latin America and Asian countries that also quite visible at the summit, repre- the funeral tomorrow and the funeral had not previously paid much attention sented by its new chairman, Johnson next week." to the ANC. Mlambo. Zimbabwe newspapers Boesak told the non-aligned leaders A carefully worded and articulate quoted the PAC leader as saying that the that the current state of emergency had speaker, Tambo made strong impres- organization would seek full member- attempted to assert the Pretoria gov- AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 61 emment's authority over the town- ships, but that was "very shallow and extremely short-term." "The violence will not end because apartheid still exists," said Boesak. "The people know the government would rather kill our children than give up white people's over-privileged posi- tion of economic and political power. He- cause we know that, there will always be more violence." Like Oliver Tambo, Allan Boesak urged the Non-Aligned Movement to take concrete steps to help the current struggle. Boesak said that the South Af- rican courts had ordered him not to speak about sanctions, but speaking for the people of South Africa, the anti- apartheid crusader said, "What we are looking for is not yet another statement. Whatever the non-aligned leaders come up with, the most important thing is that they make it stick, can they carry it through? Will they be determined enough to understand that the time for talking tough about South Africa, the time for making statements full of moral indignation is finally and definitely over?" The Non-Aligned Movement, which celebrated its 25th anniversary at the Cuban leader Fidel Castro (with Angolan was agreed upon as the site for the Harare summit, has been known mostly President Jose Eduardo dos Santos) "re- meeting. iterated his call for Third World countries as a forum for its Third World members to simply cancel their huge debts" Mugabe said such long-winded wran- to air their views about international af- gles among the 101 members could be fairs and their criticisms of the world avoided by using a two-thirds majority economic order, but not as a body taking zation's mode of operation by using ma- for important NAM decisions. Such a action on any particular issue. The jority voting and creating a permanent change in policy would be a dramatic Harare summit challenged the Non- secretariat. shift for the Non-Aligned which has al- Aligned Movement to move beyond its Mugabe said that because the Non- ways prided itself on getting all mem- long-stated opposition to apartheid and Aligned has grown so, the tradition of bers to agree on decisions. give tangible assistance to the anti- reaching consensus to make decisions But Mugabe would argue that the apartheid forces. has become unwieldy. He cited the ex- consensus style of decision-making has The effectiveness of the NAM's re- ample of the disagreement on what made the NAM less decisive. And he sponse to that challenge to a large ex- country should host the next NAM sum- would also argue that running the NAM tent depends on new Chairman Robert mit in 1989. Nicaragua had the strong- without a permanent secretariat makes Mugabe, who must turn the declara- est bid for the honor, which would in- the body less effective. He has already tions and funds for southern African into clude taking over the chairmanship from announced that Zimbabwe will staff a meaningful action. Mugabe, but total agreement could not small secretariat. Mugabe has already let it be known be reached, so the decision was post- With Robert Mugabe tackling such that he intends to be an activist Non- poned until the foreign ministers meet in structural problems, it seems clear that Aligned leader, not only on the question 1988. But then, the close of the Harare he will also manage the Non-Aligned of South Africa, but in reshaping the or- meeting was delayed for 10 hours as no Movement to make the most of the ganization's operations and decision- consensus could be reached over where Harare summit declarations concerning making process. to hold the foreign ministers' meeting. South Africa and southern Africa, par- At the close of the summit, Mugabe North Korea had long been the favor- ticularly in the creation of an Africa fund announced his intention to put the Non- ite to hold that meeting, but six West- that will channel meaningful financial and Aligned Movement on a more formal ba- ern-leaning countries blocked that deci- material aid to the frontline states facing sis and to drastically change the organi- sion at the last moment. Finally, Cyprus a belligerent South Africa. • 62 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Press FRONT PAGE COMMENT Joe Thloloe Our lawyers tell us we can say almost Features Editor, nothing critical about the the Sowetan Emergency Butwe'll try: A leading South African journalist r\K BOTHA. IM Minister of Furcign AIT«irs. describes the draconian restrictions lold US television sudnni.es thii »ttk Hut [he imposed upon reporters by the state Sum! African press remained free. They considered our pubLicanim subversive. of emergency and comments on the • !f il ii subversive la spnt oul tgiins! ^^H, we plead Buillj. •If II ia subversive [o expire, cincffra about role of the press in the struggle M^^K, w victO guilty •K it ii subversive 10 bclie-ve ihtt there are •ikfe benei ionics 10 puce fton ihe artMMMk wo - against apartheid. ple*d guift*. INTERVIEWED BY MARGARET A. NOVICKI World was now producing the Post, so it was a change of name only—the staff was the same, the contents of the paper were Africa Report: Coutd you tell us a bit about what it is like to more or less the same, only a little more restrained because of be a black journalist in .South Africa today, using your own what had happened to the World. We continued functioning in career as an example? a new union, the Media Workers Association of South Africa Thloloe: I started journalism in 1961 on the Bantu World. (Mwasa). In 1980, Mwasa held the first newspaper strike in From there, I worked for various newspapers inside South South Africa, when we closed down the Post for the duration Africa—the Rand Daily Mail, Golden City Post, Drum maga- of the strike, as well as the black editions of major white zine. It's been a very long career. At the moment, I am papers. It was mainly a strike over pay and on recognition of features editor on the Sowetan. the union, and management in the end agreed to pay increases The first time I got into trouble with the South African and to recognize Mwasa. Fortunately, we were having very authorities was in 1960 when the anti-pass campaign was good relations with management up until this point. called by the Pan Africanist Congress. I participated in that But then the state decided to intervene. First they told the campaign and was convicted. I spent nine months in 1960 Argus management that its registration had lapsed during the inside jail. When I was released, I matriculated and then joined duration of the strike. But even if it had not lapsed, they were the newspapers. The next time I got into trouble was in 1976. in fact going to ban the Post, so the Argus management At the time, I was president of the Union of Black Journalists shouldn't try to revive it. That was the first action they took. [UBJ]. Following the events of June 16 of that year, we had Next, they picked on the leadership of Mwasa and clamped us published a magazine with journalists' first-person accounts of with three banning orders. These were people like Zwelakhe what they had seen on June 16. Although some of the stuff had Sisulu, Mathatha Tsedu—all of us were banned, confined to been published before, it had a lot of impact put together. I our townships, not allowed to work for our newspapers, not think that edition of the UBJ bulletin was very frightening to allowed to attend meetings, not allowed to be on newspaper the government because they banned it and they locked us up. premises, not allowed to be in factories. We were confined to I was put under "preventative detention" from the first of our houses from 6 pm to 6 am during the week, and then September until Christmas day in 1976. They were prevent- weekends from Friday night until Monday. It was a bizarre ing me from doing harm to myself! way of living. Then on the first of March the following year, 1977, I was While we were banned, Mathatha Tsedu and I were ar- back in jail. This time I was held under Section 6 of the Terror- rested again under Section 6 of the Terrorism Act, in June ism Act, for 18 months in solitary confinement. I was interro- 1982. After a process of detention and solitary confinement, gated as they wanted information that they believed I had. eventually in November they charged me and a few other Then on my release, I went to work for the Transvaal Post. chaps with terrorism. Then in April 1983, we were convicted The UBJ and the World had been banned in October 1977, of furthering the aims of the Pan Africanist Congress [PAC]. while I was in jail. But the same staff that had produced the The actual charge was that I was found in possession of a PAC AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 63 pamphlet, and I was sentenced to 30 months' imprisonment. I started serving the sentence in April 1983, but on appeal, it was discovered that we were convicted under a law that wasn't in existence at the time our crimes were supposed to have been committed. So I was released in January 1984. At this point, our banning orders had lapsed so I went back to work for the Sowetan, where I'm still working. Hopefully they won't send me back to prison. Africa Report: How is it working as a black journalist under the current press restrictions? Thloloe: The first few days of the current state of emer- gency were very frustrating. We'd walk around the office with long faces not knowing what to do and what not to do. But as we are getting used to the regulations, it has become a very exciting game. It's a game of Russian roulette—to see how far you can go without breaking the law. Most of our staff has developed a sixth sense—you feel something might be wrong with a particular story, so you pick up the phone and you read it to the lawyers. They are on tap 24 hours a day since the emergency regulations started. We always try to push to the limit, and fortunately for us, they are also into this game of how far you can push. In a way, it has become fun. But as I back and rewrite the regulations to keep journalists out. said, initially it was very depressing. We had a very i iteresting problem when the regulations I remember when it started, we wanted to comment on the were first promulgated. Our sports editor went out to inter- state of emergency—was it necessary, would it achieve what view a football pla> er in Soweto. The editor himself lives in they hoped, were they trying to throw a red herring instead of Soweto; he had come into the office to do his normal diary and looking at the actual problems? Because we couldn't comment he was going back to interview this chap. He came to a police unfavorably on the emergency regulations, we felt we had to roadblock and he was turned back because he was a journalist. leave a blank space, to signify our protest. We did the same He was told that journalists were not allowed inside Soweto. thing with pictures. Where we felt we could have used a good He said, "No, I live in Soweto, I woke up in Soweto this picture showing what was happening in the townships, we left morning." They sad that was for reasons other than report- a blank space. ing, but now he w< nted to go in as a reporter, therefore he But after a week or two, there was a meeting of editors and couldn't. So he came back to the office and we sent off a telex the top brass of the police, and our editor was told that the to the Bureau for Information trying to get clarification on why blank spaces that he was leaving in the paper were subver- this man had been turned back, because the impression we sive, and would he mind stopping that practice. The word had was that the oily thing we were not allowed to do was subversive is a catchall phrase—anything they don't like in the report on the unre< t. Then shortly after, the women's editor paper they say is subversive. So when he came back, he went went into the township and she was also turned back. I per- to the others and said, "The police are saying these white sonally got very fur ous and picked up the phone and called the spaces are subversive. Do you agree with them?" We said, bureau. The guy who answered was very cheerful—"How "Of course the police are talking nonsense." But the problem are you, Mr. Thloloe?" So I explained the problem, and he is that this question will not be tested in a court of law. They changed his tone 64 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 controlled by blacks. The paper I work for, for instance, is owned by a white company, the biggest newspaper company in the country. They allow us to be to the left of most of their newspapers because of the audience we're addressing—the blacks in the townships. But we cannot go to the point where we actually choose our sides. We would prefer to come out much more openly and say we are on the side of the oppressed. But the people who own us, the Argus, think of what the advertisers will do. They are always saying that the advertisers will pull away if we get more radical than we are. They are always worried about what the government will do to the paper and how much they will lose. They always tell you of what happened to the World and the Post, and how much money they lost as a result of those closures. We don't have the latitude to say what we want to say. We try to push ourselves to the limit within the system, but we know we can't say what we want to. But on the other hand, the people who are on the side of the oppres- sor decide what goes into the papers. So we are being bom- barded all the time with what the oppressor wants. Africa Report: A South African observer once commented "Soweto had been declared an unrest area and as a result no that the white liberal press had lionized Desmond Tutu, Allan journalist could get into the township" Boesak, and Beyers Naude as the leaders of black South filtered that we really don't see the true picture of what is Africans by virtue of always giving them the publicity, to the happening? exclusion of other leaders within the black community, and Thloloe: I think it's controlled both for the foreign media as that in turn affects how the average person views who are the well as for us. In fact, the media in South Africa is losing leaders of the community. Do you think it's true that the South credibility because of the restrictions. We're now getting to African press can almost outline political options? the point where people rely more on word-of-mouth stories Thloloe: In fact, it has done that to a very large extent. The than on what is published in the newspapers. And this is liberal press has picked on the United Democratic Front fanning rumors, fanning what the government is trying to [UDF] to back. The choice is between the Afrikaner press stop. I suppose a development from this is that people are which will push Buthelezi and homeland leaders—whatever going to resort to pamphlets, to underground newspapers, the government picks—and the English-language papers etc. It hasn't reached that point yet, but it's definitely com- which pick the UDF. And there aren't any other newspapers. ing—where people would rather inform each other than rely There isn't any other media that is controlled by blacks. That's on newspapers. In fact, the circulation of black newspapers the major problem. It becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy—so- has taken quite a knock because of the regulations. and-so is the leader, this organization is the organization, and Africa Report: How are the restrictions affecting how the they sing the same tune so often that people then begin sing- world views what's going on in South Africa? ing it—a whole big public relations exercise. Thloloe: What I have noticed in my short visit to the U.S. is Africa Report: In the U.S., we hear very little about the that people are becoming more sensitive to what is happening black consciousness groups, for example. On the other hand, in South Africa. The stories that come out with little logos apologists for apartheid say that the black community in South saying that they have been censored—that's much more ef- Africa is so divided that there is no way everyone can unite fective than if the true story is told. So it's having exactly the under a common cause. Are these alleged divisions in the opposite effect to what the government intended. Our gov- black community artificially created or are they a serious mat- ernment is always working in this type of circular atmos- ter? phere—what they intend doing does exactly the opposite. Africa Report: Much is made in this country of the principle of the "objectivity" of the press. Can South African journalists "We're now getting to the point really be "objective" given what is going on in the country? where people rely more on Thloloe: When journalists get very bored, they talk about word-of-mouth stories than on what objectivity and fairness! Hut any practicing journalist will tell you it's not possible to be objective—you always write from a is published in the newspapers. And perspective, from a particular angle. In South Africa, the lines this is fanning rumors, fanning what are very clearly drawn. You either write or broadcast from the the government is trying to stop." oppressor's perspective, or from the perspective of the op- pressed. It's a very simple choice. We are in this very difficult Thloloe: I don't think the divisions are as serious as they are position that we have very few publications that are actually made out to be. The black consciousness organizations and AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 65 Mineworkers, yoi have an even balance between the black consciousness uni >ns and the non-racial unions. But if you read the press every day, you will get the impression that it is only those people who support the UDF or the Freedom Charter who are dominating the country, and that they are being projected as the only viable group in the country. It is not true. Again it s the creation of the press. Africa Report: You have written quite extensively on the unions. Do you thir ik that in the coming year, they will become more involved in )ressing the veiy basic political issues in South Africa through work stoppages, etc.—or will they fo- the UDF have more or less the same objectives—they want cus more on resol/ing shop floor issues? to see the creation of a non-racial society. They are both Thloloe: I don't think they will be tied to what is happening on vaguely socialist. The major difference comes over tactics. the shop floor for a simple reason: I might get a two rand The black consciousness organizations say that all our lives increase at work, but that doesn't affect the way my life is are run by whites—that's the essence of apartheid. You go to being run. At the workplace, we find there is more and more work—your supervisor is going to be a white man. You go into talk of integration. :iut what in fact is happening is that there is education—your inspector will be a white man. So they are a shortage of white skilled labor. Whites are being pushed up always in a position of control, while blacks are outside that much faster. As tl ey are being pushed up, blacks are being power position. Therefore, if we create our own organiza- put in to replace them. The dividing line is still there, but it's tions, we should not transfer into them the same structures. moving upwards. '1 'his gives the illusion that there is change at This is a chance for people to learn how to run their own lives. the workplace, but there really isn't. The more you try to fight If you invite a white man to become secretary of a trade union, that dividing line, the more you realize that it is tied into what you are robbing a black man of the chance to learn how to run a is happening in s 66 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Kenya "Hear No Evil" President Daniel arap Moi's efforts to clamp down on internal dissent may have backfired, as underground opposition to his rule continues to grow. Increasing social inequities, along with abuses of power, are fueling fears for Kenya's political future. dent. My president is Daniel arap Moi. . . I have never dreamt of serving any other person." Thus another debate on public policy was closed in Kenya. In similar fashion, the government in recent years has silenced voices which complained about famine, landlessness, and poverty. It seems to matter little to the government that the crime spree that Munyao spoke of continues in Ma- ehakos or that the streets of Nairobi are becoming crowded with the poor and landless. Rather it appears that Kenya's rulers are intent on sustaining the illu- sion of peace and prosperity and on deal- ing harshly with anyone who might sug- gest tliat things are otherwise. Had Munyao not issued his groveling apology, his political career would have been finished—and, as it is, he has placed himself in danger of becoming a political nonentity in Kenya. But Mu- nyao could have also found himself join- ing the ranks of Kenyan MPs who have had to flee the country in recent years, fearing for their lives after saying things that the government found unaccepta- BY MICHAEL MAREN Several weeks later, President Dan- ble. iel arap Moi spoke in Maehakos and de- The most recent politician to go into ast July, Joseph Munyao, an MP clared that it was not possible that 20 to exile is Koigi Wamwere who fled the Lfrom Kenya's Maehakos District, 30 people were dying every day. Stand- country in September. Wamwere, a complained in Parliament that thugs ing on the same dais with Munyao, Moi former MP, charged that his defeat in were roaming the countryside around reprimanded the MP for "causing unjus- the last parliamentary election was a Maehakos, robbing, beating, and some- tified alarm" and threatened to have him result of fraud and that he had been har- times killing people. His constituents tossed out of KANU, the country's only assed by government officials in his were living in fear, he told his col- political party. home Nakuru District ever since. From leagues, and 20 to 30 victims of these The next day, a humbled Munyao is- Norway he wrote a letter to Kenya's attacks were arriving at the hospital ev- sued a public apology to President Moi: Weekly Review, claiming that he had ery day. "He is my president and I have a lot of been under close police surveillance and respect for him. . . I have never done feared that the government planned to Michael Maren is a freelance journalist and anything to annoy him. 1 would like to "liquidate" him because he used to former assistant editor of Africa Report. He has apologize to him personally and to the "speak the truth in Parliament on behalf recently returned from a visit to Kenya, where he lived from 1977-1981. nation at large. . . I have no other presi- of the voiceless poor." AFRICA REPORT* November-December 1986 67 sity lecturers and professional dissi- dents, the rolls of the arrested included Gathoga Kihara, a farmer charged with possession of Mpatanishi; David Muto- nya, a district information officer; David Mzirai, an engineer; and Stanley Mburu, a bank employee. This is Ken- ya's middle class, the people on whom the government once counted for sup- port. And there was something else that made Mwakenya unique: There seemed to be no single ethnic group at its center. "This is the first truly national Wannvviv had been declined twice To (he chagrin of the Mobil Oil Corpora- resistance movement I've seen," said a before, most recently following the tion, Moi changed the name of the com Western diplomat. 1982 attempted coup, and had been as- pany toKobil" The organization continued printing sociated with dissident members of Par- Newspapers printed politicians' per- its seditious literature, once littering the liament, all of whom have since lost their functory denunciations of the move- streets of Nyeri town with pamphlets seats, live in exile, or remain in Kenya ment and chronicled the daily arrests of and another time delivering a copy to on the condition that they keep their dissidents linked to the underground or each MP's mailbox in the Parliament opinions to themselves. of people who were found in possession building. The public began to see them But the country's hear-no-evil ap- of Mpatanishi. as Robin Hoods rather than as traitors proach to dealing with problems has be- A railway clerk was arrested and and the publicity given to the arrests gun to backfire. In the past, Kenyans charged with attempting to sabotage a became a testimony to the scope of the could count on the occasional dissident train. In another case, a government ag- movement rather than to the strength of voice to be raised in Parliament to speak ricultural officer and two university the government. for the interests of the poor and to chal- graduates were charged with trying to In June, the government reversed its lenge the edicts of the president and his derail a freight train. strategy and declared an end to public- ministers. Hut under Moi, the Parlia- In court, the three were defiant. discussion about Mwakenya. Moi can- ment, always greatly limited in its politi- There was no public admission of guilt celled all public meetings that were cal power, is slowly being drained of the or open displays of regret that had been scheduled on a national holiday on the last vestiges of its influence. And now, usually associated with such arrests. flimsy pretext that attendance at these robbed of any outlets for their many The newspapers, which had been cov- events would keep farmers away from grievances, Kenyans are beginning to ering the detentions and trials all along, their fields at a time when they should look to dissidents outside of govern- printed the dissidents' challenge to the be planting. Moi also warned foreign ment for leadership. court: "We did not commit any criminal diplomats and journalists about "spread- The most recent manifestation of that offenses. Those targets were selected ing rumors," and hinted that Mwakenya dissent has emerged in the Mwakenya by our guerrilla commanders in our de- was under foreign control. movement. Mwakenya, a Swahili acro- clared warfare." The government's attempt to portray nym for the Patriotic Front for the Lib- Mwakenya as a small and isolated or- eration of Kenya, first came to the pub- ganization has failed miserably. "The lic's attention last March when the gov- "Under Moi, the government gave the dissidents their ernment announced the arrests of Parliament, always biggest boost by publicizing the move- several lecturers and dissidents, charg- ment in the first place," a Western diplo- ing them with membership in an under- greatly limited in its mat in Nairobi said. "I guess that there ground organization and of possessing political power, is are probably a thousand core members or distributing the organization's publi- slowly being drained of of the organization and hundreds of cation, Mpatanishi (Swahili for "The Ar- the last vestiges of its thousands of sympathizers." biter"). influence." But despite all the excitement, very The government decided to deal with little is known about Mwakenya. The Mwakenya openly in an attempt to rally organization is divided into cells along public support against the organization. The list of detainees continued to the lines of Kenya's anti-colonial Mau Past experience had taught them that grow, reflecting the sweeping and in- Mau movement. Members take blood the Kenyan people had little sympathy creasingly arbitrary manner in which oaths and never meet in large groups. for the self-labeled intellectuals and Kenya's secret police, known as the Even if one cadre were to talk to the would-be liberators who periodically Special Branch, were doing their jobs. police, he couldn't know the names of arose to challenge the government. Instead of the usual collection of univer- more than a few others. Although the 68 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 government claims to have detained THE CASE OF SALIM LONE Mwakenya's leaders, there is no way it hen I arrived in Nairobi to research this article, I went to visit Salim Lone, a can be sure of who they are. WKenyan journalist I'd met in New York. Lone had been living in the U.S. and working for the UN since 1982 when he left Kenya in the wake of the sweeping ar- rests which preceded the August 1982 attempted coup. Lone returned to Kenya to visit his family last July after receiving assurances from senior Kenyan officials that it was safe to do so. "As there is no conflict I went to the apartment building where Lone was staying and asked a young woman of interest law in in the office for the number of his apartment. "He is not here," she said softly, her eyes scanning the open spaces behind me. Kenya, it is legal for "What do you mean? Has he gone out for a short time or left for good?" But it politicians to engage in was already clear from the look on her face that Lone had not just gone out for breakfast. business if they want They came for him in the morning," she whispered. to—and all of them do." I went up to Lone's apartment and discovered who "the/ were. The man who greeted me at the door was tall and well-dressed. Behind him, I could see two other men rifling through the apartment, searching through books and overturning seat cushions. It was the Special Branch. Mwakenya is a descendent of a group "What do you want?" the man demanded, trying to block my view of the rest of the apartment with his body. that was known as the December "Sorry, wrong apartment," I said, and hurried away. Twelfth Movement, or DTM after the Although Kenya's Special Branch had detained over 100 people since the rise of date that Kenya was granted indepen- Mwakenya, they had never gone so far as to grab someone holding a UN passport dence from Great Britain. Like Mwake- or with as many friends outside of the country. Through his previous work and cur- rent job as press spokesman for the UN Office for Emergency Operations in Africa, nya, DTM made its presence felt pri- Lone had gotten to know many international journalists, and word about his deten- marily through its publication, Pam- tion quickly reached New York where the story was published in papers across the U.S. bana, from 1982-84. Its ideas and goals The UN vigorously protested his detention and for the first time, the Kenyan govern- were identical to those of Mwakenya's, ment was under intense pressure from the international media to release one of its detainees. and many of its leaders are now proba- After two days of relentless interrogation, Lone was freed and advised to leave bly behind the Mwakenya movement— the country immediately. Back in New York, he learned while listening to the BBC but DTM never had any real public sup- that his government had taken one more action against him: In an unprecedented port. move, the Kenyan authorities had revoked his citizenship. Lone found himself a man without a country. But Mwakenya is operating in a Although he cannot exactly be regarded as a friend of the Kenyan government, changed environment. The ranks of Lone is not an active opposition spokesman and can hardly be classified a dissi- Kenya's poor and landless are swelling dent. In Kenya, he was best known for publishing controversial articles in Viva, a women's magazine he edited. He cut through the thin veneer of official government while the blatant accumulation of vast positions, often giving coverage to "unpopular" politicians such as Koigi Wamwere fortunes by the country's ruling elite and reporting the Kenyan army massacre of Somali children in the eastern town makes a mockery of the government's of Garrisa. unkept promises of assistance. It was not what Lone said that annoyed Kenyan officials, but what he saw and reported. He never advocated the overthrow of the government nor did he ever directly When Moi became president after attack any of Kenya's leaders. But he had alienated enough of the country's ruling the death of Jomo Kenyatta in 1978, he elite to give him good reason to fear for his freedom in 1982. launched a drive to rid the country of Lone chooses his words carefully when speaking to the press about Kenya. He corruption. Political prisoners were re- has been advised to limit his comments to his own case, and says little about the internal situation that led to his arrest. "I deny that I have ever been disloyal, though leased and Kenyatta's corrupt cadres some of my political views do not coincide with the government's —and that was were run out of government. In the next reflected in my journalistic work" he said. elections, some unpopular politicians While in detention, Lone was drilled about his political positions and was asked who were perennial winners were de- to characterize them. "I told them that I considered my views to be nationalist," he said. He says that he was fairly well-treated in detention, although never informed of feated. It seemed like the dawn of a new the charges against him and refused permission to make a phone call. era in Kenya. People began to speak Lone has retained a lawyer to contest the withdrawal of his citizenship. "I cannot openly about politics; politicians began believe that the law allows for the revocation of a Kenyan's citizenship without due expressing opinions; and newspapers process," he protested. The right to citizenship is one of the most deeply cherished started offering some lively commen- of the basic human rights, and I will struggle to have it restored." Lone is the first Kenyan to have that right revoked for political reasons. Even tary. At one point, university students dissidents like Ngugi wa Thiongo who openly advocate the overthrow of the govern- even staged a pro-Moi march through ment are still citizens. Perhaps the government was gambling that taking away citizen- the streets of Nairobi. ship from Lone, who is of Asian descent, would prove popular at a time when the government is again blaming Asians for many of the country's problems. Alternatively, But that lasted for less than two it may have been a way of saving face after having shown the bad judgment to ar- years. Once Kenyatta's loyalists were rest him in the first place. safely out of the way, Moi's populist Whatever the case, the government appears to be shooting in the dark in its at- rhetoric faded. He began building his tempt to smother the growing dissent in the country. Despite the high-level assurances of safety he received, Lone's arrest is another example of the extraordinary powers own empire, putting his people into key that are being accrued by the Special Branch. In Kenya's current political climate, government positions and allowing Lone's appeal for the reinstatement of his citizenship is not likely to succeed. It may them to begin amassing private for- be a long time before Salim Lone goes home again. —MM, AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 69 Selling influence and tailoring govern- ment policy for personal gain are not considered as corruption in Kenya. But where politicks get the money neces- sary to engage in their business transac- tions is another matter. Wherever it comes from, it represents a vast drain of public funds into private pockets. "In terms of corruption, Moi now ranks a close second to Mobutu," a Western diplomat said- "And he's not done yet." Kenyans accepted the corruption that flourished under Kenyatta's vast pa- tronage system. Politicians were ex- pected to take their share, but some fruit always fell from the tree. "Under ing company, and he earlier attempted, Kenyatta everybody stole and every- Homeless boys »n Meru burning card board to keep warm The ranks of Ken without success, to buy out Barclays body was encouraged to get big," a Nai- ya's poor and landless are swelling Bank, Kenya. (Barclays reportedly robi shopkeeper said. "Now people are threatened to leave the country if an- afraid to get big, because if they do, the tunes. When voices were raised in pro- other buyout was attempted.) president might notice and take their test, Moi silenced them. Kenya's elite also began to open their businesses." That process was temporarily slowed own banks, undercapitalized and poorly "I can only compare the mood in by the failed coup attempt of 1982. The managed institutions which were ripe Kenya today to that just before the 1982 abortive attempt by Air Force NCOs for failure from the start. Several of coup," a veteran Kenyan journalist told came at a time when corruption and de- these banks have already gone under, me. "The corruption. . . the fear. . . tentions of political dissidents were the most recent example being Conti- the mistrust. There is a feeling that again on the rise in Kenya. The coup nental Bank. When the bank folded in something is going to happen." attempt sent a shock through govern- July, the government revealed that the The amassing of wealth by the elite is ment officials who couldn't help but no- bank's directors had lent themselves clashing with natural limits of the envi- tice the enthusiastic support given to and their relatives some $23 million in ronment and beginning to be felt the rebels by Nairobi's urban poor. unsecured loans. throughout the society. Kenya's popula- But those lessons seem to have been But other banks survive while operat- tion of 20 million is growing at the forgotten in four short years. In the past ing in a similar fashion. Many informed world's highest rate of 4 percent per year alone, President Moi and his busi- sources in Kenya believe that the failure year and there is no more land. Only ness partners have bought up large real of Continental Bank, and the earlier col- one-third of tins country's land is arable estate holdings in Nairobi. "Kenyans no lapse of the Rural-Urban Credit Finance to begin with, and all that is taken. longer try to figure out which buildings Company were helped along by the gov- Meanwhile government officials and the Moi owns; they try to figure out which ernment. Both the bank and the credit elite continue to create estates reminis- buildings he doesn't own," a Kenyan company were Kikuyu-owned institu- cent of the banished colonial empire. friend told me in Nairobi. tions (Vice President Mwai Kibaki was But if the present situation is proving Along with some of Nairobi's major one of the principals in Continental difficult for many Kenyans, the future buildings, Moi's personal business hold- Bank). Both institutions put consider- seems even more frightening. Most ings are said to include Marshall able economic weight in the hands of a Kenyans know that the overthrow or Peugeot, Kenya's largest automobile group of people who have been deprived change of government is not an answer dealership, and Fox Theaters, recently of much of their political and economic to all of their problems. "The people purchased from 20th Century Fox, power in the last few years. have seen what has happened in Uganda which has a monopoly on the importa- As there is no conflict of interest law and in Ethiopia," I was told in Nairobi. tion of films to Kenya. in Kenya, it is legal for politicians to en- 'This government doesn't seem too bad Reliable sources have also confirmed gage in business if they want to—and all in comparison. Most people just hope that Moi was behind the purchase of of them do. There is no distinction made that the government doesn't do some- Mobil Oil Kenya by a Delaware-based between the interests of the individuals thing stupid and force the army to act. holding company. (Much to the chagrin who comprise the new ruling elite and The mechanisms still exist to turn of the Mobil Oil Corporation, Moi has the interests of the government and the things around here democratically. . . changed the name of the company to country, and the government can dic- but those mechanisms are being de- Kobil while keeping the familiar Mobil tate which institutions succeed and stroyed. " logo.) Moi has also reportedly bought a which fail simply by telling government- My friend's fears were prophetic. A controlling interest in Firestone's owned corporations where to keep their week later, in mid-August, KANU an- Kenya subsidiary through another hold- money. nounced the abolition of the secret bal- 70 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 manent secretary' in the office of the ready feel that they have been victim- "The amassing of president. ized economically and politically by the wealth by the elite is On several occasions, Nyachai has Moi government. At a time when dis- clashing with natural had to step in to "clarify" off-the-cuff sent is on the rise, Moi can ill afford to limits of the statements that Moi has made. Most make unnecessary enemies. environment and recently, Moi announced in his May Day The president's popularity is clearly speech that workers would only have to on the wane. At a recent rally, Moi beginning to be felt work five days a week rather than six. stood in front of a huge crowd chanting, throughout the The call was greeted with jubilation by "Nyayo. nyayo" (Swahili for "footsteps") society." workers, but threw shopkeepers, busi- as he has done for years. At Kenyatta's nesses, and public corporations into a death, Moi proclaimed that he would panic. Nyachai had to explain that the fuata nyao, or follow in Kenyatta's foot- lot. Voters in the next primary elections details of the proposal had yet to be steps. As opposition to Moi's ascen- will cast their votes by lining up behind ironed out and that it was not intended dency to the top post was beaten back, the candidate of their choice. If a candi- for immediate implementation. politicians and leaders joined the nyayo date receives 70 percent of the vote in First considered no more than a con- call, indicating that they would follow in the primary, he will stand unopposed in venient ethnic compromise—a Kalenjin Moi's footsteps. the general elections. KANU officials in a country dominated by the Luo and It is Moi's personal rallying cry, and claim that the procedure is being put in the Kikuyu—Moi shocked friends and the crowds that come to greet the presi- place to eliminate fraud and vote-buy- enemies alike by adeptly securing his dent usually return ''Nyayo' in enthusi- ing. In practice, however, the new own power base and ridding the govern- astic reply. But at this political rally, the method will assure that no candidate op- ment of all challengers. The most highly huge crowd was noticeably reticent. posed by KANU will be elected—no publicized of these moves was the politi- They silently looked on as if the presi- Kenyan citizen would dare to publicly cal destruction of Charles Njonjo, the dent were no more than a curiosity. All contravene the stated will of the party. feisty minister of constitutional affairs the same, Moi continued to raise his fly- The government's attack on free who at one time was considered the real wisk to his own cries of "Nyayo". It was elections immediately raised protests power behind Moi, simply biding his as if he couldn't hear that the crowd from churches in Kenya. In an unprece- time until circumstances were right for wasn't with him. dented move, the National Christian him to take over. Many observers believe that Kenya Council of Kenya firmly denounced the In 1983, Moi dispensed with Njonjo in is now facing the greatest threat to its change, embroiling the church and gov- one bold move and proceeded to re- stability since independence. The only ernment in a heated war of words. One make the government in his own image. thing that is keeping the lid on the politi- cabinet minister challenged the church's The only remaining government official cal situation, they argue, is the strength opposition to the new law by question- who was not strictly indebted to Moi is of the economy due to the combined ing how the church, which considers it- the vice president, Mwai Kibaki, a Ki- effects of lower oil prices, high prices for self the light of the world, could approve kuyu from Nyeri whose presence in Kenya's principal exports of coffee and of doing anything in secret. government was seen as an insurance tea, and record levels of tourism. But Although the party has won the politi- policy against a Kikuyu uprising. this cushion won't be there forever, or cal battle, the church's challenge has But earlier this year, Moi moved even for a few more years. been duly noted by Kenyans and can against Kibaki. In March, an MP stood Kenya today is filled with fear—fear only damage party and government up in Parliament and attacked Kibaki on of the current government and of the credibility in the end. a trivial issue. It seems that Moi had Special Branch secret police who have It would appear that Moi's drive to spoken in Kibaki's home district of Nyeri overstepped their bounds, and fear of consolidate power has gone beyond the and urged politicians to stop squabbling what might happen if the Moi govern- point of diminishing return. Kenyansare among themselves. After commenting ment's excesses lead to its overthrow. now wondering why Moi would push for that there wasn't any squabbling going Not one of the people I talked to in power after his hold on the government on, Kibaki was attacked for contradict- Kenya would allow me to use his or her has seemingly been secured. ing the president. name, and many refused to talk to a And eight years into his presidency, While Moi kept his distance from the Western journalist at all. My Kenyan people still question whether Moi is run- incident, it is apparent that no one would friends were especially reluctant to dis- ning the country or if someone else is criticize the vice president without the cuss politics. Foreign journalists based pulling the strings. Moi is often per- approval of a higher authority. Criticism in Kenya sit on their stories and plan to ceived as craving public approval and as of Kibaki persisted, but the vice presi- use them after they leave the country being a populist at heart—characteris- dent was able to hang on. for good. They feel that it would be too tics that are at odds with the harsh But most observers agree that elimi- risky to publish the truth while they are methods of his rule. The popular wis- nating Kibaki would be a grave error on still there, for there is nothing the rulers dom contends that the government is Moi's part. It would be seen as a blow of Kenya seem to fear more than the actually run by Simon Nyachai, the per- against all Kikuyu, many of whom al- truth. D AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 71 North Africa Oujda on the 1 A Rocks Morocco's King Hassan and Col. Muammar Qaddafy of Libya have dissolved their two-year-old "Arab-African Union." Morocco's close relationship with the United States and the Libyan leader's support for radical causes rendered this unlikely partnership untenable. BY GEORGE HENDERSON nique called the Moroccan action "trea- full meeting of Arab heads of state, the son. " King discovered that Libya, on whose n August 2S, King Hassan II of behalf the meeting was called, would OMorocco unilaterally ended his Soured Relations agree to the summit only if it were held country's treaty of unity with Libya, Although abrupt, the Moroccan deci- in Sebha, in southern Libya. Syria signed two years earlier. The following sion was not altogether unexpected. backed the Libyan demand, and both day, the King announced his decision on Recent trends in Moroccan policy indi- countries insisted that the meeting ad- Moroccan television, making it clear cate that the move had been coming for dress only the attack on Tripoli, al- that he had already informed Libyan several months. Many observers though other Arab countries wanted to leader Col. Muammar Qaddafy. His thought that the King merely capitalized discuss the Gulf war and the Arab-Is- action, he explained, was prompted by on an opportune moment to formalize raeli dispute as well. an August 25 communique issued in the break. Clearly, enthusiasm for the However, it was not only Morocco Tripoli at the end of Syrian President Treaty of Oujda had waned for some which had become increasingly unen- Gen. Hafez al-Assad's two-day visit to time—at least in official Moroccan cir- thusiastic over the political implications the Libyan capital. cles—and a good excuse was all that of the treaty. Libya had begun to resent What offended the Moroccan ruler was needed to cancel it. the limitations the treaty imposed on its was the reference in the communique to Indeed, from the beginning of 1986, radicalism—-over the Western Sahara, his meeting with Israeli Prime Minister Morocco showed increasing embarrass- for example. The Qaddafy government Shimon Peres at the end of July, an ment at being associated with a country was also frustrated at its continued ex- event which was greeted with negative vilified as responsible for a series of ap- clusion from Algeria's economic and po- comment throughout the Arab world. palling acts of international terrorism. litical integration with Tunisia—the At the time, Libya issued no official After the mid-April U.S. bombing of result of the 20-year Treaty of Concord statement. Showing unusual reticence, Tripoli, for example, Morocco con- and Fraternity signed by the two coun- Qaddafy merely expressed his "amaze- tented itself with a purely formal decla- tries in March 1983 and to which, in ment" on being told the news but ration of support for the Qaddafy gov- part, the pact with Morocco had been a avoided any additional public pronounce- ernment in its hour of need—even riposte. ment. However, on the occasion of As- though the Oujda treaty incorporated Libya tried to join the Algerian initia- sad's visit, and no doubt partly through special provisions for mutual defense in tive for Maghrebian unity in December his prompting, Libya's August commu- such situations. 1983, but was rebuffed because of its King Hassan was also irritated by Lib- refusal to compromise over the two Ceorge Henderson has specialized in North Af- ya's actions in the wake of the Tripoli countries' common border in the Ghat rica for many years. He is a frequent contributor to the BBC and specialized publications on Mo- raid. After having convened the Arab region. Libya's anxieties over its rela- rocco and Libya in Britain and Europe. foreign ministers in Fez to prepare for a tions with Algeria deepened after the 72 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 August 1985 expulsion of over 30,000 Tunisian workers from Libya. Algeria roundly supported Tunisia, particularly after Libya allegedly threatened to in- vade Tunisian territory. As the U.S. grew more hostile toward Libya at the end of 1985, the Qaddafy government was clearly anxious to restore friendly relations with Algiers. The Algerians, however, remained cautious in their responses to the ever more urgent Libyan signals for rap- prochement, although President Chad- li Benjedid's government was pri- vately delighted at the possibility of in- creasing Rabat's isolation in the Maghreb. Clearly, at least one of Alge- ria's demands for improved relations would be tied to Libya's support for Poli- sario, the Saharawi liberation move- ment fighting Morocco's occupation of the Western Sahara. Col. Muammar Qaddafy: "Libya had begun to resent the limitations the treaty imposed on Moroccan discomfort with the Libyan its radicalism" connection was therefore intensified by On the other hand, the Chadii gov- where that Libya had decided to openly these moves. Rabat's anxieties came to ernment was increasingly predisposed support Polisario—at least before the a head in January this year, when it was toward improving relations with Tripoli end of August. The Algerian press announced that Qaddafy and Chadii met because of its desire to avoid Arab and would certainly have publicized such at the Algerian desert border town of In African accusations of support for news as part of its campaign against Mo- Amenas. The Algerian authorities ap- American policies on terrorism and the rocco's obdurate refusal to modify its proached this meeting with apprehen- Middle East. At the same time, the op- stand on Western Sahara. sion, given U.S. claims of Qaddafy's in- portunity to wean Libya away from Mo- Observers quickly noted, however, volvement with international terrorism rocco was too good to miss. Algeria held that Mohanied Abdelaziz, president of following the attacks on the Vienna and out the bait of economic cooperation to the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic Rome airports at the end of December seal the bargain, involving supplying Al- (SAI)R), Western Sahara's govern- 1985. gerian natural gas to northern Libya, ment-in-exile, attended the September After all, in 1985 Algeria had ex- linking electricity grids of both coun- 1 celebration of the 1969 Libyan revolu- pended considerable effort to improve tries, cooperation over Algerian auto- tion which brought Qaddafy to power. mobile production and Libyan aluminum Presumably, once Morocco had unilat- smelting, and joint oil exploration, min- erally breached its unity treaty with "It was evident that eral extraction, and industrial enter- Libya, Qaddafy no longer saw any point Hassan had decided prises. in concealing his basic sympathies for that closer relations To Moroccan leaders, it seemed as if the SADR. with the U.S. were far Libya was returning to its old habits of more important to support for radicalism in North Africa, The Background to the Treaty Morocco than a particularly over the Western Sahara is- Indeed, the SADR president's partic- continued but moribund sue. The Algerian media indicated that ipation in the 17th anniversary celebra- Libya would renew its support for Foli- tions of the Great September Revolu- federation with Libya." sario—although this proved too san- tion provided an appropriate symbol of guine. At least in part, this was due to the unrealistic nature of the treaty be- its relations with Washington, partly in Hassan's offer to both Libya and Wash- tween Morocco and Libya—the Arab- hopes of persuading the Reagan admin- ington to act as a mediator after the U.S. African Union. The union had after all istration to reduce its support for Mo- attacks on missile sites in the Gulf of been born out of frustrations over the rocco over the Western Sahara issue— Sirte and the bombings of Tripoli and Saharan conflict and the consequent po- precisely because of the Moroccan-Lib- Benghazi in March and April, respec- litical divisions in North Africa. yan link. Algiers clearly did not want to tively. The union had originally been a Mo- lose the benefits of its diplomatic shift The U.S. showed no interest in the roccan proposal, made just a year after toward the West by any precipitate offer, but Libya did. As a result, no evi- Qaddafy's own unexpected appearance action in favor of Tripoli. dence surfaced in the media or else- in Rabat in June 1983. He had come to AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 73 repair relations with Morocco, broken in the wake of Libya's ill-judged and pre- mature support for the abortive army- backed Skhirat coup plot against the Moroccan ruler in 1971. Aware of Qad- dafy's frustration at Algeria's refusal to consider Libyan participation in the Treaty of Concord and Fraternity, Has- san exploited the opportunity by making his unity proposal in mid-August 1984, thus breaching Morocco's own isolation in North Africa. Algerian anger over the totally unex- pected Moroccan initiative intensified with the discovery that the proposed union was identical to one the King had offered to Chadli earlier in the year. The Moroccan treaty also formalized Libya's termination the previous year of mate- U.S. AID health care project: "U.S. aid did not fall significantly despite the threats" rial aid to Folisario. This persuaded Al- structures. Nonetheless, it did seem to preferential rates. In addition, Tripoli geria that Morocco had no intention of offer the only short-term opportunity to promised a loan of $100 million for cereal satisfying Organization of African Unity realize Libyan policy objectives in this purchases—although, given the col- (OAU) demands for a negotiated end to direction. lapse in oil prices during the latter part of the Western Sahara conflict. After Libya Complex federal political structures 1985 and 1986, it is unlikely that it was accepted the proposal, Algeria began were created by the treaty which, un- actually made. A joint holding company, large-scale military support to Polisario. like the Algerian Treaty of Concord and Salima, was set up by Libya's foreign Libya further restricted its contacts Fraternity, was to be open to other investment arm, Lafico, and by the Mo- with the Western Saharan movement Arab and African states without precon- roccan Office de Developpement et In- and abstained on the issue in discussions dition. There was to be a two-year ro- dustrialisation, with a capital base set at at the OAU and the UN. tating presidency, advisory committees $43 million. The unity treaty between radical on common political, economic, and At the end of 1985, both countries Libya and the conservative Moroccan technical matters, a mutual defense obli- signed an agreement to facilitate remit- monarchy—strange bedfellows indeed, gation, and a federal tribunal to pro- tances and commercial payments, and particularly in view of their mutual an- nounce on breaches of the treaty. Moroccan companies operating in Libya tagonism during the previous decade— Although an administrative backup were given special status. Negotiations was greeted enthusiastically in Mo- for the presidency was created, to- were also underway for joint projects in rocco. In a referendum on the issue at gether with a joint parliamentary com- oil prospecting, fertilizer production, the end of August, 96.7 percent of the mittee and some technological commit- and iron ore supply from Morocco to the electorate approved the union. The tees, it was soon evident that the politi- new Libyan steel complex at Misurata. overwhelming vote of approval re- cal will needed to sustain the system Nevertheless, it was apparent that flected both genuine enthusiasm for re- was not really there. King Hassan never the main purpose of the unity treaty was gional unity—a major platform for all po- made his promised visit to Tripoli, and diplomatic—at least as far as Morocco litical parties since independence—and Col. Qaddafy never returned to Rabat. was concerned. Indeed, the primary popular resentment against Algeria for There were, however, develop- purpose was to keep Libya from sup- opposing Morocco's claims to the West- ments in the economic field. Moroccan porting Polisario and to prevent Algeria ern Sahara. Most Moroccans feel Alger- companies were granted special con- from increasing its hegemony over the ian leaders have done their best to frus- tract terms in Libya and Moroccans North African region. In this respect, trate these claims since the 1960s. themselves began to look toward Libya Hassan can well feel pleased, since for In Libya, there was unanimous sup- for employment opportunities. Eventu- the past two years, the treaty achieved port for the unity proposals from the ally, around 20,000 Moroccans found precisely these results. 1,347 peoples' congresses. The Libyan work in Libya and, unlike Egyptians and At the same time, Morocco was able government is after all founded on the Tunisians, were excluded from the ex- to use the respite to complete its defen- premise that regional unity in North Af- pulsions begun in August 1985 when sive system in the Sahara, which now rica and the Middle East is the ultimate Libya decided to cut back on its foreign controls over two-thirds of the terri- goal of foreign policy. Admittedly, this payments by reducing the migrant labor tory. Furthermore, tacit Libyan sup- unity proposal was unlike Libya's six force. port for Morocco's moves in the West- previous attempts, since there could be During 1985, Morocco also received ern Sahara helped deflect international no easy integration of national political 500,000 tons of crude oil from Libya at criticism following Morocco's OAU 74 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 all, Morocco was considered a vital U. S. in 1985 would not signal any change in ally in terms of American interests in policy toward Morocco. Africa. To see such an ally align itself In fact, it appears that the King had with a state that Washington had turned carefully calculated the dangers of his against as early as 1981 and toward Libya pact. The U.S. weighed its obvi- which American hostility had steadily ous irritation against the real advantages grown must have been very irritating of close relations with Morocco—facili- indeed for the Reagan administration. ties for the Rapid Deployment Force at American anger was aggravated by Kenitra airbase and at Side Slimane and the fact that not even the U.S. ambassa- for the new Voice of America transmit- dor in Rabat, Joseph V. Reed, who ter in Tangier. Furthermore, Morocco claimed privileged access to official Mo- could offer support for U.S. policy in the roccan circles, knew of the decision to Middle East, for the King was the chair- sign the treaty. Congress too was en- man of the standing committee of the raged by the Moroccan action and Arab league. threats were made to cut future military During 1986, the significance of this aid. slowly became apparent, as King Has- walkout in November 1984 and its sub- In fact, U.S. aid did not fall signifi- san gingerly edged toward a dramatic sequent withdrawal from the organiza- cantly despite the threats, totalling $150 change in policy involving open contacts tion. million in fiscal year 1984, $135 million in with Israel. This move also coincided Although Libya did not leave the 1985, and $140 million in 1986. Of this with Rabat's reckoning that the Oujda OAU, it provided no active support to total, military aid comprised approxi- treaty had served its purpose, and that the Algerian-SADR case, as it would mately $65 million, $45 million, and $52 Libya was now probably severely have done in the past. In the UN Gen- million, respectively. The Libya treaty, enough affected by declining oil reve- eral Assembly debate a few weeks after however, helped senators and con- nues to be unable to offer significant rnil- the OAU decision, Libya abstained in gressmen who wished to see the admin- the final vote, thus providing Morocco istration take a more even-handed ap- with further indirect support. The most proach in the Western Sahara conflict— "The Libyan treaty had important aspect for Morocco, how- for the U. S. tended to support outlived its usefulness ever, must have been the knowledge Morocco. Now they could argue the and the King had been that Libya's military aid to Polisario had case against Morocco far more easily ceased and that Algeria had to assume and expect to receive a better public looking for an that burden. hearing. appropriate opportunity In some ways, this decision was In any event, the Reagan administra- to break it for several probably not very difficult for Qaddafy, tion did not significantly reduce its sup- months." since he was always ambivalent over the port for Morocco, although the U.S. Western Sahara issue, on the one hand embassy in Algiers did revive the cau- supporting a struggle for national libera- tious contacts with the Western Sa- itary aid to Polisario. tion against a regime which, until June harans that existed at the end of the During Hassan's visit to France in late 1983, he had always characterized as 1970s. The White House did, however, November 1985, there were hints that a corrupt, but on the other hand, fearing make it clear to Moroccan envoys, such meeting with Peres was not altogether the consequent "balkanization" of North as the King's personal adviser Reda out of the question. Tliis came on the Africa resulting from an SADR victory. Guedira, that the treaty with Libya heels of Morocco's decision to allow Is- Further, Moroccan support, how- would make it extremely difficult to raelis, including Likud Knesset mem- ever restrained, was a great help to the maintain close personal contacts be- bers, to visit the country for a Moroccan beleaguered Qaddafy government, tween Moroccan and U. S. officials—es- Jewish Congress in May 1984 and the given its intense isolation in the Middle pecially between the president and the King's decision to jointly sponsor a East and Africa resulting from its sup- King. standing Jewish congress in Quebec in port for Iran, its antagonism to the main- As a result, Hassan was forced to 1985 with the Israeli prime minister. line Palestine Liberation Organization forego his traditional annual visit to Although Hassan made no secret of (PLO), its interference in Chad and Washington until July this year, when his belief that negotiations over the elsewhere in the Sahel, and problems the trip was once again delayed to make Arab-Israeli conflict and the Palestinian with European states such as France. way for the historic meeting between situation were essential, it was not an the King and Peres. Despite this sign of accident that his initiative coincided with The U.S. Dimension presidential displeasure, Morocco nev- more direct efforts to improve relations Indeed, it was precisely this aspect of ertheless was able to ensure that U.S. with the U.S. At the King's 25th anni- the treaty arrangements that so food aid continued and that the Algerian versary celebration of his accession to annoyed the U.S. administration. After president's first official visit to the U.S. the throne, American guests were AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 75 prominent and included CIA Director aid position in FY 1987. Furthermore, gogue. William Casey and U.S. ambassador to Morocco is also anxious for U.S. aid in Moderates like Tunisia, who would the UN Gen. Vernon Walters. another direction. During his visit to the like to strengthen ties with Morocco and It was evident that Hassan had de- Western Sahara in March 1985, King see a degree of regional unity believing cided that closer relations with the U.S. Hassan announced a five-year $1 billion this is the only way to resolve the West- were far more important to Morocco rearmament program for the Moroccan ern Sahara conflict, must now stand than a continued but moribund federa- armed forces. back and wait for better times. tion with Libya, especially in view of the A crucial element is the acquisition of Hassan, however, clearly feels that open confrontation between the U.S. new aircraft for the Moroccan airforce. the U.S. option is best for Morocco. and Libyan governments. There were, The original intention was to acquire Mi- This parallels the Moroccan attempt to however, other more direct benefits. rage 2(XX)s from France, but neither find a basis for entry into the European Morocco has a massive foreign debt, Saudi Arabia nor France were willing to Economic Community (EEC), pro- now totalling close to $14 billion. As one offer financial aid for the purchases. posed in 1985 as a means of resolving of the 20 most heavily indebted coun- Now it appears that Morocco is looking the economic problems between the tries in the world, it is a prime candidate toward the U.S. to both supply appro- southern Mediterranean states and the for aid under the Baker Plan proposals. priate aircraft and help with the financ- EEC. Quite simply, Hassan believes Over the past three years, however, ing. Improved relations between the that Morocco can and should act as a the Moroccan government, with IMF U.S. and Morocco are thus essential. bridge between the West and Middle and World Bank help, has been restruc- No wonder then that the treaty with East. turing its economy, enabling it to re- Libya was jettisoned. Further, Morocco should be pre- schedule its bilateral, multilateral, and King Hassan's decision to abandon his pared to point the way to Middle East- commercial debt. two-year-old treaty with Libya also cor- ern states in making unpalatable deci- Nevertheless, there have been prob- responds with the monarchy's improved sions, such as talking to Israel—ensur- lems with commercial banks—in which sense of internal stability now that the ing, at the same time, that Israel is U.S. banks predominate—and with the military problems of the Western Sahara forced to recognize the relevance and IMF, which has been worried over the appear to be solved. This has been immutability of Palestinian demands and implications of recent levels of govern- marked by a pronounced foreign policy the role of the PLO. ment expenditure. The result has been move toward the West and a readiness In the end, the Libyan treaty had out- the withdrawal of IMF standby credit to reject the iron certainties that have lived its usefulness and the King had and problems over further rescheduling characterized Middle Eastern politics been looking for an appropriate opportu- of commercial debt. Support from the for so many decades, particularly over nity to break it for several months. Yet, U.S. government could well ease both the Arab-Israeli conflict. The immediate Hassan cannot forget his domestic con- these problems at a time when the Mo- benefits are considerable—economic stituency. Moroccans have learned to roccans believe they are close to resolv- assistance, military aid, and future ku- accept and respect their ruler's subtle ing their economic difficulties, despite dos over Morocco's new posture in the and frequent shifts in foreign policy, but the costs of the Western Sahara war and Middle East. The loss of Libyan support they may also have different impera- the continued depression in interna- must seem extremely slight by compari- tives. Most Moroccans perceive arcane tional phosphate prices. (Morocco is the son. considerations of the importance of world's largest exporter of phosphates, At the same time, Morocco must U.S. relations as secondary to the vital which form the most important compo- now deal with increased isolation inside social and political imperatives of Arab nent of its exports.) the Middle East and North Africa. Not and Maghrebi unity. There are two other crucial economic only will Hassan's government be re- They are bound, therefore, to be in- considerations as well—both of which jected by the radicals—who have in any tensely disappointed with the conse- would have pushed Morocco to reevalu- case long been suspicious of the Moroc- quences of the recent policy changes in ate and improve its relations with the can ruler's pro-Western tendencies— Rabat. Yet, they will tolerate the King's U.S. at Libya's expense. First, Mo- but moderates will also have to be cir- decisions—provided they result in eas- rocco, in common with all U. S. aid recip- cumspect in their relations with Mo- ing the austerity of daily life and not in ients except Israel, must fear the dan- rocco in the short-term at least. more profound regional isolation. How- gers of the across-the-board aid cuts Indeed, there are already sugges- ever, Moroccan memories are long and threatened by the Gramm-Rudman- tions that Middle Eastern radicals have it is a tradition that they do not easily Hollings amendment. Even though the turned their unwelcome attentions to- forget their rulers' mistakes. It is there- original amendment has been rejected ward the Sharifian monarchy. Moroccan fore hoped that the Reagan administra- by the U.S. Supreme Court, it will reap- security services claim to have uncov- tion will respond appropriately to the pear in another form, threatening all e*" ' two terrorist plots, one involving King's moves and not treat them cyni- American aid recipients. two Palestinians and two Tunisians ar- cally as part of its simplistic strategic By demonstrating its importance for rested in Casablanca in possession of view of the Middle East and North Af- U.S. policy in the Middle East and North explosives, and the other involving a rica as surrogates in the greater conflict Africa, Morocco\ might well improve its planned attack on a Casablanca syna- between East and West. Q 76 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 The new Sudanese Prime Minister has had little time to address the country's economic problems due to the spreading war in the south. The reluctance of foreign oil companies to continue operations given the security risks will pose further hardships on an already collapsing economy. BY CAROL BERGER Sudan fter a three-month delay in releas- Aing the budget, preliminary fig- ures from the Sudanese Ministry of Fi- nance suggest it will closely mirror the deficit budget of 1985. The budget was Sadiq planned to coincide with the launching of a long-awaited recovery program, but financial authorities abroad are hardly holding their breath. After adopting a wait-and-see atti- and the tude following the April elections, their mood has turned into impatience and disenchantment. The World Bank had urged Khartoum to introduce reforms South at the time it announced the budget, and unless it soon does so, say bankers, any large multilateral rescue package is con- Development Agency says its funds are sidered unlikely. exhausted. Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi, long The U. S. is still reassessing its com- viewed in the West as a moderate, has mitments. Despite political pronounce- spent his first months in power pursuing ments to the contrary, Washington is Arab unity. In trips to the Soviet Union, reportedly disillusioned with Mahdi. Su- Kuwait, and Iran, his advisers under- dan's growing links with Libya have led took an international mediating role in to significant cuts in the U.S. aid pro- conflicts far beyond Sudan's traditional gram—allegedly for security reasons. sphere of influence. Back home, the ec- On April 15—only hours after the onomic and political situation worsens. American bombings of Tripoli and Political insiders suggested months Benghazi—a U.S. embassy employee ago that Mahdi's political career may was seriously wounded in Khartoum. In have peaked with liis election and the days following the attack, the em- warned that Western leaders were na- bassy evacuated more than 300 Ameri- ive in their assessments of the premier, can citizens. Many of those remaining a member of the Ansar, the largest were directly involved in the disburse- northern religious group. As head of a ment of aid. However, despite acutely coalition government representing the strained relations, Sudan will be the Khattmiyya sect's pro-Egyptian Demo- largest black African recipient of Ameri- cratic Unionist Party, Mahdi confronts can aid in FY 1986-87, receiving $223.5 what is considered an unworkable divi- million, an increase over the previous sion of party and national interests. year, but less than the requested $254 The current mood of Sudan's interna- million. tional donors varies. The Netherlands, The prognosis for economic recovery considered a key donor, is understood is poor, however. Agricultural output to fully support the new government; continues to fall. The effects of ex- West Germany is described as hesi- tended drought and seed shortages tant; the United Kingdom's Overseas have slashed grain yields; at the same time, white fly infestation of the cotton U.S. AID food drop in Darfur: "Despite Carol Berger is a freelance journalist who has acutely strained relations, Sudan will be reported from Sudan for The Times of London, harvest has dramatically reduced earn- the largest black African recipient of the BBC World and Africa Services, The Econo- American aid in FY 1986-87" mist, and other publications and new services. ings. AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 77 Most of the 1984-85 cotton crop went "If the government shows it is doing a unsold until August of this year, when reasonable job of putting its house in or- the Sudan Cotton Company sold some der, then it will be time for talks on an 324,(XX) bales of barakat (long-staple) international effort to begin," said one cotton at far below world market prices. economist. "In a situation where no spe- In 1985, the World Bank advised that cific policies exist, a rescue plan will not the crop could fetch $0.90 per pound. be launched." Some reports suggest that the recent To date, the government has given sale was for only half that amount. little indication of its plans for reform. In Total revenue from agriculture fell by a speech to the national assembly on a staggering 33 percent between the July 7, Mahdi did refer to the need to 1984 and 1985 seasons. Cotton earn- reduce expenditure and review ineffi- ings declined by 25 percent while other cient government corporations. How- crops saw similar reductions. Gum ara- ever, economists are discouraged by bic fell by 36 percent, and sesame by 39 references to continued meat subsidies percent. Revenue targets in recent and the banning of some livestock ex- years are evidence of the country's nar- ports. row tax base. Targets were hit in part During budget discussions, the World by import restrictions and the ban on Bank reportedly emphasized the need alcohol imposed in 1984 by former pres- to draw up a comprehensive economic ident Gaafar al-Nimeiry. "Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi, long viewed in the West as a moderate, has spent his In recent years, the development first months in power pursuing Arab unity" _^-^^^^_^—^^^-^^^^^^— budget was financed almost entirely by program. As a senior Bank official said, Gen. Abdul Rahman Sawar-Dahab— foreign grants and loans and the local "Sudan's economic problems are be- mounted a well-publicized assault on the proceeds of commodity aid. With no yond the stage where measures such as rebel-held town of Rumbek, in Bahr el government recovery program in sight, a moderate budget deficit will give re- Ghazal region. however, the International Monetary lief." Amid the climate of electioneering, Fund declared Sudan ineligible for fur- If the government follows IMF direc- the fundamentalist National Islamic ther borrowing in February this year. tives, the program will include mea- Front (formerly known as the Muslim The suspension of Fund lending has had sures on the exchange rate, revenue in- Brotherhood) demanded that volun- little practical effect, but it is significant creases, and a deregulation of diesel and teers be allowed to fight in the south and in political terms. The decision marked a water prices. But financial analysts hold rallied for greater support for the Suda- new low in Sudan's decline in cre- out little hope for dramatic reform in the nese army. Although the TMC rejected ditworthiness and was a warning to do- near future. "It doesn't look too good," volunteer enlistment, the army did re- nors against further loan commitments. says one. "It is a tremendous problem ceive more support—including the use Budget details for the current year to tackle the economy while the war is of Libyan bombers and weaponry from were presented by Finance and Eco- still going on." Egypt and other Arab states. However, nomic Planning Minister Beshir Omer The three-year war with southern despite massive troop deployments and on September 18. The deficit is esti- Sudanese rebels has accelerated since the Libyan aircraft, the town remains mated at $1.2 billion in fiscal year 1986- earlier this year. With substantial back- insecure and liable to SPLA recapture. 87. The estimated deficit in the previous ing from neighboring Ethiopia, the Su- The assault on Rumbek is reported to year was $1.12 billion. About $795 mil- dan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) have displaced thousands of civilians, lion will be financed by foreign loans and has effectively halted all aid and develop- most of whom remain in the inaccessible grants. Revenues are projected to total ment in the resource-rich south, and bush. $1.1 billion against only $538.2 million taken control of large areas in the re- International aid agencies now esti- the previous year. mote region. mate that more than 2 million people Expenditure has been set at $2.2 bil- The August 16 downing of a civilian face starvation, mainly in SPLA-held ar- lion, compared with $2.43 billion in aircraft killing all 63 aboard further inten- eas. Those near the Kenyan border 1985-86, including $952 million for de- sified calls in northern Sudan for a re- may receive help from Western aid velopment and $212 million for debt newed offensive in the south. Pressure agencies. The vast majority in the re- servicing. Arrears to the IMF are esti- has been building in the northern cities mote Upper Nile and Bahr el Ghazal re- mated at $300 million. In the absence of as more and more southern refugees gions can expect no assistance. The Su- a decisive economic reform program, from the war settle in the urban slums. danese government has banned all con- the international donor community is Fears are now growing that violence will tact between aid agencies and the unlikely to provide the multilateral res- soon spread to the northern centers. SPLA, and the rebels say they will shoot cue package needed to address the In the weeks leading up to the April down any planes flying into govern- debt. Total debt is now estimated at a handover of power, the Transitional ment-controlled towns. As the politics staggering $10 billion. Military Council (TMC)—led by Maj.- of food drags on, the situation is consid- 78 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 Chevron's exploration expenses at its close its offices. southern Sudan fields, was put at $2.5 "Even if we elect to liquidate, it must billion. The value of the pipeline itself be done in an orderly fashion. First of all, was said to approach $1 billion. we must cancel remaining contracts," While sporadic anti-government says one spokesman. He declined to clashes were well underway in 1983, it comment on what could prove to be pro- was not until February 1984 that violent tracted talks with company sharehold- and well-planned attacks by the SPLA ers about WNPC debt. But he noted, "A paralyzed both oil exploration and work lot of work was undertaken in the name on the Jonglei canal water project in the of White Nile, a lot of money was spent. Upper Nile and Bahr el Ghazal regions The money was provided by somebody of southern Sudan. Both the oil and ca- and it wasn't White Nile. Now White nal work were in the heart of Sudan's Nile has an obligation." remotest territory. In September, the That somebody was Chevron and French firm contracted to build the Royal Dutch Shell. The companies have Jonglei canal took the Sudanese govern- already lent White Nile about $132 mil- ment to court for $30 million in dam- lion as compensation to contractors dur- ages. ing the extended work shutdown. In the same month that the rebel at- Despite these considerable difficul- tack on Chevron's Rub Kona base camp ties, the government has not given up ered critical in large parts of the region. ended what had been a $500,000-a-day the idea of developing its oil reserves in As long as the war continues, the project. Chevron and the Royal Dutch the near future. Publicly, it says that for government will be unable to curb ex- Shell Group signed an agreement giving the time being, the low world oil price penditure. In 1985, Khartoum officials Shell 25 percent of Chevron's equity has made the export pipeline unfeasible. estimated that the conflict was costing stake in WNPC. Shell also took on 25 However, oil companies consider the more than $400,000 a day. This figure percent of Chevron's production-shar- price of oil to be academic next to the has since risen: The government ing agreement. overriding security problems. stepped up military operations early this After more than two years of sus- France's Total, which has licensing year and dramatically increased field pay pended oil work in the now war-torn rights in the rebel-controlled Upper Nile to the southern-based troops. Com- south, the cancellation of the WNPC region, has been unable to pursue ex- pounding this are the effects of domestic contracts marks a tum for the worse in ploration for almost three years. Com- inflation—now estimated at 45-50 per- Sudan's hopes of recovering what are pany officials say its Khartoum offices cent annually. considered to be important reserves. were effectively closed in mid-Septem- Rising security fears and a worsening Some industry estimates put Chevron's ber, when its last remaining "trouble- economic picture have dealt a particu- Unity field reserves at 150 million bar- shooter" left the country. Total, best larly severe blow to Western firms op- rels. Total reserves are estimated at known in Sudan oil circles for attempting erating in the oil-rich south. Following a 200 million to 300 million barrels. negotiation with the southern Sudanese September 4 meeting of the White Nile According to a senior Chevron opposition, has apparently abandoned Petroleum Company (WNPC) in Gon- spokesman, the company has spent $1 hopes for a peaceful resolution in the dar, the government announced that all billion to date in its Sudan concession. near future. contracts issued by the company for the How that investment will be pro- Chevron now says its comprehensive now-defunct oil pipeline project had tected—from both a logistical and politi- review of Sudan prospects will be pre- been cancelled. cal standpoint—is unclear. sented to the government in mid-1987. The board also agreed to close the Energy and Mining Minister Adam Meanwhile, expatriate staff have been company's Khartoum offices. WNPC Moussa Madibu said recently that the cut to 12 and work in the relatively se- shareholders include the American government told WNPC directors of its cure areas of southern Kordofan has Chevron Corporation, the Royal Dutch plans to cancel the company's licenses been shut down since May. Shell Group, the Al Khobar-based Arab to operate in Sudan. The government It is now clear that other oil interests Petroleum Investments Corporation wants to liquidate the oil company, the operating outside areas of conflict are (Apicorp), the International Finance minister added, but a decision on such a also reassessing their investment. Sun Corporation, and the Sudanese govern- move will be deferred until the board's Sudan Oil Company, operator in a ment. next meeting in Khartoum in Decem- 175,0 AFRICA REPORT • November-December 1986 79 Banned in South Africa... available in the U.S. The Mi-Apartheid Campaign YouCanDanceTo. 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D S39/5 years —Air Rate Overseas: Add S24 per year. in-depth features on political and economic developments in H $56/3 years -First LI My cneck is enclosed Don't miss the big picture in 1986. Subscribe today and receive Mate chec* payable to AFT0CAN-AME1BCAN INSTTTUTH and aenO Co a special bonus issue. AFRICA REPORT, Oept A . 833 Urrted NaOons plaza, New York, Wy 10017 I AFRICA REPORT, America's Leading Magazine on Africa The Latest Titles on African Studies New This Season from St. Martin's Press THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF experience, coming into the picture only when they block- DEVELOPMENT ed the path of white expansion or rejected white authori- Just Faaland and J R. Parkinson ty. This book seeks to correct that imbalance, testing and Faaland and Parkinson discard the fallacies of a Eurocen- challenging several current assumptions as well as syn- tric approach to development as they analyze issues of thesizing recent research findings. From spectacular ad- trade, agriculture, industry, fiscal and monetary policy, vances by archaeologists in their examination of the South nutrition and literacy in Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Sudan, African Iron Age to the nineteenth century emphasis on Botswana, and Mozambique, identifying solutions that re- frontier interaction, capitalist penetration, colonial subjuga- spond to the existing structures of social and political tion, peasantization and proletarianization, significant organizations. work on the twentieth century has included rural im- April 300 pp. ISBN 0-312-62231-7 $32.50 poverishment, urbanization, class stratification, the growth of political organization, protest movements, and trade THE AMERICAN CONNECTION unions. Maylam incorporates all of these themes into his The Influence of US Business on South Africa study, drawing several sharp conclusions. Vincent Victor Razis June 272 pp. ISBN 0-312-37511-5 $32.50 Razis examines the problems of divestiture and the prob- able consequences that massive pull-outs of US funds would MILITARY POWER AND POLITICS IN have on South African society, particularly the issue of BLACK AFRICA whether all South Africans should endure further economic Simon Baynham privation and social and political upheaval because of a This compilation of essays discusses power and politics in strategy based on the assumption that the apartheid state black or sub-Saharan Africa. Including a synoptic com- is amenable to change through economic pressure and mentary on military power and a section focusing on the ultimate isolation. Beginning with an historical sketch of internal influence of the military establishment with con- the economic relations between South Africa and the U.S., cluding chapters discussing the international dimensions Razis moves on to look at the emergence of the multina- of military force in the region, the book provides a com- tional corporation in South Africa and its effects on South prehensive overview of military power in black Africa from African society and economy. the period since independence, with emphasis on recent March 300 pp. ISBN 0-312-02203-4 $32.50 events. July 353 pp. CRC ISBN 0-312-53243-1 $32.50 AFRICA AND THE SECOND WORLD WAR edited by David Killingray and Richard Ralhbone SEX INEQUALITIES IN URBAN This book, the first English-language study of the African EMPLOYMENT IN THE THIRD WORLD experience in World War II, presents discussions of the economic and political consequences of the war in Africa. Richard Anker and Hein Contributors address the role of British imperial policy, Anker and Hein bring together case studies from urban Anglo-African labor mobilization during the war, recruit- areas of Cyprus, Democratic Yemen, India, Peru, Nigeria, ment in South Africa, and the effects of war in Tanganyika, Ghana, Sri Lanka and Mauritius on labor market func- the Bechuanaland Protectorate, Kenya, Southern Came- tioning and its interactions with family responsibilities. An roon, Sierra Leona and Algiers. The book includes studies important section involves an historical analysis of women's of territorial economies and contributions to the war ef- position in the labor market and how it has changed with fort, microcosmic studies of specific regions, and studies economic development. of the influence of missions on the war effort in colonial September 304 pp. ISBN 0-312-71341-X $32.50 Africa. With many valuable insights on Africa, the war and imperial policy, this volume fills a long-neglected gap THE FUTURE OF AFRICA AND THE NEW in the literature of the history of modern Africa. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER April 256 pp. ISBN 0-312-00941-0 $29.95 edited by Ralph I. Onwuka and Olajide Aluko This collection, the result of an international conference A HISTORY OF THE AFRICAN PEOPLE OF hosted by the Department of International Relations, SOUTH AFRICA University of Ife, Nigeria, explores all aspects of African From the Early Iron Age to the 1970s expectations of, and contributions to, the restructuring of Paul May lam the global economy—the New International Economic In many histories of South Africa, Africans themselves have Order. appeared as shadowy figures in the background of the white April 325 pp. ISBN 0-312-31412-4 $29.95 St. Martin's Press Scholarly and Reference Books 175 Fifth Avenue • New York, NY 10010 And from St. Martin's for the Fall . . . MULTINATIONALS OF THE SOUTH INSIDE THE OAU New Actors in the International Economy Pan-Africanism in Practice edited by Khushi M Khan C 0. C. Aviate The rapid increase in the number and competitive power This is the first book about the Organization of African of Third World multinationals is the subject of this book, Unity offering a comprehensive view from inside the con- which analyzes their role as promoters of economic develop- ference room of the OAU itself. Amate draws on official ment in developing countries. Providing a conceptual and records and documents and quotes extensively from theoretical framework for their effects on the international statements made by African rulers as well as from the economy, an examination is made of their activities in the reports of OAU Secretaries-General and of the many strategic sectors of production, trade and finance. A com- committees and commissions the OAU has set up. Early parative analysis oi old and new multinationals in the Third records of discussions reproduced verbatim from the World throws light on the broader context of international African heads of state and ministers of foreign affairs make economic relations. fascinating reading. November 200 pp. ISBN (Ml2-55246-7 $29.95 December 608 pp. ISBN 0-312-41878-7 $45.00 JAN CHRISTIAN SMUTS The Conscience of a South African SOVIET POLICY TOWARDS SOUTH AFRICA Kenneth Ingham Kurt M. Campbell This biography recounts the career of Smuts, the leading The white buffer states that once separated the Republic figure in South African affairs for more than half a cen- from Black Africa have all collapsed; South Africa stands tury, in terms of his desire to walk the world stage and his alone as the last bastion of minority rule on the continent. struggle to unite South Africa—set against his tragic failure The USSR, by virtue of its prominent role in the long- to appreciate the aspirations of his black countrymen. standing struggle for national liberation in Southern Africa, Smuts, who fluctuated between the roles of academic ac- has gained considerable influence in the region. Because tivist, politically aware cosmopolitan, scientific humanist, of Soviet aid to insurgent groups and outspoken support and Christian, involved himself in the moves to unite the of the anti-apartheid movement in international forums, Boers and British oi South Africa, to strengthen the bonds many in the West fear that the USSR will garner hand- between the member-states of the old British Common- some political dividends in the struggle over the future of wealth, and to build a worldwide version of that Com- South Africa: as they interpret it, a fundamental shift in monwealth through the League of Nations. Although he the global balance of power is at stake. There is little succeeded in some- of those areas, becoming a consultant understanding, however, about the actual nature of Soviet to Louis Botha, Lloyd George, Winston Churchill and activities in the region, and Campbell's study fills this gap. Woodrow Wilson, Smuts was much less effective on racial Examining the nature of the USSR's current and past in- problems This study considers him from all sides, plac- volvement and its stake in South Africa, Campbell focuses ing Smuts in the context of his own time. on the state, party and commercial contacts between the July 296 pp. ISBN O-3I2-43997-O $29.95 USSR and the Republic. September 272 pp. ISBN 0-312-74853-1 $32.50 VICTORIAN SHIPPING, BUSINESS AND IMPERIAL POLICY Donald Currie, the Castle Line and Southern Africa Andrew Porter Royal Historical Society Studies in History Series St. Martin's Press Between 1860 and 1900 the Castle Line lay at the heart of an expanding business empire embracing shipping, Scholarly and Reference Books minerals, and real estate. The financial and geographical scale of Currie's operations in Southern Africa meant that 175 Fifth Avenue under partition, both (he company and its founder became directly involved with both imperial and colonial govern- New York, NY 10010 ments as well as international capitalists and metropolitan investors. Porter analyzes the connections between govern- ments and commercial shipping interests, and the manipulation of each by businessmen and politicians. Us- ing banking and shipping archives, private papers, and government records, he relates the growth of shipping be- tween Britain and South Africa to the broader pattern of economic change, international competition, and imperial expansion. August 352 pp. ISBN 0-312-84442-5 $35.00 The roots of American soul food go back to West Africa When you go there you'll find greens, yams and barbecue galore. A typical dinner from Chez Valentin in Treichville, Ivory Coast, might offer an appetizer of country pate, smoked salmon, or a mound of chunked lobster in a de- licious cream sauce. For an entree you might enjoy a rack of baby lamb or "Veal Africain," which is a veal cutlet wrapped around a banana and topped with a delicate curry sauce. As for dessert, perhaps a flaming rum omelette filled with fruit, or a baked Alaska. As you can see, the pleasures of the palate prevail in West In many of the West African countries, women dominate the retail- Africa. Bon Appetit! distribution business. Many of these "market women" have considerable wealth and exercise important political influence. Baked AlaskHunger for shrimpas and prawns? Then take Air Af- rique to West Africa. Our coasts yield prawns in abun- dance. In fact, the name for Cameroon comes from the Portuguesjg^ard for prawns: in Africa? camaroe West African cooks took the versatile okra If your experience is limited^) an plant to the heights of occasional handful of r bers or ^ culinary excel- memory of a peanut butter ^^^ got lence and gave new worlds to discover i the world a soup flavorful ve on to a called gumbo. score or ^ feature these luscious legumes. Since the be ning of time, We can mothers h teaching the ters the secret cooking For exa what are y^^ wait- tenderize tough ing ? Isn't it tirrre you the young cook merel disc ered West Africa? wrapped it in papaya Just l your Travel Agent leaves. They're nature's or Air Afrique /Air own tenderizer. ce today. Hurry! France \ AIR m AFRIQUE Africa begins with Air Afrique. And it's just seven hours to the New Sun... West Africa