THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Rural Electrification in Ghana: Issues of Photovoltaic Energy Technology Utilisation being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Simon Bawakyillenuo BA (Hons)(University of Ghana), MSc (Hull) October 2007 ABSTRACT Energy plays a pivotal role in human development. Not only is it sine qua non for national economic development, but it also provides services that enhance social development including, health and sanitation, education, potable water, cooking. In spite of this, at present, there are about two billion people without access to modern sources of energy, most of them in the rural areas of the developing world. Consequentially, the social and economic development of these two billion people hangs in the balance. In recent times, however, considerable advocacy has taken place in the academic and policy studies, environmental fora, and national agenda about solar PV energy technology serving as a panacea to the energy problems of rural populations in developing countries, especially Sub-Sahara Africa, whilst also helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Notwithstanding this great advocacy, the literature on the dissemination of this technology has been incomplete in fostering understanding on the discourses surrounding its low dissemination rates in rural Ghana compared to countries such as Kenya and Zimbabwe; the sustainability of installed solar PV systems; and the usefulness of solar PV in serving the needs of the rural poor. In resorting to an interdisciplinary approach (methodology and theoretical foundation), this study has explored the energy perspectives of Ghana, the dynamics of rural electrification and energy needs, and the interplay of processes and forces underpinning the adoption and non-adoption of solar PV in rural Ghana. Results of this study show that, Ghana has abundant renewable energy resources, especially solar radiation. However, the study further reveals that the resource base alone of solar PV technology is not the panacea to its successful dissemination and the energy needs of all in rural Ghana. Significantly, this study has shown that the adoption and non-adoption perspectives of solar PV in rural Ghana and the sustainability of installed solar PV systems, as well as the disparate levels of solar PV dissemination in Ghana, Kenya and Zimbabwe, are contingent on multi-dimensional circumstances. This stands in contrast to the majority of literature that often emphasise cost as the sole determining factor of the non-adoption of solar PV in most developing countries. Results of this study therefore have implications for rural energy supply policy approaches and other institutional arrangements on solar PV issues in Ghana. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It looks surreal to me to be chalking up this feat, because four years back the journey to this day had more semblance of ‘mission impossible’ than otherwise. The materialisation of this undertaking is therefore attributed to a lot of support from myriads of sources. First and foremost, my utmost thanksgiving goes to my maker, God, for letting His will for my academic life come to pass. Indeed, Lord, the beginning of this project and its successful completion has not been done through my might, nor power, but by your immaculate Spirit. While I was about to return to Ghana after my Master’s programme in 2002, Lord, your thoughts and ways for my academic life were different. Lord, accept my humble exaltation. Secondly, I will like to express my sincerest gratitude to my two main supervisors - Dr. Phillip Bradley and Professor Graham Haughton. If you had not seen me worthy of undertaking a PhD programme, if you had not supported me diversely, and if you had not overlooked my fallacies and corrected me, this work would have been stillborn and my future full of question marks. I cherish the rigour, prompt feedback on draft chapters and the constructive criticisms, which both of you brought to bear on my work. Thank you for the outstanding committee meetings we had. I could never have wished for a better supervisory committee than what you provided. Special thanks also go to Dr. Sally Eden, my internal assessor, for her guidance and support. The three of you occupy a special place in my heart — through you I can now face the world without trepidation. I also want to acknowledge with great thanks the various sources of financial support for this study. With a sincere heart, I thank the University of Hull for awarding me the Frederick Atkinson Research Scholarship, which took care of my tuition fees. I am also grateful to the Sir Philip Reckitt Educational Trust, for contributing towards the costs of the two fieldworks in Ghana and Kenya. The Department of Geography, University of Hull, deserves my heart-felt gratitude for the varied financial supports that were rendered during my fieldworks, conferences and hardship periods. I am also grateful to all academic and non-academic staff at the Geography Department for the countless kind supports, which made my stay here a fulfilling one. Special thanks go ii to Bernadette Barron, the librarian at the Map library, for her unflinching support in allowing me to have access to important documents. In addition, I am indebted to the members of Hull and East Riding Christian Fellowship (HERCF) for their prayers and encouragement. Most especially, I thank Dr. Hooko and his family for their prayers and diverse support. Dr. Hooko, you are more than a brother! Roland Yawo, thanks for the jokes and your friendship, which spiced my days. Thanks also go to Kevin Woodbridge and Graham Clarkson, friends and postgraduate colleagues. Your friendship wiped out my nostalgia. Moreover, I wish to acknowledge with gratitude the outstanding support I received from various individuals during the two fieldworks in Ghana and Kenya. These include, Reginald Guuroh, Amos Bonga, Kenneth, Augustine Kambozie and his family, George Yeng and his family, Francis Bange and his family, the chief and assembly member of Wechiau, the District coordinating director of Wa West District, personnel at EC-Ghana,MOE-Ghana and MOE-Kenya. Others are former employees of RESPRO, entrepreneurs of solar PV companies in Ghana and Kenya, personnel at AFREPREN, especially the director, Mrs. Nortey-Lamptery at VRA, all interviewees at the three field sites, and personnel at FOE-Ghana. Your diverse support facilitated the data collection process of this study, and I hope its outcome has justified the time and resources you spent on me. Finally, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my wife, Matilda, for her diligence, patience, sacrifice, love and support. What a wonderful wife you are! While I was busy with the academic work, you run around to ensure that there was something on the table for us to eat, something in the bank for us to pay our rent and utility bills, etc. To our two families back in Ghana, I say thank you for the encouragement and prayers. To all who assisted me in different ways, but have not been mentioned, I say thank you. iii DEDICATION I dedicate this piece of work to God (for the abundant grace and provisions He showered on me to come this far), and to my late father, James Bawakyillenuo and my late uncle, Leo Nigebolee. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i Acknowledgements ii Dedication iv Table of Contents v List of Tables xiii List of Figures xvi List of Plates xviii Boxes xix List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xx CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1 1.1 General Introduction 1 1.2 Background Considerations 4 1.3 Aim 10 1.4 Objectives 10 1.5 Significance of the study 11 1.6 Rationale 11 1.7 Structure of thesis 12 CHAPTER TWO CONTEXT, EXISTING KNOWLEDGE AND THEORY 15 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Rural electrification in the developing world 16 2.3 Role/potential of renewable energy technologies (RETs) 20 2.3.1 Solar photovoltaic technology (PV) 24 2.3.1.1 History of solar PV technology development 25 2.3.1.2 Costs of solar PV technology 27 2.3.1.3 The dynamics of solar PV rural electrification in the developing World 33 v 2.4 Theorising technological innovation diffusion 38 2.4.1 Theories/models of innovation diffusion and the social construction of technology 38 2.4.1.1 The cultural lag theory 40 2.4.1.2 Threshold model of collective behaviour 43 2.4.1.3 The interactive model of innovation diffusion 45 2.4.1.4 Rogers’ Diffusion of innovations theory 48 2.4.1.4a Innovation 48 2.4.1.4b Communication channels 51 2.4.1.4c Time 51 2.4.1.4d The social system 54 2.4.1.5 Theories of social shaping of technology 56 2.4.1.5a Actor-network theory (ANT) 56 2.4.1.5b Social construction of technology (SCOT) 58 2.5 Conclusion 64 CHPATER THREE RESEARCH APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY 66 3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Research design and techniques 66 3.3 Sources of data and methods of data collection 68 3.3.1 Secondary/documentary data sources 71 3.3.2 Primary/raw data sources 72 3.4 Significance of fieldwork in Kenya and the selection of the study areas 76 3.5 Study areas and sites in Ghana 77 3.6 Procedures involved in the selection of field sites in Ghana 80 3.7 Questionnaire, interview questions design and pre-testing 81 3.8 Selection and training of interviewers 83 3.8.1 Bunkpurugu/Yunyoo District 83 3.8.2 Wa West District 84 3.8.3 Kintampo District 85 3.9 Gaining access to communities at the field sites 85 vi 3.10 Observation 87 3.11 Research diaries 87 3.12 Informal conversations 88 3.13 Interdisciplinary approaches of the research 88 3.14 Target population and sampling units 89 3.15 Sampling techniques 92 3.16 Data