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Alexandros Stogiannos The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel Dismissing the Myth of the Ratzelian Geodeterminism Historical Geography and Geosciences This book series serves as a broad platform for contributions in the field of Historical Geography and related Geoscience areas. The series welcomes proposals on the history and dynamics of place and space and their influence on past, present and future geographies including historical GIS, cartography and mapping, climatology, climate history, meteorology and atmospheric sciences, environmental geography, hydrology, geology, oceanography, water management, instrumentation, geographical traditions, historical geography of urban areas, settlements and landscapes, historical regional studies, history of geography and historic geographers and geoscientists among other topically related areas and other interdisciplinary approaches. Contributions on past (extreme) weather events or natural disasters including regional and global reanalysis studies also fit into the series. Publishing a broad portfolio of peer-reviewed scientific books Historical Geography and Geosciences contains research monographs, edited volumes, advanced and undergraduate level textbooks, as well as conference proceedings. This series appeals to scientists, practitioners and students in the fields of geography and history as well as related disciplines, with exceptional titles that are attractive to a popular science audience.

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The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel Dismissing the Myth of the Ratzelian Geodeterminism

123 Alexandros Stogiannos Faculty of Turkish Studies and Modern Asian Studies National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Athens, Greece

ISSN 2520-1379 ISSN 2520-1387 (electronic) Historical Geography and Geosciences ISBN 978-3-319-98034-8 ISBN 978-3-319-98035-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018950798

Based on a translation from the Greek language edition: H Cέmerη sη1 Cexpokisijή1 jai o Friedrich Ratzel. H Amaίqerη sot Mύhot peqί sot Pasrekiamoύ Cexcqauijoύ Nseseqlimirloύ by Alexandros Stogiannos Copyright © Keilώm (Leimón) Publications, 2017 All Rights Reserved © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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To my Teacher, Ioannis Th. Mazis, and his honest scientific efforts for the international establishment of Systemic Geopolitical Analysis and its scientific rationalism. With deep respect Alexandros Stogiannos Foreword

The excitement about the prospect of drafting a doctoral dissertation about the father of Geopolitics, Friedrich Ratzel, was soon succeeded by a feeling of apprehension and slight disappointment. It arose after reading for the first time the original text and the Greek translation of Living Space, a text brimming with references to animals, plants and, to an extent, primitive tribes. It was then that the lack of any association (verifying my initial impression) to Geopolitics became obvious. Over time, this concern—which I obviously never confessed to my supervisor, Prof. I. Mazis, who enthusiastically introduced me to the work of Friedrich Ratzel through his foreword to the Greek translated edition of Der Lebensraum—namely the fact that the adventure in the labyrinthine paths of Friedrich Ratzel’s work was likely to lead to no fortunate results, was exacerbated by further difficulties, such as the hampered access to a part of Ratzel’s monographs—more than 1200—and articles, the relatively limited secondary literature, which included the most controversial and occasionally extreme views, and the multidimensionality of his writings, ranging from Zoology and Political Geography to Biogeography, Ethnography, etc. Given the above, my participation as an observer at the conference titled “The Spaces of Ratzel’s Geography” of the Leibniz-Institut fürLänderkunde (IfL) [18–20 November 2004] was on many levels invigorating for my research. I managed to establish a communication channel with the scientists of the IfL (the institute housing Ratzel’s archives), who were extremely hospitable and helpful during my next two research trips, as well as with other, mainly German, scientists. Apart from providing practical solutions to many problems, this step led to the deciphering of the first part of my research. Especially, the lecture presented during that conference on the discontinuity between Ratzel’s Political Geography and Kjellen’s Geopoli- tics made meaningful the need for a comparative research on the general guidelines of the Ratzelian scientific framework with more contemporary geopolitical power analysis systems—especially the Greek Systemic Geopolitics School of Prof. I. Mazis. This comparative approach eventually disclosed the enormous confusion over the use of terms, which is the min- imum requirement for any epistemological discussion. This fact would always be pointed out during the lectures of Prof. Mazis who wittily described it as a “dialogue of the deaf in Babylon”.

ix x Foreword

Numerous contradictory approaches in the secondary literature, presenting Ratzel as both humanist and racist, geo-determinist and multidimensional analyst, organicist and social scientist, precursor of Geopolitics and opponent to the same idea, led—after many discussions with I. Mazis—to the need to create a research, which would thoroughly analyse the structural components of the Ratzelian thought. In combination with Ratzel’s biography, the somewhat extensive presentation of his less known articles and his complete bibliography [the biography and bibliography are not included in this ver- sion], the ambition of the present work is to provide to scientists or readers a well-documented supportive source to understand Friedrich Ratzel’s episte- mological and philosophical background. I. Mazis considered such a research contribution both original and essential for the study of the theoretical background and the history of Geopolitics, a research that would rehabilitate Geopolitics with regard to both its ethical self-awareness and its epistemo- logically accurate geographical basis. To my burning questions on this issue, Prof. Mazis would cite his own teacher, Maurice Wollkovitsch: “The geographer is a ‘chef d’ orchestre’, my dear. He plays only some of the instruments of the symphonic orchestra he conducts, but he knows very well how to produce harmony by what he conducts!” While researching the two key questions, namely the influence of Frie- drich Ratzel’s ideas in more contemporary geopolitical analytical systems and the geodeterminism commonly attributed to him (incorrectly, as will be shown), more particular issues were approached:

• the need to define and establish the scientificity of Political Geography [Sect. 1.3] • the methodological approach of his heterogeneous and multidisciplinary work, [Sect. 1.4] • the redefinition of his geopolitical period [Sect. 1.5] • his notion of state and the evaluation of sociological and cultural parameters as factors of state power [Chaps. 2, 3, and 4] • the biogeographical content of the notion of Lebensraum and its demar- cation with regard to Political Geography [Chap. 3] • his attitude towards the racist theories flourishing at the time, as well as towards the Darwinian theories, the theories of evolution and regression [Chaps. 4,and5] • his overall worldview and the confrontation with cosmopolitism rising during a period of national conflicts [Chaps. 4, and 5] • his contribution to an interdisciplinary, positivist and scientific approach in analysing social and international affairs [Chaps. 1, and 5] • his thoughts on the architecture of Europe [Chap. 6]

The submission of the present work does not in any way mean that the potential for further research on Friedrich Ratzel has been exhausted. This would in any case require a large multidisciplinary team. Even at a strictly political–geographical/geopolitical level, there are many issues to be inves- tigated. Therefore, the thesis in question should be rather considered a Foreword xi

theoretical guide to help read and study his political–geographical works, even his Political Geography. This research, which was pursued in parallel with several personal, family and professional goals, without any material support by the state, would not have been completed without the love, assistance and support of many people, to whom I publicly express my deep sense of gratitude. Special thanks go, of course, to the supervisor of my work, Prof. Ioannis Mazis, who secured complete research autonomy, facilitated every proce- dural difficulty and was also a true teacher, passing down to my way of thinking the value of methodology, of his mathematical analytical structure and of impartial analysis, which is a cornerstone of Geopolitics, but also life in general; it is the value of “sterilized analytical thought”, as he likes to say to his multitudinous audiences. At various stages of my research, the help from Germany was of crucial importance. It was generously offered by the Deputy Director of the Leibniz-Institut fürLänderkunde, Prof. Dr. Ute Wardenga, and the Director of the geographical library and archives library of the same institute, Dr. Heinz Peter Brogiato. Extremely enlightening with regard to the importance of the Positivist Circle of Leipzig was the discussion with the Professor of the University of Leipzig, Prof. Dr. Matthias Middell, while public thanks go also to Profs. K. Kost and G. H. Müller, who willingly sent me valuable material from their personal archive. Truly exceptional was also the contribution of my friend Dionisia Trontza, a philologist, who readily undertook the arduous task of editing the final version of the Greek text. Moreover, special acknowledgments go to my friend and colleague, Hara Martzoukou, whose contribution to this publication was essential, since she reviewed the English translation. Finally, vital for the success of this endeavour was the love and multi- faceted support of my wife, Helen Sofianidou, who showed remarkable tolerance for the sake of my research commitments. Added to my already heavy professional routine, those commitments reduced the time spent with my family and our small daughters, Lena and Xanthippe. Let me not forget the never-ending support of my parents, Dimitris and Helen.

Corfu, Greece Alexandros Stogiannos Contents

1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics...... 1 1.1 Geopolitics as an Analysis Tool of Power Redistribution ...... 1 1.1.1 Systemic Geopolitical Analysis and Critical Geopolitics ...... 4 1.1.2 The Greek Geopolitical Systemic School (Research Programme) ...... 5 1.2 Ratzel: The Father of Geopolitics? ...... 9 1.3 Ratzel’s Scientific Political Geography ...... 12 1.3.1 About the Scientific Nature of Political Geography...... 12 1.3.2 Epistemological Approach and Definition of Political Geography...... 13 1.3.3 Ratzel and Modern Geopolitics ...... 17 1.4 A Methodological Approach to Ratzel’s Work ...... 20 1.5 Determining F. Ratzel’s “Geopolitical Period” ...... 22 1.6 Conclusions ...... 26 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” ...... 29 2.1 The Predominant State Perceptions at F. Ratzel’s Age (1789–1900) ...... 29 2.2 The German National Edifice: Specificities and Disputes ...... 30 2.2.1 The German National Unity as a Starting Point of the Ideological Propensity to Sociodarwinist and Racist Theories ...... 34 2.3 In-Between Two Eras: Ratzel’s Perception of the State .... 37 2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Organicistic and Metaphysical Perception of the State ...... 41 2.4.1 Review of Ratzel’s Article “The State as an Organism” ...... 45 2.5 Conclusions ...... 54 3 Lebensraum: Bio-geographical Signifier with Political-Geographical Signified? ...... 57 3.1 Lebensraum: A Bio-geographical Term ...... 57 3.2 The Driving Forces of the Organisms...... 59 3.3 A Definition of Lebensraum: Its Material Characteristics...... 61

xiii xiv Contents

3.4 The Importance of Space for Development of the Species ...... 62 3.5 Bio-geography as the Field for the Implementation Migrationstheorie (Theory of Migration)...... 65 3.6 Conclusions ...... 66 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors in Fr. Ratzel’s State Analysis and the Issue of Racism ...... 69 4.1 The Position of the Nature-Oriented People (Naturvölker) Within Humanity ...... 70 4.2 People Evaluation ...... 77 4.2.1 Family ...... 78 4.2.2 Intellectual and Scientific Life ...... 79 4.2.3 Work and Economy ...... 80 4.2.4 Intellectual Heroes and Great Statesmen ...... 81 4.2.5 The Conscience of “Socially Belonging Together” ...... 82 4.2.6 Language and “National Identity” ...... 83 4.2.7 About Extraction and Its Characteristics ...... 84 4.2.8 The Cosmopolitan Age or the Oncoming Globalisation ...... 86 4.2.9 About Demography as a State Power Contributor ...... 89 4.2.10 Strength (Kraft) and power (Macht) ...... 89 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis ...... 90 4.3.1 The Age and Universality of the National Movements ...... 90 4.3.2 The Race Factor as Part of the National Issue...... 91 4.3.3 Incorporation and Isolation ...... 93 4.3.4 Race and Language ...... 94 4.3.5 Uniform (Einheitliche) and Mixed (Gemischte) People ...... 95 4.3.6 Contradictions and Ephemerality of the National Movements ...... 98 4.3.7 The Great Racial Issues...... 99 4.4 Some Tasks of a Political Ethnography ...... 105 4.4.1 Theoretical and Applied Ethnography ...... 105 4.4.2 Land and People ...... 106 4.4.3 The Unity of the Human Species in Political Ethnography ...... 108 4.4.4 Peoples’ Evaluation ...... 111 4.4.5 Sociology and Political Ethnography...... 114 4.5 Racist or Humanist? Ratzel in the Centre of a Big Antinomy ...... 114 4.5.1 The Debiologicalisation of the Term Race ...... 116 4.5.2 About the Allegedly Hierarchical Race Classification ...... 118 4.5.3 About the Worldwide Labor Division ...... 119 4.5.4 Racism and National Conflicts ...... 121 4.6 Conclusions ...... 122 Contents xv

5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist Circle of Leipzig”. The Meaning of Fr. Ratzel’s Law ...... 123 5.1 Partial or Complete Renunciation of Darwin?...... 123 5.2 Diffusion, Evolutionism and Social Darwinism...... 124 5.3 Between Religion and Science ...... 126 5.4 The Positivist and Interdisciplinary Indagation of the “Positivist Circle of Leipzig” ...... 128 5.5 Law (Gesetz), Conformity to the Law (Gesetzmäßigkeit), Rule (Regel) ...... 132 5.6 The Laws of Spatial Growth. A Contribution to Scientific Political Geography ...... 135 5.6.1 1st Law: The Size of the State Increases with the Development of Culture ...... 136 5.6.2 2nd Law: The Spatial Development of Countries Follows Other Growth Phenomena of the People, Which Necessarily Precede ...... 139 5.6.3 3rd Law: The Spatial Growth of States Evolves Through the Annexation of Smaller Parts in a Merger, Through Which the People’s Connection to the Ground Becomes Increasingly Closer ...... 140 5.6.4 4th Law: As a Peripheral Organ of the State, the Border Is the Agent of Both Its Growth and Its Consolidation, Participating in All Transformations of the State’s Organism ...... 142 5.6.5 5th Law: When Expanding, States Seek to Appropriate the Politically Valuable Locations ..... 144 5.6.6 6th Law: The Initial Stimuli for the Spatial Growth of States Are External ...... 145 5.6.7 7th Law: The General Tendency Towards Spatial Adjustment and Balancing Transmits Spatial Growth from One State to the Next and Continuously Intensifies It...... 147 5.7 Conclusions ...... 148 6 Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union” ...... 151 6.1 Organising Models of the Central European Space ...... 151 6.2 The Pan-Germanic Central Europe ...... 154 6.2.1 Central Europe in German Political Geography and Geopolitics ...... 156 6.3 The Central European Economic Association ...... 157 6.4 Central Europe from Ratzel’s Point of View...... 158 6.5 Conclusions ...... 164 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade .... 165 7.1 The Eastern Question—Approaches ...... 165 7.1.1 The Eastern Question from the German Ultranationalists’ Point of View ...... 167 7.2 Die Bagdadbahn: Railway Connection from Berlin to Bagdad ...... 169 xvi Contents

7.3 The Eastern Question in Ratzel’s Political Geography ..... 171 7.3.1 Importance and Interdependence of Verkehr with Politics ...... 171 7.3.2 Railways, Telecommunications and Military Roads ...... 174 7.4 The Need to Support the Ottoman Empire ...... 176 7.5 The English—Russian Geostrategic Dispute for Persia ..... 178 7.6 Suez Canal Changes Balances in the Wider Area: A Geopolitical Approach ...... 178 7.7 Presentation of F. Ratzel’s Analysis: The Eastern Questions ...... 179 7.7.1 The Mediterranean Sea Subsystem of a European System...... 179 7.7.2 Geostrategical Competition and Conflicts of Great Powers in the Sub-system of Balkans—Mediterranean Sea ...... 179 7.7.3 Ratzel’s Geopolitical Doctrine for the Eastern Mediterranean Sea: Chock Points and Islands ...... 180 7.7.4 Geopolitical Players and Realpolitik ...... 181 7.7.5 Economic and Political Parameters of the Eastern Question ...... 182 7.7.6 Greece ...... 183 7.7.7 Cyprus...... 185 7.7.8 Syria ...... 185 7.7.9 Psychology of Peoples—The Role of Press...... 186 7.8 Dardanelles and Nile (I & II): A Geopolitical Approach.... 188 7.8.1 The Armenian Question ...... 188 7.8.2 Culture Clash—Islam as a Culture ...... 191 7.8.3 The German Policy ...... 192 7.8.4 The Egyptian Question ...... 193 7.9 Conclusions ...... 197 8 Final Conclusions ...... 201 Appendix ...... 205 Bibliography ...... 247 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics 1

Although Friedrich Ratzel is inextricably linked imperative to determine the latter. This venture to Geopolitics, modern day scientific discussions proved considerably thorny as the literature is often reflect on two debatable points; the current brimming with periodizations and definitions. relevance of the ratzelian thought and the con- Moreover, there is a prima facie scientific para- tribution of the German geographer to the cre- dox: scientists, such as Ratzel1 and Mackinder,2 ation of a modern geopolitical analytical method. regarded as reference names in Geopolitics make Although the vast majority of researchers accept no use of the actual term. Ratzel as the founder of modern Political Geog- In 1920, Karl Haushoffer wrote that Geopol- raphy, opinions are wildly conflicting when the itics is and should be the geographical con- discussion comes to the relationship between science of the state. Its subject matter is to study Ratzel and modern Geopolitics. the major vital correlations of modern man Remaining true to the afore-presented inten- within modern space and its aim is to coordinate tion to lay the foundations for a systematic study phenomena that link a state with space.3 Otto of Ratzel’s work, this chapter ventures to clarify Maull, also German, considered Geopolitics as the relationship between Ratzel and modern the theory of the territorial correlations of geopolitics by first defining the nature of political processes.4 Saul Cohen argued that the geopolitics (Sect. 1.1) and Ratzel’s scientific quintessence of Geopolitics is the study of the Political Geography (Sect. 1.2), and by undoing certain misinterpretations which have arisen—as will be demonstrated—due to terminological errors and inaccuracies (Sect. 1.3). Then will follow proposals on organizing the research on Ratzel from a political-geographical and geopo- litical perspective (Sect. 1.4), and this charter 1 4 will conclude with an attempt to define Ratzel’s Kost K. (2004): Friedrich Ratzel: Vater der Geopolitik? fi Rede und Gegenred. References to this text are not scienti c period (Sect. 1.5). including page numbers, since this is not published text, but a lecture, delivered by Professor Klaus Kost in the conference, held in Leipzig for the anniversary of 1.1 Geopolitics as an Analysis Tool 100 years from Ratzels death. Prof. Kost kindly gave to of Power Redistribution the author his notes. 2Mάfη1 I.1 (2002): Cexpokisjή. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, In order to answer the problem of the timeless- p. 18. 3 ness and contribution of ratselian thought to Ibid., p. 18. 4 ä contemporary geopolitical analysis, it is first Petersen, J. (2000): Die neue Attraktivit t der Geopolitik in Italien, p. 481. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_1 2 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics existing relationship between international poli- defines Geopolitics as applied Political Geog- tics of power and the respective geographical raphy aiming to serve an advisory role in poli- characteristics, especially those geographical tics, in order to avoid global or regional features on which the sources of power grow.5 In conflicts.13 I. Th. Mazis talks about a geo- turn, Robert Harkavy claimed that Geopolitics is graphical method of analysis of a geographical the cartographic representation of the relations system characterized by an uneven distribution between the main opposing powers,6 while of power, whose aim is to study, describe and Michel Foucher sees it as a comprehensive predict the behaviour and consequences ensuing method of geographical analysis of specific from relations between opposing and distinct socio-political circumstances studied in their international practices for the redistribution of geographical context, combined with the usual power as well as from their ideological meta- biological perspectives peculiar to them.7 physics, within the framework of the geographi- According to Ladis Kristof, a modern theorist of cal conflicts where those practices can be traced Geopolitics does not review the geographical and within which they function.14 map of the Earth in order to discern what action Yves Lacoste and his research team of the nature dictates, but rather what action nature scientific magazine Herodote use the term advises based on our given preferences,8 while Geopolitics to refer to everything related to Harold and Margaret Sprout believe that inter- competition between different types of power of national politics shows in all periods of history different influence. It is not only about interstate more or less distinguishable patterns of coercion conflicts, but also territorial rivalries within and submission, influence and compliance, pat- existing states, between parties or politicians, terns reflected on political terms revealing a who quarrel over influence areas, or conflicts strong sense of geographical space.9 Along between more or less informal and secret groups. similar lines, Colin Gray identifies the advantage This dimension does not exclude a possible net- of a general theory of Geopolitics in the fact that working of various types of rivalries. Further- it places local action or interaction in a global more, at least in democratic societies, these context [ … ] and those who want to understand power rivalries—be it in domestic policy or the geopolitical dimensions of international foreign affairs—trigger social debates over the security have to grasp the essential concepts of real national interests and sometimes about the Geopolitics.10 Geoffrey Parker understands sacrifices needed to serve them. And they must be Geopolitics as a study of international relations understood as expressions of different values and from a spatial, geographical perspective,11 geopolitical viewpoints, since they are present in Andrew Kirby as a way of policy making, taking the process of changing power conditions.15 Geography into account,12 and Klaus Kost The scientific team of the Italian magazine Limes defines Geopolitics as the discussion about a nation’s interests, which can be interpreted as a leaning towards pragmatism, moderation with regard to good measure and limits. In the past 5Mάfη1 I.1 (2002): Cexpokisjή. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, we sought to be too small or too large. There is [Geopolitics. Theory and Praxis], p. 26. no other warranty against aggressive nationalist 6 Ibid., p. 26. attempts, xenophobia, against […] separatist 7 Ibid., p. 27. aspirations, than the rediscovery of a clearly 8See Footnote 7. 9www.geo-mazis.gr. 10Mάfη1,I.1 (2002): Cexpokisjή. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, 13Kost, K.3 (2000): Großstadtfeindlichkeit im Rahmen p. 27. deutscher Geopolitik bis 1945, p. 172. 11Ibid., p. 16. 14Ibid., p. 30. 12Bέqco1, K. (2004): Cexpokisijή sxm jqasώm jai 15Dussoy, J. (2000): Die neue Attraktivität der Geopolitik pacjorliopoίηrη, p. 59. in Frankreich, p. 512. 1.1 Geopolitics as an Analysis Tool of Power Redistribution 3 defined relationship with the nation and the state compares the analytical methodology to the kind that represents them.16 of thinking that precedes the process of designing Special reference should be made for the and implementing a policy for any field of action, definition of the American Nicholas John Spyk- involving the selection of the geographic location man, who argues that the term Geopolitics and the identification of the quality characteris- describes the option of considering a country’s tics of spatial relations. Of course, he defines problems in geographical terms, so that the foreign policy as the field of implementation of findings can be used directly and promptly by Geopolitics, stressing that its particular method politicians, whose task is to plan the foreign of analysis uses geographical factors that con- policy.17 In his pivotal essay, Geography of tribute to the formulation of appropriate policies, Peace, Spykman distinguishes three lines of in order to reach certain legitimate objectives.20 thought: Additionally, Spykman believes that regions of special geopolitical interest are not geographical • The scientists of the (mostly) German school, areas, defined by a fixed and unchangeable who adopted the term Geopolitics as the axis topography, but areas defined on one hand by of an entire Philosophy of History, trans- geography and on the other hand by the dynamic forming it into a theory of the nature of the changes at the centres of power. This means that state and using it as a dogma, which supports the struggle for power per se will bring certain the need and wish for territorial expansion. regions to the foreground, while others will • The use of the term as a synonym to Political temporarily stay in the background, resulting in Geography, which describes the structure of the expansion or contraction of the specific individual states and the world, based on its regions under consideration. On this basis political subdivisions. Spykman arrives at the distinction between a • The use of the term in designing a country’s strictly geographical and a geopolitical analysis, political security, considered in terms of its noting that the second one deals with a dynamic geographical coefficients. In this case an rather than a static situation.21 Finally, he answer to the following question is provided: remarks that the factors governing foreign policy which is the optimal policy in order to making must not be simplified by means of a achieve security, given a particular geo- single all-inclusive generality such as Geogra- graphical situation? phy. On the contrary, he identifies a series of obvious or hidden factors beyond Geography, Adopting, apparently, the third version, such as the density of the population, the finan- Spykman identifies as the aim of Geopolitics the cial structures of the country, the ethnic com- attainment of peace and territorial independence position of the population, the forms of for a certain state and not its territorial expan- governance, the syndromes and bias of the for- sion18 or the benefits to be gained from its power eign ministers,22 the people’s ideals and at the expense of the rest of the world.19 He values.23

16Petersen, J. (2000): Die neue Attraktivität der Geopolitik 20Spykman, J. N. (1944): H Cexcqauίasη1 eiqήmη1, in Italien, p. 491. p. 45. 17Spykman, J. N. (1944): H Cexcqauίasη1 eiqήmη1, 21Ibid., p. 47. p. 43. 22Authors note: Spykman refers to a particularly topical 18Writer’s note: It is obvious that he is trying to issue, with regard to the continuity of Greek foreign distinguish himself from the Germans geopoliticians of policy, as influenced by the cooperative level between the interwar period. diplomatic service and political leadership. 19Spykman, J. N. (1944): H Cexcqauίasη1 eiqήmη1, 23Spykman, J. N. (1944): H Cexcqauίasη1 eiqήmη1,, p. 44. p. 48. 4 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics

Although the juxtaposition of so many defi- 1.1.1 Systemic Geopolitical nitions (without in any way considering the list Analysis27 and Critical complete) shows a relatively wide epistemolog- Geopolitics ical and methodological spectrum24 with regard to the tools of analysis as well as the fields of Despite the aforementioned conclusive under- application, studying the aforementioned defini- standing of geopolitics as a tool of power anal- tions carefully and from a bird’s-eye view allows ysis, significant dissension has been recorded the isolation of an important constant, which is among experts, concerning mainly the analytical an inherent part od each one of these approaches, method and the analytical tools, thus resulting in and is none other than the concept of power. the development of two28 main geopolitical In a minimalist fashion, this common constant schools: Classical or Contemporary or Systemic allows us to determine geopolitics as a geo- Geopolitics and Critical Geopolitics. graphical tool for the analysis of power redis- Key features of the former school are: a. the tribution, in the way power—as opposed to use of geographical tools as a means of analyzing violence—is defined by P. Kondylis, who argued power, b. the application of strict scientific geo- that the concept of power is altered due to its graphical methods, and c. the understanding of being constricted at the level of violence, without geography as a human-centered discipline. In this taking into account parameters and factors (economy, culture, ideology), which turned vio- lence to power or partly displaced it through (legitimised) power relations.25 According to I. Mazis, in Systemic Geopolit- 27Term introduced by I. Mazis, www.geo-mazis.gr. ical Analysis, power is defined as a resultant of The term “Classical Geopolitics”, is often used by four, ontologically distinct pillars: (1) Defense, therapists of Critical Geopolitics, aim clearly at the psy- (2) Economy, (3) Politics and (4) Culture/ chological associative connection of (geographically 26 and positivistic analyzing) Geopolitics with political Information. (rather than analytical–scientific) practices that have brought quite a few hardships to humanity. 28Virginie Mahmoud, exceeds the classical categorization, distinguishing four categories of contemporary geopolit- ical thinking: a. Neo-classical Geopolitics: geopolitics en geostrategy, considered as a continuation of classical Geopolitics, seeing the state the only responsible political subject and seeking to the practical implementation of their conclusions. b. Subversive geopolitics: everything 24 ’ fi According to I. Mazis de nition, the Greek Systemic is geopolitical! Unlike the neo-classical, the subversive Geopolitical School does not consider Geopolitics an geopolitics includes in its analysis other subjects, but independent science, but a geographical analysis method. shows interest also in the practical implications of the 25 Komdύkη1, P. (1988): Hexqίasotpokέlot, p. 170. cognitive production. The most representative example is 26Mάfη1 I.1 (2002): Cexpokisjή. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, —so Virginie Mahmoud—French geographer Yves p. 48, 111, 140. At this point it must be remarked, that I. Lacoste and his political work in the traditional Left. c. Mazis clearly separates Geopolitics from Geostrategics, Non-geopolitics: the political geography of interna- considering that the former is an neutral power distribu- tional relations, cultivated by political geographers who tions analysis leading to models of power redistribution in are engaged in interstate relations in geographical the examined geographic complexes (see MAZIS IOAN- perspective, aiming at a systematic criticism of the NIS4 (2008): Writing Methodology of a Geopolitical classical geopolitical studies. In the latter category, Analysis. Structure, Concepts and Terms). Geopolitics is Virginie Mahmoud has included about 250 new publica- not characterized by any type of discriminatory action tions from France, Germany, Great. Britain and the US. d. (e.g. any national perspective), never using the verb must, Post-structuralistic geopolitics: critical geopolitics, but the verb is and its synonyms. Thus Geostrategics is a grown mainly in universities of North America, intro- synthetic method of the neutral results of Geopolitical duces the analysis of French philosophers Michel Analysis, in order to design strategies from a biased Fouchault and Jaques Derrida in the geopolitical thought, perspective, namely the perspective of the user of deconstructing the worldviews of the political actors (See: geopolitical Model, e.g. a national perspective. van der Wusten, p. 419). 1.1 Geopolitics as an Analysis Tool of Power Redistribution 5 light, Systemic Geopolitical Analysis uses as Geopolitics attempts critical approaches to the specific tools of analysis various disciplines of practice and instances of foreign policy, while the Geography, such as Economic Geography, field of International Relations views Geopolitics Political Geography, Cultural Geography, State as a conservative, realistic take on international Geography, and Geography of Control and Dis- relations32 (IR)]—an unclear difference leading, semination of Information.29 in any case, to confusion33—it becomes evident Unlike the geographic analytical method of that our understanding of Geopolitics has never Systemic Geopolitical Analysis, Critical been, is currently not and probably will never Geopolitics argues that the geographical repre- become uniform. A consolidated record of the sentations should be analyzed in the context of above discussion shows dissimilar approaches at International Relations. On this basis, Critical various levels, such as: Geopolitics considers Geography, not as a definitive truth, but as a form of socially pro- • the epistemological approach and the analyt- duced knowledge.30 It comes to anchor in the ical tools, as well as the general boundaries postmodern theories of French scientists, such as between Geopolitics, Political Geography and Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Jean-Francois International Relations (IR) Lyotard and Ferdinand de Saussure, as they treat • the potential for analytical neutrality space—hence the base of Geopolitics—not as an • the relationship between Geography and objective “fact” but rather as a social product, Politics, a relationship between space and constructed through language. Space and Terri- power, as well as the overall political nature tory are no longer considered a passive stage of of geopolitical analysis. Emerging as the human activity, the possible formative context of direct result of the above, is the discussion social processes, while the manner in which about the “applicability” of Geopolitics. space is organised for the purpose of achieving • defining the subject matter of Geopolitics, political goals becomes the focal point of given the conflict between social groups examination. Language, texts, speeches and wishing to impose their own geopolitical communication are the rudiments and at the same terms. Scientists, the political elite and the time the heart of the cognitive interest.31 people34 are schematically identified as the The above excerpts clarify the essential dif- three conflicting and continuously interacting ference between the two schools of thought: the poles. Systemic Geopolitical Analysis determines power by analyzing and correlating measurable data, using specific geographical tools, in definite space and time, while to that end Critical Geopolitics 1.1.2 The Greek Geopolitical resorts to the analysis of any type of text. Systemic School If we add to the aforementioned discussion (Research Programme) the fundamental difference in how Geopolitics is approached by Geography and International The Greek Geopolitical School has taken a clear Relations [from the perspective of Geography, stand with regard to the above questions. Its

32Mamadouh, V. & Dijking, G. (2006): Geopolitics, 29Mάfη1,I.1 (2002): Cexpokisjή. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, International relations and Political Geography: The p. 41. Politics of Geopolitical Discourse, p. 350. 30Helmig, J. (2007): Geopolitik – Annäherung an ein 33See Footnote 29. schwieriges Konzept, p. 34. 34van der WUSTEN, H. (2000): Geopolitik und staatliche 31See Footnote 30. Ordnung, p. 424. 6 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics theoretical basis and methodology were intro- without confusing the sterilised geopolitical duced by Professor I. Mazis at the Geo-cultural analysis with the unavoidably “biased” Analyses Laboratory of the Ionian University, geostrategic action.38 which he founded in 2002, for as long as the The last excerpt approaches indirectly two laboratory was under his direction. Professor interpretative issues of Geopolitics: Mazis, who has been Professor of Economic Geography and Theory of Geopolitics at the • firstly, the question of defining the geopolit- National University of Athens since February ical actors, who are not subject to any kind of 2010, considers Systemic Geopolitical Analysis limitation or identification, but vary depend- as a deideologicalised analysis, a methodological ing on the data and questions of each model free from ideological fixations and the geopolitical analysis. Therefore, it is wrong to various “narratives” that prevent analysts from consider nation states as the only geopolitical soberly approaching the international events in factors/actors. The problem of the level of order to interpret them.35 analysis also extends to other types of actors, With regard to the question of the “applica- depending on the researcher’s scale of study bility” of Geopolitics, he distinguishes between with regard to his subject matter, that is to neutral and rational analysis (i.e. Geopolitics)on say, whether his view is microscopic or the basis of the phase of the implementation of its macroscopic; namely, whether the selected conclusions, which he calls Geostrategy. Unlike units of study are to be found in the “micro-” Geopolitics, Geostrategy is not free from ethno- or “macro-” level. Given the above option, centric perspectives and approaches, but this is the following study units can be distin- not a disadvantage for the approach per se and guished: (i) People, (ii) subnational groups, its endeavours. When aiming at a sober and (iii) nation states, (iv) transnational groups thorough geopolitical observation, nothing and organizations that are not established by should be characterized as undesirable in States, (v) International groups and organi- geopolitical analysis; undesirable data can only zations, whose members are states or their be found in Geostrategy. And this is where they representatives, and (vi) the International have to be modified, argues Mazis, stressing the System.39 need to avoid turning a blind eye to the necessity • secondly, with regard to the relation between of their geopolitical identification.36 scientific theory and political implementation, Finally, he notes that the interpreter and/or I. Mazis stresses that40: coordinator of international events should in any – Geopolitics is not an ideological discourse case make clear when he is acting as a or rhetoric to “propagate” or “advocate” “Geostrategist” or as a “Geopolitical analyst”.37 the decisions of the political elite or Equally, he considers that in no way and for no hegemonic/imperialist forces. reason should those who act as Geostrategists – The use of additional real-life data as well defending the national interest be blamed, as as the use of fictional data by political long as they remain aware of their specific role, propagandists/or communicators, even by

38www.geo-mazis.gr. 39New Poles of International Power [NέoiPόkoi Diehmoύ1 Irvύo1 (NE.PO.D.I.)] See Mάfη I.1, 35 www.geo-mazis.gr. Cexpokisijή…, pp. 38–40, 98, 137–168. 36 Ibid. 40Mάfη1 I.4 (2004): Kqisijή rsηm Kqisijή Cexpokisijή 37Authors note.: that means, when he acts as an objective ή poio1uobάsai sη rύcvqomη Cexpokisijή amάktrη; analyst and when as a political consultant. pp. 146–147. 1.1 Geopolitics as an Analysis Tool of Power Redistribution 7

politicians themselves, does not incrimi- A. The title of a subject matter and its nate this reality itself, only because it… interpretation. wrongly … exists. – Geopolitics analyzes, describes and pre- The title of the subject matter of a geopolitical dicts based on its analyses the develop- analysis study (should) define(s) the facts and the ments within the examined systemic objectives of the problem at hand. In particular, it standard. Extracting data from the analysis defines: and using them in the political propaganda does not burden the analysis itself in any (1) The boundaries of the Geographical way. In short, what could be the rela- Complex, which constitutes the geographi- tionship between Pope Borgia and Jesus, cal area to be analysed. considering the fact that they are both (2) The (internal or external) area of the “Christians”? Complex, i.e. the area of interest as a field of – Geopolitics does not “recommend” a distribution or redistribution of power due to political discourse, neither does it “rec- the impact of a specific geopolitical factor. ommend” an ideological model or any (3) That specific geopolitical factor, whose the political theory. Geopolitical analysis impact could affect the distribution of power describes, records a system and its sub- in the internal or the external area of the systems, builds the image of the examined given Geographical Complex. system, freeing it from a sea of ideological bias, from every contemplative collective Example: fantasy, from any nationalistic stereotype. « Geopolitics is knowledge and as such it is Geopolitics of the Islamist movement in the » not liable for the use made by social or Wider Middle East political actors. Title analysis: 1.1.2.1 Methodology of Systemic Geopolitical Analysis (1) The boundaries of the Geographical Com- plex are defined by the term “Wider Middle By means of Mazis’s writings the Greek East”. geopolitical school proposes a very specific (2) The area of the Complex under study is the methodology of systemic geopolitical analysis, a “internal” of the geographical complex in geographic analytical scientific tool in order to the Wider Middle East, illustrated by the investigate international political events and the word “in” meaning “within the boundaries associated power redistribution (defensive, eco- of the…”. nomic, political and cultural). The systemic (3) The designated geopolitical factor is the geopolitical analytical methodology is applicable “Islamist movement”. to all systems of national social formations (na- tional and ethnic) and phenomena, as well as entities that affect the formation, structure and B. Analysis. power interactions between these formations. This analysis consists of the following stages.41 1st stage 41Mazis, I.4 (2008): Writing Methodology of a Geopolit- ical Analysis. Structure, Concepts and Terms. [Chinese In this stage, we establish the boundaries of Institute of International & Strategic Studies & Defence the geopolitical systems, within which the action Analyses Institute]. Defencor Pacis, May 2008, no 23, or the actions of the geopolitical factor stated in Special Issue. Defence Analyses Institute. I. Mazis’ text Writing Methodology of Systemic Geopolitical Analysis is the title of the subject matter, are to be examined. reproduced unchanged. 8 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics

There are three System scales deriving from aspects of Islam in this geographical the range of the geographical area to which they area. refer: (ii) The “Islamist Movement in Middle East [According to the definition of (1) Sub-systems, which constitute subgroups of John Foster Dulles in 1977, i.e. Arab the systems. Peninsula, Emirates, Egypt, Israel, (2) Systems, i.e. the main Geographical Com- Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Tur- plex under study. key.]” for the same reasons stated (3) Supra-systems, which contain, like a above. sub-system, the main System under study (iii) “The Afghan-Pakistan and the Ira- along with other ones that are not involved in nian Islamist Movement”. the present study. (3) Supra-system: In order to define the above mentioned sys- tems in terms of geographical range, a qualitative The International Dar al-Islam (House of element is required, which, by its very existence, Islam) can be designated a Supra-system, i.e. the its forms, its action, and the extent to which it Geographical Complex encompassing the land of influences the System, will identify the geo- Islam at the international level, where Islamic graphical areas encompassed in the above men- peoples live, and further the Dar al-Sulh (House tioned Systems. Without this qualitative element of Treaty), where the Islamic Diaspora lives, and its individual parts, the definition of the three more or less, undisturbed, e.g. Europe, the USA System scales is not only impossible but also or Australia. meaningless. After defining the three System scales, the HOW TO DEFINE THE SYSTEMS—AN next step is to specify the fields under study EXAMPLE which are influenced by the “geopolitical factor” In the above mentioned subject matter the of the title. That is, we should determine for boundaries of the Systemic scales are defined as which combination of the four fields (geopoliti- follows: cal pillars) we will examine the impact of the “geopolitical factor”, always within the frame- (1) System: work of the chosen Systemic scale, for example, at the “System” level. The Wider Middle East Geographical Com- plex, not only because it is stated in the title, Example: which is already a fundamental criterion, but also because the “geopolitical factor”, i.e. the “Isla- We will examine the impacts of the Islamist mist movement” exists, acts and affects the movement on the three above mentioned whole geographical area of the Complex. Sub-systems, in particular Defense, Economy and Politics or Culture and Economy or Culture, (2) Sub-systems: Politics and Defense or with regard to all four pillars [N.B. These pillars are related to the four (i) The “Islamist Movement in Magh- forms of power: defensive, economic, political reb” constitutes a Sub-system due to and cultural power.]: (i) Defense, (ii) Economy, the unique character of the cultural, (iii) Politics and (iv) Culture/Information. economic, political and organisational 1.1 Geopolitics as an Analysis Tool of Power Redistribution 9

2nd stage It must be noted that in this stage of the study, as in any other stage of a geopolitical analysis, In this stage we will determine the geopolit- we make no proposals. We discover and describe ical trends—dynamics for each one of the the structures, actions, functions, impacts, forms, sub-systems under study. The trends, defined and dynamics of a geopolitical factor as well as solely in terms of “power”, inform as to: how the System behaves because of them. Proposals do not form part of a Geopolitical (1st) The pillars to which the “geopolitical fac- Analysis. They form part of a Geo-strategic tor” under study belongs (in our example the approach which may be carried out if asked and geopolitical factor is the Islamist movement) and by taking advantage of the results of a geopo- whose actions it already consequently defines or litical analysis that has been conducted may define within the framework of each beforehand. Sub-system. This form of conclusion is defined as “positive sub-systemic component trend of power” of the “geopolitical factor” in the 1.2 Ratzel: The Father “Internal of the System”. of Geopolitics? (2nd) The pillars which act as shock-absorbers for the “geopolitical factor’s” impact thus not Even though Ratzel’s name appears in the vast affecting the whole sub-system. This form of majority of the literature connected to Geopoli- conclusion is designated “zero sub-systemic tics, the opposite view has also been recorded. component trend of power” of the “geopolitical During a conference for the centennial of Rat- factor” in the “Internal of the System”. zel’s death,42 Klaus Kost, stressed out that no scientific and epistemological continuity between Ratzel and Kjellen, or between Ratzel and C. Synthesis modern Geopolitics has been verified. That lec- ture—the main points of which are presented The term synthesis refers to the procedure below—spurred a partial redefinition of the pre- through which we can find the Resultant Trend sent study, in the direction of a more thorough of Power of the given geopolitical factor on a research on the epistemological content of the final systemic scale. When we have found and ratzelian Political Geography. defined the individual power components (of the Among the proponents of the first view we geopolitical factor) at the sub-system level and find Michael Salewski, who considers the ratze- the objective is the component at a System level lian Political Geography as the Bible of ideolo- systemic scale, then the synthesis stage begins at gized Geopolitics.43 In the same direction—but the System level. If the desired component is at setting aside the term “ideologized”—I. Mazis the Supra-system level, then the synthesis stage regards Ratzel as the originator of Geopolitics, as begins after the components of the System have evidenced by the title of the 4th chapter of his been analysed.

D. Conclusions

The last stage of the study is dedicated to the “Conclusions”. Here, we are called to describe 42Conference entitled: “Ratzel Centennial the geopolitical dynamics, as well as how the – ä “ “ ” “ Conference/Ratzel Ged chtniskonferenz The Spaces component of power of the geopolitical fac- of Ratzel’s Geography”, to which the author participated, tor” under study affects the behaviour of the organized at 18. – 20. November, 2004 by the Institut für System under study within the framework of the Länderkunde (which houses the largest part of Ratzels Supra-system. archive). 43Salewski, M. (2000): Geopolitik und Ideologie, p. 367. 10 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics book Geopolitics. Theory and Practice: “Frie- coinage of the term by Kjellen.52 Stressing that drich Ratzel: German Geography and the Birth Ratzel wasn’t involved in the creation of the term of Geopolitics”.44 Indirectly, M. Görtemaker “Geopolitics” which was coined in 1899 by ranks Ratzel among the precursors of Geopoli- Kjellen, K. Kost characterizes any effort to tics, emphasizing that he presented to the polit- transfer the term “Geopolitics” to circumstances ical debate the geographical factors as important or events of early or ancient times as unsuc- players.45 Ratzel is also considered the Father of cessful, denying the existence of any Geopolitics by H. Wolter,46 while, finally, pre-geopolitical period, since the existence of the Hans-Dietrich Schultz believes that the scientific content of a term prior to its coinage is impos- community recognizes the German geographer sible.53 Noting that Ratzel and Kjellen exchan- more as the spiritus rector of Geopolitics.47 ged infrequent letters (but not in the sense of Bernhard Streck,48 shares the same opinion exchanging theories and scientific results), he attributing to Ratzel a geopolitical period, which observes that, despite having sufficient time, the has been intentionally kept secret,49 in order to German had not commented on the conception of detach his scientific contribution from his polit- the term, which was not used in Germany until ical writings and ideas, which found shelter in the 1903 by geographer Robert Sieger. By that time, imperialist perceptions of the 2nd German Ratzel was already at the peak of his career Empire and were regenerated at the time of the publishing very few articles. According to Kost, Third Reich.50 Ratzel and Kjellen were not so much connected Following the almost opposite direction, by the common vision of modernising Political Klaus Kost51 considers the idea that Kjellen Geography—irrespective of whether it was then supposedly completed some Geopolitics estab- termed Geopolitics or not—as they were by their lished by Ratzel as a legend. He claims that the truly conservative opinion of the state and poli- latter can be classified as the father of Geopoli- tics, which was not the subject matter of scien- tics only partly, given that other movements and tific research, but more of a trigger for active thinkers had at least the same contribution to the political action (Ratzel was a member of the Alldeutscher Verband and Kjellen a member of the highly conservative Swedish National Party). Kost notes that Kjellen aims to create a policy system, not a system of Geopolitics … therefore, for Kjellen Geopolitics is a subdivision of polit- ical systems, while there are other categories, 44Mάfη1,I.1 (2002): Cexpokisijή. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, p. 147. whose objectives are served by specialized 45Görtemaker, M. (2000): Politischer Zeitgeist und disciplines: Geopolitik – Über die zeitbedingten Voraussetzungen Kjellen’s Political System has been codified anwendungsorientierter Wissenschaft, p.18. by Prof. Kost in his book Grundrisse zu einem 46Kost K.4 (2004): Friedrich Ratzel: Vater der Geopoli- System der Politik as follows54: tik? Rede und Gegenrede. 47Schultz, H.– D. (2000): Die deutsche Geographie im 19. Jahrhundert und die Lehre Friedrich Ratzels, p. 39. 48Streck, B. (2001): Diffusionism and geopolitics in the work of Friedrich Ratzel, p. 55. 49The reproach is addressed to Steinmetzler, who distin- guished three periods of ratzelian creation. On the more specific determination of Ratzels geopolitical period see Sect. 2.5. 52Ibid. 50Streck, B. (2001): Diffusionism and geopolitics in the 53Ibid. work of Friedrich Ratzel, p. 51. 54Kost K.1 (1988): Die Einflüsse der Geopolitik auf 51Kost, K.4 (2004): Friedrich Ratzel: Vater der Geopoli- Forschung und Theorie der Politischen Geographie von tik? Rede und Gegenrede. ihren Anfängen bis 1945, p. 46. 1.2 Ratzel: The Father of Geopolitics? 11

General PoliƟcal Science (theory of the Special PoliƟcal Science (theory of the state) state)

OpƟmal form System Unity Hypotheses Subsystem Categories Phenomena Special Science of life

Locaon of the Topo-polics Empire

Form of the Empire Morpho-polics Natural area GEOPOLITICS Empire

Territory of the Physio-polics Empire

Economic Trade-polics Sphere 1. States are independent enes Economy of Self- ECONOMIC POLICY Self-sufficiency - and super the Empire Own resources sufficiency individual constructs polics

2. State's nature is primarily and Economic Life Fiscal-polics STATE equals ulmately Power. Law POLITICS is its servant. People’s pulse Ethno-polics 3. The policy objecve is not the ground, but DEMOGRAPHIC People People’s body Pletho-polics Naonality the polical POLICY organizaon of the territory, People’s spirit Psycho-polics i.e. the empire.

Social body Fylo-polics SOCIAL POLICY Society Sociality Social life Bio-polics

Form of state Nomo-polics

Constuon STATE POLICY Life of state Praxis-polics Loyalty

Power of state Archo-polics

This clear differentiation of the term “Policy” passages from the introduction of Ratzel’s Politis- does not appear in Ratzel in this form, believes K. che Geographie, to conclude that—according to Kost, blaming geographers and geopoliticians of Ratzel—Political Geography… can structure its later years, even of modern Political Geography theory on state only on a given land. Furthermore, (e.g. Lossau, 1996 and 2002), who acknowledge a it perceives the state as a human creation, which linear continuity from Ratzel to Kjellen to Haush- grows only on the soil of the earth.57 State and land ofer, Maul, Obst etc. Believing—falsely, as we are together the subject of Political Geography, propose55—that Ratzel has not recorded a clear which can be interpreted as the theory of state— definition of Political Geography, K. Kost56 uses land relations.58 Reflecting a naturalistic approach, this epistemological interpretation became 55Yet, Ratzel has clearly defined Political Geography and its objects. See Sect. 1.3.2. 57 1 56Kost, K.1 (1988): Die Einflüsse der Geopolitik auf Kost , p. 25, quoting from the introduction of Ratzels Forschung und Theorie der Politischen Geographie von Politische Geogaphie, p. IV. ihren Anfängen bis 1945, p. 25. 58Similarly to previous footnote. 12 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics dominant among more recent scholars, and opera- • Ratzel’s epistemological orientation, namely tive for the accusation of geo-determinism.59 the degree of a monistic approach to his To further reinforce his criticism, K. Kost research object by upgrading the territorial refers to Karl August Wittvogel, one of the factor to the exclusive analysis factor (i.e. leading social scientists of Germany, who emi- pillar of geopolitical influence)62 or, contrar- grated to the US after the establishment of ily, the choice of a multi-variable analysis of national socialism. In 1929 Wittvogel criticized power redistribution by considering other (accurately according to Kost) Ratzel’s work, parameters, e.g. social, cultural, economic which has not been seriously considered up to • the degree of his influence in later or even now by German geographers, because they contemporary geopolitical research programs. considered Wittvogel a Marxist, characterising ironically Politische Geographie as the theory of untainted conception, which does not take suffi- ciently into account the problems of the social 1.3 Ratzel’s Scientific Political sphere … or the economic sphere. According to Geography him the complicated overall internal develop- ment of the state is insufficiently surveyed by 1.3.1 About the Scientific Nature Ratzel and what remains in the end is a patch- of Political Geography work of mystical complexities welded together on the outside, contributing to scientific delusion.60 Before attempting an epistemological approach of In contradiction to Wittvogel’s view, E. Political Geography, a short digression seems Oberhummer, curator of the 3rd edition of Poli- appropriate, in order to emphasize the adjective tische Geographie, believes that Ratzel appro- scientific, which Ratzel attributed to Politische priates and adds geographical territory to the Geographie in an era, when natural sciences elements of Political and Economic Science, claimed the property of science exclusively. noting that his work enjoyed understanding and Under those circumstances, Ratzel classified appreciation among political scientists earlier Political Geography among sciences, as indicated than among geographers, who reconciled only by the title of his work The Laws of the spatial reluctantly with the new material.61 growth of states. A contribution to scientific These two diametrically opposite views Political Geography,63 an essay that, one year determine, as mentioned, an important aspect of before publishing Politische Geographie, pre- the present work. The following attempt to elu- pares the ground for its reception, by presenting in cidate this question provides valuable answers advance several intact passages from the third part. on: The resurgence of Political Geography that Ratzel envisioned meets the element of scien- • the research object of the ratzelian Politische tism. This ensues from moving away from the Geographie and its comparison with the definitions of Sect. 1.1, which have attributed to Geopolitics the character of a geographical analysis tool for the redistribution of power 62Pillar of geopolitical influence: term introduced by Professor. I. Mazis, referring to individual areas (Systemic Geopolitics examines the defensive, economic, political and cultural pillar), whose geographical analysis leads to 59 The fragmentary and misleading use of that passage as a the creation of an as far as possible coplete model of definition of the Political Geography is documented in geopolitical analysis. Mάfη1 I.1 (2002): Cexpokisjή. Sect. 1.3.2. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, pp. 48, 111, 140. 60 4 Kost, K. (2004): Friedrich Ratzel: Vater der Geopoli- 63Ratzel, Fr.8 (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen Wach- tik? Rede und Gegenrede, reference to Wittvogel, 1929, stums der Staaten. Ein Beitrag zur wissenschaftlichen pp. 27–29. Politischen Geographie. Petermanns Mitteilungen, Vol. 61Ratzel, F.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 597. 42, pp. 97–107. 1.3 Ratzel’s Scientific Political Geography 13 hitherto static citation of data and claiming an 1.3.2 Epistemological Approach overhaul, attainable only through the compara- and Definition of Political tive study of the relations between the state and Geography the territory. The fact that Political Science constantly abstains from every spatial theory, Despite the fact that modern geopolitical analysts measuring, calculation and comparison of the credit Friedrich Ratzel with the copyright of states and their parts—in other words—the modern Political Geography,67 the absence of a refusal to use tools that could quantify data, thus definition in the contemporary literature which allowing comparisons and, consequently, condi- was created by its own father is hard to miss. tions for experimental measurements and fore- This creates a serious problem in interpreting the casting tools—is evaluated by Ratzel as the new ratzelian thought: several scholars have obvi- revitalizing contribution of Political ously approached (or are still approaching) Rat- Geography.64 zel without having read his original works, based Furthermore, it should be noted that in the either on one-sided, biased analyses, or on the secondary literature the subtitle containing the opinions of various self-proclaimed “successors” term “scientific Political Geography”, is hardly of his work, who worked in very different sci- ever mentioned, either because the reference to entific, political and social conditions, frequently the laws is often brief and based on secondary enriching his theories with their personal touch. sources, without ever having studied the original But is such a deafening failure truly probable? text, or because it is carefully suppressed in an Did Ratzel really avoid determining the analyti- attempt to substantiate supposed metaphysical cal framework of the science, which he—as is concepts. Of course, the use of such a title, which unanimously recognized68 regenerated? clearly alludes to a specific, methodologically The striking absence (Sect. 1.1.) of a ratzelian positivist, metatheoretical approach, wouldn’tbe definition of Geopolitics, even in a geopolitical of much help towards that direction. study focused on Ratzel himself, is no coinci- Ratzel argues again for the scientism of dence. It is primarily due to the fact that the Political Geography a few years later (1899) in German geographer never used the term the preface of the second edition of Anthropo- Geopolitics—whose fatherhood is attributed to geographie, explaining that he omitted several the Swede Rudolf Kjellen69—but always referred political-geographical elements of the first edi- to it as Political Geography. Even in his Poli- tion (of Anthropogeographie), realising the need tische Geographie, Ratzel does not record a clear for an independent Political Geography, whose definition of Political Geography. Consequently, practical value he saw during his time in Leip- as mentioned above, a discussion arose over a zig.65 As the aforementioned conflict between subject matter determined by secondary sources, Natural and Human/Theoretical Sciences had thus debasing Ratzel’s Political Geography to also passed into Geography, Ratzel protests the level of a mechanistic investigation of against it, writing that he could not tolerate the state-land relations.70 contradiction of treating the Natural Geography of a part of the Earth as scientific, and Human 66 Geography, a division of which is Political 67Kost, K.1 (1988): Die Einflüsse der Geopolitik auf Geography, as non-scientific. Forschung und Theorie der Politischen Geographie von ihren Anfängen bis 1945, p. 22. 68Kost, K.1 (1988): Die Einflüsse der Geopolitik, p. 22. 69The term Geopolitik was first used by Kjellen in 1898 as 64 1 Ratzel, F. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. III. part of a study on Swedens’ political boundaries. He 65Ratzel, F.11 (1909): Anthropogeographie. Grundzüge remarks that the term was created im the same year at der Anwendung der Geographie auf die Geschichte, Uppsala University. See about: Kost, K.1 (1988): Die p. IX. Einflüsse der Geopolitik, p. 42. 66Ibid., p. IX. 70See Sect. 1.2. 14 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics

The above position is, of course, only part of As a result, this is the definition of Political the reality, since Ratzel cannot view the state as Geography by its creator, without any interfer- separate from the territory, and he clearly accuses ence or arbitrary interpretation by third parties. those political scientists, sociologists and histo- This definition articulates Ratzel’s suggestion of rians, who perceive the state as existing in the air interpreting historical developments on the basis and understand the state territory as a kind of of a plethora of factors of geopolitical influence. greater land property.71 Based on this analysis, Despite this clear definition of Political Geogra- Political Geography can build its theory on the phy, the field of land-power correlations is state only on a given territory, since the state is a examined in detail in the next two subsections, human creation, which grows only on the ground since it holds a pivotal position in understanding of Earth. Yet, in the same text and in the the thought of the German geographer. immediately following sentence, Ratzel emphat- ically adds that getting involved with problems of 1.3.2.1 Land Equals Power? Sociology and Political Science is unavoidable, In order to define the concept of state territory and the causality of Political Geography should (Staatsgebiet), Ratzel uses International Law as normally be considered as a part of historical an example, a discipline which defines as the causality.72 territory of a state, the terrestrial part of the Earth The previous passage clearly proves the dis- that is subjected to the sovereignty of that state. tortion created by isolated references to the state- He explains that Political Geography could land relation, which alludes to the crude, commence with this definition, even though it mechanistic fulfillment of territorial needs. hardly bears any relation to the additions and Therefore, the definition of Ratzel’s Political the conditions, thanks to which international law Geography as an exploration of state-land rela- expands the state territory to an unspecified tions is inadequate and misleading, since it does height and depth, as well as to all ships, espe- not include the other pillars of geopolitical cially war ships, which he considers as seagoing influence (social, political) that Ratzel himself parts of the state territory of the state,75 whose hastens to take into account. flag they bear.76 He, thus, clarifies that for the In fact, two years later (1898) in the preface of the 2nd, revised edition of his book about the USA, Ratzel appears even more clear and ana- lytical, defining as primary task of Political 74 70 Geography the detection and description of Ratzel, F. (1893): Die Vereinigten Staaten von 73 Amerika. Zweiter Band. Politische und telluric facts, based on the political and eco- Wirtschafts-Geographie. 2. Aufl., p. VI: To establish nomic phenomena. As a second mission he and describe the telluric facts on the grounds of political determines the description of the size, location and economic phenomena is its undoubted first task, and character of those phenomena which is followed by the description of the size, position, ,and,thirdly, … fi and form of these phenomena. [ ] Political Geography is he de nes Political Geography as an applied also applied Ethnography. Besides the land’s description, 74 Ethnography. it seeks to give the people’s description in, if possible, the same degree of detail and precision. 75The endorsement of the ships as part of the state’s surface goes, so Ratzel, back in the Middle Ages, when 71 See Footnote 64. the merchant fleet of the Venetians was ruled either by 72Ibid., p. IV. Reference is made just ten (10) lines after officials or the latter aborted to individual vessels as the comparative examination of the state-land relation- supervisors. According to Ratzel, this perception is related ship. In the Second Edition of Political Geography it is in to that of commercial firms or a commercial community, fact located on the same page, while in the Third Edition as being a particularly important areas in the middle of at the end of the same page and on top of the next. another state's territory F. Ratzel: Politische Geographie, 73tellurisch: from Latin tellus—telluris (=earth), referring p. 213, Footnote 1. to the earth, the earth system. Source: Brockhaus 1906 – 76Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen Wach- Konversationslexikon (SW). stums der Staaten, p. 97. 1.3 Ratzel’s Scientific Political Geography 15 purposes of Political Geography all of the data rail building projects, highways ending in foreign concerning the expansion of the state territory territory or the right of free navigation in the beyond neighbouring sea regions, as well as all rivers of another country, reflect a transcendence kinds of easements on entering and crossing the of the expansive instinct beyond borders, even state territory of a state for the benefit of another though a clear distinction between economic and is important.77 As examples of such entering and political motivations is problematic.84 easements he mentions the Russo-Persian treaties The above standpoint elucidates Ratzel‘s of 1823 and 1828, by which the Caspian Sea was thoughts on the mobility of borders, which converted into a Russian sea, across which shouldn’t be understood solely as a spatial dis- Russia sails exclusively hitherto, a fact that placement of the territorially specified borders, should be cartographically reflected as an but also as an expansion, as power projection.85 expansion of Russian borders.78 Accordingly, he It is the latter, however, which he seems to have considers that political maps should reflect the in mind, when he concludes that there could not expansion of the German customs influence to be a change of borders in Europe, since the Luxembourg or the exercise of sea and public existing neighbouring countries and the borders health control on the Montenegrin coast by are almost everywhere in a stable condition, Austria-Hungary. which hinders the possibility of change.86 Fur- According to Ratzel, the difficulty in mapping thermore, taking into account Germany’s posi- these relationships leads to the need for a special tion in Europe, he approves of its Africa policy, mention when it comes to the geographical since Germany can pursue its greater missions description of these countries.79 So, Ratzel’s only far away. Its position in Europe makes it research interest focuses on cases of power pro- depend on its global policy….87 For Austria- jection, prevailing over interstate relations on the Hungary, however, he foresees a different role, basis of international agreements or due to the namely its hegemony over the Balkan Peninsula mobility of their residents80: Political Geography and the Aegean Sea.88 The location of must focus particularly on the hundreds of such Austria-Hungary and obviously the assumption cases, since they specifically identify which part that the borders in the Balkans are not as stable of the state is [strictly] connected with its ter- as in Europe support that thought. This assess- restrial surface and, therefore, constitutes the ment illustrates, if nothing else, Ratzel’s analyt- actual domain of Geography, the territory in the ical prowess, and it couldn’t be more timely, geographical sense.81 considering the recent events in the Balkans. Thus, it becomes obvious that Ratzel intro- According to the above, maintenance of duces a multidimensional perspective in the power must not be understood only in the sense political-geographical survey on states, which of territorial changes, since territory is not interprets in new terms the state territory, which regarded as the sole criterion for the maintenance was until then determined solely by means of of balance in Europe. Ratzel is a strong advocate soil. The “Invasive rights”82 or rights of foreign of the need for a reassessment of the criteria forces83 in an area, emerging in the form of joint determining power, i.e. the pillars of geopolitical influence, after watching new types of states 77Ibid., p. 97. 78Of course, this is not the case today, since borders between the Caspian coastal states are established. 84Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie, pp. 123–124. 79 See Footnote 76. 85Clearly the recent debate in Greece about the with the 80See Footnote 77. loan agreements and issues of sovereignty refers to 81See Footnote 77. theoretical issues, which have long been studied and 82Quotes from the prototype. Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politis- answered in the western world. 86 che Geographie, p. 124. Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 232. 87 83Ratzel, Fr. (1893): Die Vereinigten Staaten von Ibid., p. 233. Amerika. Zweiter Bd. Zweite Auflage, p. 44. 88See Footnote 87. 16 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics emerge from the ruins of the feudal system and the number one industrial and commercial state, spread all over Europe within the equilibrium the greatest naval power in peacetime and war, achieved after the wars; an equilibrium aiming he characterizes its performance in all cultural primarily towards territorial equality between sectors as excellent and the English people as one countries, even if the actual power is asymmet- of the most outstanding peoples of Europe, rically distributed.89 because of their spiritual and moral nature.93 Hence, Ratzel clearly rejects the possibility of achieving peace in Europe as a result of isometric 1.3.2.2 Physiographical and Human allocation of land90; he negates the territorial Geographical Aspects factor as the sole pillar of a state’s geopolitical in the Political Evaluation influence and indicates other parameters, which Further evidence militating against the mecha- distribute power asymmetrically compared to the nistic identification of territory as a source of land. He would further elaborate on that thought power is, according to Ratzel, the annulling of two years later (1898), pointing out that in recent peoples’ attributes, the political repression of years the Political Geography of Europe is less entire peoples.94 This view draws on the example characterized by the great changes of political of the Romanians, who for centuries were not loci, and more by the rearrangement in the taken into account when describing Hungary and power positions of the states. While the territo- Siebenbürgen, as they were considered to belong ries of old countries have experienced few to a social class inferior to the Germans and changes … the power of states has undergone Magyars. However, in Ratzel’s time, the Roma- many changes and everything suggests that these nians, whose population exceeded 2.5 million, changes are only the harbingers of much larger was the third most powerful group among the and more serious ones.91 peoples of the House of Stephan (Stephan- The same concludes Ratzel on the basis of the skrone), while together with the 5 million of the English example, arguing that the British Empire Romanian inhabitants of the Kingdom, they were became a world power not only because the its the most compact national body of Southern territorial size, the large population (27 million Europe.95 Square km and more than 360 million inhabi- According to Ratzel, the same confusion is tants) and its global political presence, but he even more critical in young states and colonies, considers as co-determining factors the quality of where taking into account and evaluating the its location and the size of its cultural perfor- land alone, as if it were empty of people, is a mance.92 That proves, according to Ratzel, common case, and it is assumed that the land can England’s presence in sheltered islands and gain value at a later stage, with the arrival of peninsulas, the major maritime passages, the another people, different to the indigenous peo- most decisive for the global transport positions. ple left unobserved.96 Therefore, Ratzel brings Furthermore, the geographer ranks England as forward the poor decisions of many colonial

89Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen Wach- stums der Staaten, p. 98. 90Ratzel considers that European peace can be achieved through a large-scale economic cooperation. See Sects. 6.3 93 and 6.4. See Footnote 92. 94 64 91Ratzel, Fr. (1898)64: Politisch - geographische Rück- Ratzel, Fr. (1900) : Einige Aufgaben einer politischen blicke I, p. 143. Ethnographie, p. 405. 95 92Ratzel, Fr. (1898)65: Politisch - geographische Rück- Ibid., p. 405. blicke II, p. 211. 96See Footnote 95. 1.3 Ratzel’s Scientific Political Geography 17 powers to displace the natives from their colo- connected with the land either in its rise or in its nies, and he endorses the view of Oskar Bau- fall, thus justifying the use of the phrase the mann, who criticises the delusion of German Turkish rule (Herrschaft der Türken) instead of officials and officers, who underestimate the the phrase the Turkish Empire. Yet, also in the Negroes and wish to govern Africa without the case of colonial history, where much depends on Africans.97 people’s activities, Ratzel notes that there is more Ratzel even doubts the geographical unity of talk of the Dutch as explorers and conquerors, America—a country he praises in many of his than of the Netherlands per se.102 writings—by pointing at the ethnic diversity of Based on these considerations, Ratzel con- its inhabitants, an American characteristic of cludes that to know a country, a description of its more political importance than its actual geo- geographical properties (location, land, climate) graphical cohesion.98 The greatest contrast is never adequate, since we are eventually led between North and Central America is identified instinctively to the people who live there.He in the origin and history of their peoples, differ- considers it much harder to focus on a people in ences leading to the conclusion that America will transition, than to describe the physical charac- never become a unity, despite its geographical teristics of the land. He believes that Geography isolation. He even concludes that, based on the and Statistics, the sciences recording the popu- European perspective, South and Central Europe lation, the size of towns and cities, the length of offer to the political and economic entrepre- highways and a lot more measurable data, may neurial spirit of Europeans a completely differ- contribute to that end. Geography can provide ent, more open ground than North America.99 information about the dispersion of peoples and Ratzel further mentions people who have used languages, namely the starting point of Geogra- their land better than what their size, location and phy in its political implementation.103 form allowed (e.g. Athens in antiquity and Ratzel, therefore, concludes that every Prussia in modern history). He also presents description of a state must record both the geo- Montenegro as a timely example of a country graphic and ethnographic characteristics; every with minimal political importance, as a result of political evaluation must be based on both. The the fact (especially with regard to its territory in nature and type of land and water resources 1878) that it was small, barren, due to its have an impact on the state, as significant as the exclusion from the coast, and endowed with an characteristics of the people inhabiting that land, unfavorable relief for land transportations.100 and establishing with the land what we under- Ratzel, therefore, claims that there are peoples, stand as the state.104 whose history and circumstances lead as such to a rather ethnographical than geographical per- ception, as well as countries which have never 1.3.3 Ratzel and Modern Geopolitics been so closely connected with their territories, so as to make it possible to conceive them even According to the above, the questions of without those territories.101 Such an example is Sect. 1.2 are answered as follows: Turkey, whose people were never closely

97Ibid., p. 406. 98See Footnote 97. 99See Footnote 97. 102 100Ratzel, Fr. (1900)64: Einige Aufgaben einer politischen See Footnote 102. Ethnographie, pp. 406–407. 103Ibid., p. 408. 101Ibid., p. 407. 104See Footnote 103. 18 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics

• the ratzelian Political Geography is clearly – according to the above observation, Kjellen’s defined as a system of dynamic analysis of perception of Geopolitics finds no reference power and its redistribution. Thus, its subject to any version of modern Geopolitics, as it matter coincides with that of modern refers to a single characteristic of geopolitical Geopolitics. influence, namely the territorial dimension. • applying geographical tools, Ratzel analyzes Due to this terminological confusion, power on the basis of many parameters and not excluding Kjellen’sdefinition of Geopolitics monistically. He does not consider the territo- from Sect. 1.1 was unavoidable, not as a rial factor as the only pillar of geopolitical denial of his contribution—by means of his influence, but takes into account social, cul- holistic Political System—to the evolution of tural, ethnographic and economic processes.105 geopolitical thinking in general, but for the • concerning the degree of influence on subse- sake of precision and in order to avoid further quent or contemporary geopolitical schools, interpretative misunderstandings. as well as the argumentation of Professor K. – In an already confusing (regarding the ter- Kost about the alleged discontinuity between minology) framework, the strength of K. Ratzel and Kjellen, the following observa- Kost’s argument that Ratzel did not use the tions should be recorded: term Geopolitik is fatally dwindling. – Finally, a comparative study of the work of – The definition of Geopolitics by Kjellen, who Ratzel-Kjellen should be conducted at the defined it (1916) as the science of the state, level of comprehensive systems, leaving aside fi understood as a geographical organism, any terminological dif culties and the fol- operating in space,106 as well as the graphic lowing paradox: the fact that while keeping presented in Sect. 1.2. based on K. Kost’s Geopolitics in the background, two analytical ’ arguments, prove that Kjellen’s “Geopolitik” is frameworks (Ratzel s Political Geography ’ 107 a subsystem of a more general analytical set, and Kjellen s Political System) are men- dealing exclusively and naturalistically with tioned, which were never independently the territorial expression of a state formation. named Geopolitics! – the comparison between Political Geography (Ratzel) and Geopolitics (Kjellen) logically leads to the discontinuity pointed out by K. Comparing the data presented so far, it Kost, simply because disparate things are becomes clear that the primary components of compared: a consistent (even if methodologi- geopolitical approaches of the “preceding” Rat- cally weak) analytical system in terms of key zel clearly influenced the systematics of the assumptions (political, cultural, economic) is somewhat more contemporary Kjellen and compared to merely a subsystem separated out Spykman, but also the methodological proposal and isolated from Kjellen’s complete analyti- of geopolitical analysis of I. Mazis. They all cal system: namely Kjellen’s “geopolitical” analyze similar pillars of geopolitical influence: (i.e. territorial) dimension and only that.

105The configuration and practical application of the power factors, which included Ratzel’s analytical system, as well as the concept of scientific Policy Ethnography, will be presented in detail in the following chapters. Here mostly theoretical references are recorded. 106Mάfη1,I.1 (2002): Cexpokisjή. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, 107Kjellen, R. (1920): Grundriss zu einem System der p. 15. Politik. 1.3 Ratzel’s Scientific Political Geography 19

Primary comparative compositional elements of geopolitical approaches Ratzel Kjellen Spykman Mazis Physical Geopolitics Physical Geography Geographical space geography Human geography Demographic Demographic density/national composition of Cultural/defensive Ethnography policy population pillar economy Economic Economic structures Economic pillar Society culture policy Social policy Ideally and values of population Cultural pillar State policy Forms of governance Political/defensive pillar Complexes and biases of foreign ministers Defensive pillar

A typical hierarchical structure of a state actor of state actors and the way they interact with their indexes is presented by I. Th. Mazis, in which the environment, b. The structure of the geographical geopolitical indicators - given that the period in complex, to which the state actors belong, and the which the systemic geopolitical analysis of the way it interacts with the super-systems and c. particular geographical complex takes place has The structure of the super-system that controls the homogeneous historical characteristics - are geographical complex.

categorized according to: a. The internal structure

Scales of Systemic Analysis. Categorization of geopolitical complexes in Systemic Geopolitical Analysis. (According to : I. Th Mazi, «Writing Methodology of a Geopolitical Analysis. Structure, Concepts and Terms», Defencor Pacis, May 2008, no 23, Special Issue, pp. 53-59.)

Hyper-systems, including – as a subset - the main system under research or even Subsystems, subsets other, not involved in the research of Systems

Systems, the main geographical complex under research. 20 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics

Hierarchical structure of systemic geopoliti- cal indices108

Organizing geopolitical Indices of a state actor Methodology of organizing Information Analysis

a. Domestic State organization 1 Obtaining information a.i Structure (Political system, structure) a.a Collection methods a.a.1 Visible a.ii Leadership (leaders personality) a.a.2 Invisible a.a.2.i. Reliability of information a.iii Education a.iii.1. Language studies - Indices a.a.2.ii. Reproduction a.iii.2. Historical studies - Indices a.a.2.iii. Validity a.iii.3. Geographical studies - Indices a.a.2.iv. Historical continuity a.iii.4. Science studies -Indices a.a.2.v. One source of information a.iii.5. Social Studies and Humanities - Indices a.a.2.vi. Two sources of information a.a.2.vii. Triangulation a.iv Τraditions a.iv.1. Social practices - Indices 2. Information Archive – GIS a.iv.2. Social demarcation - Indices a.a Storage a.iv.3. Social and cultural characteristics of social groups; particularities - nationalities a.b Access – races -Indices a.c Correlation a.d Recovery a.v Hierarchy a.v.1. Hierarchy of Powers (Definition, 3. Analytical methodology Description - Indices) a.v.2. Hierarchy of Institutions (Definition, a.a. Approach Description - Indices) a.a.1. Intuitive a.a.2. Structured a.vi Resources a.a.3. Semi - structured a.vi.1. Human resources a.vi.2. Technology per head of human a.b. Elaboration of information resources a.b.1. History (Analysis, setting a gauge) a.vi.3. Material infrastructure a.b.2. Current information a.vi.4. Natural Resources and Natural a.c Decision making strategy Availables a.c.1. Assessment (Qualitative) a.vi.5. Research and development a.c.2. Prediction (Computational Mathematical a.vii Level of Cooperation models) a.d Report b. External organization a.d.1. Written (level of confidentiality) b.i. Defense Affairs - Indices a.d.2. Oral b.ii. Financial Affairs - Indices b.iii. Political Affairs - Indices b.iv. Cultural Affairs - Indices

a book on US Political and Economic Geography 1.4 A Methodological Approach ’ which had been rather neglected by the contem- to Ratzel s Work porary researchers (Ratzel, F.70 (1893): Die Vere- inigten Staaten von Amerika. Zweiter Band. ’ The fact that Ratzel s major theoretical approaches Politische und Wirtschafts-Geographie. 2. Aufl., on Political Geography are concentrated-even p. VI) and not in Politische Geographie, his stan- though hitherto undetected-in the introduction of dard work, leads as such to the need to present some more general considerations on the method- 108 άfη1 esahexqηsijή qisijή .M , I. (2012): M K ological approach and the organization of the DiehmώmRvέrexm jai Cexpokisijή1, p.404. The structure is largely indicative. For the needs of his present research. analysis, each analyst can construct a special composition and hierarchy of indices. 1.4 A Methodological Approach to Ratzel’s Work 21

Firstly, the practical difficulty of overviewing his students, but also by modern scholars.114 and consolidating Ratzel’s intellectual work has Furthermore, his intricate eloquence often become evident. The main limiting factor therein obscures the essence of his sayings,115 resulting has been the multitude of his textbooks and the in a mere few translation attempts, where serious interdisciplinarity of his writings. His more than translation errors proved impossible to avoid.116 20 (sometimes multivolume) written works and An additional issue is the insufficient studying more than 1200 articles, as well as the interdis- and limited use of his smaller texts as sources. ciplinarity of his topics (being versatile and well Without them, drawing the right conclusions educated, Ratzel got engaged in a wide range of about his entire anthropogeographical theory is fields such as Zoology, Ethnography, Human rendered problematic.117 Geography, Political Geography, Biogeography) Finally (this is perhaps the most important make the full supervision of his work particularly factor) the misinterpretation and manipulation of difficult, if not impossible.109 To that end, the Ratzel’s ideas in favor of Nazi ideology should deployment of modern informatics, such as for be brought up, which prevented the under- the creation of an electronic data base, would be standing of both his thought and the historical- considered essential.110 cultural context in which he acted.118 For obvi- In his several writings, a continuous evolution ous reasons, the latter factor has affected (and of his worldview, as well as his scientific theo- still affects) decisively German scientists in par- ries,111 can be detected and Steinmetzler112 dis- ticular, enlightening thus their attempt to distance tinguished three periods in Ratzel’s thinking: themselves from events prior to 1945. In this 1866–1876: Geological period of research. context, K. Kost considers that the pre-condition Imbued with Darwin’s evolutionary theory and for the realization of a new Geopolitics is a Haeckel’s mechanistic—materialistic ideas. democratic and liberal political model, based on 1876–1900: Geographical period. He delves aspirations for more … .., free from biological into biological problems and evolutionary ques- and organic theories … which permits of course tions using the methods of Geography. He con- very limited (critical and with full consciousness sistently implements Moritz Wagner’s of tradition) references to Ratzel.119 Contrari- Migrationstheorie,113 exercises his critical spirit wise, David Newmann reflects, from a different against Darwin and Haeckel and gets thoroughly starting point, that it is now possible to conduct involved in ethnographic and other issues. conferences, which will enable the presentation 1900-1904: physio-philosophical period, and analysis of the texts of Ratzel and Mackinder with elements of mysticism, according to his without connecting them automatically with all critics. Maturity period—he attempts to penetrate into the essence of things. 114Schultz, H.– D. (2007): „Hätte doch die Erde mehr His works are also characterized by an un- Raum!“ Friedrich Ratzel und sein (politisch-) clear methodological approach, recognized (ex- geographisches Weltbild, rp. 7–9; Wardenga U. (2004), cept for his contemporary opponents) by many of Friedrich Ratzel. Zum 100. Todestag am 9. August 2004, pp. 49–50. 115Overbeck H. (1957): Das politischgeographische Lehrgebäude von Friedrich Ratzel in der Sicht unserer 109Buttmann, G. (1977): Friedrich Ratzel. Leben und Zeit, p. 172. Werk eines deutschen Geographen, p. 10. 116Pagnini, P. (2001): Theory and praxis: From Anthro- 110Muscara, L. (2001): Understanding Ratzel and the pogeographie to Politische Geographie, p. 20. challenge of complexity, p. 80. 117Overbeck H. (1957): Das politischgeographische 111Pagnini, P. (2001): Theory and praxis: From Anthro- Lehrgebäude von Friedrich Ratzel in der Sicht unserer pogeographie to politische Geographie, p. 19. Zeit, p. 171. 112Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie 118Muscara, L. (2001): Understanding Ratzel and the Friedrich Ratzels und ihre ideengeschichtlichen Wurzeln, challenge of complexity, p. 88. pp. 69–74. 119Kost4,K.4 (2004): Friedrich Ratzel: Vater der 113On Migrationstheorie see Sect. 3.5. Geopolitik? Rede und Gegenrede. 22 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics the ugliness of Haushofer’s German school of Positivist Circle of Leipzig126 (Leipziger Posi- Geopolitics.120 tivistenkränzchen), which laid the foundations of From the above, it becomes evident that any a special Positivist School of Philosophy. attempt to approach the ratzelian work as a whole The cumulative influence of these parameters is challenging. The fact that the workshop held in explains quite satisfactorily the exceptional Leipzig for the centennial since the death of the diversification in the interpretation and evalua- German geographer attracted geographers, his- tion of the ratzelian work: claims of metaphysics, torians, political scientists, and biologists, illus- Darwinism, racism, nationalism, pure patriotism, trates the unlimited number of possible Christian fervour and love for man, etc. compose approaches, depending on the perspective and a grid of disparate and largely reciprocally the interests of each researcher. Ratzel’s name exclusive approaches. The reason of this lack of even features in compendia of the history of order … is accurately identified by H. Over- Sociology121 with references to Human Geogra- beck.127 He talks about the superficial approach phy and his theory of diffusionism.122 of Ratzel and the unreflective, fragmentary use of Moreover, Ratzel’s activity is characterized excerpts from his various works.128 As a result, by the typical “continental” and holistic the younger researchers of Ratzel should simply approach123 expressed in the global analytical obey H. Overbeck’s scientific advice, namely to scale, as well as in the desired unity of Geogra- watch out, avoid drawing general conclusions phy; the consolidation of the Geography of from isolated sentences, and judge Ratzel from plants and animals with the Human Geography the overall character of his intentions.129 in a , the theory on how Based on the above, there appears to be a dire life spread on Earth.124 need for a structured methodological framework Apart from the consolidation of Geography, which will facilitate the research on Ratzel’s Ratzel was concerned about the unity and sys- work, by taking into account all of the recently tematization of sciences. This was indeed the identified parameters. From a geopolitical point dominant issue debated upon in the regular of view, our first concern is to investigate the (sometimes with a participating audience) dis- existence of a geopolitical period in the life of cussions conducted in Hannes café in Leipzig Ratzel and to determine it chronologically as with eminent scientists of his time, such as: accurately as possible. And this is precisely the Wundt (psychologist), Ostwald (historian), purpose of the next paragraph. Lamprecht (chemist) and Bücher (economist and press expert).125 They formed the so-called 1.5 Determining F. Ratzel’s “Geopolitical Period” 120Newmann, D. (2004): An informed and proactive geopolitics, p. 626. To approach the ratzelian work from a geopo- 121Timashef, N. (1976): Irsoqίajoimxmiokocijώm hexqiώm, p. 223. According to N. Timashef, Ratzel had litical perspective it is essential to start from the recorded in his Anthropogeogrpaphie in 1892 “cultural existing periodizations of Steinmetzler and similarities between societies with very different back- grounds, similarities that could thus be interpreted as a the text of which Prof. Middell kindly handed to the result of contacts.” author. 122On Ratzel’s contribution to the theory of diffusionism 126On the Positivistic Circle of Leipzig see Sect. 5.4. see Sect. 5.2. 127Overbeck, H. (1958): Das politischgeographische 123Buttmann, G. (1977): Friedrich Ratzel. Leben und Lehrgebäude von Friedrich Ratzel in der Sicht unserer Werk eines deutschen Geographen, p. 13. Zeit, p. 172. 124Müller, G. H. (1996): Fr. Ratzel (1844–1904): Natur- 128“By just quoting the texts of Ratzel, it is possible to wissenschaftler, Geograph, Gelehrter, p. 92. verify one or the other view”. The opinion was expressed 125Middell, M. (2004): Friedrich Ratzel, die Universität during a discussion with the author, by the director of the Leipzig und die Historiker. Lecture at the international library of IfL, Dr. Heinz Brogiato. conference on the 100th anniversary of the Ratzel’s death, 129See Footnote 127. 1.5 Determining F. Ratzel’s “Geopolitical Period” 23

Streck and the opinion that Ratzel’s entire theo- ethnographic fact. Nothing became clearer than retical system of Political Geography, which he the incapacity of the Chinese to conquer and never completely formulated, may only be dominate with military means. Their activities reconstructed with the help of accurately anal- and successes in all sectors of trade and manu- ysed components, which he provided in a series facture are as impressive as their incompetence of separate political-geographical essays.130 with political issues. Therefore we concluded Therefore, the need for a structural system- that the objective of their broad colonial atization of the politico-geographical research on expansion is to accumulate wealth and to change Ratzel becomes compelling, starting with the the races, but not to gain political influence and need to record his less known writings—except found states.132 from Politische Geographie—in which the gist Especially the last passage makes clear that of his scientific Political Geography is fully political-geographical considerations and con- conveyed. cerns affect Ratzel’s thinking from his early Given the above, the existing periodizations period,133 initially without a theoretical back- of Steinmetzler and Streck lead to the following ground, but gradually growing and reaching a working framework: climax towards the end of 1897, with the first

Steinmetzler Streck

1866 – 1876: Period of zoological research 1876 – 1900: Geographical Period Geopolitical Period 1900 – 1904: Physio - philosophical period

Obviously, J. Steinmetzler considers that edition of Political Geography and other mono- Ratzel’s geographical period is introduced with graphs such as the Sea, a power source for his books Cities and cultural images of America nations (1900) and On the laws of territorial (1876), and Chinese Immigration. Contribution expansion of the peoples (1901). His books on to Cultural and Economic Geography (1876), the US must also be included in his both of which—even in their titles—are a token political-geographical research, not forgetting of Ratzel’s special early interest in culture and that in the introduction of the second, revised economics. While in the former Ratzel himself edition, Ratzel records the definition of Political clearly admits that some important issues, such Geography. as social conditions, city administration, the press Since the beginning of the 1880s, Ratzel or the case of many Germans living there, have intensifies his political and geographical writing, been superficially approached due to lack of analyzing geopolitical events of his time, as well space,131 the latter clearly contains broader as matters pertaining to colonial competition. parameters and references (cultural, economic, ethnographic, and political-geographical). As a result, Ratzel concludes (in 1876!) that the Chi- nese immigration is solely an economic and

132Ratzel, Fr.73 (1876): Die chinesische Auswanderung. 130Overbeck, H. (1958): Das politischgeographische Ein Beitrag zur Kultur- und Handelsgeographie, p. 252. Lehrgebäude von Friedrich Ratzel in der Sicht unserer 133In 1878 Ratzel publishes the essay Die Beurteilung der Zeit, p. 177. Völker (see detailed presentation in Chap. 4) where he 131Ratzel, Fr.72 (1876): Städte- und Kulturbilder aus thoroughly analyzes many social factors that contribute to Nordamerika, p. VI. the strength of a people. 24 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics

Magazine Das Ausland 1882 Political and economic-geographical reviews of the year Nr. 1 pp. 8–11 1881 Das Ausland 1882 Political and economic-geographical reviews of the year Nr. 5 pp. 81–84 1881 Das Ausland 1882 Political and economic-geographical reviews of the year Nr. 6 pp. 109–112 1881 Das Ausland 1883 Political and economic-geographical reviews Nr. 1 pp. 8–11 Das Ausland 1883 Political and economic-geographical reviews Nr. 2 pp. 27–31 Das Ausland 1883 Political and economic-geographical reviews Nr. 5 pp. 81–84 Das Ausland 1883 Political and economic-geographical reviews Nr. 13 pp. 247–254 Das Ausland 1883 Political and economic-geographical reviews Nr. 14 pp. 266–271 Das Ausland 1883 Political and economic-geographical reviews Nr. 15 pp. 286–292 Das Ausland 1883 Political and economic-geographical reviews Nr. 18 pp. 341–347 1884 Germany entering colonial activity Petermanns 1885 Establishment of a new political map of Africa XXXI pp. 245–250 Mitteilungen Die Grenzboten 1888 The distance in History 47. Jg Nr. 37 pp. 493–501 1890 Fall of Bismarck Die Grenzboten 1892 On the evaluation of Negroes 51. Jg Nr. 1 pp. 20–24 Die Grenzboten 1892 Prospects of our protectorate in SW Africa 51. Jg Nr. 4 pp. 171–175 Die Grenzboten 1892 Let us not squint! 51. Jg Nr. 8 pp. 411–412 Die Grenzboten 1892 African encounters 51. Jg Nr. 34 pp. 373 Die Grenzboten 1893 Distorted worship of Bismarck 52. Jg Nr. 29 pp. 141–142 Die Grenzboten 1893 The Landscaping Company 52. Jg Nr. 38 pp. 574–575 Die Grenzboten 1893 Germany and the Mediterranean 52. Jg Nr. 44 pp. 196–206 Die Grenzboten 1893 Germany and France 52. Jg Nr. 46 pp. 289–294 Die Grenzboten 1894 Germany and France 53. Jg Nr. 2 pp. 57–61 Die Grenzboten 1894 People and places 53. Jg Nr. 14 pp. 1–10 Die Grenzboten 1894 Down with the masks 53. Jg Nr. 21 pp. 337–340 Die Grenzboten 1894 Enlightening in the German East African case 53. Jg Nr. 43 pp. 167–177 Die Grenzboten 1894 Anti-Semitism of the 1860s 53. Jg Nr. 45 pp. 282–283 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 2 pp. 49–59 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 5 pp. 199–204 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 9 pp. 393–400 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 15 pp. 62–71 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 20 pp. 302–313 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 23 pp. 449–457 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 27 pp. 7–21 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 37 pp. 489–505 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 42 pp. 105–111 Die Grenzboten 1895 Introduction to the international politics of England 54. Jg Nr. 43 pp. 153–160 (continued) 1.5 Determining F. Ratzel’s “Geopolitical Period” 25

Die Grenzboten 1895 Colonial tavern talk 54. Jg Nr. 44 pp. 246–247 Die Grenzboten 1895 From the German America 54. Jg Nr. 47 pp. 403–404 Die Grenzboten 1895 The Dardanelles and the Nile 54. Jg Nr. 50 pp. 513–522 Die Grenzboten 1895 The Dardanelles and the Nile 54. Jg Nr. 51 pp. 561–568 Geographische 1895 Studies on political spaces I pp. 163–182 Zeitzschrift Geographische 1895 Studies on political spaces Nr. 43 pp. 286–302 Zeitzschrift Die Grenzboten 1896 Our obligation in Transvaala 55. Jg Nr. 2 pp. 83–86 Die Grenzboten 1896 German scuttlebutt from the colonial newspapers 55. Jg Nr. 24 pp. 527 Die Grenzboten 1896 German–Chinese 55. Jg Nr. 26 pp. 622–623 Die Grenzboten 1896 Germany’s position 54. Jg Nr. 42 pp. 105–109 Die Grenzboten 1896 The state as an organism 55. Jg Nr. 52 pp. 614–623 Petermanns 1896 The laws of the states spatial growth. A contribution to 54. Jg XL II pp. 97–107 Mitteilungen the scientific Political Geography. Die Grenzboten 1897 Dr. Carl Peters 56. Jg Nr. 18 pp. 252–256 Die Gegenwart 1897 The Greek issue Bd. Nr. 40 pp. 112 LII Die Umschau 1897 On the living space. A biogeographical study. 54. Jg XL II pp. 363–367 Die Grenzboten 1897 On the relationship between German territory and 57. Jg Nr. 39 pp. 591–600 German history. Geographische 1898 Political-geographical reviews IV pp. 143–156 Zeitzschrift I. General. Middle Europe including France II. The English world empire pp. 211–224 III. The Russian Empire pp. 268–274 1898 The German-English relations Bd. Nr. 27 pp. 1–2 LIV Die Grenzboten 1904 The Central-European Economic Association 63. Jg Nr. 5 pp. 253–259 aTransvaal, province in North-East South Africa

From the above recorded literature it becomes through his entire theory, as will be demonstrated evident that in the last two decades of the 19th below, while geographically he focuses on the century Ratzel delved into issues of current hotspots of the time; Africa, the Balkans, the East German politics, aiming to highlight and inves- Mediterranean and Middle East, without forget- tigate the pillars of geopolitical influence, one of ting his research interest in China. which was the German colonial expansion A political allegiance is also reflected, when against the traditional colonial and world powers. Ratzel, a proponent of the active colonial In other words, the above titles define his sci- expansion of Germany, avoids airing his views entific and political interest in the study of the for the colonial expansion, before Bismarck’s global distribution of power between the super- first timid step to set under German protection powers of the time. In that context, England the first German acquisition in Africa, in 1884. constitutes a key point of reference and in 1898 Until Bismarck’s replacement, Ratzel’s number Ratzel considered it a global empire. of articles is a rather discreet, and becomes more Furthermore, the importance Ratzel attributed intense only after 1890, when Germany entered to economic life becomes clear. This view runs forcefully the colonial competition. Thus, Ratzel 26 1 Fr. Ratzel and Geopolitics seems to be in line with the majority of German state’s power was the direct outcome of only its nationalists, who were unable to develop a territory. On the contrary, in his analytical nationalist opposition against Bismarck, the approach he clearly introduces by means of his founder of both the German national state and the original definition more pillars of geopolitical German Empire.134 influence, such as political, economic and Against that background, the accuracy of B. ethnographic phenomena. This realization con- Streck’s opinion on the existence of a geopolitical stitutes strong initial proof to reject the accusa- period in Ratzel’s work is verified. During this tions of a supposed geo-deterministic analytical period, Ratzel addressed theoretically as well as at perception, at least on a theoretical level. the level of applicable policy the distribution of By resolving a misconception related to the power internationally and particularly the trans- use of the term Geopolitik, it was shown (on a formation of his country into a great power. As far theoretical level, since a thorough comparative as the time frame is concerned, it must be noted study ought to be the subject of a further that this period extends from late 1870 and early assignment) that the systemic approach of Ratzel, 1880 to the end of his life, reaching a climax after Kjellen, Spykman and Mazis uses geographical 1890, when the political conditions in Germany tools to co-evaluate and analyze uniform factors changed. Therefore, Ratzel’s geopolitical period (physical geography, economics, technical and should not be placed chronologically between his spiritual culture, demographics, etc.), which the geographical and physio-philosophical period Greek geopolitical school under Prof. I. Mazis defined by Steinmetzler (based on the suggestion embraces and meticulously specifies under the of B. Streck). It should be determined as parallel term pillars of geopolitical influence. This com- to the last two periods as follows: parative approach demonstrates Ratzel’sinflu-

Proposal of Steinmetzler Streck A. Stogiannos

1866 zoological zoological zoological

1876 geographical geographical geographical geopolitical

1880 geopolitical

1900 geopolitical geopolitical physico- physico- physico- 1904 philosophical philosophical philosophical geopolitical

ence on the geopolitical schools that followed, in 1.6 Conclusions spite of the fact that his approach was minimally systemized, and as a result highly exposed to The mere definition by Ratzel of the term Polit- misinterpretations and distortions. ical Geography clearly subverts the widespread Based on the findings of Chap. 1, a new idea that the German geographer believed that a approach to Ratzel’s political-geographic/ geopolitical period was attempted, a period which has escalated since 1876 (certainly not at the same 134 – – Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation Volk Rasse. pace and not with the same theoretical justification), Radikaler Nationalismus im Deutschen Kaiserreich 1890–1914, p. 68. a period longer than what has so far been recorded. 1.6 Conclusions 27

Finally, in this chapter, issues centered round whose accumulative impact hinders the scientific the practical approach to the Ratzelian work were research on Ratzel, and, thus, should not be discussed as reasons for misconceptions and considered as of secondary importance. misinterpretations. They involve parameters, Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” 2

Having roughly identified in Chap. 1 the pillars • in relation to the key views of his time con- of geopolitical influence, which—according to cerning the criteria for the establishment and Ratzel—contribute to a state’s power, the aim of maintenance of a state, always considering the the second chapter is to explain the meaning of German particularities Sects. 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. the ratzelian concept of state. • in relation to his famous concept of the A rough outline of his time shows that Ratzel organismic state 2.4. grew up in a turbulent era for Europe, charac- terised by the crucial changes that occurred concurrently: the transition to the industrial 2.1 The Predominant State economy and the consequential social changes, Perceptions at F. Ratzel’s Age the national integration of two major European (1789–1900) countries, Germany and Italy, strong national rivalries and colonial conflicts, the transition The “principle of nationality”, the theory accord- from the economy of steam to the economy of oil ing to which the state should coincide with the in the early 20th century. nation, was the result of the debate on national Especially in the united (since 1870) Ger- integration, which prevailed during the 19th cen- many, along with the second industrial revolu- tury in Europe.1 In the light of the theory which tion, an escalation of the patriotic romanticism of supported the harmonization between political and the early 19th century is recorded, taking the national entity, a principle that founded national- form of nationalism near the end of the century ism,2 the movement of nations was developed and progressively sliding into the biological and during the 19th century, inspired by two different, racist theories of the early 20th century and the contradicting notions: the imperative for political interwar period. Undoubtedly, the case of Ger- unity and independence raised primarily by the many is particularly interesting with regard to the French and the American Revolution, as well as economic aspect of this process, namely the the use of common elements of the past, such as peculiar convergence of nationalistic and liberal common language, religion, history, etc.3 views. Under such circumstances, and given that the 1Bernstein—Milza, (1992): Irsoqίasη1 Etqώpη1 2, state is the basic analytical unit of his Political p. 31. Geography, Ratzel’s concept of state is approa- 2Gellner, E. (1992): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 13. ched on two levels: 3Bernstein—Milza, (1992): Irsoqίasη1 Etqώpη1 2, pp. 30–31; Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 33.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 29 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_2 30 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism”

Significant for the geographical perspective is Unlike the revolutionary approach, the start- the equation state = nation = people (and especially ing point of the nationalist understanding of sovereign people) connecting the nation with the national existence was based on three elements: ground, since the structure and definition of states were essentially territorial4 and which corresponds • on history, which is experienced as mystical to both perceptions (Hobsbawm calls them reality founded on the national community’s revolutionary/democratic and nationalistic, respec- very distant past. tively): for the nationalists, the creation of political • on language, whose primitive forms philol- entities originated from the existence of a com- ogists and linguists struggle to find and whose munity that distinguished itself from strangers, dissemination is the responsibility of authors. while in the revolutionary/democratic approach the • on religion, when the dominant power fol- dominant conception was the equation dominant lows a religion different from the subdued citizen / people = state, which constitute a “nation” nation (e.g. the Balkan peoples who lived discernible from the rest of mankind5.Intherev- under the yoke of Muslim Turks). olutionary approach, the primary role of nation was political and equated the people with the state, This idea is mainly found in Central, Eastern in the spirit of the American and French Revolu- and Mediterranean Europe, where the standards tion.6 According to this perception, the nation was of the old feudal Europe were still followed and the body of citizens, whose collective sovereignty the bourgeoisie was not strong enough to lead the made them a state, which acted as their political national movement, overthrowing the socioeco- expression. Most characteristically, the French nomic power of the Old Regime.9 Declaration of Rights and Duties of Man and Against the canvas of the aforementioned, Citizen of 1795 made hardly any progress towards generally dominant, dipole, certain peculiarities adefinition of People, since there was no logical of the German national integration will be association between the body of citizens of a ter- promptly and briefly presented, as they became ritorially determined state on the one hand and a fertile ground for the rise of a nationalist move- nation’s identification on a national, linguistic or ment, which grew disproportionately strong and other ground on the other. Therefore, fundamental forever more radicalised compared to the other concepts such as ethnicity or language could not be European nationalisms. a common attribute of the concept of “nation”, although these criteria signified a certain group’s acknowledgement of belonging to it. In this con- 2.2 The German National Edifice: text, language had in principal nothing to do with Specificities and Disputes being English or French, and the French fought obstinately against any effort that would make the Apart from the general social, economic, tech- colloquial language a criterion of nationality, nological and political upheavals, which, over which was determined, as they claimed, by means the second half of the 19th century, transformed of French citizenship.7 In a sense, according to that more or less all of the Central and Eastern idea, the attribute of national people was the fact European countries, as well as the German that it represented the common interest over indi- society, which turned from feudal to industrial, vidual interests and specificprivileges.8 the case of the German national unity is subject to unique internal conditions; the old German 4 Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1,p.34 empire was politically fragmented, culturally 5Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1,p.34 6Ibid., p. 33. 8 1 7Hobsbawm argues that—despite theory—the Hobsbawm, E.J. (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, pp. 34– ethno-linguistic criterion of nationality was over time in 36. France often practically accepted. See: Hobsbawm, E.J.1 9Bernstein—Milza, (1992): Irsoqίasη1 Etqώpη1 2, (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 37. pp. 31–32. 2.2 The German National Edifice: Specificities and Disputes 31 heterogeneous and economically decentralized.10 • economic and fiscal imbalances, since Therefore, developments were affected by strong Austria recorded lower than half of the internal differences and conflicts, such as: industrial growth rate and six times higher debt compared to Prussia, despite having • the internal conflict between liberals and double the population of Prussia.14 aristocrats. The latter prevented the national integration led by the bourgeoisie (through Under such internal particularities—which the revolution of 1848–1849). However, it have not been exhausted, but merely indicatively was eventually enforced, when Bismarck discussed here—the German national integration implemented a national solution from the was extremely slow and complex both politically above, using his well-known deftness to take and economically, progressing by means of suc- measures that equally satisfied the liberals, cessive unions of policy, customs and currency.15 the bourgeoisie, the workers and the nobility. The result of this process was the parallel devel- • the conflict between Prussia and Austria, opment of an abnormal nationalism, which passed two powers fighting for national unity, each through transformations similar to the political- under its own leadership. During the period economic processes, becoming, however, always 1849–1871 the conflict between two different more radical. The creation, development and rad- national perceptions was intense: on the one icalization of the German nationalist movement hand, there was the unionist perception was the result of special factors—in addition to the envisaging a Little Germany without Aus- general European conditions—such as: tria’s participation, and on the other hand there was the federal solution, aiming at a • the German Romanticism and the intel- Greater Germany.11 lectual movements related to it, which • serious religious and social differences emerged as a reaction to the Enlightenment, between the Protestant North and the gradually assuming a political character. Catholic South precluded de facto the pretext Combined with the fights against Napoleon, of religious reasons as an argument for they greatly contributed to the formation of an national unity; Far from that, religion was a argumentation for the unification of all Ger- source of contradictions and conflicts, which mans, the return to one’s roots and—ulti- culminated in the period 1872–1880, due to mately—the development of the German Bismarck’s conflict with Catholicism. nationalist movement. • the population composition of Prussia— Austria, which was infavourable for the Since the late 18th century, when the debate project of Greater German, since the 15 on German national literature, German national ethnic groups of the Austro-Hungarian theatre and the development of a German Empire created centrifugal forces, their only national language16 kicked off, the German common reference being the Habsburg national identity seems to stem originally from: dynasty.12 On the contrary, Prussia bore a. the common history and language and b. the greater resemblance to the western European refusal of the French sovereignty (after the vic- states, despite the fact that 10% of its popu- tory of Napoleon in 1806). German Romanticism lation belonged to the Polish minority.13 13Hardach, G. (2003): Nation building in Germany: the economic dimension, p. 60. 10Hardach, G. (2003): Nation building in Germany: the 14Schmidt, R. (2006): Bismarck. Realpolitik und Revolu- economic dimension, pp. 61–63. tion, p. 58. 11Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse, pp. 40– 15Hardach, G. (2003): Nation building in Germany: the 41. economic dimension, pp. 61–63. 12Schmidt, R. (2006): Bismarck. Realpolitik und Revolu- 16Wehler, H.-U. (2001): Nationalismus: Geschichte— tion, p. 58. Formen—Folgen, p. 63. 32 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” seeks to oppose the Jacobin ideas and finds uses in a nearly synonymous way the terms people inspiration in the return to the traditions. Con- (Volk), state (Staat)andnation (Nation), thus sequently, in the eyes of the German romantics, describing an organization of people characterized the nation constitutes a living reality, whose roots by the geographical area where they are active and lie in the past of the German community. Folklore, demarcated solely through the use of a common myths and legends, the sanctified and idealized language.23 For Herder and Fichte the question of national past (from the Goths to the Teutonic the creation of a civil society is not an intractable Knights) become an inherent part of the Volks- philosophical problem. A people’s natural unity geist (people’s spirit), the basis of German that distinguishes them as a nation, is neither ter- nationalism, while jurists and philosophers—such ritorial nor political, but first of all linguistic. The as Hegel—argue that the state’s responsibility is to edifice of a civil society characterised by stability unify the nation and not the communities of peo- and durability can therefore be built on the foun- ple17 or that nations do not enter history earlier dations of understanding and solidarity that lan- than the day they obtain their own state.18 guage can ensure.24 The philosophical matrix which bred the main Apart from Herder and Fichte, other romantic arguments for the connection of nation and lan- writers, often invoked by the German nationalists guage is already revealed in Fichte’s Addresses to on the eve of the First World War, were Ernst the German Nation (1807–1808), where (in his Moritz Arndt (1769–1860), who advocated years 13th Address) he argues that the language is the before the apex of Darwinism the natural social inner boundary that defines the nation’sspiritual need for major nations to subdue the small ones, sense.19 Moreover, Fichte (who was of humble the historian Joseph von Görres, who called for a origin) could also personify the effects of French shift of the German border all the way to Asia, sovereignty over the German society, as the French relying on the superiority of the German race, or victory of 1806 (combined with his appointment at August Wilhelm Schlegel, a supporter of the idea the University of Berlin, where he was welcomed of the historical rivalry between the German and into the romantic circles) changed dramatically his the Slavic world.25 political—ideological background: from a sup- porter of the ideals of the French Revolution he • the concurrence of liberalism and national- became a passionate servant of the national ism, which which appeared in the early 1840s thought and the national rebirth.20 Moreover, and lasted until 1878.26 It envisioned the Fichte’s philosophical views of his late period laid establishment of a liberal nation state, which the foundations of an early nationalism,21 while would eliminate the anachronistic structures, with his Law on Morality (Sittengesetz) he according to which citizens should be regarded bypassed the Kantian idea of modest respect for as subjects.27 The Liberals were then fre- the rights of others, demanding the active sacrifice quently obliged to view Bismarck as a consti- of love and support. This kind of love creates tutionally and politically centrist politician,28 concurrently specific collectives: the family, the who imposed an economic system with liberal state (Nation), the state as a national state 22 (Nationalstaat). Equally indicative is the case of 22Aster, Ernst von (1980): Geschichte der Philosophie. the co-founder of German idealism, Herder, who p. 307. 23http://www.edu.uni-klu.ac.at/*jpichler/herder.html. 17Bernstein—Milza, (1992): Irsoqίasη1 Etqώpη1 2, 24Kάfo1, X. (1997): Ckώrra jai 'Ehmo1, p. 917. p. 32. 25Wolff—Poweska, A. (2000): Das Zeitalter des Imperi- 18Gellner, E. (1992): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 259. alismus, pp. 91–92. 19Kάfo1, X. (1997): Ckώrra jai 'Ehmo1, p. 915. 26Wehler, H.-U. (2001): Nationalismus: Geschichte— 20Aster, Ernst von (1980): Geschichte der Philosophie. Formen—Folgen, p. 78. p. 306. 27Wehler, H.-U. (2001): Nationalismus: Geschichte— 21Author’s note.: In the sense of treating the state as Formen—Folgen, p. 76. national. 28Buch, F. (2004): Große Politik im neuen Reich, p. 105. 2.2 The German National Edifice: Specificities and Disputes 33

influences, which anticipated the establishment as the science which, taking into account the of modern institutions, the possibility of free states’ (Nationen) actual interests and special trade, a low degree of state intervention and conditions, will teach how each state can sepa- public expenditure.29 The national-liberal rately reach that level of economic development, views were socially and politically expressed where unification is possible and useful, and as a through the creation of the National Party consequence the commercial freedom with other (1866–1918), which played a protagonistic role equally developed countries.34 inthedecade1870–1879,30 supporting through Towards a global economy List placed a liberal perspective the establishment of the between individuals and humanity the nation Empire, but also Bismarck’spolitics. (Nation), who’s meaning and nature national economy has to take into account and teach how A significant contribution towards the con- under certain conditions and the nation’s par- vergence of liberal and nationalist views was the ticular circumstances a nation may impose and rebuttal from the German side of Adam Smith’s improve its financial situation. This parameter classic economic liberalism. Smith had devel- separates the theory of national economy from oped a theory without predicting any role for the that of cosmopolitan or global economy, which nation or any other collectivity larger than that of requires that all nations create one single com- a company, considering only individual business munity, living in peace.35 units, people or companies, which pursue prof- Under this light, List criticizes Smith with the itability in the global market.31 following three key accusations: Even though the idea of national economic growth as an element of competition against the • extreme cosmopolitanism, which evaluates strong British economy was born in the USA,32 it neither the nature of nationality nor the need was finalised and systematicised by German to meet its interests. economists led by Friedrich List,33 who during • dead materialism, which studies only the his stay in the US (in the 1820s) had participated exchange value of material things, without in the debate on national economy and had considering the intellectual and political, defined “national economy” (Nationalökonomie) current and future interests, as well as the nation’s productive forces. • 29 disruptive utilitarianism and individualism, Hardach, G. (2003): Nation building in Germany: the which ignores the nature of collective labour economic dimension, p. 64. 30In 1879 the largest hitherto parliamentary group of the and the impact of joining forces, and inter- Reichstag splitted, in response to Bismarck’s protectionist prets the possible development of only the policy. The National-Liberal party was Bismarck’s largest private economy, as if economy were not parliamentary support during the conflict with the divided into different national communities.36 Catholics and the Vatican. (Kulturkampf, 1872–80). 31See. Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 44. As a result of the above, List adds to the list of 32According to Hobsbawm, forerunners of this idea are factors constituting the nation (Nation) apart from the Scotsh-Canadian John Rae and the great federalist the economic factor, the specific language and Alexander Hamilton, who considered nation, state and literature, the specific origin and history, specific economy as a unity, justifying through this relationship customs and habits, laws and institutions, the his view on the need for the existence of a strong national government, contrary to politicians, who expressed less demand to exist, independence, perfection, eternal centralized solutions. See: Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 48. 34 33The somewhat more extensive reference to List’s work List, F. (1841): Das nationale System der politischen and the main lays on the fact, that Ratzel is referring Oekonomie, p. 137. 35 already in Sect. 3 of Political Geography to the German Ibid., p. 132. economist, highlighting his main opposition to the theory 36List, F. (1841): Das nationale System der politischen of Smith. For List’sinfluence on Ratzel see Sect. 2.3. Oekonomie,. p. 181. 34 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” continuity and distinct territory. He believes that across its territory, and whose territory and this community is unified by means of thousands agricultural production will have a sufficient size of common spiritual and economic interests; it to supply the industrial population with most of recognizes common laws and claims worldwide the necessary food and raw materials.42 its freedom against other similar communities, From the above it becomes apparent that the using its own forces and means.37 German unification was a milestone in the evo- It therefore becomes clear that List does not lution of German nationalism, since the founda- reject the romantic perception of state and, by tion of the Reich did not signify the completion of persistently using the term Nationalökonomie,38 the nation’s creation, but rather signalled the courts the solution of Greater Germany.He beginning of a new process of national creation.43 actually adds to the rationale of the romantics the In this context, three general ideas were developed economic parameter, placing it, however, at a on the concept of nation: a. The idea of the im- leading position,39 since culture (Zivilisation), perial or state nation (Reichs-orStaatsnation), political education and the power of nations which identified the German nation with the (Macht) are mainly determined by their eco- German Empire. b. the people’s nation (Volksna- nomic situation and vice versa. The more its tion), which defined the nation on the basis of an economy evolves and matures, the more powerful imaginary ethnic origin and c. the idea of the and civilized (zivilisierter) a nation is. The more cultural nation (Kulturnation), which referred to its index of culture and power increases, the the common language, history, and cultural tra- higher its economic education can climb.40 ditions as the rudiments of national unity.44 After defining state primarily from an eco- Of course, in practice theses ideas frequently nomic perspective and creating the theory of the coalesced in various ways, since different criteria equal development of countries on the road to a were accentuated each time in order to define the global financial union of states (and not indi- nation,45 causing a variety of reactions, which viduals), List reached the conclusion that the will be briefly presented below. survival of a state entity depends mainly on financial factors, such as ample population, 2.2.1 The German National Unity diverse territory and natural resources, fully as a Starting Point developed industries (manufacture, agriculture of the Ideological and commerce) and colonization.41 Essentially, Propensity he refers to the need for the greatest possible to Sociodarwinist autarky, believing that the richest nation will be and Racist Theories the one, which will fully develop its industry After the momentous creation of the German 37Ibid., p. 181. Empire in 1871, many political and ideological 38The “People’s Economy” (Volkswirtschaft) is upgraded groups, such as liberals46 and radical nationalists, “ ” ö to National Economy (National konomie), when the rushed to define the creation of the empire, not as state or the federal government include an entire nation whith its population, territory, political institutions, a point of culmination and integration of German wealth, etc. In this case the “People’s Economy” and history, but as a starting point for national “National Economy” is one and the same. Along with the development and the fullfilment of greater “Economy of Government Finances” (Staatsfinanzökon- mie), they constitute the nation’s Political Economy. List, 42 F. (1841): Das nationale System der politischen Oekono- List, F. (1841): Das nationale System der politischen mie, p. 200. Oekonomie, pp. 161–162. 43 39On the primacy of economy in F. Ratzel’sdefinition of Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse, p. 47. the state see Sect. 2.3. 44Ibid., p. 29. 40List, F. (1841): Das nationale System der politischen 45Ibid., p. 29. Oekonomie, p. 181. 46Fenske, H. (1978): Im Bismarrckschen Reich: 1871– 41Ibid., pp. 182–183. 1890,p.3. 2.2 The German National Edifice: Specificities and Disputes 35 duties.47 This starting point—along with Bis- grounds, highlighting elements that could unify marck’s tendency to instrumentalize foreign all Germans living beyond the Empire’s borders. affairs in order to settle domestic disputes48—led As a result, along with literature, which praised to a nationalist upsurge and the development of a Bismarck’s policy, a political movement devel- radical nationalist movement, whose formation is oped to fight the idea of Lesser Germany, high- placed between 1871 and 1894.49 lighting the elements that could contribute to the The key factors that led to the radicalization of unification of all Germans, irrespective of their the German nationalist movement within the whereabouts. These perceptions about Greater newly established empire can be briefly descri- Germany were utilised after 1871 by the bed as follows: nationalist ideology (völkische Ideologie), whose followers were seeking a new content for the • reactions against creating Lesser Germany, term Germany and were pressing towards the the rising feeling of a delayed nation and revival of the values, supposedly lost due to the historical pressure that emerged within Bismarck’s Realpolitik, describing people (Volk) the Empire, which was trying to find a role in not only as a political, but also as a moral com- global affairs at a time of intense national munity, a courageous force, or even the ancestral antagonism. power of life.52

The means by which German national unity • the reaction against a painful process of was reached, together with the Empire’s final modernization and against the challenges form, caused considerable controversy across the of the time, resulting from the fluctuations of political spectrum. So, many northern conserva- economy, from harsh class conflicts and from tives, as well as an important percentage of the decline of familiar world-theories, while catholics, considered the new empire as too new blur ideologies, such as Marxism and the centralized. In contrast, liberals appeared ideology Ultramontanism. Against all those, unhappy with certain federalist elements, which German nationalism countered the theory of had been included in the Accession Treaty for the internal consolidation by excluding all southern states by acknowledging preferential Reich’s enemies, so that the most pure nation rights.50 Even the historian Leopold von Ranke, could meet with the time’s requirements. Key deeply conservative and a member of the nobil- concepts in this process were German culture ity, had initially expressed his dissatisfaction (Kultur) and education (Bildung), protected with the new empire, considering that its con- by the great power of a military state, which stitution, the extension of the voting right to all was destined to become a world power53 men and other democratic elements capitulated (Weltmacht).54 excessively to the liberal Zeitgeist.51 Finally, the politically realistic option of Lesser Germany also frustrated those who had 52Wolff—Poweska, A. (2000): Das Zeitalter des Imperi- envisioned a German unification on cultural alismus, pp. 88–89. 53A typical case is Max Weber, who largely linked the 47 creation of the empire to its ability to represent and Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse, p. 12. 48 enforce national interests, arguing that the union of 1870 Schmidt, R. (2006): Bismarck. Realpolitik und Revolu- would not be anything more than a youthful prank, whose – tion, pp. 120 122. cost would not be worth if Germany wasn’t trying to 49 Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse, pp. 38– become a world power. 79. Hardach, G. (2003): Nation building in Germany: the 50Fenske, H. (1978): Im Bismarckschen Reich: 1871– economic dimension, p. 65; Walkenhorst, P. (2007): 1890,p.2. Nation—Volk—Rasse, p. 47. 51Hardach, G. (2003): Nation building in Germany: the 54Wehler, H.-U. (2001): Nationalismus: Geschichte— economic dimension, p. 60. Of course, Ranke lifted his Formen—Folgen, p. 79; See. Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): objections due to Bismarck’s iron command. Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 155. 36 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism”

The case of the theologian and orientalist Paul the Nazi racist obsessions. The extent and com- de Lagarde, who pursued a national religion is plexity of these parameters renders a full indicative of that particular mindset. Influenced description of German Nationalism impossible, by pietism, romanticism, theological rationalism let alone within a research not aiming towards and literary criticism, he criticized both faiths, that direction. Nonetheless, two comments on the Catholicism and Protestantism, believing that general character of the so-called Wilhelm era they had lost the ability for religious life. radical nationalism require special attention: Therefore, he suggested eschewing them by means of a national-German religion, which • radical nationalists did not aspire to a return would mirror God’s will for the nature of the to traditional political, economic and social German people.55 structures of the past, but sought to transform the present, and redirect the course of • the naturalistic idea of the concept of state, events.58 Therefore, nationalists should not be spread by the sociodarwinists, who popular- confused with traditional German conserva- ized Darwin’s theory and supported that tives, since the politically organized and nations, peoples and races (Rassen) were, just socially conservative social groups distanced like in nature, living beings, constantly themselves from nationalism, even after the struggling for survival. As a result, special establishment of the empire, despite the fact significance was arbitrarily attributed to the that they used nationalism tactically against German nation—due to its people’s high the anti-national camp. In spite of the fact value and (progressively) its superior bio- that conservative characteristics have been logical state—which justified the right to attributed to nationalists, with a view to purge the body of people and to fight maintaining the 1871 status quo, the social unswervingly for its interests abroad.56 For groups that identified themselves with these misconceptions and metaphysical nationalism were not the traditional retro- approaches, including the idea of a higher gressive and conservative ones, but social people, Darwinism is, of course, not to blame. groups expressing a new world, determined • the overall international state of affairs, by the scientific and industrial-capitalist namely the system of nation states at war in development.59 which the newly formed German state acted. • Nevertheless, it is correct to record socio- In this context, economic and broader strate- darwinism and racism schematically as the gic interests were sanctified to non-negotiable ideological elements that led to the qualitative national interests, whose loss would threaten transformation of German nationalism.60 As the honour, prestige and destiny of the to the determination of this transformative people.57 time, it should be stressed that anti-Semitism became “racial” (in contradiction to the This was an attempt to outline the social, religious-cultural racism) around 1880.61 The economic and ideological parameters that deter- German editions of Gobineau’s and Cham- mined the evolution of German nationalism, berlain’s books were published in 1897 and starting from the patriotic romanticism of late 1898 respectively; therefore the idea of racial 18th and early 19th century, and evolving into racism became dominant at the change of the

55Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse, pp. 55– 58 56. Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse, p. 308. 59 56Wehler, H.-U. (2001): Nationalismus: Geschichte— Wehler, H.-U. (2001): Nationalismus: Geschichte— Formen—Folgen, p. 80. Formen—Folgen, p. 81. 60 57Wehler, H.-U. (2001): Nationalismus: Geschichte— Krejčí, O. (2005): Geopolitics of the central european Formen—Folgen, pp. 80–81; Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): region, pp. 124–125. Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 155. 61Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 153. 2.2 The German National Edifice: Specificities and Disputes 37

two centuries, bringing new quality and Political Geography68 he defines the people dynamics in the process of foreclosing all (Volk) as a politically connected set of groups minorities, living in Germany.62 and individuals that do not necessarily have either genealogical or linguistic affinity, but are spatially connected by means of their common ground.69 Given that: a. at that time the use of the 2.3 In-Between Two Eras: Ratzel’s terms nation (Nation) and people (Volk) was Perception of the State often interchangeable,70 b. Ratzel identifies the people with the state, and c. the above definition Ratzel discusses this issue in detail in the first is recorded in the chapter of Political Geography, chapters of his Political Geography, where the where the relationship between state and land is following ideas are first of all recorded with comprehensively analysed, it is safe to conclude regard to the nature and function of the state: that the German geographer essentially uses the term Volk (meaning People) to refer to the state, • the people—state identification: Ratzel which he perceives as a collective, political and believes that the specific laws of people’s economic expression of the common interests of expansion also determine the expansion of a group of people, who are determined to live their states63; as a result, states have pro- together and be governed undividedly within a gressively spread to all the regions of Earth geographically determined area. and have increased in number and size With regard to the criteria for the creation of through the increase of the population.64 states which emerged during the discussions of • the state’s inevitable territorial expression: 19th century theorists, (ethnicity, common lan- a condition again fulfilled through human guage, religion, historical past and land),71 Ratzel activity and the connection between humans gives priority to the criterion of land in its eco- and land, since each state consists of the nomic dimension, considering it a source human part and the land part, while man wherefrom social groups and societies, trade cannot be understood without the land, thus and religion gain […] political power and con- nor man’s greatest achievement on Earth, the tinuance, thus becoming able to establish state.65 Consequently, when we talk about a state, as is also the case about a city or a street, we always refer to the human part or 68 — fi an example of human labour and at the same Hans Dietrich Schulz records more ratzelian de ni- 66 tions of a people, where economic and national perception time to a land part. of the state are included. In Helmodt’s Weltgeschichte • the need for sovereignty over the land:a Ratzel considers people … moving bodies, which are held need arising from the fact that the state has to together due to their common origin, language, morals, live from the land and it can count only on and especially because of the common need for protection (1899, 69). In Earth and Life he states that a nation is a those advantages of the land, over which the group of humanity, whose members can be initially very state is sovereign.67 different, but be because of their common housing area and common history so similar, that they cannot be clearly On these fundamentals, Ratzel names man distinguished from another group (1902, 607). If a historic people is unable to exploit politically its existence, it and land as the components of the state and in remains a “people”, if it manages to transform itself into a “nation” (667): “The nation is a people that has been, or is able to obtain political autonomy. Nationality is a political 62 — — Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation Volk Rasse, p. 304. non-self-sustaining part of a people” (674). 63 1 Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 1. See: Schultz, H.-D. (2006): Friedrich Ratzel: (k)ein 64Ratzel, Fr1. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 1. Rassist? p. 7. 65Ibid., p. 2. 69Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie,p.3. 66Ratzel, Fr1. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 3. 70Hobsbawm, E.J.1 (1990): Έhmη jai ehmijirlό1, p. 32. 67Ratzel, Fr1. (1923): Politische Geographie,p.3. 71Ibid., p. 36. 38 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” states.72 Man’s—hence also the state’s—con- are combined with those of the people.77 To finement on land [the concept of man cannot be these properties Ratzel adds the type and the grasped without the land, therefore nor can his shape of the land including vegetation and water greatest creation, the state]73 implies a vital, resources, the relation to other parts of the primarily productive/economic relation between Earth’s surface, any neighbouring sea and unin- state and land, as the state must live from the habited (non-ecumenical) areas. According to land. This relationship is crucial for the estab- Ratzel, these properties constitute “the land”,78 lishment of new states, since all social forces without however viewing them as exclusively [social groups and societies, trade and religion] geographical spatial data, but rather as a theatre derive from the land political power and con- of human activity. He explains that speaking tinuance on the land, establishing hereby about our “land”, in our minds we associate to states.74 this natural background everything man has In the same paragraph he even attempts to created thereon or buried therein. Hence the identify within the nationalist rationale elements initially purely geographical concept79 is filled of spatial/territorial analysis, venturing a truly with political content, but creates a mental and original terminological interpretation: In our spiritual bond80 with us, its inhabitants, and our century, national ideas are added to the above. entire history.81 When talking about national policy, many people With the inclusion of political and cultural refer to a policy imbued with an understanding aspects in the political-geographic perception of of the land value, thus using the term “national” land, Ratzel transforms in his Political Geogra- instead of “territorial”. The following phrasing: phy the classical geographical perception of land “The Germans felt the need to create a single as a neutral region, and views it in close inter- political construct” implicates the political— dependence with its inhabitants, to whom the geographical notion that they persistently sought land attributes characteristics (e.g. both the territorial unification and demarcation in order ancient and the modern Greeks are seamen and to secure their existence on a safe, as large as merchants)82 and by whom it is used as a source possible, territory of their own.75 of political power.83 This interdependence is Yet, Ratzel’s insistence on the state’s expressed, notes Ratzel, by the rule that the re- geographical/territorial dimension should not lation of every small or large people with the lead to premature and false conclusions of a land seeks to take political form and every geo-determinist perception of state; on the one hand because the state’s geographical dimension 77 1 is not considered an exclusive prerequisite for the Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 4. fi 78Ibid., p. 4. existence of a state [see the above cited de nition 79 … but are also spatially connected …] and on Although this deviation from the classical geographical perception of land is fundamental in Friedrich Ratzel’s the other because the political organization of the political-geographical analysis, it must be remarked that land, by which the state evolves into an organ- this essential differentiation is being more or less obscured ism76 involving a specific part of the earth’s in the secondary literature. This argument becomes clear, surface, interferes so that the land’s properties if someone looks at the previous references: While the first part of the introductory paragraph Sect. 3 (of Poli- tische Geographie) is insistently presented as in order to documentate Ratzel’s geo-deterministic viewpoint, the next part of the same paragraph, which contradicts any 72Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie,p.3. geo-deterministic accusals is certainly overshadowed. 73Ibid., pp. 2–3. 80On the meaning of the spiritual bond between ground 74Ibid., p. 3. and man, which has no sperm of transcendental percep- 75Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie,p.3. tion, see Sect. 2.3. 81 1 76Ratzel refers, as in the previous section, often the Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie,p.4. 82 1 concept of economic organism, which will be discussed in Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie,p.4. the next Section. 83Ibid., p. 3. 2.3 In-Between Two Eras: Ratzel’s Perception of the State 39 political bloc seeks a connection with the land.84 By the term political, Ratzel refers essentially This rule makes it clear that land cannot be to the internal conditions, processes and corre- absent from any stage of development, even if it lations, which act towards establishing and is not directly registered in the name of that maintaining for as long as possible the concept of particular political formation.85 national consciousness, stemming from the From this close relation between man and identification of a people with the land it has land (the relation is closer, when the land is well been living on for centuries, and creating ties so demarcated and allows for overall supervision, deep, that it is no longer possible to think of this sovereignty and economic exploitation) thrives people without its land. The Dutch without the also national consciousness (Nationalsinn), a Netherlands, the Swiss without the Alps, the connection leading Ratzel to correlate a state’s Montenegrins without the Black Mountain, or development with the progressive organization even the French without France? How could of land through its closer connection to the anyone ever imagine that?90 wonders Ratzel. people.86 Therefore, Ratzel traces the difference Stressing again that the concept of the politi- between a cultural-orientated people (Kultur- cal idea does not include only the people but also volk) and a barbaric people on the fact that the the land, he refers to the principle of absolute former’s land organization is much more territorial sovereignty, according to which only advanced than the latter’s,87 and not on racist One91 political power can thrive on a piece of criteria. land, in order to reap this land’s full political At this point the influence of List’s ethno- value. Any rights of a state in another state’s centric thinking becomes evident. Ratzel land eliminate the latter’s independence. What- approaches it through mainly geographic paths, ever a power reaps from the land per se, another with a strong dose of historicism, in his attempt [power] loses. It is not like the case of an oak to interpret the political sense of national con- growing, under whose umbrella weed and herbs sciousness. Hence, he concludes that a map is thrive. The state cannot tolerate a second and a only the shape of a living body, while the polit- third party on its land without atrophying.92 ical idea (politische Idee) is its soul.88 What is This is the idea on which Ratzel’s criticism more, even in the case of the political idea, he against the loose formulations of Political Sci- sees an evolutionary process, analogous to the ence ultimately lies, according to which a terri- peoples’ cultural level: In the case of a simple tory (Gebiet) belongs to the nature (Wesen) of state this idea is rather limited to the pursuit of the state and sovereignty (Souverenität) is char- sovereignty and is as ephemeral as human life. In acterized as territorial law (Jus terittoriale), culture-orientated people, its carrier is the entire concluding to the rule that territorial changes people. Thus, the state’s soul is incessantly can only be effected through legal channels. renewed through the change of generations. The Contrary to these views, Ratzel distinguishes in most powerful states are those, whose body is the life of states much closer relations, since in filled by the political idea in all of their parts. the course of history all political forces appro- The parts that are not affected by the idea, that is priate the land, establishing states through that the soul, are severed and two souls tear apart the appropriation.93 cohesion of the political body.89 The spatial aspect is a point of reconciliation between Ratzel’s and List’s ideas; the German geographer cites List approvingly as he was the fi 84Ibid., p. 17. rst among the economists to clearly distinguish 85Ibid., p. 17. 86Ibid., pp. 4–5. 90Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie,p.6. 87Ibid., p. 5. 91The capital letter is in the prototype. 88Ibid., p. 6. 92Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 7. 89Ibid., p. 6. 93Ibid., p. 3. 40 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” the spatial territory of a people, with respect to against external factors. The habit of cohabita- its economic and political significance.94 Ratzel tion is widened to the level of national con- cites briefly and effectively the theoretical dif- sciousness; joint labour is the root of the ference between List and Smith, observing that particular cohesive economic interests of states, the dominant until then economic theory of the while the need for protection gives a ruler the English theorist recognized only “a system of power to maintain by any means the cohesion of private economy for all of a country’s citi- the state’s inhabitants.99 zens”.95 The German economist (Nationalöko- Finally, Ratzel considers social groups as the nom) juxtaposed to this his theory of how, within ultimate state constituents—namely, as basic a certain international state of affairs and given analytical units. For the state, individual people its particular circumstances, an existing nation have direct significance only by exception, as can impose or improve its financial positions.96 they are rarely identified individually as land Ratzel explains that List did not reject the tran- owners and occupiers. These attributes usually sition to a higher level of economy, but the concern families, large kins, communities, national economy constituted for him temporar- immigrant groups, associations of natural per- ily a necessary transition from the individual sons, military organizations, trade companies, economy to the economy of cosmopolitanism. It religious groups, which occupy land, cultivate it is only between equal peoples that free exchan- and own it under the state’s protection and in its ges are possible and until that point is reached, it favour.100 is necessary to impose protectionist tariffs. Still From the above it becomes evident that Ratzel referring to List, Ratzel stresses that his conclu- defines the state with economic criteria, classi- sion that protective measures enhance not only a fying land as the number one factor that secures a people’s wealth, but, under specific circum- people’s survival, thus acting as a catalyst on the stances, also a people’s power (Macht), was development of national consciousness. More- reached after researching an America blooming97 over, it becomes clear that Ratzel was well aware at the time when protectionist tariffs were known of List’s theories and he encapsulated the core of as the American system.98 List’s views, which reflect the concurrence of In a nutshell, it is possible to support the liberalism and nationalism (i.e. the course opinion that Ratzel in Political Geography towards a state’s global economic union). To that understands the state primarily with end, Ratzel highlights the contribution of Ver- geo-economic criteria, conceiving land as a pre- kehr, i.e. transports and the ciclulation of people requisite for the economic survival of a small or and goods [Global Verkehr works towards large political formation (people). In the same transforming the entire Earth into one single context, he interprets the spiritual bond with the financial institution, in which states and peoples land, claiming that it extends to the level of will more or less function as employee bodies]101 national consciousness (Nationalbewußtsein), as and logically calls for Germany’s participation to a result of the acquired habit of cohabitation, this process from the best possible position, even joint labour and the need to protect oneself if that means the participation of Germany in a European integration process.102 94Ibid., p. 7. 95The quotation marks are in the prototype. 96See Sect. 2.3. 97Ratzel and List have both researched on American political economy and history. Besides this common element, it must be take into consideration that the List 99 was a pioneer in documentating the need to develop rail Ibid., p. 12. 100 transport, a fact that has certainly influenced the younger Ibid., pp. 12–13. Ratzel. 101Ibid., p. 16. 98Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie,p.7. 102See Chap. 6. 2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Organicistic and Metaphysical Perception of the State 41

2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Speaking in Sect. 1 from a purely Organicistic and Metaphysical bio-geographical perspective (!), Ratzel explains Perception of the State by way of introduction that the expansion of humans and their creations (the largest of which Having identified the geo-economic and being the state)106 on the Earth’s surface bears national-liberal perspective, wherefrom Ratzel all the characteristics of a moving body.107 In approaches the state, the next research objective that sense the human state constitutes, according is to shed light on another crucial issue, namely to it [i.e. Biogeography], a form of life expansion the organicistic perspective of state that has been on the Earth’s surface. It is subject to the same thoughtlessly and uncritically attributed to influences as other forms of life. The laws reg- Ratzel. ulating the expansion of people on Earth also To understand the factual basis of the com- determine the expansion of their states.108 This is parison between a state and an organism, which how he explains the fact that no state has been runs the entire Political Geography, it is neces- established in polar regions or in deserts, while sary to take into account at least the following states established in the tropics, tropical forests four elements: a. the general tendency of the late and high mountains remained small. Therefore, 19th century to admit social-Darwinist and nat- he concludes, the states expanded progressively uralistic theories in social sciences b. the pre- along with man in all parts of the Earth and they requisite knowledge about the concept of increased in size and number, following the Biogeography, as the science that studies the increase in the number of people. The constant expansion of life on Earth103 c. Ratzel’s gradu- changes in the internal and external features of ally expressed considerations—dispersed in var- states prove precisely their live.109 ious essays104—on the need for a Biogeography, A careful reading of the above parts (Sect. 1 of and d. the general interpretational problems of Political Geography) already raises doubts as to Ratzel’s work.105 the degree of the state’s organismic vision, partly An approach that ignores the above elements, because he makes clear that his viewpoint is paired with a superficial study of Political bio-geographical (and not political-geographical!), Geography and Ratzel’s other essays, could and secondly, because he determines man (apart predispose in a specific way the unsuspecting from other living organisms) as Biogeography’s reader, who faces the very first chapter of Polit- primary subject of research in his physical and ical Geography titled The state as an organism biological (not his socio-political) existence. The closely connected to the ground and the subse- above interpretation is more clearly proven by quent Sect. 1: The state in Geography and the Ratzel’s claim that land favours or hinders the bio-geographical perception of state. development of states depending on how it favours or hinders the movement of individual people or families.110 fi 103Ratzel F.11 (1909): Anthropogeographie. Dritte, unver- What is more, in this rst paragraph Ratzel änderte Auflage, pp. 5–6. See also: Müller, G. H. (1996): does not mention, not even once, the term or- Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904): Naturwissenschaftler, ganism, which appears for the first time in the Geograph, Gelehrter, p. 92. More on Biogeography in context of the political organization of land, Sect. 3.1. through which the state becomes an organism, to 104Scientists with a deeper knowledge of his work, consider Ratzel a systemic thinker, [see: Müller, G. H., which a certain part of land accrues, so that the (1996): Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904): Naturwis- senschaftler, Geograph, Gelehrter, p. 119; Buttmann, G. 106 1 Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie,p.2. (1977): Friedrich Ratzel. Leben und Werk eines deutschen 107 Geographen, pp. 88–89], while acknowledging the fact Ibid., p. 1. 108 that he was unable to systematize his thoughts in a written Ibid., p. 1. form, giving food for misinterpretations. 109Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 1. 105See Sect. 1.4. 110Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie p. 2. 42 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” state’s properties are a synthesis of those of the obviously originates in—A. Schäffle,120 who people and the land.111 Yet, the state is not believes that the social body is a spiritual cou- treated as an organism,112 only because it con- pling of life—not one created by means of nects a mobile people to the immobile land, but physical presence—that belongs to a higher because it creates through the interaction of autonomous class, structured beyond the organic these two elements such a profound relationship, and inorganic existence.121 that people and land become uniform and Of course, the development of such bonds impossible to conceive separately.113 leads to more complex forms of state, a fact Ratzel’s suggestion of a political organization which (just as the distinction between of land is already an indication of a nature-orientated [Naturvölker] and non-biologized approach to the concept of state, culture-orientated peoples [Kulturvölker]) leads an approach which becomes even more apparent directly to the comparison of state with an in Sect. 6 of Political Geography titled The limits organism. Therefore, Ratzel argues that the of the organism in the case of state.114 Starting higher a country is developed, the more its entire with the comparison criterion, namely that, be- development draws away from its organic base. tween animals and plants, most accomplished is Therefore a simple comparison of the state with that organism, whose members have to make the an organism is more suitable for the primitive, greatest sacrifices in terms of their autonomy for rather than the advanced states.122 the benefitofall,115 Ratzel concludes—based on Furthermore, Ratzel cites Schäffle’s viewpoint that precise criterion—that the state of human that the term organism metaphorically describes beings is a highly imperfect organism, as its most precisely the state, adding Schäffle’s remark members reserve their autonomy to an extent not that this comparison cannot be the basis of found even in the lowest species of the plant and Political Science. He eventually concurs with animal kingdom.116 Schäffle that the state is not a phenomenon of Always based on the fundamental idea that organic life, but of the new social life and cer- the state consists of a human part and a land tainly the term “organism”123 does not fully part,117 Ratzel clearly emphasises the evolution reflect the state’s nature.124 Using the example of cultural and social human relations, stressing of the man, whose divine aspect of the soul is not that what gives to such an imperfect—as an questioned, when claiming that man is an organism—union of people, which we call state, organic entity, he claims that the the ability to achieve great and unique perfor- mances is the fact that it is a spiritual and moral 120A. Schäffle (1831–1903), whose work profoundly organism.118 It is spiritual coherence that con- influenced Ratzel, was an economist and sociologist, nects the physically separated parts, and in this professor of Economics (1860) at the University of ü regard no biological comparison is applica- T bingen and Professor of Political Science (1868) in Vienna. From 1862 to 1865 he was a member of the local 119 — ble. This perception is also supported by and parliament of Baden Württemberg, and in 1868 he was elected to the German Customs Parliament (Zollparla- 111Ibid., p. 4. ment). From February until October 1871 he was Minister 112 of Commerce of Austria. Advocate of the need for social At this point the editor of the Third Edition of the reforms in favor of vulnerable groups (see Footnote no. Politische Geographie refers to J. Partsch, who assessed, 290 on Kathedersozialisten), he was a close collaborator in the 1903, the often mentioned by Ratzel state— of Bismarck and of the first scholars whi reseaerched on organism comparison as parabolic—metaphorical. 113 1 the social security system. Sources: Born, K. E. (1978): Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie,p.4. Kathedersozialisten; Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 2002 114 Ibid., p. 8. digital. 115 Ibid., p. 8. 121Schäffle, A. (1896): Bau und Leben der sozialen 116Ibid., p. 8. Körpers, p. IV. 117Ibid., p. 2. 122Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 8. 118Author’s underlining. 123The quotation marks are in the prototype. 119Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 8. 124Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie,p.9. 2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Organicistic and Metaphysical Perception of the State 43 characterization state organism does not exclude even if the free blacks are generally situated that the state is a moral organism. The fact that lower131 compared to their white fellow citizens, this idea can imply the creation of a higher form a strict distribution of races based on their from a lower form does not pose an obstacle function in the social organism can never be according to Schäffle.125 invoked, much less with regard to a particular In line with the above, Ratzel concludes that evolution, as bearers of that function. In that the comparison of the state with highly developed case too, regardless of his competence, man organisms is not particularly fertile126 and the regained the right for individual existence, which meagre results of so many scientific efforts to should never had been infringed.132 approach the state as an organism are mainly In 1899, Ratzel presents a summary of the attributed to poor surveys on the analogies127 same views in Sect. 1 (titled The spatial and between a human aggregate and the structure of material unity of Life and Earth) of the first a living being.128 At this exact point, namely the chapter (The uniformity of Life and Biogeogra- structural conditions, Ratzel identifies the most phy) of his Anthropogeographie,133 where he striking difference between the people’s state and remarks that compared to the plants and animals, an organic being. In the case of the state, the whose organism is more complete, since its parts most individual construct of creation [exists], have to sacrifice an enormous part of their man, who does not sacrifice a single fibre or cell independence for the sake of the whole, states of his existence for the sake of the aggregate in and people are distinctively incomplete, since which he is integrated, so that at any one people keep within them their autonomy, which moment, as an autonomous creature, he can they never relinquish, not even as slaves. As a detach himself from it. On the contrary in animal member of the people’s organism (Volksorgan- organisms a subordination of the segments to the ismus) man is the most individual construct of whole [is observed] where this [whole] detaches this creation; he does not sacrifice a single fibre [from the segments] pieces of autonomy, mutat- or cell of his existence, only his will, by con- ing then for the benefit of the aggregate.129 The ceding or acting for the benefit of the whole. He most comprehensive animal reveals its structural recalls the epistemological basis of Biogeogra- elements in the occasion of the largest possible phy that peoples and states as living beings are dependency and the impossibility of autonomy. based on the same rudiments as plants and Even in animal states (Tierstaaten) we see this animals, but their comparison134 proves that mutation of the initially identical members into peoples and states are not real organisms, but very distinct tools. On the contrary, a fully rea- aggregate-organisms (Aggregatorganismen),135 lised human state is that whose citizens enhance their independence most freely at the service of 131This comparison is not based on biological, criteria, but state.130 Ratzel even rejects any thoughts of on the extent of access to technology. Therefore the term low should be understood in the sense of technological comparing slave states (Sklavenstaat) with ani- time lag. See Sect. 4.1. mal states (Tierstaaten), where a more charis- 132Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 11. matic race forces another, seemingly inferior, to 133The 3rd Edition of Anthropogeographie (1909), used work for its benefit. He remarks that slavery has in this study, is—according to the publisher Albrecht — been abolished in all countries where the whites Penck a faithful reproduction of the second edition of 1899. and the blacks had been thus configured, while 134We should have in mind, that Ratzel dealt with Comparative Anatomy too. 125Ibid., p. 9. 135The term Aggregat is found in many areas in the sense 126Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 9. of the overall expression. Economy: Aggregat = total, 127 Aggregation = the sum of individual relevant financial On the term Analogie see Sect. 2.4.1. Ceqlam ekkηmijό kenijό ij m lijώm 128 1 extents (Source: o o o o Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 10. όqxm, I. Rόqsrη). Sociology: characterizes crowds or 129 Ibid., p. 10. groups of people, not having mostly a single structure, 130Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, pp. 10–11. among which there are, despite their temporary spatial 44 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” which, only after the effect of spiritual and moral But in order to prove that for Ratzel the state is139 forces, do not simply look like the high organ- an organism without any biological connotation, isms, but become far superior in terms of col- he appeals to the etymological analysis of the lective life and efficiency.136 term organism and the distinction between living Considering additionally that: organisms (corporeal organism, such as an amoeba) and non-living organisms (non-corporeal • Ratzel has an mainly economocentric per- organisms, such as a clock), whose properties and ception of state, functions are determined not only by the properties • the above observations are distinct segments and relationships of their individual parts, but also pertaining to Biogeography, even though they by the character of the whole, which is also com- appear in Political Geography and Human posed by the relations of the parts to the whole.140 Geography, Moreover, Hunter attributes the idea of the spiri- • the term organism does not appear in Politi- tual, metaphysical state to Ratzel, whose thought is cal Geography after the first chapter and the combined result of the spiritual influence at • in the past the term organism was used to least of Carey, Fechner, Schäffle and Wundt’s describe any form of organized structure.137 thought. In Ratzel’s style and thought lies the same metaphysical organicism, which is connected with then, it is rational to conclude that the bio- the panpsychist school of philosophy.141 logical comparison of state and organism is not Apart from the question of whether it is proper present at any level of Ratzel’s political- to apply modern etymological and scientific geographical perception. data142 in order to interpret a term in the context The rejection of the biological approach to the of a century ago, and beyond the findings of state should not, however, lead us astray—due to Sect. 2.3., namely that Ratzel’s perception of Ratzel’s references to an intellectual or moral state is based on geo-economic foundations, organism—towards adopting interpretations Hunter’s citing of Schäffle and Wundt proves according to which Ratzel allegedly espoused a anything but a metaphysical perception. Firstly, mystical perception of state. This is the perception because Hunter ignores Ratzel’s consensus on that James Hunter tries to substantiate, although Schäffle’s view that a state is an aggregate rejecting categorically the idea that Ratzel sup- organism (Aggregatorganismus), reflecting it not ported the biological comparison, attributing to as a phenomenon of organic life, but as a phe- Ratzel’s student, Elen Semple, great responsibility nomenon of the new social life, unfit for the term for the distortion of his teaching and the propa- “Organism”.143 On the other hand, he does not gation of the view that the German geographer had take into account Wundt’s condemnation of any been influenced by Spencer’s organic theory.138 metaphysical perception, and adamant advocacy of the creation of a positivist scientific interpre- proximity, zero or limited (or individual) social contacts, tative model, which will be adopted by science e.g. the spectators of a football match. (Source: Brockhaus 144 Enzyklopädie, 2002, digital). Mathematics: aggregate scholars only. (Source: Modern germanoelliniko dictionary-naturalist natural sciences and engineering, George Samaridi). Technique: the band (Source: Samaridis). Technology: 138Ibid., p. 284–290. Industrial Complex (Source: Samaridis). In modern 139 Ibid., p. 201. Underlining comes from the original. philosophical terminology aggregat means an entity of 140 ’ internal non-related parties, unlike the body or system. Hunter, J. (1983): Perspective on Ratzel s Political Schischkoff, Philosophisches Wörterbuch, 22. Aufl. Geography, p. 169. 141 (1991)/ Aggregat und Regenbogen/ Meyer, Wörterbuch Ibid., p. 169. der philosophischen Begriffe (2005/ Aggregat). 142Ibid., p. 169: In this modern era, a dictionary of the 136Ratzel, F.11 (1909): Anthropogeographie. Dritte, English language lists two interpretations… Hunter bases unveränderte Auflage, pp. 1–2. his analysis on a dictionary published in 1967. 143 1 137Hunter, J. (1983): Perspective on Ratzel’s Political Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie,p.9. Geography, p. 46. 144See Sect. 5.4. 2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Organicistic and Metaphysical Perception of the State 45

At this point it should be emphasized that the contribute greatly to the disillusionment of the above interpretations do not take into account famous organisistic perception of state as well as Ratzel’s original writing on his perception of to the identification of the state as a complex, state, where he reflects the state as an aggregate- social, aggregate-organism (Aggragatorganis- organism (Aggregatorganismus), which is closer mus). Schäffle’s frequent invocation by Ratzel is to the structure of the machine that functions particular interesting, because of both the for- more as the combination of its individual parts mer’s participation in the group of the so called rather than as the organism, namely a unity ex Cathedra Socialists (Kathedersozialisten),148 exceeding the totality of its parts. Of course, he as well as the suspicions of socialist views trig- remarks that any positive or negative function of gered by the Positivist Circle of Leipzig,149 in a part has an impact on the whole, a particularity which Ratzel participated. This may have been that develops a sense of belonging together the common excuse that led both of them to (Gemeinschaftsgefühl); and that is the sense that reject the accusations of a materialist perception Ratzel perceives growing in the contemporary of history. Thirdly, this article highlights Ratzel’s states by territorial criteria and reflexes, as the methodological opacity, since he hovers between slightest territorial loss is considered detrimental political-geographical and bio-geographical ref- to the whole.145 erences, which may cause the unsuspecting In Political Geography Ratzel identifies and reader serious misconceptions. Fourthly, for the analyses the composing factors of exactly that sake of the criticism attempted against Spencer. new social life, as they are influencing the states’ To begin with, Ratzel expresses his satisfac- creation and dynamics. In other words he anal- tion for the revised edition of Schäffle‘s book, yses the pillars of geopolitical influence. In this 20 years after the first edition. As noted by context the concept of the political idea, the Schäffle himself in the preface to the second intellectual or moral cohesion, is understood as edition,150 unlike in other countries, such as Italy, an element that co-shapes, along with the other England and France, that first edition had not factors, the state’s character. been well received in Germany, due to the influ- ence of Spencer’s natural-scientific approach151 in political and social sciences. Yet, this repub- 2.4.1 Review of Ratzel’s Article “The lication shows, according to Ratzel, that this book State as an Organism” travelled its course, which could not be blocked

The somewhat more extensive discussion of this 148Kathedersozialisten: group of academic economists, article is necessary for several reasons: First of connected in the last third of the 19th century with the all, it corrects the false impression created by its Historical Rchool and, unlike the strict economism of the title already, since it is not an essay that defends Manchester Rchool, demanded the state intervention in ä fl ’ the economy and social life in order to alleviate the social organismic views, but a review of A. Sch f e s fl 146 con icts, to promote social peace and to enable the social Structure and Function of the Social Body. rise of the working class. The term Kathedersozialisten Secondly, the views of Schäffle, an eminent isn’t essentially accurate, as they were not socialists, but economist, sociologist and politician, seem to social reformers, founders in 1873 of the Association for ü exert great influence—in theoretical and applied Social Policy (Verein f r Sozialpolitik), which dealt with 147 issues such as industrial organization, social position of issues —on Ratzel’s overall philosophy, and workers, and social legislation and administration. Main representatives of this School were A.Wagner, G. 145Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 16. Schmoller, L. Brentano and A. Schäffle. Sources: Born, 146The second (two-volume) Edition of the book was K. E. (1978): Kathedersozialisten; Brockhaus Enzyk- ä published in 1896, about 20 years after the first edition lop die, 2002 [digital]. 149 (1875–1878), consisting of four volumes. See Sect. 5.4 150 58 147See Chap. 2 on his state conception, but also his Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 614. invocation considering applied policy on the Eastern 151Schäffle, A. (1896): Bau und Leben der sozialen Question (Chap. 7). Körpers Vol. I, p. III. 46 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” even by the republication of Spencer’s Principles. (Ordnungen), social variability, adaptation and Since he regards the latter as overestimated, heredity, the social struggle for existence, Ratzel ventures a comparison between Spencer conflicting social interests and conflicts that lead to and Schäffle. He essentially concludes in favour decisions (domestic and external wars, rivalries, of the latter, and argues that they who do not stop free agreement), national and international devel- at the surface of things will discover in Schäffle’s opments led by colonization, the results of social work truly German, realistic, warm elements, and evolution, intellectual culture (Kultur) and tech- Schäffle’s contribution is anyhow praiseworthy nical culture (Zivilisation). for the fact alone that he challenged Spencer.152 The last part of this volume shows, according Continuing with most cordial personal com- to Ratzel, that the law of evolution154 and a ments to A. Schäffle, Ratzel considers that the religious worldview are not mutually exclusive. first volume on General Sociology expresses the This element, in other words the attempt to author’s dynamic personality and he evaluates compromise scientific thought and religious the book’s short preface—where the boundaries worldview constitutes a focal point of the ratze- of sociological knowledge and the relationship lian thinking, which at the same time establishes between inorganic, organic and social bodies are the rudiments of his systemic calculus.155 discussed—as the richest intellectual work ever In the second volume of Structure and published in this field.153 Operation of the social body first comes social Next, Ratzel presents the components of anthropology (theory of populations, races, Schäffle’s organic body: passive (people’s capa- nationalities), the evolution of family and society. bilities) and active components (individuals, In the chapters on people’s extracosmic (exter- family), as well as their spiritual and material ties nal, material) existence, people’s terrestrial in an abundance of economic, social, political existence, people’s terrestrial life, and the state associations (the theory of the social fabric). Then and its collective functions, the social signifi- follow organizational issues, from the simple cance of time and space, transport and security, social and state bodies to the main institutions or the main concepts of economy, intellectual life organic systems. The first part ends with the social and the educational system, religion and church, intellectual life or Social Psychology, where the state and its international affairs is studied. Schäffle researches the identification of a people’s Last appears the 15th book: The social body’s intellectual power, the socio-psychological law of evolution in a world of peoples. This is, contrast (Kontrast), the authoritarianism, the according to Ratzel, the most inspiring part, since public opinion, the daily Press, etc., the people’s people are studied in relation to the land, the intellectual and moral life, the political activation land’s importance for the cohesion of people, the (political parties, popular sovereignty) and the concept of nationality, the relations between relationship of Law and Ethics. The second section people, race and state. Then follows an overview discusses the key points of the general evolution- of the living places of people, of the Ecumene, in ary theory, whose progress first occurs in the field its broader sense as the theatre of history, of of physics and is subsequently described in rela- cultural zones and, finally, cultural cycles.156 tion to its importance for understanding social Comparing Schäffle’s work with Spencer’s evolution (differentiation, integration, technical Principles of Sociology, Ratzel remarks that the cultural [zivilisatorisch] progress). After that, the latter has different aims to start with, since he individual elements of social evolution are pre- sented: Law and morals as evolutionary classes 154On Ratzel’s rejecting position against evolutional theory see Sects. 5.1 & 5.2. 155On Ratzel’s compromising attitude in the conflict between religion and science see Sect. 5.3. 152 58 Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 614. 156Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, 153Ibid., p. 615. pp. 615–616. 2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Organicistic and Metaphysical Perception of the State 47 presents the evolution of society in all its social this comparison was met with. Referring to the expressions. He therefore applies what is largely preface of the 2nd edition, Ratzel believes that understood as Ethnology and putters in the citing Schäffle does not need to assure any follower of of one-sided travel, ethnological, political and his intellectual calibre, inside and outside Ger- literary texts, while lacking the life-giving energy many, that he conceived the social body of the synthetic personal views. What are we to (Gesellschaftskörper) as an intellectual rather do, asks the German geographer, with an exten- than as a natural (physiologisch), on-going vital sive reference to the characteristic autonomy of relationship, an autonomous and higher ranking the elements of the social organism, when the relationship, built above the organic or inor- unification of a region’s humans with its plants ganic elements.159 and animals is considered possible, leading But why shouldn’t Political Science use the again to the close correlation of the elements of a concept of organic to talk about the state and separate organism?157 society? asks Ratzel, regretting the fact that Above all, however, Ratzel criticizes Spencer Schäffle toned down his view in the preface of because he has no idea about the land, as a the 2nd edition, writing that “the common envi- natural constant, a failure that Ratzel attributes ronment” of the organic and inorganic world to the fact that Darwin and Wallace had never requires “real analogies”160 between the two written anything on the matter. Furthermore, he and the common environment could not be does not distinguish in Spencer’s work any of the absent during the process of the social structure of Schäffle’s thought and considers exploitation of natural resources and of the for- merely superficial some coincidences appearing ces of the organic world. The peculiar use of the in these works, regarding the distinction of social term “Analogy” to describe the deep-rooted organization systems with supportive, distribu- similarities between communities of plants, ani- tive and regulatory functions, questioning whe- mals and human beings raises doubts as to the ther they affected each other. As a common point perception of those similarities.161 between Schäffle and Spencer, Ratzel identifies On the occasion of the above observation, their evolutionary views, which constitute the Ratzel describes the distinction between Analogy axis of their sociological systems. He considers and Homology, which has existed in the mor- that through the introduction of some Darwinian phological sciences since Cuvier’s time.162 He elements into the patchwork of his quotations 159 58 Spencer was able to achieve a high increase of Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 616. Here is once again the parabolic—metaphorical use of the some generalizations, which have however been term social organism, as it was perceived by Schäffle and partially overcome, since they are based only on accepted by Ratzel. 158 the comparison of superficial similarities. 160Quotation from the original. In contrast to Spencer—Ratzel concludes— 161Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 617. Schäffle does not stack hastily secondary and 162Cuvier Georges (de) Baron, (1769–1832): French noncomparable quotes. He has a much more naturalist and zoologist, sometimes referred to as the “ ” fi personal style and clarity, achieved especially in father of paleontology . He was a major gure in natural sciences research in the early 19th century and was the concise 2-volume edition, that followed the instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative first 4-volume publication. However, Ratzel anatomy and paleontology through his work in comparing regrets the fact that the abbreviation of the first living animals with fossils. Cuvier’s Principle of Corre- ’ edition was the result of omitting numerous ref- lation of Parts states that all organs in an animal s body are deeply interdependent. Species’ existence relies on the erences on the similarities between the lives of way in which these organs interact. For example, a living beings and the life of a state and he con- species whose digestive tract is best suited to digesting siders that Schäffle overrated the reactions that flesh but whose body is best suited to foraging for plants cannot survive. Thus in all species, the functional significance of each body part must be correlated to the 157 58 Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 616. others, else the species cannot sustain itself. Ultimately, 158Ibid., p. 616. Cuvier developed four embranchements, or branches, 48 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” therefore explains that analogic are the wings of the coinciding material bases and in the evolu- a bird and a butterfly, which, even though they tionary conditions of human, as well as in all are aligned to the same aim by means of the other organisms’ properties. For this reason he same mechanical adjustments, they are com- refers to real analogies, obviously aiming to pletely different in their origin and evolution. characterize the contraposition to the external, Homologous are the human skull bones and schematic comparisons, to the concept of a com- vertebrae, which fulfil completely different pur- pletely metaphorical analogy. Schäffle’s world- poses, but, as Goethe first revealed, have the view, says Ratzel, is uniform in the sense that he same origin. Obviously, he concludes, when you understands the life and activity of people and compare a human society with an organism, state within nature and developing on common there are different starting points, depending on land. But for Schäffle land is not as a single whether someone discerns analogies or substrate consisting of immovable earth and homologies.163 rocks, but an inorganic world that surrounds us, Continuing the mild criticism of Schäffle due to and which could justifiably be called unorga- the fact that he did not insist on the “biological nized,164 namely a world pulsating with abundant analogy”, Ratzel refers to the prologue of the 1st action, but nowhere near—although this is its edition, where Schäffle believed that he (Schäffle) destination—an organic level.165 had avoided the dangers of analogy—the elimi- The above indicates that Ratzel substantially nation of disparities and the downslide into an juxtaposes Spencer’s organic analogy, according unscientific allegory—systematically avoiding the to which the identification of society with a terms “organism” and “organic” when describing biological organism is legitimate for certain social constructs and processes. Furthermore, purposes, in order to find the associations among Ratzel focuses on the preface to the 2nd edition, the generalizations about organisms and soci- where Schäffle stresses that for the abbreviation of eties, as a first step towards a general theory of the four volumes in two contributed significantly evolution.166 To this external formalistic com- the reduction of the biological analogies, whose parison, Schäffle and Ratzel juxtapose a deeper formulation caused great dissatisfaction, arguing holistic philosophical view, which perceives the (Schäffle) that for those not acquainted with his whole of the organic and inorganic material as thought, (this retreat) might seem as a concession unified. to political scientists who, following Menger’s It is therefore logical for Ratzel to agree with example, consider the analogies of the state to Schäffle’s objection about the unilateral, materi- other organic beings as so limited and incom- alistic use of the term dead. The comparison plete, that only external value could be attributed between live and lifeless nature resembles the to them. By contrast, according to Ratzel, Schäffle image of a dead rock covered in ivy, i.e. the idea supports the view that analogies exist deeply in that a fully living, namely moving,167 organism surrounds a forever immobile mass. However, he fi through which he classi ed animals based on his taxo- remarks that no physicist would want to use that nomical and anatomical studies. He later performed groundbreaking work in classifying animals in vertebrate term for some dead material, since the entire and invertebrate groups by subdividing each category. For inorganic world is for him more of a maelstrom instance, he proposed that the invertebrates could be of individual wavering. Of course, he admits that segmented into three individual categories, including

Mollusca, Radiata, and Articulata. He also articulated that 164 species cannot move across these categories, a theory At this point it becomes clear that the organic fl called transmutation. He reasoned that organisms cannot perception re ects more an organized structure. See acquire or change their physical traits over time and still Sect. 2.4. 165 58 retain optimal survival. As a result, he often conflicted Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, with Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck’s pp. 617–618. theories of transmutation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ 166Timashef, N. (1976): Irsoqίajoimxmiokocijώm Georges_Cuvier. hexqiώm, p. 64. 163Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 617. 167Life is movement. See Sect. 3.2. 2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Organicistic and Metaphysical Perception of the State 49 the way these harmonies, whose typical example environment.169 The divine element also exists in is the crystals, are transferred to organic nature each one individually and society creates more remains unknown. However, the generally opportunities for its own greater growth. The accepted opinion that as far as organisms are level of logic (Vernunft) is not an achievement of concerned, the same materials are related to the society, but already exists in each man sepa- same laws, as is the case with inorganic things, rately. Nevertheless, it increases when different leads Ratzel to the conclusion that the society’s combinations are created. The combinations with foundation, the unification of vital, interacting every form of society and state become, how- parts into a whole, has been realized long before ever, possible only through the increase of logic, man in nature. Even before life had developed an for whose progress it is not clear whether uninterrupted series of tensions and balances external stimuli are needed.170 between internal circumstances and external These views171 seem to bear the stamp of living conditions, celestial bodies interacted from Rudolf Hermann Lotze’s teleological idealism, vast distances through gravity, light, temperature whose central problematics was the harmoniza- and electrical charge. And within a supposedly tion of mechanistic theories and teleological lifeless stone, millions of opposing forces are conceptions, a compromise between German dreaming of its disintegration. Therefore, he Idealism and Natural Science. As part of this concludes, the number of interactions in human effort, Lotze understands mechanism as an society is not something entirely new.168 There- essential principle for interpreting the operation fore, it would be wrong to place society or a and maintenance of organisms. Given, however, community of humans against a non-community the limit that their creation cannot be adequately of lifeless nature, since nature as a whole is a explained, he defines mechanism as a means of unique coherent system of interacting parts achieving a higher order (Zweckordnung). In (Fechner). Ultimately, Ratzel considers that the other words, he believes that nature is inner relation of human society was accurately sub-ordered to a strictly mechanistic determin- described by Hermann Lotze when he discussed ism, but even this mechanistic nature must ulti- the supposedly lifeless world: During the process mately serve a higher purpose; the mechanistic of changing its status, each element senses its view of the world must be incorporated in a influence—regardless of whether it was major teleological one.172 These views also lead to or minor—upon the momentary overall state of Leibnitz’s Monadologie, according to which the the world. Of course, the German geographer world is a harmonious ensemble of conscious believes that compared to the planetary rela- intellectual and dynamic units,173 and also to tions, the relations of human society are negli- Fechner’s Panpsychism, whose aim was to gible. In this context, he evaluates as negligible a develop a reality beyond consciousness, in har- merchant’s ability to move his ships to India or mony with the experience of physical research, America, by pressing a telegraph button in using its basic principles. In this process, the link Hamburg, compared to the impact of a tornado in with the Christian teaching is very close, as the North America that causes rainfall throughout higher truths are objects of faith. Fechner’s Europe. Everywhere, where a contradiction has research tool is the principle of analogy and he been sought between the social body and nature, understands the nature of Physical Sciences only the place where it grows, decays and is reborn, the transitions are also discovered, which do 169Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, – nothing less than to consolidate it deeper into its pp. 618 619. 170Ibid., p. 619. 171 ’ 168This is a clear influence by the teleological idealism of On Ratzel s worldview see Chap. 5. 172 Rudolf Hermann Lotze (1817–1881): philosopher, orig- Häussler, J. N.: Lotze, Hermann, http: www.deutsche- inally physiologist and physician, professor in 1842 at the biographie.de/pnd118574574.html; Aster, E. von (1980): Universities of Leipzig (1844), Göttingen (1881) and Geschichte der Philosophie, pp. 365–366. Berlin. 173Cjίja1, R. (1988), Uikorouijό Kenijό, p. 172. 50 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” as the surface of things, behind which he aims to materials and goods, since he never created a penetrate.174 new material and never contributed, not even to In the light of composing idealistic and sci- a minimum, to the earth’s energy resources. This entific views, Ratzel remarks that human society dependence on existing data has become so cannot be understood outside its secular envi- customary, that it seems unthinkable even to ronment, since a human body is not merely the think of the opposite. The fact that man is recipient of the temperature and movement, dependent on what earth offers him, even as to produced by plants and animals throughout their his higher claims, makes him, especially this fact, lifetime and stacked in thousands of kinds of a part of the earth. But if we imagine that the materials, but also needs the sun’s light and perception of an evolving society is revitalized heat. Even if humans do not dissolve and and strengthened by the existence of general decompose organic substances, as plants do, to laws, which are transferred from other life sec- receive them into their body, they need, however, tors, then the once treasured antithesis of the water and air to live. This dependence of man restless evolution of the advancing humanity leads to the closer relationship expressed by against an—in a sense—immobile nature, Biogeography,175 which places the individual doomed to restless stagnation, disappears.177 among all creatures living on the land, where, At this point it becomes again clear that any together with mammals, reptiles, beetles, or organic analogies are introduced from a snails, he shows very particular conditions of bio-geographical point of view and based on the expansion, namely similar volumetric analysis parallel dependence of humans and other organic and a coinciding way of dependence on ground. beings on nature, while the last paragraph’s Of course, unlike other organisms, man exhibits conclusions aim towards an upgrading of the self-motivation against these dependencies. organic status of nature against human functions. Through this self-motivation he creates yet Furthermore, in conjunction with the reference to another group of associations, since he alters the Biogeography, it should be emphasized that the earth’s surface, acting on the immobile material author refers to mankind in general, carefully and on the nonhuman organic world, causing avoiding using the term state, let alone attempt- transformations and disasters.176 By highlight- ing a direct comparison between state and ing the word transformation, the human depen- organism. dence on the land is demonstrated, as a result of The erasure of the borderline between the fact that man can transform only existing humanity and nature brought, according to Rat- zel, further consequences, since it initially redi- 174Hennemann, G.: Fechner, Gustav Theodor, www. rected attention to the evolutionary processes of deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118532154.html. human society, which were previously absolutely 175Since Ratzel isn’t citing Schäffle’s book (1300 pages) unknown. The mainly ethnographic experiences by page at all, it was impossible—after a quick research— allow a distinction of the ways family, society ä fl to cross the use of the term Biogeography by Sch f e. and the state evolved from unknown till then However, this important observation confirms the com- ments in Sect. 1.4., since this complex concept should be starting points, whereas the unexpected variety of fully integrated to Ratzel’s biogeographical conception the forms of human associations gives a com- and research, whose target was the interpretation of the pletely new idea of the capabilities existing in spread of living beings as a whole. See Chap. 3. this sector. This is not merely of academic 176 This is the cultural difference between the human and interest, but rather illuminates what may come, other kingdoms, as man by logic progresses technolog- ically and intervenes in nature. Besides, we have already what is possible and likely to occur, points seen the view Ratzel that the influence of geographical conditions are the same as the people remain the same in nature and abilities. [Ratzel, Fr., (1900)64: Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ethnographie, p. 419]. On the specific value of the logical existence of recognition to 177Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, all the people see Sect. 4.2. pp. 619–620. 2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Organicistic and Metaphysical Perception of the State 51

Ratzel, expressing the need to discern causalities, elements in a chapter on “The Factors affecting able to create forecasting conditions. It is this peoples’ cohesion”, regretting however the fact need that led to the keen interest with which that this chapter, which hosts the entire paragraph Marxists and positivists focused mainly on the on the evolution of the social body in peoples’ evolutionary history of family and society, urged lives, is placed only at the end of the 2nd volume. by an instinct for fruitful practical application of At least land’s practical importance is not dis- the general evolutionary laws to society. Ratzel puted, points Ratzel, referring to the bickering of supports that all of them were led to dead ends, the time as to whether a state without land had since they considered Morgan’s immature ever existed. Naturally, he considers this ques- schema as an evolutionary law. Of course, he tion completely useless, just like the claim that acknowledges their contribution of kindling in humanity could formerly have lived in the air or broad circles the interest in a natural perception in water, ending with the premise that land of society and paved the way for a fruitful belongs to the people and, because people are discussion.178 the state, they carry this institution to the state Citing next Schäffle’s observation that from and make the state an indestructible bond of a the secular gravitation of material that led to the human society with a piece of land, which is solar systems and the organic connection of the “their country”.181 cell material and the cell gaps all the way to the The above problem, namely the perception of broader union of individuals and goods in a land in relation to national subjects is highly large body of peoples and individuals, and, vice timely, as many modernist and post-modernist versa, from the dismantlement of social groups to perceptions contest in the name of globalization the ostensibly expected regasification of collided and globalized economy the importance of celestial bodies, the same procedure of perpetual national borders. Especially in Geopolitics, this evolution and decomposition, of coming to be perception is one of the key differences between and disappearing is observed, Ratzel wonders the schools of Contemporary/Classical Geopoli- whether one could have expressed something tics (including the Systemic Geopolitical Analy- similar without being considered a day dreamer sis) and Critical Geopolitics.182 20 years before. By contrast, he believed that, at More interesting and practical is for Ratzel the the time when the treatise was being penned, problematic case of the varying political evalu- such a perception was familiar, so that soon it ation of land among peoples.183 He considers would be established as a normal way of thinking that in the past there was nothing like the current in increasingly larger circles, as it happened with the earth’s movement around the sun or the nowhere else—in the section “State” of Paulsen’s Ethics law of gravity.179 (1894), when there is reference to the state entity:“The Next, Ratzel treats one of his favourite issues, state is the form of the compound of a connected by common origin or common historical experiences popu- namely the importance of land, expressing the lation to an upper unit of will and power, able to decide hope that one of the most pronounced effects of and act”. According to this explanation, it would be this work lies in the fact that the land’s impor- possible that the Federation lies in Siberia and the tance will be increasingly recognized in the Netherlands in the Alps. Can I describe a plant without taking into account its biotop? And how much deeper or political and social developments, and not only richer is a state’s bond with its territory, which, like 180 by science. He identifies several useful Germany, holds largely the same ground for more of the millennium, compared with the bond of a plant to its 178Ibid., p. 620. territory? 58 179Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 620. Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, – 180 pp. 620 621. An important footnote by Ratzel, who does not lose the 181 58 opportunity to attack the supporters of the view that there Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 621. 182 may be a state without territory: Whether a See about Sect. 1.1.1. “non-territorial” conception of the state is unfounded, is 183See about Sect. 1.3.2.1 and the 3rd Law of states’ being demonstrated clearly in modern literature—as territorial growth, Sect. 5.6.3 52 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” territorial voracity, which turns every power, that the preservation of the Roman Empire in the that has the necessary means, to a great specu- focal country, Italy, was reached because the lator for land stretches measuring millions of conquest with the plough followed the one with square metres, since land acquisition, which the sword or occurred almost simultaneously.185 could become in the future valuable for the The idea that a state with a specific population growing population, was in antiquity a com- needs a specific stretch of land was general- pletely unknown concept. He argues that ized,186 when the sense of overcrowding became Phoenicia, Carthage, or Rome were never in this more intense in Europe, while from the vast areas sense conquerors, although Rome clearly imple- of Siberia and North America protests were heard mented an expansive policy, even though that the culturally fertile land is conquered and unwillingly, and gradually conquered the large exploited too fast and that the fathers sacrifice areas acquired since Caesar’s time for economic the hopes of their children and grandchildren. and military purposes. What modesty coming The same complaints about the unfair land dis- from a Universal Power active in Germany and tribution are of course heard also within each the Danube!, comments Ratzel, juxtaposing nation, both in rural and in urban areas, since the Rome to the Russian or English conquests of his seizure and building up of the best land deprives time in Asia or the occupation of the entire North the light and air of the less privileged.187 America by Spain, France and England within These examples are, according to Ratzel, only one century! Moving to Ancient Greece, he evidence of the very close relationship between remarks that the Greek states failed to meet their human and land, which cannot be ignored by political plans and hopes, because they limited scientifical analysis. However, this does not themselves to their towns, they did not realize constitute evidence for a materialist188 perception early enough the land’s value and they did not of history: given this truly organic relationship exploit it politically. So, while Athens wanted to between human society and land, should anyone be a great power, it left Megara, located right be accused of a materialist perception of history, before its doors, to foreign hands! Equally because he cannot grasp humanity without the unsuccessful, he believes, was the evaluation of Earth and a people away from its land? German emperors and kings, who considered Evidently criticising Rankes’189 historio- that they could maintain their power in a frag- graphical school, Ratzel stresses that this view mented and medium-sized territory. Yet, through constitutes more of an envigorating perception, the discovery of the New World and the Pacific which sees an entire people as a fully living Ocean, new and larger countries came closer, all body, which contributes to the advancement of those flights of fancy vanished into thin air and history, while he does not hesitate to accuse the Germany and Italy were the last to highlight Berlin historiographers of materialism: Basically, through their belated colonial policy the validity the perception of history which sees only the of the principle that a great power must have a major and leading figures and does not know broad basis.184 The importance of land for society lies partly 185At this point the separation between conquest and on the fact that the state cares for its existence, colonization is distinguished. The latter refers to the consolidation (by economic, cultural means) on a free or since its fundamental concern is to provide citi- conquered territory. zens with land. Yet, every time this thought 186This is a clear influence from Malthus. became a blind conquering mania, it declined, as 187Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 622. in the case of the planned colonization of the old 188The accusation of an alleged materialistic view refutes Empires of the East. Likewise, Ratzel believes also Schäffle strongly. See Sect. 5.3. 189It is about the Descriptive School of History, which was in conflict with the Lamprecht’s Systemic School (Ratzel diners of the Positivistic Circle of Leipzig), of the dynamic explanation of historical events. See also Sect. 4. 184Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 621. 1.4. 2.4 The Myth of Ratzel’s Organicistic and Metaphysical Perception of the State 53 anything about the life flooding the masses from aptly concluded based on the limited space which they [the leaders] emerged and about the offered by Earth to humanity, which must limit spatial conditions is far more materialist. This itself to those few continents and islands. To gain perception dismantles the people intellectually space, a culture (Zivilisation) displaces another, and psychologically, without whose spirit and destroys it and takes its place. This spatial soul the leaders rising from the constantly restriction has increasingly improved peoples’ changing depths of a people cannot act.190 performance,194 just like in the course of life on As remarked in the introductory paragraph, earth the overcrowding of disputes and conflicts the need to rebut the accusation of a materialist resulting from the given spatial tightness, con- view of history is perhaps related to Schäffle’s stituted due to the flawless, selective interactions, participation in the group of the ex Cathedra the flywheel, which never let the progressive Socialists. Especially the origins of Ratzel’s motion stop. Beyond the qualitative nature of thinking could lay in the epistemological dispute land and the efforts to prevail over the best soil between German historiographers (Methoden- and position (Lagen), Ratzel notes that the streit), whose main representatives are Leopold earth’s permeability, whose exploration had at von Ranke, who supported a descriptive per- that time been completed, is a key fact and the ception of history, and Karl Lamprecht, the apparently finite figure of 9.2 million square advocate of a dynamic historiographical percep- miles, available on the earth’s surface for the tion, which is not limited to the simple recording development of life.195 of facts, but seeks the regularities which permeate At this point Ratzel deals with the chapter of historical developments. Lamprecht, with whom the second volume titled Struggle for Space Ratzel kept a close scientific relationship as part (Kampf um Raum), defending generally Schäf- of the Positivist Circle of Leipzig,191 was accused fle’s overall venture, from which no one can by the successors of Ranke’s school of expect to isolate in Sociology a driving force, materialism.192 which Biologists were unable to distinguish, Having praised the apt discussion about the despite its decisive influence on all sectors of importance of space appearing in the paragraph creation. Moreover, he regrets having to ignore Space and Time in relation to the progress of such interesting parallels of the territorial development, Ratzel returns to criticism, impact here and there. This confession consti- observing that the reference to space fades away tutes another irrefutable testimony to the fact that when comments on progress and development Friedrich Ratzel was far from identifying human are formulated, more than the expediency of a society with the function of organisms, having better understanding would serve. Criticising clearly and completely understood the complex- once more the evolutionists, supporters of per- ity, which governs in multiple levels a social petual progress,193 he stresses that from the dis- body’s function. At the same time, however, the cussion on the opportunities for development and above statement declares the need and hope that progress, which we constantly follow with sym- the importance of the struggle for space in the pathy, something very essential is missing. The struggle for existence will be someday more fact that there cannot be unlimited progress is precisely determined196 while also constituting a

194Here it becomes again evident that the German 190 58 Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 622. geographer realizes—beyond the territorial—other param- 191See Sect. 5.4. eters, which jointly shape the strength of a nation or state. 192In this controversy Ratzel takes a clear position in 195Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, favor of Lamprecht. pp. 622–623. 193Ratzel rejected since 1882 the theories of man’s 196On the correlation of Struggle for Space and the perpetual evolution and biological regression. See Struggle for Existence, which Ratzel considers apparently Sect. 5.1. unanswered in 1896, see Sect. 3.4. 54 2 Fr. Ratzel’s State as a “Social Organism” programmatic declaration for the establishment 2.5 Conclusions of Biogeography, a field which will respond to the issues that social sciences cannot tackle, In this 2nd Chapter, a study of Friedrich Ratzel’s consequently the ones not defined as perceptions with regard to the state has been biological.197 attempted, following two main axes: To sum up, he refers to the other spatial issue of creation, which is based on the organisms’ • the dipole of revolutionary/nationalist notion ability for migration and spatial isolation and on of state the creation of new species, arising from the • the organismic notion of state. previous ones, which Moritz Wagner had resolved years before in his classic work “The The conclusion arising from the meticulous immigration law of organisms” (1873). Ratzel study of the Ratzelian writings, is that Ratzel states that Moritz Wagner’s law is not included embraces primarily the revolutionary ideas of the in the listing of the characteristics of the selec- French and American Revolution, according to tion procedures, as well as in the phrasing of the which naturalization constitutes a political law of social development, which considers the choice, whereas he less shares the nationalist progressive creation of societies (Zivilisation198) notion of state—widespread at that time in Ger- as the highest result of the comprehensive many and Eastern Europe—, which incorporates selection of human existential struggles, namely common history, religion and language as pre- all the struggles for existence and safeguarding requisites for the existence of a state entity. of interests. Ratzel praises, however, Moritz His viewpoint is highly economics-centered, Wagner’sinfluence in certain observations, as as he perceives the territorial expression of state well as in the exceptional final chapter entitled as the economic basis for the survival of its The law of evolution and the ability of a moral inhabitants. Inevitably, this need for survival worldview, which discusses the spatial conditions creates bonds between people and land and of societies and states, but fails to place proper establishes structures for the protection territorial emphasis compared to the law of selection in the sovereignty and the political organization of the struggle for existence. land, which are the constituents of national And yet, he concludes, it is possible that the consciousness. contradictions in peoples’ life, from which con- It was also made clear that the “organisistic” flicts and progress arise, are created and main- notion of state attributed to Ratzel constitutes a tained only under conditions of spatial fundamental interpretational error, for which—in contraction and secession, under whose effect the addition to the inadequate study of the original masses are galvanised towards struggling for texts—Kjellen is highly responsible, as—with their existence.199 his known insight into Ratzel’s work —he adjudges that according to Ratzel’s political theory, all states in all their stages of evolution should be characterized as natural organisms (Naturorganismen), even if they approach, in their higher forms, a spiritual-moral form of existence.200 197Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 623. Contrary to the aforementioned opinion, 198Term and brackets come from the original. The fact which prevailed over time, Ratzel, following A. that the term Zivilisation refers to social processes, creates a confusion regerdig the use of the terms Kultur and Zivilisation. 199Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 623. On the implementation field of Wagner’s Migrationthe- orie see next Chapter. 200Kjellén, R. (1917): Der Staat als Lebensform, p. 21. 2.5 Conclusions 55

Schäffle’s thought, perceives the state as an living beings on earth in a holistic way. Recog- organized social body, as a whole of interrelated nizing, however,—even though not particularly social processes and correlations. He denounces distinctly—that such a thing is not feasible with at several points the attempt to compare or the use of sociological tools, he reposes this identify the state with a living organism, while it subject to the research field of Biogeography. is obvious that he prefers the use of sociological, The next chapter of the present study will ethnological and geographical tools in order to focus on the distinction between Political Geog- interpret the relations that govern social reality raphy and Biogeography, for whose blurred lines and thus historical evolution. Ratzel’s minimally systematic way of writing201 This, of course, does not mean that he aban- is also to blame. dons his intention to interpret the movements of

201In a chapter titled ‘The state as Organism’ of the Structure and Life of the Social Body, Ratzel character- istically defines the research subject-matter of Biogeography. Lebensraum: Bio-geographical Signifier with Political-Geographical 3 Signified?

In the previous chapter, especially the presenta- from Political Geography, which studies the tion of the essay The state as an organism, a first effects of political, cultural and economic pro- approach of Ratzel’s Biogeography was carried cesses, and namely refers to the Superstructural out, with the note by Ratzel that that dependence Synthetic Spaces (complete and special), defined of man [on water and air] demonstrates the as the set of the dialectically primary, secondary closer relationship expressed by Biogeography, and tertiary spaces.5 which places man among the creatures living on The aforementioned differentiation, which is land, where together with mammals, reptiles, fundamental for any reading or research beetles, and snails, he exhibits very particular approach on Ratzel, especially for the under- conditions of expansion, namely similar volu- standing of the concept of Living Space metric analysis and an identical way of depen- (Lebensraum), is this chapter’s working hypoth- dence on land, except, of course, that man is to esis, whose validity will be attempted mainly on some extent able to intervene and transform the basis of his book with the same title.6 nature.1 Even the premise that the discovery of the common driving force of organisms is the work 3.1 Lebensraum: of biologists rather than sociologists,2 makes A Bio-geographical Term clear that the primary research objective of rat- zelian Biogeography (apart from the other living Although Ratzel’s early death prevented the organisms) was man in his physical and biolog- writing of the planned General Biogeography, ical (and not socio-political) existence. the first signs of his interest in biogeographic These two aspects compose Biogeography, issues, namely the geographical expansion of the science that studies the spread of life on organisms, are already identified in the writings Earth,3 namely refers (according to I. Mazis’s of his early period.7 The scientific and cultural classification system of geographical spaces) to environment, as well as Leipzig’s ideal working Primary Causal Infrastructural Spaces, Natural 4 Space and Human Space. It is clearly distinct 4Classification according to the distinction of geograph- ical areas by. I. Mazis, (2002): Geopolitics: Theory and 1Ratzel, Fr.58 (1896): Der Staat als Organismus, p. 619. practice, pp. 34-37. 5 2Ibid., p. 623. Ibid., p. 37. 6 3Ratzel F.11 (1909): Anthropogeographie. Dritte, unver- See. F. Ratzel, OZxsijό1 Xώqo1, Pqorjήmio,Ahήma, änderte Auflage, p. 5 . See also Müller, G. H. (1996): Fr. 2001. Ratzel (1844–1904): Naturwissenschaftler, Geograph, 7Müller, G. H. (1996): Fr. Ratzel (1844–1904): Natur- Gelehrter, p. 92. wissenschaftler, Geograph, Gelehrter, p. 83.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 57 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_3 58 3 Lebensraum: Bio-geographical Signifier … conditions allowed—among other important geographical nature of Biogeography is recorded: projects—the preparation for writing a General Biogeography is a geographical science. What- Biogeography, whose objective he officially ever it researches belongs to the land and con- introduces in the second volume of Human stitutes an object of biogeographical research for Geography (1891), highlighting the need to unite as long as it is related to the land. A zoologist Zoogeography, Phytogeography and Human describes animals and their evolution and studies Geography into a General Biogeography, a their relationship to other living or extinct ani- theory of the expansion of life…. The same mals. But when he asks: Where do they live? Geography which established Human Geogra- What kind of influence is exercised upon them by phy should not reject the obligation to tackle en the land and climate of the place in which they bloc what is a common attribute of life during the live? What are the dimensions of their place of geographical spread of men, animals and living? What is its form? What is its size? Where plants.8 This holistic view of life (hologäische is it located in relation to the habitats of other Erdauffassung),9 reflects, somewhat vaguely, the animals? Does the species under scrutiny reside methodology behind his thinking and work,10 so uniformly in its region or are there gaps? What that—according to G. Müller, who meticulously are the special living circumstances in the border studied Ratzel’s course to the writing of Bio- areas? Once these questions are put forth, he geography—he is considered the precursor of enters the geographic sphere. This is easy to this science… Suffice it here to mention his call discern, since he replaces his scalpel and for a (zusammenfassendes microscope with the map and a manual of Denken), and his perception of the Biosphere. He geography; records his survey results on a map creates a geographical complex of relationships, and in a description which must include a series which includes space, time, traffic and the envi- of geographical data, in order to be considered ronment, so “the range of his teaching goes noteworthy. To that extent, Biogeography shares beyond the boundaries of individual sciences, its geographical character with all sciences, especially of Geography”.11 whose objects belong to land and, due to this Of course, Ratzel had early on shared with his binding, are decisively or at least to a certain students and the scientific community his inten- degree affected by it. It is this same character tions, since the general principles of Biogeogra- that both Geology and Human History have. phy were first included in the curriculum of the Their field of study is the land; therefore the land winter term 1891/92, while he revisited the matter is forever present. And for this very reason their in the winter term of 1896/97, since when the laws are, likewise, buried in the land.13 relevant lectures began to multiply (summer term According to G. H. Müller, Ratzel introduced 1899, summer term 1902, winter term 1904).12 to the scientific literature first the adjective bio- The preparatory studies and notes of ratzelian geographisch and then the noun Biogeographie. Biogeography are kept in the Institut fürLänd- The first record is found in one of Ratzel’s letters erkunde in Leipzig, in folders 146, 153 and 172. to H. Eisig (31.01.1888) in Naples, while the first In the first folder an eloquent description of the occurence in print of the term biogeographisch is in the written record of a lecture on the use of the 8Ibid., p. 92, Excerpt from Human Geography II (1891), term Ecumene in current geographical problems, p. VI. delivered by Ratzel in 1888 at the Royal Scien- 9The term holistic is geographic context and refers to all tific Academy of Saxony.14 11a earth. Ratzel, Fr. (1891): Anthropogeographie. Zweiter However, the coinage of the term living space Teil, p. 59. (Lebensraum) is rather erroneously attributed to 10Buttmann, G. (1977): Friedrich Ratzel. Leben und Werk eines deutschen Geographen, p. 13. 11Müller, G. H. (1996): Fr. Ratzel (1844–1904): Natur- 13Ratzel Archive, K 146, 4 leaves. wissenschaftler, Geograph, Gelehrter, p. 119. 14Müller, G. H. (1996): Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904): 12Ibid., pp. 134–138. Naturwissenschaftler, Geograph,…, pp. 79–80. 3.1 Lebensraum: A Bio-geographical Term 59

Ratzel, as it had been previously used by support a living species in its current popu- Goethe15 (according to Schmitthenner) and the lation size and its mode of existence.21 biologist Oscar Peschel (according to Heffer- man)16 in 1860. Yet, in the German Geography It could generally be said that these definitions Ratzel introduced the Lebensraum in 1897 (and reflect Ratzel’s spirit, although the later definition not in 1901, the year the book of the same name of Smith introduces clearer parameters poten- was published) in an article titled On Living tially quantitatively defining Lebensraum: e.g. Space: A biogeographic study [Über den the population size, as well as a living species Lebensraum. Eine biogeographische Skizze], mode of existence. while he delves into the term in the second edi- Based on what has been hitherto said, as well tion of the first volume of Human Geography,in as on the conclusions of the previous chapter, 1899.17 In geopolitical terms it should also be where Ratzel’s non-organic perception of state clarified that the term Lebensraum is not inclu- was shown, it becomes clear that his book ded in any version of Political Geography.18 Lebensraum - eine biogeographische Studie is Moreover, it is in vain that one might look for not, as regards its conception and epistemologi- a clear definition of Lebensraum, even though cal stance, a political–geographical text, but a Ratzel found pleasure in phrasing definitions. biogeographical one. With this in mind and also Regardless of whether it was an intention or an concerned about Ratzel’s own possible respon- omission, the recorded definitions come inevi- sibility (despite the overall favourable conditions tably from scholars, who studied his work: described in Chap. 2, or even later, when Hitler himself used the term in Mein Kampf) for the • Thus, Troll defines Lebensraum as the geo- appropriation of the term Lebensraum in the graphical area in which living organisms German political rhetoric and analysis by means develop.19 of perhaps veering off from the purely biogeo- • Schrepfer’s more in-depth analysis defines graphical research field, certain conceptual the ratzelian perception of Lebensraum as the aspects of Lebensraum are here investigated. For geographical area occupied by life, in which instance, the driving forces of organisms, the organisms are created and perish, grow and determinants of living space and the importance multiply, and to which properties and phe- of space for the development of species. nomena, enabling the distinction between living essence and inanimate material, namely metabolism, the ability to move and to 3.2 The Driving Forces react to external influences, are limited.20 of the Organisms • Finally, Smith (1980: 53) describes Leben- sraum as the geographical area necessary to Life is movement,22 Ratzel concludes, in fact, it is a setofinternalmovements,causedbyexternal stimuli.23… Life then is first of all a given fact

15 inside the organism. But internal life will always Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- 24 drich Ratzels und …, p. 43. create external movement. In that sense, the 16Bέqco1, K. (2004): Cexpokisijή sxm jqasώm jai geographer believes that for every organic move- pacjorliopoίηrη, p. 65, Footnote 9. ment two different driving forces (inter)act; the 17Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- drich Ratzels und…, p. 43, Footnote 216. 21Mercier, G.: The Geography of Friedrich Ratzel and 18Also confirmed by Müller, G. H. (1996): Friedrich Paul Vidal de la Blache: A comparative Analysis, http:// Ratzel (1844–1904): Naturwissenschaftler, Geograph,…, www.siue.edu/GEOGRAPHY/ONLINE/mercier.htm. p. 101. 22Ratzel, F.12 (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- 19Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- geographische Studie, p. 114. drich Ratzels…, p. 43. 23Ibid., p. 114. 20Ibid., pp. 43–44. 24Ibid., p. 114. 60 3 Lebensraum: Bio-geographical Signifier … internal force, belonging to the living organism life on earth and touch the realm of the meta- itself, as well as the mechanical, external influ- physical: Cases indicating that certain hidden ences, coming mainly from the land.25 factors govern the outbreak or halt of movement But what is this internal movement? What is should be extensively examined, because they the origin and what (if any) its purpose? In now emerge occasionally. Yet, if such cases Lebensraum Ratzel often points to the internal proliferated, we could get in touch with the driving forces of organisms by means of: deeper causes that facilitate or prevent movement and thus perhaps someday we will not be afraid • a migration instinct, which explains the spa- to connect them with procedures followed out- tial self-restraint or the rapid expansion of side the ultimate borders of our planet.31 many species. This instinct dictates the The above clear reference to a transcendent maintenance of specific borders or (some- power, combined with the wording that the view times) leads to the occupation of large that the movement of the animal forms are only areas.26 mechanics is wrong,32 refer once again to Lot- • cases pointing to hidden causes responsible ze’s33 teleological idealism, as well as to the for the outbreak or halt of movement; cases theory of relative teleology, which refers to which should be extensively examined, since intentional conditions, deliberate or favourable they appear only occasionally.27 conditions which facilitate the occurrence of • nature, which always provides for certain events,34 while the reference to internal movement.28 forces is likely (as is the definition of life in relation to movement) to have roots in Aris- If we combine the above with his observations totelian entelechy. on: In Ratzel’s days, the existence of internal forces was also supported by vitalist Hans Dri- • the mysterious propensity of many animals to esch,35 who was trying to transfer his thoughts avoid water obstacles29 from the morphogenetic field into Biology in • the existence of an impact of space… whose general36: Adopting again Aristotelian ideas and nature is unknown to us, since, apart from phrases, he accepts the existence of a special space, certain vital but not fully comprehen- biological “natural factor”, which he calls sible processes are at play.30 “entelechy”.37 The reliance on the instinctive tendency of It becomes obvious that Ratzel is unable to organisms to move and on the transcendental explain in scientific terms this continuous movement of organisms. A truth he admitted 31Ibid., p. 137. himself by remarking that there are few cases that 32Ibid., p. 134. would allow a study of the phenomenon. At the 33See Sect. 2.4.1. same time he did not hesitate to connect this 34Cjίja1, R.: Uikorouijό Kenijό,7ηέjdorη,Ahήma attribute of organisms to processes that exceed 1998. 35Hans Driesch, (1876–1941) Biologist and philosopher, 25 vitalist, accepts the existence of a secret animal power Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- within organisms, which is not related to material factors. drich Ratzels und…, p. 26. Follower of the biological teleology. As to philosophy he 26 12 – Ratzel, F. (1901): Der Lebensraum eine bio- adherents inductive or scientific metaphysics. He studied – geographische Studie, pp. 136 137. in Freiburg, Munich and Jena Zoology, completed a 27 Ibid., p. 137. doctoral thesis next to Haeckel, the relations to whom 28Ratzel, F.12 (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- broke in 1891. Source: Cjίja1, Rxjqάsη1, Uikorouijό geographische Studie, p. 128. Kenijό,7η έjdorη,Ahήma 1998. 29Ibid., p. 150. 36www.philosophenlexikon.de/driesch.htm#vitalismus. 30Ratzel, F.12 (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- 37Oesterreich, T.K. (1921): Die Philosophischen Strö- geographische Studie, p. 151. mungen der Gegenwart, p. 383. 3.2 The Driving Forces of the Organisms 61 factor is essentially the answer to the problem according to their specific needs or other that Ratzel had described five years earlier, as parameters, is expected and consistent with regards the need to isolate a single driving Ratzel’s scientific, positivist way of thinking. force.38 Likewise, it constitutes a key constituent Approaching the matter, Ratzel defines of Ratzel’s theories, so that, combined with the dwelling, food and propagation as the three basic axiom that every movement is a confrontation life needs: We shouldn’t be surprised to realise with space,39 the foundations of the theory of that the three basic life necessities, i.e. dwelling, Lebensraum are set: namely, every organism food and propagation are inextricably tied to the moves instinctively to secure the space required issue of space. It is unnecessary to refer to the for its survival. This is how the necessity for philosophical definition of being as “something struggle for space (Kampf um Raum) is justified, that occupies a space corresponding to it only”, since space on Earth is finite, and thus not in order to prove the omnipotence of life enough for everyone. requirements in relation to space. If every living At this point it should be mentioned that being is entitled to a space to dwell in, it needs in Ratzel refers to organisms and this instinctive the same way another space to seek food in. The movement should not be arbitrarily transferred to process of propagation is the means to fulfil the the field of Political Geography, where the land entire spectrum of its claims with regard to has no independent value, but is determined in space. Propagation, either follows the pace of relation to the factor of culture. This perception is growth or through division, blossoming and already apparent in the title of Political Geog- branching, supports the occupation of the area raphy’s 20th paragraph: The contradictions as to existing around the procreator.42 the different evaluation of land are the driving Making a special reference to man, Ratzel forces of the lives of peoples.40 It is in this raises the need to secure food as the most paragraph that Ratzel explains the easy penetra- important prerequisite for a people’s develop- tion of Europeans into the land of ment, believing that for the decline of many nature-orientated peoples by means of the dif- peoples… the evidence clearly proves that the ferent evaluation of land: This is the reason why limitation of Living Space is at fault, since it is Europeans, who invaded the land of nature-ori- insufficient for the maintenance of hunting, fish- entated peoples with their own perceptions about ing and grazing, thus triggering the emergence the value of land, could easily satisfy their hun- of social decay, economic decline and, subse- ger for land, since they found themselves con- quently, poverty and hunger.43 versing with people, who considered luxury any Indeed, Ratzel avoids to link explicitly the acquisition of land beyond what was strictly biological development of man with his dwelling necessary.41 conditions, a process that he considers more likely to appear in plants: The low level of physical development of some peoples living at 3.3 A Definition of Lebensraum: Its the borders, such as the South Africans, Aus- Material Characteristics tralians, the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego and peoples of Northern Asia, may be related to the Since space is completely measurable, the fact that they inhabit regions of the Earth with attempt to determine the living space of all living harsh climatic conditions, poor in food and iso- species (individual organisms or groups) lated from trading roots. Birchow argued that he distinguished the effects of the body deprivation 38See Sect. 2.4.1. by comparing the Lapps with tribes of African 39Ratzel, F.12 (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- geographische Studie, p. 137, pp. 114–115. 42Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- 40Ratzel, F.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. VII. geographische Studie, pp. 146–147. 41Ratzel, F.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 26. 43Ibid., p. 160. 62 3 Lebensraum: Bio-geographical Signifier … pygmies. Plants and animals have similar he could not extract consistent examples through symptoms, but sharper.44 the empirical method. As to the chapter’s dominant problematic, the How could he, after all, since one of the three above passages lead to the following components exhibits such cultural diversity, that observations: it cannot in fact be treated as a unified whole. This is a parameter Ratzel himself records in this • references to man are made at a collective essay, observing differences with regard to the level (people) space, which each cultural group reserves to • the possible side effects of the reduction of itself: A small Indian tribe in the rainforests of the living space are found at the level of South America has spatial requirements and social (social decay, poverty, etc.) rather than performances different from that of a European, biological processes.45 who views the bliss of his people through the prism of the entire planet.49 This is a clear Along with the fact that: deterioration of the biological factor in deter- mining the human Living Space, since the needs • at the unit level, he treats all organisms with a of each people are directly connected to its cul- single general reference (without however tural characteristics. using any (!) example from the human space)46 identifying different spatial require- ments among different living species (e.g. 3.4 The Importance of Space amoeba, coral, jellyfish, snail, bird or lion) for Development of the Species and converging requirements among living beings of the same species: the living being In Der Lebensraum Ratzel defines conceptually claims a different living space, while all living and quantitatively the struggle for space (Kampf beings of the same species have the same um Raum), stipulating that it consists not only of requirements.47 the struggle for dwelling space (Wohnraum), • at the group level, he points out identical where a plant roots and where a bird nests, but requirements for Living Space among living much more for the space of food supply beings of the same species, without, however, (Ernährungsraum), which is much bigger than once again in this case (!) drawing examples the dwelling space.50 from the human space: Even larger groups He also introduces the concept of dwelling such as trees, birds and mammals coincide in intensity51 (Intensität des Wohnens), a size their requirements for space.48 analogous to the food collection space: the higher the dwelling intensity, the greater the It thus becomes obvious that Ratzel failed to distance between the dwelling space and the food suggest uniform, common criteria to define the collection space or, at least, the more urgent the Living Space of humans, animals and plants, as need to ensure the provision of food.52 These references certainly evoke associations with the colonial question, although Ratzel limits himself 44Ibid., p. 160. in this work to a minor, albeit concise reference: 45Ibid., p. 160. Who does not contemplate the people residing in 46This is a clear influence from the Herder, who did not consider the individual, but the group as the smallest unit of humanity (PICHLER, 1998). Ditto in Political Geog- 49 raphy, Ratzel considers family as the fundamental Ibid., p. 147. analysis unit. 50Ibid., p. 158. 47Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- 51Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- geographische Studie, p. 147. geographische Studie, p. 130. 48Ibid., p. 147. 52Ibid., p. 139. 3.4 The Importance of Space for Development of the Species 63 densely populated and large cities, who exploit that Ratzel insists on other factors which are also extensive colonies?53 involved, without however naming them (in this Furthermore, Ratzel criticizes Darwin’s the- book): ory,54 believing that the English researcher did not take into account the spatial component: His • (Just like man) any plant or animal species findings leave no doubt about the fact that the has its ecumene.59 This is the space that it human struggle for existence will be mostly55 a occupies, on whose size and structure60 de- struggle for space. Yet, strangely enough, this pends a part61 of its capacity to survive. Even aspect of the problem was never given proper if we cannot distinguish this space clearly, we attention.56 Through the introduction of geo- are convinced that it belongs to a plant, graphical parameters he even attempts to redefine animal or man.62 the content of the Darwinian struggle for life • Because space is the primary precondition of from the perspective of his own Struggle for life and it is on space that the sizes of the Space… The frequently inaccurately used and remaining conditions, especially that of food, even more frequently misunderstood term depend.63 Struggle for Existence will largely be a Struggle • One could argue that an old species disap- for Life.57 pears, because its space is taken over. This It is exactly at this point that an important conclusion is drawn after studying certain turning point in Ratzel’s thinking is observed, as incidents of the history of the primitive peo- 10 years earlier (1891) he had remarked in his ples’ disappearance after the invasion of Anthropogeography a rather limited relationship civilized peoples. But this conclusion is pre- between Struggle for Existence (Kampf ums mature, since it is still wildly debatable to Dasein) and the Struggle for Space (Kampf um what extend the loss of land of the old species Raum): from the various forms of movement was caused due to internal reasons of general result… strange events of geographical expan- decline of their strength for survival and to sion because of the Struggle for Space, whose what extend it was due to a victorious inva- nature is misunderstood when identified with the sion of new species. In other words, is it Struggle for Existence.58 possible to justify the extinction of millions of The above clearly shows that Space is raised species, which had successively inhabited as first-rank (and not exclusive or unique) crite- Earth, by means of the loss of space? For the rion for the survival and development of organ- process itself, at least, it plays a major64 role. isms. However, a careful reading of both the This is what the certifiable facts prove. No preceding and the subsequent passages reveals species and no race which possessed plenty of space disappeared suddenly in the history of time, but its displacement in forever more 53Ibid., p. 140. 54G. H. Müller (Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904): Natur- 59 wissenschaftler, Geograph,… p. 92, footnote 53) remarks Ratzel identifies the terms living space and ecumene. that Darwin had expressed very early such an approach, 60Ratzel introduces here two benchmarks for the evalu- which Ratzel could know or assume, when writing in ation of the operationability and functionality of space, a 1845 the botanist Hooker: geographical distribution will quantitive (size) and a qualitative (structure). Speaking be the key which will unlock the mystery of species. about the structure of space, he may be referring to both 55Underlining by the author. natural features and political organization See: Ratzel, F. xsijό1 ώq 1 iracxcή άfη ejd 56Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- (1901): OZ X o ,E I. M , . Pq rjήmi hήma geographische Studie, p. 154. o o,A , 2001, p. 36. 61 57Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- Underlining by the author. 62 12a geographische Studie, p. 154. At this point, Ratzel Ratzel, F. (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- partially answers the 1896 question. See Sect. 2.4. geographische Studie, p. 147. 63 58Müller, G. H. (1996): Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904): Ibid., p. 153. Naturwissenschaftler, Geograph,… p. 93. 64Author’s note: primary but not decisive. 64 3 Lebensraum: Bio-geographical Signifier …

confined spaces was in any case the external cohabitation, joint work and the need for pro- expression of this retreat. Usually that space tection against external factors,69 which facili- provided worse living conditions.65 tate the development of a sense of national • Space is required mainly by the slow process conscience (Nationalsinn). of creating a distinctly different race. Time As regards the movement of species, Ratzel abundance should correspond to space accepts Jacobi’s proposal to replace the terms abundance.66 travelling route or line of movement by the term area of expansion and its interpretation: the Therefore, the importance of space in a result of a living being’s movement aiming to holistic, biogeographical ratzelian system is increase the surface it occupies and not design clearly illustrated, however the spatial dimension routes for shorter movements.70 This acceptance should not be in any case raised into a unique stems from the observation that it is not the factor of survival and life spreading. Naturally, movement that is important, but settling down in being a geographer, Ratzel focused his research another place or expanding to another. Nature primarily on this field, but it is clear that he provides for the movement. The difficulty lies in recognized other factors, apart from that of space. preserving the land which was occupied by Thus, any suspicion of geo-determinism is active or passive movement.71 Ratzel defines thus rejected also from a biogeographical point of Living Space at least two-dimensionally and view. insists that it is unsound to draw simple travelling The pronouncement of space in Biogeography routes based on the movement of individual as the primary, even though not absolute, factor plants or animals by means of intersecting bun- for the development and maintenance of life, is dles of lines with points of origin and points of reminiscent of the corresponding conclusion arrival. By contrast, peoples, ethnic groups and about the relationship between state and land, species spread only by means of colonization72 where land is the most important but not the only (occupying surface and settling on it). power factor.67 Of course, in the case of the state, As for the development of a species or race, Ratzel’s research has progressed with regard to Ratzel distinguishes three spatial development other factors (political, cultural, economic), stages, whose characteristics are the great time which contribute to a state’s power and mainte- lapse inbetween and the need to secure a wide nance, while in Biogeography he does not area: First one colony is created in a specific attempt any systematic analysis of factors other area, which is located in space occupied or than the land, whose discovery is obviously the surrounded by tribal families of common origin. task of Biology. If the new form proves viable, then it spreads and The aforementioned distinction is also the new obtained area is uniform and larger than expressed with regard to the link of biological the first. The new area is surrounded by borders and political subjects with the land, since the or extremities and hosts transitional forms and connection of the first to space serves life’s basic branches. Over time the boundaries disappear, needs (i.e. housing, food and propagation),68 because transitional forms are either absorbed while politically organized groups have a differ- or take the form of autonomous tribes or species, ent bond with the land, namely an intellectual and thus the area of the new species comes into bond, based on the acquired habit of contact with the area, where the most diverse forms live. The latter may exceed the limits of the

65Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- geographische Studie, pp. 161–162. 69Ratzel, F.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 12. 66Ibid., pp. 171–172. 70Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- 67See Sect. 1.3.2 geographische Studie, p. 128–129. 71 68Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- Ibid., p. 128. geographische Studie, p. 145. 72He avoids again including human as an individual. 3.4 The Importance of Space for Development of the Species 65

first region, destroying its cohesion. What thoughts, recorded in this essay or elsewhere, remains at the end are just a few enclaves, some come from the years 1872 and 1873, during islets of that unique, great and uniform area. If which I was already allowed together with You we look at this process as a whole, we see that a to cogitate the application of Your theory on the development area that is restricted in its early aspects of the life of peoples.74 phases is followed in turn by a single wide area This reference reveals characteristically Rat- with associative transitional forms and at the end zel’s initial intention to apply a biological theory again by restricted areas of retreat. But let us not in order to interpret peoples’ movements. How- forget that we are dealing with procedures that ever, in 1899, in the fully revised 2nd edition of take millennia to complete. the same book he changes tune as regards the The development of new forms of life depends application of Migrationstheorie in the research in many cases on a sequence of spatial shrinkage on the aspects of the life of peoples. In the pro- or expansion. New varieties and species often logue he states that Wagner’s theory cannot find seek narrow space for their isolation and dif- application in Human Geography, but only in ferentiation. Yet once they acquire their new Biogeography: the fact that I haven’t referred in characteristics, they will require wide space, to detail to Moritz Wagner’s Migrationstheorie is enhance their resilience against miscegenation not a sign that I respect it less than before. The and the impact of climate.73 reader shall encounter its basic principles par- The above reveals the clear influence of ticularly in the introductory chapter as well as in Moritz Wagner’s theory of colonization chapter 9. Nevertheless, I thought I should not (Migrationstheorie: the theory of the creation of connect it—as a theory of the creation of species new species through migrations and geographical —any closer with the Human Geography. It is isolation of organisms), which had deeply more of the foundation of a future general affected Ratzel. This profound influence—it is no Biogeography.75 coincidence that the prologue to the first edition Indeed progressively Ratzel distanced himself of Anthropogeographie (1882) is dedicated to from Wagner’s theory, questioning in the Wagner—triggered the attempt to transfer bio- manuscript of Die Erde und das Leben (The geographical theories to the political- Earth and Life)—at least partly—Wagner’s the- geographical field; an attempt, however, aban- ory of division… which is certainly of great doned (!) only a few years later, as Ratzel stated importance, although it does not fully determine and as will be presented in the following the creation of species. However, due to the paragraph. enormous respect for his great teacher, Ratzel deleted with red ink this comment, which was not included in the published text.76 3.5 Bio-geography as the Field From the above it becomes clear that Ratzel for the Implementation denounced most formally any application of Migrationstheorie (Theory Wagner’s biological theories in Human Geogra- of Migration) phy. Of course, from the first to the second edi- tion sufficient time elapsed (1882–1899), for the It is true that in the prologue to the first edition of scientific community and the public to solidify Anthropogeography (1882), which was dedi- Ratzel’s initial pronouncement, whose refutation cated to Wagner, Ratzel refers warmly to him, he obviously failed to communicate strongly acknowledging that the roots of this book go enough in his remaining life. That back to that time when Your colonization theory excited me extremely, and isolated studies and 74Ratzel, F.11 (1909): Anthropogeographie, pp. V–VI. 75Ibid., p. X. 73Ratzel, F.12a (1901): Der Lebensraum – eine bio- 76Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- geographische Studie, pp. 173–174. drich Ratzels…, p. 95. 66 3 Lebensraum: Bio-geographical Signifier … misinterpretation reasserts how complex it is to Balkan Peninsula and the Aegean Sea,79 for research on Ratzel, being indicative of the vac- which Austria-Hungary’s location and the illation of his opinion, expressed in the preface or conspicuous liquidity over the land of the prologue of two successive editions of the same collapsing Ottoman Empire were book (Anthropogeography). favourable.80 After all, Ratzel’s last passage appearing in the previous paragraph on the spatial stages of the development of a species or race, demon- strates that Ratzel could not have been thinking 3.6 Conclusions of a direct transfer of Migrationstheorie to anthropogenic, politically organized groups, Regarding the subject under discussion, namely since: the possible conveyance of biogeographic theo- ries to Political Geography, the study and the • In the expansion process of tribes and species here presented excerpts of Der Lebensraum, he introduces a time factor for the completion allow the following observations: of changes (millennia), whose magnitude almost excludes the direct application of the • The invocation of examples is highly unilat- interpretative model on the level of states. eral, since readers are presented with hun- Political or even long-term historical pro- dreds of examples from the worlds of fauna cesses clearly take place at a more rapid pace. and flora, while examples from the • The above described process occurs with human-space81 are far less in number. reference to the borders, which are considered • In the case of mankind, Ratzel’s perspective by Ratzel as places of fermentation (organ) does not focus on biological factors of adap- around which the spreading and isolation tation to the environment, but on the different processes of species take place. In other ways nature-oriented and culture-oriented words, according to Moritz Wagner, expan- peoples perceive the significance of the land. sion is the conquering of an area adjoining the As a consequence, defining a Vital Space for existing borders. Insisting on a direct transfer humans through uniform criteria is rendered of this process to the level of states would impossible. lead Ratzel to propose the occupation of ter- • Apart from the territorial factor, a primary but ritories around Germany (as the Nazis did a not sole factor, he does not identify any other few decades later). By contrast, Ratzel con- factor for the preservation of species. sidered the change of Europe’s borders • Not even once does he refer to modern states. improbable, because there adjacencies, just Even when he tries to justify the distinction like borders, are almost everywhere in a state made with the previous point, he is very of rigidity, which makes changes more diffi- careful in his formulations, referring to cult.77 Considering Germany’s position in humans, not states: …the new areas of resi- Europe, he praised German politics in Africa, dence cluster over the old ones and in because Germany can seek great missions between them. This fact becomes manifest in only far away. Its position in Europe dictates the case of the colonization history of Amer- the need for global politics (Weltpolitik)….78 ica, where the Spanish settled early on in the For Austria-Hungary Ratzel reserved another towns of the Indians, on lands which the role, namely a dominant position in the 79Ibid., p. 233. 80A very current analysis, considering the developments of recent years in the Balkans. 81On pages 100, 130, 112, 113, 119, 121, 125, 127, 128, 77 1 Ratzel, F. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 232. 130, 131–132, 136–141, 145, 147, 149, 154 of the 78Ibid., p. 232. translated text (total page span, pp. 81 to 154). 3.6 Conclusions 67

Indians had occupied before them. From who depend solely on biological and geograph- these towns they ruled, converted and ical factors; namely, he refers to Primary Causal exploited the natives, who were allowed to Infrastructural Spaces, Natural Space and own the land undisturbed. On the contrary, in Human-space, as presented in I. Mazis’s classi- North America the German tribes and the fication system of geographical spaces. French colonists took over the land of natives Steinmetzler’s view follows the same ratio- early on and lived of it through hunting and nale, according to which later on in the course of agriculture. The consequence was a battle to Geopolitics the conclusion was wrongfully extinction, where the winner’s prize was the introduced that Vital Space and Political Space land. The Indians were the ones who lost, must necessarily coincide and when the political since they had only weak dominance over the space of a people is smaller, the borders have to land.82 be moved outwards, so as to meet this target.86 The fact, however, that Ratzel mentions, even If we add to the above observations: secondarily, the function of elementarily socially organized groups, who consciously define their • Müller and Steinmetzler’s view83 that Ratzel Vital Space according to their cultural particu- did not manage to reach unified conclusions larities, indicates, even vaguely, a political- on the geographic expansion of humans, geographical signified, whose extreme projec- plants and animals, which was based on the tion is completely justified by historical fact that in the third part of Das Leben und die coincidence. Erde (Life and Earth) Ratzel treats Biogeog- The not so obvious, yet unchallengeable and raphy and Anthropogeography in two sepa- easy to understand, distinction of the research rate chapters.84 fields of Political Geography and Biogeogra- • The conclusion of Chap. 2, that Ratzel does phy,87 along with the terminology used and not accept the organisistic nature of state. borrowed from the fields of Natural Sciences and • Above all, Ratzel’s acceptance that the Anatomy -in a period strongly orientated towards Migrationstheorie does not apply to Anthro- the Natural Sciences and in a country where the pogeography (and, thus, neither to Political common practice was popularization and, there- Geography, as we would add),

then there is strong evidence to conclude that the theory on Lebensraum finds reference and application on the level of instinctive biological 86Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- processes that control biological evolution and drich Ratzels…, p. 44. Typical example of the above view the sustainability of plants, animals, perhaps is Ratzel’s formulation about German speaking popula- even primitive human groups (Naturvölker),85 tions living outside Germany, for who he believes Germans ought to be happy, because autonomously activated and productive parts of our national body have been preserved in Switzerland, in Austria and in the Russian provinces of the Eastern Sea. Those politically separated, but spiritually linked members live under totally different conditions; they think and feel in a 82 12a – Ratzel, F. (1901): Der Lebensraum eine bio- balance different than ours. Whereas how much their geographische Studie, p. 158. political incorporation would reinforce us is questioned, 83 The view was first stated by Steinmetzler and later it it is certain that they would not enrich, but only render was accepted by Müller. our German spiritual life more uniform. Ratzel9 (1878): 84Müller, G. H. (1996): Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 198. Naturwissenschaftler…, p. 112; Steinmetzler, J. (1956): 87As an example on the first chapter of Political Die Anthropogeographie Friedrich Ratzels…, p. 20. Geography he talks about the biogeographic notion of 85For the distinction between Naturvölker jai Kul- state, without having prepared the reader about the turvölker see Sect. 4.2. content of Biogeography. 68 3 Lebensraum: Bio-geographical Signifier … fore, misinterpretation or political exploitation of Whether Ratzel, a thinker of immense caliber, scientific theories—along with the dominant failed to apprehend the risk of confusion and expectation of colonial expansion as a prerequi- political exploitation of his political-geographic site for survival, render Ratzel partly but indis- and biogeographic theories, or whether he failed putably responsible for this misinterpretation, to disambiguate his scientific work ad hoc for which had a negative impact on his reputation. political reasons, is yet to be proved. Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors in Fr. Ratzel’s 4 State Analysis and the Issue of Racism

The perception of the state as a phenomenon of • In 1882 he publishes in the journal Das new social life,1 and of Political Geography as a Ausland the article titled The position of tool for the analysis of power,2 along with the nature-orientated peoples in humanity [Die distinction between nature-orientated [Nat- Stellung der Naturvölker in der Menschheit], urvölker] and culture-orientated [Kulturvölker] where he evidently and unequivocally eluci- people inevitably lead to the task of identifying dates the meaning of the often used term the social and cultural phenomena as factors that Naturvolk [nature-orientated people]. determine a people’s power. In other words, the • His value-system, by which he evaluates factors that Ratzel considered decisive for the culturally mature people [Kulturvölker] had progress and survival of a people, when his already been submitted by Ratzel in 1878 to analysis was not focused on nature-orientated the journal Nord und Süd, under the title [Naturvölker], but on the culturally advanced Evaluation of the peoples [Die Beurteilung peoples [Kulturvölker]. der Völker]. The above task will be attempted on the basis • In 1904 he describes in great detail in his of four lesser-known texts of Ratzel3 and its aim essay Ethnicities and Tribes [Nationalitäten is to clarify concepts and terms, that Ratzel uses und Rassen] very detailed the relationship in his major works, but the majority of his between the national and racial issue, but also readers often ignores or simply interprets arbi- his viewpoint on the racist theories of Gobi- trarily. Interesting conclusions will be drawn in neau and Chamberlain. parallel on the issue of racism Ratzel was occa- • in 1900, during the years of maturity, he dis- sionally accused of. cusses in his essay Some objectives of the The essays are not presented in a chronolog- Political Ethnography [Einige Aufgaben der ical but rather in a logical order attempting to politischen Ethnographie] the establishment rebuild Ratzel’s constructive framework. of this particular science, as a tool for acqui- sition and enforcement of power policy.4

1See Sect. 2.3. 2See Sect. 1.3. 3The texts are presented with a chronological overturning 4Recall that applied Ethnography is the third part of the from general to more specific. definition of the Political Geography. See about Sect. 1.3.1.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 69 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_4 70 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors …

4.1 The Position content to delight the public with their travel- of the Nature-Oriented People ogues: the more uncivilized, the more exciting!8 (Naturvölker) Within Humanity Commenting on surveys (Cool, Forster, Levaillant, Lichtenstein) aspiring to a deeper Ratzel considers the timing favorable for a dis- understanding of the lives of peoples, he suggests cussion on major ethnographic issues, since he that these surveys were mainly of romantic identifies between the two contradictory and interest for his contemporaries, offering almost radical interpretations of the human evolution no trigger for philosophical observations. (writers note: he is referring to the theories of Therefore, according to Ratzel, the only deeper progress and regression) an intermediate, but stimulus stemming from the increase, benevo- extremely attractive truth. lence and popularity of travelogues at the end of Since Ethnography is, like all sciences, the 19th century, is the weakening of Rousseau’s creation of the peoples that are self-pronounced popular perception that the natural condition culture-orientated (Kulturvölker),5 the most (which someone can return to by living in trop- important issue has always been their position in ical forests and cheerful islands) leads to happi- relation to those parts of humanity that constitute ness: This condition was pursued to no avail. the primary object of Ethnography, the What a disappointment for the sensitive hearts, nature-orientated peoples (Naturvölker). How- admits Ratzel with a dash of irony, noting that ever, he criticises Ethnography, considering that the result was the exact opposite, as people’s it was exhausted at the level of description,6 and frustration always leads to a negative attitude dealt with those peoples rather laxly, sensing towards the ideals they had close at heart until that it satisfied the desire to learn about cases, recently. So, the savages were no longer con- narratives and descriptions, without feeling the sidered as “better people”, because they were need to investigate the regularities in the life of not as expected, says Ratzel, criticizing the shift the “savages”7 and their relationship with the of the public opinion against the rest of humanity. Therefore, Ratzel speaks nature-orientated peoples, adding that this atti- against the ethnographers of his time, who were tude was enhanced by certain bad experiences, compared to their natural kindness (the way the 5Equally important for understanding of Ratzel’s episte- negroes revolted in Haiti or the thefts by Native mological approach is the distinction between Ethnogra- Americans in western North America). Above phy and Human Geography: Even if the Geography all, he believes that it was the degradation of explores the same phenomena with other sciences, its nature-orientated people that contributed to the methodology differers each time due to its natural pursuit fi fi to expansion, which I would like to name as holistic, ie. need for a seemingly scienti c justi cation of the the vie including the whole earth. Ethnography may be institution of slavery, which has been forever trying to distinguish people according to their language, more challenged since the beginning of this manners and customs, an effort to which faithful of century, by accepting the differences between the Geography stands by recording each country separately in the ethnographic map, but the anthropogeographical capacities of each race, which should inevitably perception was always aiming towards the understanding define the one as dominant and the other as of peoples as a whole, as interconnected bodies. [Human subservient. Clearly, without naming them, he Geography] is mainly oriented to the whole, Ethnography attacks the theorists of racism, pointing out that instead mainly on items that generate differences. Ratzel, F.11 (1909): Anthropogeographie, p. 59. this issue was happily resolved in practice with- 6It is the same criticisms with regard to the role of out asking science, which, in that case, had 9 Geography. The same effect has the criticism against become a pseudo-science. those historians, who are satisfied with the description of events. It has to be at this point remarked, that Lamprecht, Ratzel’s associate and member of the Positivistic Circle of 8Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der Leipzig, shared the same opinion. Menschheit,p.3. 7The quotation marks in the original show a clear 9Ratzel is clearly critical to Gobineau and Chamberlain, distancing from the dominant jargon of his time. who he rejected, beyond their substantive differences, 4.1 The Position of the Nature-Oriented People … 71

Apart from the criticism against racial focusing his criticism on Darwinists: If a pseudo-scientific views of his time, Ratzel researcher imbued with the idea of evolution blames Darwinism too for the degradation of finds a people, which lags behind its neighbours nature-orientated peoples. This theory also nee- in some or many fields, he instinctively changes ded the lowly races… due to the almost desper- “behind” to “below”,11 i.e. to a lower step of the ate need to bolster this daring view in the real scale, which humanity has climbed from the world. Although he claims to disagree with the primitive state to the highest level of culture. Darwinian views, he recognizes, however, that, At this point, it is essential to understand the like all theories, this perception of the people meaning of the terms behind and below, which triggered a certain mobility that revealed fertile are pivotal in order to approach the ratzelian truths. He acknowledges that the investigation of perception, as Ratzel refers to a classification, the origins is always the most difficult task, but whose axis is, as will later be demonstrated, accuses Darwinists that in Ethnography they mainly temporal and not qualitative. Even Dar- turned with a remarkable “uniqueness of inten- win took into account the time parameter, tion” to this profound problem, which had pre- understanding the concepts of high and low as a viously been neglected, supposedly due to limited kind of natural scale, and stressing that high prospects for investigation. Ratzel is deeply forms are younger and have outperformed the thankful for the contribution of Darwinist scien- older low forms, because they secured some tists, be it negative or positive, explaining that competitive advantages in the fight for life. At this recognition does not pertain to the Darwinian that same period the terms higher and lower were viewpoints, but is strictly limited to the contri- already used in Paleontology. In Stratigrafy the bution of Darwinists to data collection: no matter term later than means higher in terms of rock what their initial thoughts for approaching the layers.12 lives of people was, it must be recognized that Ratzel collates this Darwinian view with the they put at the disposal of science a rich material opposite extreme (the theory of regression), an of events, which they named, apparently some- also unilaterally spread view that humans what hastily, the primitive state of humanity arrived in the world as a civilized being, but all [Urzustand der Menschheit], dating their thor- uncivilized peoples have since then experienced ough investigation based on their own activity.10 a degeneration process, that pulled them back to Giving further thanks for any preliminary the situation, which is today incorrectly charac- performance, Ratzel expresses once more his terized as nature-orientated people.13 disagreement with the final conclusions, which Ratzel believes that the evolutionary theory are deliberately voiced by the same people who was reasonably accepted among physicists and are looking everywhere for “primitive condi- the theory of regression14 was respectively tions” and “evolution.” Expressing a scientific extremely appealing to researchers of the religion mistrust towards surveys which know in advance and language of peoples. Nevertheless, he con- what they are looking for, he indicates the risk— siders that the latter was irrevocably ousted and judging from his experience—of a biased out- that the risk stemming from the theory per se is come. We have no intention of claiming that impartiality could fade. It is the freedom of 11Quotation marks in the original. thought that could fade. Namely, when someone 12Kradolfer, C. A. (2004): Evolution gleich Fortschritt?, feels satisfied with a certain interpretation, then pp. 19–20. he underestimates the others, Ratzel clarifies, 13Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der Menschheit,p.3. because he considered them as pseudoscientists. The same 14Among the supporters of the retrograde theory was also characterization pseudoscience uses for them in his essay Gobineau, who tried to explain a situation, which he Ethnicities and tribes. considered regressive, highlighting racial composition as 10Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der an essential factor. Timashef, N. (1976): Menschheit,p.3. Irsoqίajoimxmiokocijώm hexqiώm, p. 88. 72 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … much lower than the risk emanating from its In pursuit of the radically different conse- sworn enemies. He thus foresees future risks, if quences of the two extreme scenarios regarding we easily succumb to this ingrained and, to a the perception of nature-orientated peoples and certain extent, natural tendency to identify the the evaluation of their past and future, Ratzel notion of “incomplete” with something wonders if a third option could occur inbetween “younger”, which has not yet reached the high those two views: the one which holds for nature- rungs of the evolutionary scale; thus, in advance orientated peoples a position lower than ours, and without justified thought, we slam the door characterized by an inability to develop skills to the extraordinary and distant, to what could that matured after a very difficult and time-con- have been created by degradation or setback on suming course, which is at the heart of our this scale, being therefore probably something course; and the other, which sees nature-orien- aged. In other words, Ratzel critisises the opin- tated peoples more or less at our level, equally or ion, which he reformulates more comprehensibly similarly highly developed, having however suf- and unreservedly, as he characteristically says, fered a theft of their cultural accomplishments that humanity presents only upgrade, only pro- due to unfavorable conditions, thus arriving at gress, only evolution, but there is no setback, impoverishment and setback.18 degeneration and death. Isn’t there readily dis- Attempting to approach a happy medium, cernible in this view a certain unilateralism? It is where, in his opinion, lies the truth, Ratzel comes true that only extreme analysts delve so much to the next question about the inherent physical into this direction and that Darwin, like all great differences,19 which should lead to reliable con- theorists, formulates his thoughts very modestly, clusions about the type and the size of the general admitting that “without doubt many nations may differences observed in humanity. Stressing the have regressed in their culture and fallen into a fact that this is a purely anthropological, i.e. state of savagery. However, he carefully adds,I anatomical hypothesis pertaining to physiology have found no proof for this last point.”15 and a possible subject of a separate research, he At this point the respect for the great Darwin stops at general observations, hoping that this is easy to detect and at the same time a critique crucial topic will be discussed by a specialist. on subsequent Darwinists, who might have for- At the beginning, Ratzel asks whether a mulated extreme interpretations and appropriated thorough reconsideration and the use of the term his ideas.16 Certainly, Ratzel did not forgo the cultural tribe (Kulturrasse) would be preferable opportunity to openly criticize Darwin, who in and formulates what he thinks is an easily justi- his “Origin of Species” failed—more than once fiable prediction, that the body structure of cul- —to avoid the temptation to wrongly degrade ture-orientated peoples presents characteristics humanity per se and its allegedly inferior mem- principally induced by culture, while, on the bers to the level of the animal kingdom, to a other hand, the body of nature-orientated peo- greater extent than a more detached approach ples clearly presents certain characteristics would allow.17 caused by a lifestyle marked by the lack of almost all elements that we usually call culture.To support the above observation, he invokes ana- tomist Gustav Fritsch, who had the opportunity 15Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der Menschheit,p.4. to study nature-orientated peoples in their natural 16It is here to be remarked that according to Timashef environment and expressed the view that the (p. 102) Darwin tended rather to emphasize the difference harmonious development of the human body is between the process of biological and of social develop- possible only under the influence of civilization. ment. Ratzel himself was a victim of such a treatment, Fritsch’s narrations about the Kafras, the since it is clear that several later scientists are referring to him without having obviously read even the main works. 18 17Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der Ibid., p. 4. Menschheit,p.4. 19Marked in the original. 4.1 The Position of the Nature-Oriented People … 73

Khoi-Khoin, the San of Africa20 give, according means of education, which will inevitably lead to to Ratzel, the impression that well developed, further training- and here lies the anthropolog- well-built bodies are rarely found among them, ical interest in this process. If we could predict, more rarely than among us, the civilized people at least with relative certainty, what will become supposedly corroded by time. Fritsch also clearly after generations of the 12 million Negro slaves believes that a healthy, normally developed freed in America over the last 15 years and German, in terms of bodily proportions, strength bound to multiply to 100 million, enjoying their and robustness, practically prevails over the freedom and the most modern cultural achieve- average form of a man of the A-Bantu tribe. Of ments, then we could definitely answer the diffi- course Ratzel notes that this tribe is an offshoot cult question on the influence of culture on racial of the Kafra, one of the admittedly strongest and differences.22 most steeled African tribes. Since such compar- From the aforementioned it becomes evident isons are multiplying, he anticipates that opinions that Ratzel does not pay any attention to like that of an American ethnographer who anatomical features23 in the assessment of a claims that the Native American is the best model people. On the contrary, the key of his analysis is of Apollo of the Belvedere cannot be accepted the concept of culture and the accessibility to unquestioningly.21 cultural goods. This last quote indicates Ratzel’s With a simple and very brief reference (two research selflessness, the rationality behind his and a half lines long) to the skeletal differences thinking and his ambitious reflection. Of course, identified and attributed respectively to culture the answer to his question was given most and life outside the limits of culture, he formu- emphatically, about 120 years after this essay lates his mostly unique anthropogeographical, was written, by means of the election of a col- anthropological, ethnological, cultural, anti-racist ored Afroamerikan, President Obama, to the perspective. According to this perspective, the highest US office! most important experiment for the determination Unable to predict with experimental certainty of the value of racial differences—for whose the course of integration of the freed slaves in the implementation science proves too weak and too US, he is forced to settle with indications and small—is ongoing and his generation should not assumptions, of which the most important one is expect to see any of its findings: the admission of the difference in the shape and size of the brain in the so-called lower races in the civilized, higher the two sexes encountered in civilized peoples circles and the fall of barriers that were once a and attributed to the amount of intellectual condition for that admission, is not just the lar- labour. Since this difference is physically mani- gest, glorious achievement of our century, but at fested in the brain of the two sexes, Ratzel the same time an event of maximum scientific wonders whether a similar influence on the brain interest. For the first time, millions of Blacks, of the Negro could be possible, because of the considered of a lower race, will have access to change in their state of living, particularly since all benefits and obligations of higher culture and the nature of that change culminates by a forever nothing will prevent them from using all the more intense use of the skills rooted in the brain. He overlooks certain observations about the 20Bushmen: People who stay behind bushes, also called in change of other racial differences due to the fi scienti c literature San. They reside in Southern and changing external conditions, such as the pallor Southwestern Africa and are anthropologically classified along with the Hottentoten to the category of Khoisan of the Negroes in more temperate climates and [Khoisan: Hottentotten (Khoikhoin) jai Buschleute the like, and is content to note that all recent (San)], as they have anthropological and linguistic similarities jahώ1 eluamίfotm amhqxpokocijέ1 jai ckxrrijέ1 oloiόsηse1. Source: Brockhaus Enzylopädie 22Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der 2002, Meyers Lexikonverlag, Sat_Wolf, Bayern. Menschheit, pp. 4–5. 21Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882):Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der 23On the same topic see also the criticism that he carries Menschheit,p.4. against the theorists of racism, Sect. 4.3.7.1. 74 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … comparative racial studies seem to downplay— of all people, more or less, while its degree and and not increase—the importance of traditional, occurence depend mainly on the degree of cul- allegedly anthropological, racial differences, by ture. Only culture is able to draw a boundary avoiding to support the view which detects in the between us and nature-orientated people,he so-called lower races of humanity a transition explains, stressing emphatically that the term stage from animal to human existence. “nature-orientated people” [Naturvölker] does Ratzel does not deny a general physical sim- not contain anything anthropological, anatomi- ilarity between humans and animals, but he cal—physiological, but is a purely ethnographic, completely rejects the view that some human cultural term. Nature-orientated people are cul- groups resemble animals more than others, and turally impoverished peoples and can belong to stresses that external characteristics, which may any race, regardless of their natural supplies; be considered animal alike, are found during the peoples who have not yet progressed culturally research of the peoples of every race.24 Believ- or peoples who have culturally regressed. In this ing that the physical resemblance of humans and context he uses as an example the ancient Ger- apes inevitably led many younger scholars, who mans and Gauls, who, compared to the Romans, placed emphasis on only this point, to the older presented a cultural delay, analogous to the classification of Linné,25 according to which the Kaffirs or the Polynesians compared to their Homo species was classified together with the contemporaries. Likewise, at the time of Peter the ape, he remarks that, starting from this percep- Great, many Russians, belonging to the tion, a mere reduction of the spiritual element in culture-orientated Russian people, were classified human nature would suffice to promote towards as a clearly nature-orientated people.26 certain directions and in a distastefully preten- Practically, he believes that the cultural gap tious manner the animal nature of its material between the two groups is entirely dependent on base. Unfortunately we are all too familiar with the degree of the difference regarding their the idea that every man hides a beast inside; inclinations and capacities. Of course, Ratzel everyday expressions such as “wild” joy, “bru- believes that the level of a culture, namely all of tal” behaviour or brutalisation demonstrate how its cultural achievements, is defined by a multi- often our imagination is challenged by such tude of coincidences, which should urge scien- comparisons, points Ratzel out, interpreting the tists to be particularly cautious in any attempt to attitude of explorers, e.g. when they see hungry draw a conclusion on the physical, spiritual and Australian natives scare away the vultures to mental skills of a people. He thus considers it devour a carcass themselves, or when they possible, that highly gifted people are inade- compare a group of timorous towards both quately equipped in terms of culture and there- whites and blacks African bushmen with a group fore give the impression that they hold a of fleeing chimpanzees or orangutans. Yet, he generally lower position within humanity. In warns that the unlucky nature-orientated people, support of this view, he cites the example of who present no less resemblance to animals than Chinese and Mongols, who belong to the same us should not be victimized and explains that the race but present great cultural differences!27 sad condition of (existing or progressive) Standing firmly against the racist theories of resemblance to animals is unfortunately expected his time, Ratzel believes that the race isn’t essentially related to cultural achievements. Yet, 24Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der he considers naive any attempt to deny that in his Menschheit,p.5. era the highest culture comes mainly from the 25Carl von Linné (1707–1778): Swedish naturalist, Pro- so-called Caucasian or white race. On the other fessor of Botanology at Uppsala University, first great teacher of Systematic, with a view to rational classifica- 26 5 tion of the three kingdoms of nature. He introduced the Ratzel, Fr, (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der binomial nomenclature system, which is still used today. Menschheit,p.5. Source: Enzyklopädie Dolή. 27Ibid., pp. 5–6. 4.1 The Position of the Nature-Oriented People … 75 hand, he delightedly verifies the important fact in the creation of other conventions (language, that for thousands of years, the main tendency of religion, political and economic institutions), historical movement tends to force all races to which he then examines. respond to their tasks and obligations and treat In this context, Ratzel gives priority to lan- with earnestness the term “humanity”,28 whose guage and religion, which he considers, in a way, use is universally praised as an exquisite quality as the noblest expressions and associates them of the modern world, even if not many have more closely with logic, citing for that purpose believed in its implementation. Hamann: Without language we wouldn’t have But what is the nature of the difference, which any logic; without logic [we wouldn’t have] any creates a distance between nature-orientated and religion and without these three essential con- culture-orientated peoples? On this matter, Ratzel stituents of our nature there would be no social expresses his absolute opposition to the theorists or intellectual life or social cohesion at all.31 of evolution, who long supported that nobody It is a certainty that language has had an can doubt that nature-orientated people are “the unspecified and at the same time strong influence oldest existing layers of humanity today”. They on the creation of the human intellect, notes claim that they are remnants of uncivilized29 Ratzel, believing – like Herder - that we must periods, which other parts of humanity surpassed address the linguistic tools as the rudder of our in their struggle for existence by rising to higher logic and language as the divine spark, which levels of competence. progressively lit the fire in our minds and Ratzel attempts to approach the matter with thoughts. Furthermore, he believes that the extreme caution based on the initial rhetorical religion of culturally poor people contains all the question: What kind of goods constitute cultural seeds, which will later create the wonderful, possessions? Nobody would disagree that lan- blooming forest of the intellectual life of culture- guage, religion, political and economic institu- orientated peoples in the fields of art and sci- tions are four natural sectors, capable of hosting ence, theology and philosophy, so as to incor- all activities and goods that carry culture or are porate in this simpler form of life all the desired created by culture. However, logic (Vernunft) is ideals. With regard to the belief that the priests the foundation of all of them and, just like logic, of these peoples guard and maintain the divine they constitute a common intellectual property of secrets, Ratzel argues that their dissemination, in all humanity, without discriminations based on a the broad sense, is the most clear and profound high or low culture. characteristic of cultural progress. This perception is the greatest evidence of the At this point Ratzel attempts to analyse the fact that Ratzel does not approach humans from a function of language, which will always appear biological perspective, as a subject following an —regardless of individual perceptions of its ori- instinctive, genetic, cellular programming, as is gins, and especially with regard to the details of the case with animals. Invoking logic as a char- how (?) and where (?)—as a precondition of all acteristic of the entire humanity simply means cultural treasures of humanity, as the means for that he recognizes in all people the ability to acquiring and multiplying them. Evolving slowly establish conventions, namely laws that have not and encountering the intellect, which originates been imposed by biology, but are the product of from nature, but grows with and through the their own will.30 This mental capacity is pivotal language, language may be considered as the first and most important tool with which man has been equipped. The German geographer remarks 28 Ratzel believes in the unity of humanity and considers that, like all tools, language is subject to con- that Verkehr contributes towards it. See about Sect. 4.4.3. tinuous change, since during the course of the 29Ratzel openly opposes the idea that some peoples are ahistorical. 30Savater, F. (1992): Mikώmsa1 rsomcio lot cia sηm 31Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der pokisijή jai sη dηlojqasίa, pp. 29–30. Menschheit,p.6. 76 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … centuries a word may take on very different were generally considered as the most undersized meanings; it may completely disappear or be peoples, while the first ranked also culturally at replaced by other words of the same or another the lower levels. It is estimated that these two language. A language can, like all tools, recede tribes used a similar language, related with North and be reused, since whole peoples may sideline African or Hamitic languages, while Lepsius their native language in order to use another, just placed it among the Cushitic subdivision of the like changing clothes. Therefore, Ratzel con- Hamitic language tree, whose top branches are cludes that some cultural achievements last Egyptian and Coptic. Once these estimates are longer than language, e.g. cattle-breeding, which, verified, it will be proved that one of the biggest once acquired, runs less risk of extinction than a and most efficient peoples and the most physi- European native language. Therefore, Ratzel cally and culturally limited African people had feels forced to stop at this point, which is self- the same language; and even though the most evident to those who know about the life of typical nature-orientated people, the San, speaks peoples, because, whether inadvertently or arefined, rich language, whose development deliberately, linguistic classifications are still required enormous intellectual work, we come confused with the anthropological–ethnographic across Chinese, the simplest language, accord- ones.32 To substantiate the above separation, he ing to the theorists of evolution, which has no invokes Lepsius, an authority in linguistics who conjugation but only 450 key words, synthesized refuted the frequently supported perception that and dismantled like stones, an unchanged lan- peoples and languages overlap depending on guage, non-organic in essence, spoken by the their origin and affinity: “The spreading and people who developed the highest and most miscegenation of peoples follows its way and durable culture of Asia, that stands proudly languages, even if they depend continuously on upright after a hundred years of acquaintance the first, follow their own, which is often quite with the European culture. A people to whom, different. Even though languages are the indi- according to Voltaire, “nature has given the vidual construct of peoples and their direct means to find immediately what is useful to it”.It intellectual expression, they are often detached thus becomes clear that Ratzel doesn’t perceive from their creators, they cover large foreign language as a factor for the evaluation of peoples, peoples and tribes or die out, while their former therefore he considers that under these conditions users continue, speaking completely different a family tree of languages can be created, languages.” Based on this profound realisation, without, however believing that this is a contri- Ratzel considers self-evident the fact that terms bution to the creation of the family tree of like Indogermanic race, Semitic race, Bantu humanity, where we see a minimally organized race, not only lack value but are reprehensible language being spoken by a sophisticated people for being misleading, and also the fact that and a highly organized [language] by perhaps language, despite its immeasurable value and the lowest people [in the cultural scale]. Indeed, influence as humanity’s first pillar of intellectual he believes that the younger linguists seem to evolution, has incredibly little value for the expect little from a global family tree of lan- documentation of internal differences in guages, unlike older linguists who saw once in humanity.33 that same family tree strong proof of Ratzel documents the above view with the Darwinism.34 example of African Khoikhoin and Sankai, who After language, Ratzel surveys religion, criti- cizing both sides, that only hypothetically dis- cussed the existence of mute people, but came, 32 ‘ See in Chap. 2 on Ratzel s state conception of, that he without hesitation, very close to discussing was not coinciding with those, who considered language a criterion of nationality. 33Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der 34Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der Menschheit, pp. 6–7. Menschheit,p.7. 4.1 The Position of the Nature-Oriented People … 77 nonreligious peoples, considering that this con- offshoots thanks to the multiplying momentum stitutes the primitive state (Urzustand). From a that characterizes the nature of these imaginary scientific perspective he wholeheartedly agrees creatures.36 with the attempt, underpinned by religious feel- In support to the above, Ratzel cites Max ings, to object to this degradation: Absolute Müller, who recognized in his work Callaways irreligion, real atheism is the result of a rickety, Nursery Tales of the Zulus (1866) a deeper mentally indifferent over-culture, but never the thinking in the Zulu, pointing out that their myths effect of a primitive, uncivilized state. The latter too, just like ours, at least to the extent that they maintains, even at its ultimate state of demise, a refer to spirits, fairies and giants, suggest the need for religion, which corresponds to a similar existence of a remote civilization or at least a possibility for religion, even if it is expressed so long process of development. In the same inaccurately and confusingly. (B. v. Strauß). direction, language irregularities indicate pre- According to Ratzel, Ethnography does not rec- cisely through their peculiarity that there was ognize nonreligious peoples, but only different sufficient time to consolidate clearly transferred evolutionary stages of religious ideas, which in structures and that there was a time during some peoples are described as that of the chry- which what is currently considered random and salis, small and hidden, while others have created meaningless, was created on the basis of rules to numerous myths and legends. Resorting again to serve a specific purpose. This above reasoning the example of the language, he asks the atten- proves his point, according to which the intel- tion of researchers, so as not to detect—espe- lectual life of nature-orientated peoples declines cially with regard to religion—primitive and regresses, rather than aiming towards evo- situations behind each case of imperfection. To lution. Of course, he stresses that the verification those who do not identify anything but a of this opinion presupposes a very detailed con- regression from higher religious stages—due to trol of Egyptian, Indian, Arab and European their inability to explain the decline of great sources, wherefrom such stimuli could spring, religious ideas (he mentions the Christians of and forsees that in spiritual life, that is, mainly in Abyssinia, the Thomists or Mongolian Bud- the religious sphere of the most remote African dhism), the fetish rituals of Negroes or the belief peoples, traces of Egyptian traditions will be in ghosts by the Hottentotts—he argues that the found, which would probably be detected in power of spreading of religious ideas is propor- other cultural possessions.37 tional to the certainty that they will decline, if they are abandoned in the mayhem of the mate- rial life of culture-orientated peoples, as they will 4.2 People Evaluation be fragmentarily disconnected from a large living mythology or a spiritual theoretical system. Ratzel distinguishes the activities of a people in Today we find declining fragments of Christian “internal”, aiming at its sustainability and con- attitudes in Indian or Polynesian myths. Unless tinuation, and “external”, focusing on the inter- we had suspected the history of their transfer, action with other people. These functions they could be of use to evolutionists in order to correspond to the distinction between vegetative prove that some seeds of our wonderful Christian (vegetarisch) and instinctive (animalisch) activi- religion exist.35 Even the folk poems of nature- ties, which are present in every organic body orientated peoples, collected with great affection (Ratzel explains that walking represents an and painstaking work over the last 20 years, instinctive act, while digestion or the heartbeat raise in certain points the suspicion that an off- are vegetative functions) and they are closely shoot of European myths, fairy tales, etc. were accidentally found there, creating on foreign soil 36Ratzel, Fr.5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der Menschheit, pp. 7–8. 35On the Theory of Diffusionism see Chap. 5. 37Ibid., p.8. 78 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … linked and interdependent, since external activity lot more fitting than that of the hunter or fish- depends on the healthy condition inside, erman.42 Therefore, argues Ratzel, the fact that regarding both people as well as individuals.38 we first of all consider the position of women Executors of external activities are mainly indi- when evaluating a people is unsurprising, since viduals, while families execute the internal ones. their behavior is generally shared by the family and through it to the whole people. As for the evaluation of the family, the fol- 4.2.1 Family39 lowing considerations must be included:

According to Ratzel, the domestic life of peoples • The status of women: the peoples which is based on family, which is the ultimate unit honour women create conditions of good (writer’s note: in other words, the core unit of family, educational and economic life. A low analysis) of the domestic life of peoples,40 com- female status results in the breakdown of both parable to the living, fundamental organisms of the family and the people. To men, who cells, which create our bodies, but also any oppress and marginalize women, Ratzel organic entity. attributes effeminate characteristics.43 Apart from their function as the epicentre of • The economic importance of the family to life, these cells also constitute carriers of life of the state, which is particularly important in the organism as a whole, since life evolution and Germany, where self-restraint and the practice the multiplication of each unit promotes life and of saving are essential. He also considers that the propagation of the whole. The more perfect the acquisition of material goods constitutes a each cell is as a unit, the better each drop of motive for the creation of a family.44 protoplasm fulfills its tasks, the more refined will • The wholehearted devotion to family life, be the life of the organism as a whole. The more the forging of strong ties and the concurrence intensively life moves inside, the stronger the of interests and inclinations between men and heart of the whole organism beats. Cell prolif- women. In this context, he believes that the eration contributes to its growth, the detachment participation of women in the social affairs, in of young cells to its proliferation, the disposal of politics or the political parties occurs only in old cells brings its renewal and the necrosis of societies with loose family ties, where the cells means its death. Therefore, Ratzel believes, status of women is particularly low.45 family is for a people what cells are for a body, • The importance of family in maintaining namely the epicenter wherefrom the renewal and the colonies; Ratzel considers the migration proliferation of a people starts; the concentration of entire families extremely useful, since the points of economic life and its locus of family environment helps address practical training.41 and emotional problems. He collates the The creation of a family and the maintenance strategy of England and Germany, who of its cohesion are mainly the work of women, colonized North America with entire who have played a pivotal role in the develop- families, with the examples of the Spanish ment of our culture, especially after women and the Portuguese, who sent to Central and admitted for the first time that the role of the South America mostly young men look- protector of the hut and the cave or the fire is a ing for a stroke of luck. While the first flourished, the latter—despite their physical

38Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 180. 39The headings do not exist in the original text, which is 42 divided into three not entitled parts. The present classi- Ibid., p. 181. fication was chosen for the sake of better understanding. 43Ratzel,9 F. (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 181. 40Ratzel,9F. (1878): DieBeurteilungderVölker, p. 180. 44Ibid., p. 182. 41Ibid., p. 180. 45Ibid., p. 182. 4.2 People Evaluation 79

advantages—were left behind to their politi- and confidence,49 factors that helped them not cal, economic and cultural demise.46 only survive in challenging situations, but • The strong family ties as a measure—used accompany them throughout their lives. of course with great caution—of the morality of a people. Ratzel recommends great caution, as there are various hidden traps, such as limited knowledge of a foreign 4.2.2 Intellectual and Scientific Life people, possible prejudice or the misuse of statistics. Especially as regards the statistical The German geographer’s appreciation of the data, he considers that an in-depth analysis of knowledgeability and the intellect of a people is family life is much more important for the poorer than what one would expect, stressing that evaluation of peoples than the statistics on in normal life a person’s capacity is not assessed marriages, births or prostitution.47 Finally, he based on knowledge, as is the case with a pro- stresses that, despite any statistical diver- fessional scientist. He rather emphasizes the way gence, the comparative observations of the in which one applies his knowledge. That is the most discerning observers agree that people determining factor of our judgment, and this are alike in the field of morality, although should, therefore, be the criterion of a peoples’ each time this depends on how morality is assessment.50 He considers this matter particu- defined in our modern culture.48 larly important for the Germans, firstly because • The family’s contribution to the education no people values science per se, and secondly of a people, whereby the molding of char- because the Germans were forced to seek solace acter is more important than the acquisition of in the development of science after being held in knowledge. The ability of the majority to contempt by the other peoples due to their read, write and count, as was then the case in political and scientific destitution.51 Germany, was considered highly important. He expresses the particularly ethnocentric However, he believes that the comparison view that a people will benefit more by with peoples without compulsory education is achievements it does not need to share with not—despite what is incorrectly believed— others, since the entire world enjoys the benefits pivotal in favor of the former, because the of scientific achievements, while, individually, a training of the intellect will exert profound people devoted mainly to science such as the influence on human actions only if there is Germans, enjoys only the benefits of the con- enough time and means to make the educa- ferred honour, and concludes that only when the tion substantial. Without this deeper appro- scholars become teachers, their endeavours will priation, knowledge is a useful tool and be truly beneficial.52 beyond that nothing. Ratzel considers the The above view demonstrates a strict Protes- development of a solid moral base, that only tant ethic, since Ratzel—a view pervading his the family can pass on, even more important entire work—considers the material achieve- than the system of basic education. As to this ments more important than the cultivation of the last point, he compares the German to the intellect.53 He directly associates his viewpoint to British settlers in Sydney or New York, the social gap of his days, which is identified and where the lack of a compulsory basic educa- taken into account in a pragmatic and equally tion did not prevent the latter to develop a sense of self-confidence, a practical viewpoint 49Ibid., p. 184. 50Ibid., p. 185. 51Ratzel,9F. (1878): DieBeurteilungderVölker, p. 185. 46 Ibid., pp. 182–183. 52Ibid., p. 185. 47 Ibid., p. 183. 53The Protestant influence lies also in his views on the 48Ibid., p. 184. labour division. See Sect. 4.5.3. 80 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … elitist manner, questioning the pretext that the country which during the last 30 years, in an ideas of science, literature and the arts, which are attempt to recover intellectually, has presented useful to humanity, are equally useful to the the greatest intellectual surge from the time of people, if they are not applicable in their every- Cervantes and Calderon, without, however, the day life. He explicitly states that the rays of the seal of great masters. Against this rumored death spiritual sun hardly penetrate into the mass, of the intellect, he claims that the fifty times since only the upper layer follows their orbit and higher Spanish exports arouse hopes for a comprehends their adventures. Underneath lies a recovery, since, as the figures undoubtedly layer that partakes only in the major epochs, and illustrate, the people keeps working and intensi- is normally one generation behind in intellectual fying labour, despite the intellectual death of the life. The rest is dark and empty. How small, if it higher classes who are mobilised and trained in could ever be measured, would be the number of literature. Ratzel therefore believes that labour Germans who have the ability to claim a share of and material progress, even when poor, will the literary and artistic treasures, and how ensure the peoples’ existence and awaken the smaller the number to claim a share of the higher classes, when fresher and richer blood achievements of our research? Even when the starts flowing back to the head and the lungs of ability of co-enjoying literature and art is distinct, the nation from the lungs of the labourers.57 In Ratzel believes that it remains at the level of an attempt to stress afresh the significance of enjoyment, with no perseverance, with limited economic prosperity in the development of peo- applicability and potential for dissemination.54 ples, especially in their course towards national Given the above, he concludes that the intel- integration, he cites the example of Italy and lectual life of a people can not set the tone of his Germany, (countries stunted with regard to their evaluation, like other manifestations of domestic national concerns) in whose case history clearly life. In any case it would be wrong, as it often showed—and it was probably no coincidence— happens, if that was the sole criterion.55 that economic factors, in particular, played a vital role in both national rebirths. As a result of the above, Ratzel supports that 4.2.3 Work and Economy the economic work of a people must be taken seriously into account when assessing it, just Ratzel likens the intellectual production of great because all citizens are involved.58 Being confi- minds to the flower of an angiosperm that does dent that the expressions of life or work consti- not bloom every single year, but only when— tute the solid basis for the assessment of peoples, apart from the external conditions—the condi- he places economic activity—in which all people tions for the concentration of internal forces are are involved as opposed to other activities—near ripe after a long term of non-blooming growth. the top of the assessment list, only second after Frequently the trunk and branches reveal more the family. As for the range of data that must be about the essence of this plant than the transient considered, he observes that naturally conclu- appearance of a flower, which can mislead our sions cannot be drawn only from the plus and judgment.56 minus of trade statistics. Bank statistics, statistics Therefore, he considers that the most secure on residence and employment, alcohol con- solution is to put initially on the scale those sumption etc. should be also taken very seriously expressions of peoples, whose work is based on into account.59 the ground. He cites the example of Spain, a Finally, the German geographer puts a seem- ingly strange question: To what extent do social 54Ratzel,9 F. (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, pp. 185– 186. 57Ibid., p. 187. 55Ibid., p. 186. 58Ibid., p. 187. 56Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 186. 59Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 187. 4.2 People Evaluation 81 classes that do not have to work appreciate of eminent figures, just as a star rarely shines labour? He anticipates that the appreciation of alone, causing almost always constellations.63 labour creates a new group, the aristocracy of Under the previous perception that eminent labour. And that happens because the act of men emerge if the people face particular chal- refining labour (by elevating it to the status of the lenges, he uses England of the last 100 years to nobility) connects the forever drifting apart illustrate his point. Then the administrative needs classes, more than the common elements of his- of a free state incubated a generation of great tory and laws together. He eventually concludes politicians. Accordingly, he criticizes the idea of that the social conflicts within nations will the supposedly two-and-a-half-century-long become increasingly more fierce, as the upper intellectual deficiency in Germany—between classes get less involved in their proportional Luther and Lessing—since in the last decades of share of labour, whose weight falls on the the previous century many intellectual personal- shoulders of the entire people, and which weight ities had emerged. Ratzel explains this phe- is considered by the lower classes as nomenon on the basis of the treaties existing at unbearable.60 the time, which did not allow the invocation or promotion of eminent men, although the latter were always there almost invisible: I cannot 4.2.4 Intellectual Heroes and Great imagine Goethe disseminating his intellectual Statesmen might as a Lutheran preacher in villages of the 16th century, or Lessing wandering the coun- Driven by the reference to peoples’ intellectual tryside as a soldier in the 17th century or Bis- life, Ratzel attempts to find the status of a peo- marck as the governor of a tiny state in the 18th ple’s great intellectual heroes and leading century.64 politicians, and wonders whether a people should Therefore, Ratzel deduces that it is hard to be considered greater on the basis of the status it give a lot of weight to them (i.e. eminent men) attributes to eminent men; whether it is elevated when assessing peoples, adding yet another rea- thanks to the large production of such important son, namely that the heroes of intellectual life do men and whether their existence is a measure of not belong to only one people, but to all the an overall intellectual flowering.61 peoples they exercise their influence on.65 For On this matter, Ratzel demonstrates even at this purpose he invokes Aristotle, who perhaps his relatively early work a complex and had a far greater influence on medieval culture multi-faceted thinking. Using the byword “in the than on Greeks themselves, or the example of land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king”,he Shakespeare, who never had as determinative an suggests a very careful treatment of this subject, influence on English literature, as he had on the arguing that the occurence of great heroes German classics. Nevertheless, Ratzel adds that depends on the peoples’ living conditions.62 the enhancement, that eminent men offer to the Hence, the great men of certain peoples are reputation of a people, can not be ignored or identified in trade or manual labor, especially underestimated in any way, nor can their real when there is no need to guide the people or the value. possibility of conquering a dominant position. Considering the contribution of intellectuals Ratzel remarks that in specific eras great men in the relations among peoples, Ratzel remarks emerge or the existence of a great man compels that, despite certain cases of ingratitude, there are the emergence of another, and he observes that several examples of gratitude towards Greece or the great conquerors were surrounded by a team Italy, not merely in the form of compassion but

60Ibid., p. 187. 63Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 188. 61Ibid., p. 187. 64Ibid., p. 188. 62Ibid., p. 188. 65Ibid., p. 189. 82 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … also practically, acknowledging what ancient who do not need great men in internal affairs, Greece and Rome once were for the educated since its masses show enough dedication and humanity. Therefore, he believes that good rela- dexterity to secure the best possible outcome. The tions between the intellectuals can be broadly domestic evolution of a people requires peace, constructive and he attaches great importance to tranquility and a calm pace, factors difficult to the practical acknowledgement of a people—not reconcile with the frenzied pace and impatience only the small and vulnerable—by the finest and of ingenious natures.68 noblest of peoples. Ratzel even attempts a very interesting distinction, by which he demarcates different levels of foreign policy implementation, 4.2.5 The Conscience of “Socially namely the level of the intellectual elite, the Belonging Together” applied policy and the masses, and wonders at how clearly the flame of such an acknowledge- Referring essentially to the process of state birth ment dances amidst the blur of baseness and and development, Ratzel remarks that the cog- ignorance that characterize the international nizance of belonging together, which transforms relations of the masses.66 To reinforce this idea, individuals to a people, is not equally deep in all he refers to the positive feelings the Germans peoples, since it sometimes constitutes an inert, recently experienced, when great poets and lifeless sense; in other cases the people are researchers were acknowledged beyond the impregnated with national enthusiasm for life, Rhine and the Channel, in contrast to our that healthy pleasure that lies beneath the out- practical endeavours in the fields of politics and standing performance of people.69 He underlines economy. Certainly, he hastens to put such that the vitality and dynamism of this awareness reactions in their true dimensions, adding that is directly linked to the homogeneity of the such bonding of scholars of different peoples, people’s forces and the acquisition of a greater expressed by means of compliments and honours, capacity for action, which shall contribute to the alliances of the finest kind, are certainly warm- development of deep-rooted morals, attitudes and hearted and temporary, as well as joyous. Yet, institutions that could be considered the skeleton they fade away so easily with the first wind of of such a body. Certainly they constitute the enmity between peoples. But their roots remain adhesive substance of an organism, but also one and become the first forerunners of Spring after of its constituents, which enables it to respond to history’s stormy periods in the relations of a great destiny and to the fulfillment of great peoples.67 missions. Therefore—according to Ratzel—this Of particular interest are his comments on the awareness gives us a means by which to measure assessment of the eminent politicians, whose the duration and worth of a people. The looser contribution Ratzel differentiates as to internal the cohesion of a people, the poorer its perfor- and external affairs: the eminent men of politics mance as a people, and therefore the shorter the constitute a direct benefit for the people, from future predicted for it. On the contrary, the which they have sprung, as they determine the stronger the cognizance of belonging together, people’s history in the global arena. In connec- namely the firmer its unification by means of tion to the political influence of great men on the national consciousness, the fitter it will prove to internal affairs of a ready people, during the be for outstanding performance and the longer it assessment of peoples one can embrace the is apparently meant to last.70 republican axiom that happier and more confi- In certain cases Ratzel attributes the devel- dent for the future of humanity are those people, opment of strong consciousness to geography, as

68Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 190. 66Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 189. 69Ibid., p. 190. 67Ibid., p. 189. 70Ibid., p. 190. 4.2 People Evaluation 83 some people—especially insular people and 4.2.6 Language and “National people well protected by natural walls—fortu- Identity” nately enjoy the development of the conscious- ness that they belong together thanks to their In the battle to avoid a possible disappearance geographical position. Examples of unification either for the progress or the expansion of peo- and development of a vigorous national con- ples, Ratzel attaches a great role to the mother sciousness under such conditions are the British, tongue, whose cultivation—alongside national the Norwegians, the Spaniards and to a lesser literature—normally signal a clear national extent the Dutch and the Swiss, whose physical consciousness.73 location functioned as a shelter from the outside Special contribution to the development of world and as a great advantage for strengthening small nations, separated several decades before internal relations and rallying together for a from the colorful amalgam of peoples of the common cause. Such conditions had a positive countries of Southern Danube (Magyars, Serbs, impact in the cases of England and Scotland, Croats, Romanians), was made, according to while the gifts of nature to the evolution of Ratzel, by the Institutes created for the purpose peoples are evident in the case of the German of maintaining the national dialect, namely the people, among which only the ones surrounded scientific and literary academies, national the- by natural boundaries, such as the Swiss, the atres, the presence of poets and writers, whose Norwegians, the Icelanders and the Dutch contribution was proportionate to that of major achieved full political freedom.71 changes or victorious wars. Gauging the impor- When, however, external driving forces are tance of the common language in relation to the missing, the respective internal forces have to be size of each nation, he thinks that it is important strong in order to achieve the same result. As an for small, ambitious ethnic groups to be united, example of such internal forces in the case of carefully check their lines, understand the politically dependent nations, such as the Jews meaning of their power. Anyone who speaks their and the Armenians, Ratzel invokes the religious language bears in a way their stamp. If they can camaraderie developed as a connecting force, not become politically or economically inde- despite the enormous diffusion and all kinds of pendent from the peoples around them, they try oppression. Moreover, great historical memories, to achieve that at least at the level of their the common language and customs and the sus- intellectual life.74 Having noticed that the resi- tained sense (in a narrow and continuously dents of a province or of a smaller region find— widening circle) of the need for a stable coexis- even in the context of large peoples—the main- tence in one nation state transformed the large tenance of their dialect charming, since it but fragmented German and Italian peoples into embodies the paternal national memories, Ratzel nations with strong consciousness and deep records the same objective even more easily in cohesion. Likewise, Ratzel considers that the the case of new nations which turn to their par- unfavorable possibility of an annihilation keeps ticular languages, that often contain significant the Poles united, while in recent years the Mag- historical memories, already suggesting the yars have resisted the peoples surrounding their beginning of a national literature.75 fragmented areas.72 Unlike small peoples, Ratzel does not con- sider linguistic unity a prerequisite in cases of large peoples, where the language of the majority is imposed (examples from France, England,

73Ibid., p. 191. 71Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, pp. 190– 74Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, pp. 191– 191. 192. 72Ibid., p. 191. 75Ibid., p. 192. 84 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors …

Germany, European Russia, Italy, Spain, with the one of the best results of education, contemporary exception of Austria-Hungary and Turkey). and historically acquired, and such desperate When such large majorities exist, there is no attempts paralyze the forces, which could be more need to impose the majority’s language on efficiently used in other directions,78 he warns his minorities, nor is there a need for linguistic countrymen—prophetically one could argue— assimilation, like in the case of smaller nations, considering that such repressive efforts, arising stresses Ratzel, hastening, however, to list the from a lack of awareness of one’s own power, advantages and highlight the importance of lin- lead to direct weakness that results in adverse, guistic homogeneity, since without a linguistic irreversible effects. A characteristic example of identity neither common education nor easy and this is the economic collapse of Mexico, which is thus lively discussions can be achieved, or a in the most unfavorable economic situation of the common evocation of historical memories, with- last 60 years, because of the repeated expulsion of out which a compact, nationally conscious peo- the Spaniards, an act dictated by national jealousy. ple is unimaginable. The desire for a common Finally, he formulates the general rule that the language already arises due to the practical great people, who are healthy and potent, exert a need for the smooth operation of the adminis- physical attraction to smaller ones and have the trative mechanism.76 natural ability to assimilate without oppression Examining the process of cultural and lin- the small peoples.79 guistic assimilation, Ratzel discusses a Dar- winian view, according to which, when the majority of a nation’s population belongs to a 4.2.7 About Extraction and Its gifted, lively, and potent people, then the Characteristics assimilation of smaller peoples happens auto- matically (e.g. Germany, Great Britain, USA). Inspired by the linguistic dispute, Ratzel touches To the features of a powerful people he adds the upon a current issue of that era, namely the decisive ability to incorporate foreign elements. ethnic composition of countries, estimating that Therefore, such a people does not need to the quarreling of different nationalities within a develop a phobia for the appearance of foreign people80 would fade away, should there be none elements, but has to be confident in its own of the utterly exaggerated perception of the superiority, knowing that it will be able to halt purity of their origin.81 He invokes scientific data them quietly.77 As a case of violent assimilation —without, however, citing any specific research Ratzel presents the struggle of a strong people, —of racial anthropology (Rassenlehre), that lead the Russians, against the Germans of the eastern to the basic argument that pure races do not provinces or against the Poles, a struggle which exist, but all races are mixed,82 a rule he transfers shows a crucial cultural failure on the part of the to peoples, namely arguing that they include in oppressor. The opposite he illustrates in the case their classes very different elements to what they of the tolerance of the vast majority of the tend to admit, while the importance of the dominant anglophone population of the US over national element in their history—as far as that other nationalities, which reveals the true essence importance is known—as well as the present, of self-confidence and prudence of that majority. The fact that a truly competent and powerful people do not consider themselves in any way bound to such phobic attempts for repression, is 78Ibid., p. 193. 79Ibid., p. 193. 80Obviously, Ratzel is here referring to the people in the terms of state. 76Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 192. 81Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 193. 77Ibid., p. 193. 82Ibid., p. 193. 4.2 People Evaluation 85 misleads them to overestimate it compared to the observed in each one of the peoples of Europe; as distant past.83 an example he mentions the role of the Germans Ratzel interprets this phenomenon, but does living in Alsace-Lorraine in France, where the not consider it logical, since the pursuit of an non-French completed the French in many skills, extreme idealization of a people’s origin and the so that the prospect of losing the former would presentation of a family tree as pure as possible equal the loss of areas like Auvergne or Gas- leads the people to create an association with the cogne for France.86 Loosing Alsace and Lorraine former—discussed in history—residents of their made France sparser with regard to its popula- country, while in practice the people’s internal tion, but also too unilateral, says Ratzel, using and external nature and particularly the amal- for the purpose of comparison the opposite gamation with other nations had a much stron- example of the great economic boom of Bel- ger influence on them (e.g. French—Gauls, the gium, whose main reason of occurence, as has Italians who refused a amalgamation with the long been recognized, is the excellent amalga- Celts, Italians—Romans, Germans, English).84 mation of peoples.87 On this basis, Ratzel The peoples’ tendency to invoke a pure and explains how the Flemish (seafarers and trade ancient origin is defied not only by history, but experts) and the Walloon (shy and adept in by the incorrect estimation over the difference manufacturing) have shared tasks, since the for- between pure and mixed-race peoples, believes mer would not make much of a blacksmith, and Ratzel. First of all, he welcomes the invocation vice versa, the latter would never share the for- of past events, in which one rightfully takes mer’s enthusiasm for the sea and world trade. pride, and realises that, beyond any psychologi- The same is observed in England, where the cal parameters, a great past also has a practical Anglo-Saxons are the seafarers and traders, while importance, when high ideals are accentuated the Celts remain tied to iron and coal. Inevitably thanks to the glory of the past. At the same time, the comparison moves to the Germanic peoples: he severely criticizes beyond a doubt the theories How much more unilateral and less flexible than of racial purity, stressing the fact that such those mixed peoples are the purely Germanic advantageous things can never include racial peoples of Scandinavia and the inhabitants of the purity. In this context he condemns incest, i.e. the Netherlands? And hasn’t in German history the continuous interbreeding among blood relatives, contrast between the semi-Slavic East and the which, as we can see, carries along devastating German North and the West proved fertile and consequences for both the intellect and the body, lifesaving? What a disgrace were all those for families … as well as for people.85 interactions for the shortsighted dreams of those Arguing in favor of the amalgamation of fanatical Old-Teutons, who considered the peo- peoples, at first he stresses that unilateral, natural ple on the other side of the Elbe as inferior, led inclination of peoples and persons could degen- by the Schwaben and Bavarians, since allegedly erate to disease through incest, but weaken or in their veins flows Slavic blood!88 even disappear through amalgamation. What is According to Ratzel, the advantages of mixing more, he considers that by amalgamation another populations are not limited to historical facts, but advantage, probably more significant—at least become more apparent in younger state forma- for the purposes of a short-term observation—is tions, which are in a more intensive transforma- achieved: the increase in the number and the tion process. In Russia, for example, Ratzel variety of inclinations. These advantages are identifies a German population, small in number but large in significance for the administration, especially the country’s economic development; 83Ibid., p. 193. 84Ratzel9 (1878): Die Bjeurteilung der Völker, pp. 193– 86 194. Areas in Southern France. 87 9 85Ibid., p. 194. Another clear point of criticism against the Ratzel (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 195. theoreticians of racism. 88Ibid., p. 195. 86 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … at the same time, in the US one can see more Equally problematic, according to Ratzel, is clearly than anywhere else how the people are the fragmentation of a state’s demographic able to allocate to the different races or ethnic- composition, as recorded in the cases of Euro- ities different functions, as befits each one.As pean Turkey and the Austro-Hungarian monar- part of this allocation, which often arises in his chy, where such a colorful and diverse admixture work, he points out that in the US the Germans of peoples … is of course harldy desirable.94 In support agriculture with their steadfastness, their contrast to these cases, several millions of Slavs, devotion to the land, their diligence and prudence Danes and French of the German Empire seem in economics, while the Irish are more suitable over time to be a welcome addition to our purely than anyone for unskilled work in factories or German characteristics, since on the one hand day labour. Ratzel believes that the Americans they are not enough in number to disrupt the have themselves acknowledged89 that without mainly German character of our Empire, as long the Germans and the Irish both agriculture and as we preserve our internal links, and on the manufacture in the US would be far behind the other hand, because they help us protect this stage of progress of that time and wonders character from one-sidedness and inflexibility.95 accordingly how the economic life of Poland or In fact, he realises that these groups can be very Romania would be without the Jews, or that of helpful for the Germans, as their opposition Asia Minor and the countries of Pontus without reminds us that over time the unswerving the Armenians or the Greeks. The importance of national sentiment does not suffice, and it is only peoples’ amalgamation is evident even in the our own abilities and the growing supremacy of highest level of contemporary cultural evolution, our state institutions that will enable their for- at the Metropolis of the modern world … in ever more stable integration.96 To this he adds London City, that centre of world trade, where that the addition of a substantial part of foreign we find the Jews and the Germans90 as integral people to an already existing, ready nation con- members of wholesaling, and mainly as a part of stitutes undeniably a dangerous experiment, the population active in stock trading.91 which can only be successfully tested in condi- Ratzel recognizes the advantages of amalga- tions of the greatest possible freedom, like in mation, but he does not consider any form of Switzerland or the USA. The rest of us, who have racial merging as beneficial.92 Partially ques- to focus on the protection of our internal cohe- tioning the aforementioned with regard to the sion, have been recently concerned – and only benefits of amalgamation, he points out that because of lively traffic among peoples - with the when a white people is degraded by unlimited influx of large quantities of fresh blood in the interbreeding with Negroes, Malaysians etc.to veins of our organism.97 such an extent, as the Portuguese did in all their overseas colonies, then it is simply a case of downgrading from a higher level, which they had 4.2.8 The Cosmopolitan Age once conquered, and it is thus regrettable.93 or the Oncoming Globalisation

89The text is written in the year 1878, when also his US The last section reveals the acumen of the rat- books were published, in which Ratzel analyzes the selian analysis—as long as this section is multinational function of the US and Mexico. understood in its true dimensions and not in the 90In one paragraph refers twice positively to special economic slope of Jews. 91Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 195. 94 92Ibid., p. 195. Ibid., p. 196. 95 93Ibid., p. 196. Ratzel’s reference does not contain any Ibid., p. 196. 96 biologically, but culturally criteria. See in detail Sect. 4.6. Ibid., p. 196. For the meaning of the terms upper and lower see Sect. 4.1. 97Ratzel9 (1878): DieBeurteilungderVölker, p. 196. 4.2 People Evaluation 87 light of the alleged biological considerations— and faster than what is necessary for our har- since the German geographer had fully under- monious enlargement.102 stood the change coming perforce due to tech- Obviously seeking a balance between cos- nological advancement and as a result of that, mopolitanism and national interest, Ratzel is due to Verkehr. It is obvious how Ratzel (let us fully aware of the fact that he is considering not forget that this essay comes from his early long-term processes, which do not radically period) sees distances between peoples shorten- change interstate relationships and national riv- ing; he catches wind of the upcoming global- alry. He therefore underlines that the influence of ization and (loyal to the principles of liberalism these elements can not be fully assessed based on from a national perspective) looks for a method whether wars will become scarcer or whether to manage the new situation, researching the they will ever completely cease to exist, but operation of the most multicultural society of the based on the fact that the peoples’ movement time, the USA. Thus, by extrapolating the pro- during off-war periods [became] a lot more posals of the brightest minds of his time for the humane, more familiar, more comprehensible establishment of a global society, always in the and therefore more tolerant … Towards this context of a healthy state construct, he conceives direction, of course, a lot is still to be as the only practical form of cosmopolitanism98 achieved.103 the growth, amalgamation and distribution of By examining the often stigmatized and truly labour among peoples.99 As part of the process misunderstood amalgamation of peoples from of outlining a new global architecture, he does such a positive viewpoint, he challenges the not believe that the future will bring some cos- dominant perception of his era, which tends to mopolitanism that is uncontrolled, inadequate in assume deep-rooted differences between peoples, duties and tendencies, but understands as a by asking whether peoples can be so different, positive development the slow but stable inte- since they have so much in common because of gration of foreign elements, which occurs in amalgamation. He gives a straight answer to this every folk culture, no matter how complete, question, noting that very often scholars record during the prior two-way traffic, and the mutual differences between peoples, much deeper than respect among peoples.100 the actual ones, as external characteristics, lan- In the above passage the influence of Friedrich guage differences, variations in the body frame, List101 is clearly observed, since Ratzel refers to morals etc. are given extreme prominence.104 an inevitable, due to traffic, global integration on Yet, he states that these differences are elements the basis of national—rather than individual— that a people acquires over its course in history participation, and essentially visualizes a global and during the impact of a situation it was found system with a distribution of roles, depending on in at a given time, while others have an imper- the capabilities and skills of each people. ceptible influence on the inner life and the most Ratzel considers the above data more impor- important expressions of that people. In this tant than other goods, since in recent years they context, he comments that the history of mixed have already contributed to bringing people race peoples seems to be determined by several together, and in the future they will have a characteristics, depending on the each time soothing and humanitarian effect … they enrich dominant element. As an example he cites Bri- us and invigorate us from inside, without tain, whose ancient history was Celtic, later changing the spirit and forms of our people more became part of migratory movements under the influence of the English and the Saxons, received 98Term used by Ratzel, in the sense of the modern term globalization. 102Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, pp. 196– 99Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 196. 197. 100Ibid., p. 196. 103Ibid., p. 197. 101See Sect. 2.3. 104Ibid., p. 197. 88 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … romanic overtones during the first centuries after Russian provinces of the Eastern Sea. These the conquest by the Normans, enjoyed perhaps politically separated, but intellectually united the greatest German influence during the days of members live under completely different condi- Elizabeth and the revolution, and has since tions; think and feel in some respects different acquired the unique character that corresponds to from us. While it is questionable whether their the current British nation, a remarkable ethno- political reintegration would make us more graphic mixture, which integrates increasingly powerful,108 it is certain that they would not more foreign elements.105 Similarly, in Austrian enrich our German intellectual life, but merely politics he observes Spanish-Italian, Germanic, make it more uniform.109 Slavic, Magyar periods, while he sees in the In an attempt to justify the importance of such Russian state entity of that day a more German national islets for an entire people, he cites his- character, than what it would probably have in torical examples, such as Tyrol’s fight for free- 50 years, while 300 years before it even had a dom, an important part of German history, or the Mongolian influence. Ratzel speculates that the role of French Switzerland (especially Geneva), a above observations should also apply to nations hub of international intellectual life in France, in which data heterogeneity is hidden under the whose annexation (500,000 francophones) the veil of a common language, history and citizen- rational French did not consider beneficial for ship. Along with its language a people loses quite France’s intellectual life. He also observes that a lot, most importantly his feeling of uniqueness, the rapid growth of European colonial states in but does not lose the peculiarities of its charac- America and Australia imparts a lot more ter, which will be exercised for a long time, importance to detached groups of a people. wherever he compactly resides. As an example Moreover, he considers that the dominant role of of such cases, Ratzel discusses the struggles for the English language, and in part of English the fueros106 of the people of Northern Spain, culture, in most of the non-European world is who present fossilized elements of the old Gothic based not only on the metropolis, that is Great rigidity.107 Britain, but soon also the USA, a detached part Following a thorough discussion of the con- of the British Empire. Likewise, in Australia, sequences of amalgamation, Ratzel refers to the New Zealand and South America similar mem- significant impact of the opposite phenomenon, bers of an English speaking and to a certain namely the isolation of small population seg- extent English thinking non-European, colonial ments, on a people as a whole. Ignoring the people are nurtured.110 quantitative reduction occurring the moment the Overviewing the contemporary world situa- detachment takes place, he observes that these tion, Ratzel eventually concludes that the English detached fragments significantly enrich in most language and its corollaries, the English laws, cases the people they were separated from. traditions and customs are more protected from a Therefore, Ratzel concludes that the Germans possible decline compared to any other nation. should be happy, because autonomously acting Perhaps we, the rest of the peoples, are strong and productive members of our national core trees, but we base our development on one trunk, have persevered in Switzerland, Austria and the while England—like a huge Indian fig tree—is at the same time supported by numerous pillars, 111 105Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 197. which run deep in new territory. 106 Spanish law compendia, which became local laws, 108 calling for special freedoms and privileges, especially all For Ratzel there is no need for territorial annexation of the privileges and freedoms of Navarre and the three these German-speaking regions, accentuating however fi Basque provinces, which lifted Alfonso II, by the law of their signi cant because of their general intellectual and 22 June 1876. Source: Bibliographisches Institut & F. cultural contribution. 109 9 A. Brockhaus AG, 2002, Sat_Wolf, Bayern. Ratzel (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 198. 110 9 107Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, pp. 197– Ratzel (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 198. 198. 111Ibid., p. 199. 4.2 People Evaluation 89

4.2.9 About Demography as a State out during the past centuries, killed body and Power Contributor soul. Lately they die after losing their soul and first of all its main expression, the language, then In the last part of the essay, Ratzel examines other particularities, and in the end they are peoples’ demography, declaring at the outset that integrated by neighboring peoples. Usually, for of course, a people has to grow rapidly to create some time, traces of the folk costume or customs affiliated peoples, and apart from that a people survive and children’s stories talk about the lost, has to be capable of colonisation.112 Identifying as it happens with some plants, which sprout in population growth as one of the most important places where people once lived. Yet, in the end, factors in the life of peoples, he stresses that the their traces are at best found only in books. annual rate of population growth in France Ratzel regards as comforting the fact that these amounts to about one third of the equivalent rate cases concern peoples with smaller populations, in Prussia, and invokes (without citing any who did not reach by means of their own forces sources) the calculations of a German statistician, noteworthy cultural levels; groups considered who foresaw that in 2000 Germany could have tribes rather than peoples. Even though he pre- more than double the population of France. He sents examples of small peoples who remained believes that previously this element had not autonomous even under the most difficult con- been adequately evaluated by the neighbouring ditions, such as the Jews, Swiss, some Christian country; otherwise it could have significantly peoples of European Turkey, etc., he invokes the subdues France’s belligerent attitude and reck- existing rule that world history has never recor- less politics of the last decades.113 ded the death of numerically larger populations Apart from people’s growth and proliferation, while today’s more numerous known people Ratzel draws readers’ attention to the possibility seem to offer the best prospects for survival. of a necrosis, the death of peoples. As regards large peoples, he endorses the view that a people can not be annihilated because of aging, or 4.2.10 Strength (Kraft) and power because of the harsh blows of fate (have the (Macht) Romans stopped living in the Italians, the Greeks in the Modern Greeks, etc.?). He makes a special Finally, Ratzel discusses the need to obtain reference to the example of the Chinese, a people strength and power as factors for the evaluation much older than any European people, and yet and effectiveness of peoples, emphasizing the strong enough to cause, due to its enormous fact that the mere survival, merely existing is not population, among the European peoples the enough. Strength (Kraft) and power (Macht) yellow fear of a Chinese tide.114 belong to the honourary life of a people.116 And Unlike the previous examples, he mentions this in many cases is what tilts the scales of the several cases of dead, completely extinct peoples, evaluation of peoples. Even when a people such as the almost complete retreat of the Celtic enjoys the best reputation, any acknowledgement tribes on the British Isles, the Prussians in and praise will be fragile against slight oscilla- northeastern Germany, the Kurs in the homony- tions during the evaluation, and that will be of no mous country (Kurland)115 and the Basques in use, before they are brought to the granite base the Pyrenees. Some of them were almost wiped of a respectable position, which can be achieved only through work and struggle.117

112 Ibid., p. 199. 116The above analysis makes even more evident, long 113 Ibid., p. 199. before the use of the term Political Geography, Ratzel’s 114Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 199. systemic analytical approach, which completely coincides 115Kurland: one of four Latvia’s historical regions. The with the nature of modern Geopolitics, as a power other three are Semgallen (Zemgale), Zentral-Livland analysis tool. (Vidzeme) und Lettgallen. 117Ratzel9 (1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p. 200. 90 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors …

4.3 Nationalities and Races: considered responsible for the controversial A Human-Geographical discovery of a cultural language (Kultursprache) Analysis for every small nation.120 With regard to language as an element of 4.3.1 The Age and Universality national identification, Ratzel considers that the of the National political interest in the nations triggered a con- Movements tinuous scientific activity and linguistic areas and borders have been investigated since 1850, By way of introduction, Ratzel remarks that the bringing to light the history of small peoples in succession of historical events does not monitor Eastern and Southern Europe.121 Noting that the human time, therefore it is incorrect to portray first national movement of the Czechs had fol- the centuries according to their cultural charac- lowed the central European culture since the 14th teristics, that is to say to call the 18th century as century, becoming fully fledged with all its the Enlightenment century or the 19th as a cen- political, religious and national aspects after tury of national movements. That is not only Ottokar’s death, and also that the fights of the because great events occur in between a cente- Germans and Slavs, the Anglo-Saxons and Celts, nary or in the borderline of two (e.g. major dis- the Spanish and the Moorish had a national coveries from 1492 to 1521 or the French character, Ratzel concludes that as long as there Revolution, so we have to talk about the era of are nations that are conscious of their national discoveries or the era of revolutions), but pon- status (Volkstum),122 they will strike against each dering how little time is a century, when refer- other into national rivalries. Behind the eco- ring to a huge struggle, as the people’s struggle nomic and religious contrasts hide in essence for progress.118 national hostilities, and only the care of national Ratzel identifies the outburst and political languages and history, national literature and expression of modern national movements at the ancient history removes the outer cover and end of the 19th century, attributing responsibility places national contrasts on equal terms beside for the resulting situation to Austria and Hungary the religious, economic and purely political because of Frederick II’s ill-advised policy of differences.123 national unity, as well as to some authors of the Identifying the age of ethnicity to the time 18th century (Percy, Herder and others), who when man relinquished his isolation from the studied smaller, historically less prominent peo- narrow milieu of the family tribe, Ratzel gathers ples, who subsequently stirred up interest.119 that an impartial observer will distinguish This movement was multifaceted, and as a result national differences and disputes, even between in the 19th century the Greeks, the Catalans, the newly established states. A unique example Finnish and other small peoples received political thereof is the United States, where over the and scientific-literary stimuli so intense that one last 80 years of the 19th century more than could blame science of endowing many tiny 20 million immigrants (7 million Anglo-Celts peoples with an excessive perception of their from Great Britain and Ireland, 6 million Germans importance, while certain scholars could be from Germany and other German countries,

120Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 118Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, p. 464. 121 p. 462. Ibid., p. 463. 122 119It is obvious that Ratzel approaches the issue of The term Volkstum is referring to all the cultural national movements under the specific conditions of the expressions of a nation. end of the 19th century, referring mainly to the national 123Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, liberation struggles of the Balkan peoples. p. 463. 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis 91

1.5 million Scandinavians) adjusted within one 4.3.2 The Race Factor as Part or two generations to the language and manners of the National Issue of the Anglo-Americans in order to form a single amalgam of elements belonging to the white Ratzel estimates that these issues are essentially race. However, the opposite happened with the 9 associated, since the starting point of national million Negroes and mullahs, 250,000 Native consciousness is consciousness at the level of Americans and 150,000 Asians of the Far East, race, i.e. the belief that our origins lie in the who are too different to acclimatize, and because same root.127 He, of course, repeats his inveter- of their uniqueness the US people do not want ate opinion that except a few perhaps cases in them to acclimatize in their current status; they distant colonial communities of America, Aus- hold them off, probably want to displace them tralia and Siberia, the consanguinity of an entire from the country, aiming, in any case, to limit state’s population is no longer possible. Only in their propagation, raising all kinds of barriers old countries, whose size often did not exceed the against the entry of new immigrants.124 size of a village, could inhabitants feel bona fide In addition to the above cases, Ratzel as blood descendants of a single ancestor. Only observes that emigration from Europe, USA’s in this case was there no difference between main source of populations, brings along ele- nation (Nation) and ethnicity (Nationalität).128 ments no longer willingly accepted, as was pre- Ratzel notes that, unlike the Germanic tribes, viously the case with the German and Celtic only the Romance peoples preserve, without tribes. Citing immigration statistics of 1901 however always clear historical references, the (when the US was flocked by 334,000 immi- sense of consanguinity, which gains greater grants from Italy, Austria, Hungary and Russia, political as well as cultural significance and value while just over 100,000 from England, Germany of documentation in relation to the appeal to a and the Scandinavian countries), he comments common mythical ancestor. Ratzel notes that the that the fear of an excessive influx of Romanic, people who claim the status of their national Slavic, Finnish and Jewish blood in a still nas- identity (Volkstum) were initially small in size, cent nation has led to the creation of obstacles and explains their uniqueness by means of two against the growing migration from the regions factors: of Eastern and Southern Europe. These obstacles appear to be related to health and social • no expansion can be effected without incor- parameters, but are essentially mainly related to porating parts of other peoples national conflicts.125 • the process of expansion is not continuous. In A similar situation is recorded in Australia the history of peoples there are moments of and N. Zealand, where immigration from Eng- congestion, partition, violent persecution.129 land is facilitated, while that from other countries is hampered. Therefore, Ratzel concludes that The second point stems from Ratzel’s general new states raise not only racial, but also national view that human evolution is not necessarily questions, even if they are expressed in issues of positive,130 a view that sets him apart from most a minor importance, such as the difficulties that of his contemporaries, who reflected evolution as Dalmatian immigrants encounter in New Zeal- progress only. Commenting on the aversion of and, facing every possible obstacle in their Wilhelm von Humboldt, who held the opinion laborious task to collect resin.126 127Ratzel refers to the level of a tribe, namely nature-orientated peoples, remarking that this is not possible nowadays. 128Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 124Ibid., p. 464. p. 465. 125Ibid., p. 464. 129Ibid., p. 465. 126Ibid., p. 465. 130See Sect. 4.1. 92 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … that the situation of the so-called wild peoples is Western and Central Europe, the culture that not consistent with an evolving society, but entered from the East and South, spread to rather with an exhausted society, fragmented and America and Australia. Then, an East-European declining due to many twists and misfortunes,131 transplant began its course eastwards through Ratzel believes that this proposal could have a northern and central Asia. Old Europe fell under variety of applications, whereas he notes that very limited direct influence by East Asia, but these movements of decline could not occur Ratzel discovers in Germany traces of without contacting and intermingling with other East-European influence, that arrived there peoples. But how could culture be disseminated through Central Asia. None of these transmis- without the contact of people from different ori- sions and contacts could have occurred for long gins, bearers of the most distant influences?132 without amalgamation, since cultural elements Comparing the evolution of many small and do not travel without being transmitted and large peoples (from the pre-Christian era up to directed by people, concludes Ratzel, correlating the modern USA), Ratzel concludes that each transport technology with the number of people people’s growth and evolution occurs through in movement: the more primitive the forms of amalgamation. The merging of large and small transport, the greater the amount of people in peoples in the past is a lesson of what the future movement. Such examples are the Arab caravans shall bear, despite any current disputes. No in Central Africa.136 matter how far back we look in history, it seems Foreign words in a language constitute a that this process is by necessity dominated by foreign drop in the blood of a people who speak historical developments and not by each people’s that language, indicates Ratzel, citing as exam- will.133 ples of this amalgamation half of the Romance - In order to interpret the development of civi- Celtic language origins in English or Romance lization in particular, Ratzel applies the theory of origins in Albanian, the Semitic words in Egyp- cultural diffusion,134 remarking that in prehis- tian and Greek, the common words - beyond the toric times different cultural centres disseminated common blonde hair - in the German and Finnish culture, and if we follow their radiation back in vocabulary. In the scale of Native American the prehistory of the European peoples, we shall tribes, such language mergers could be attributed be led to the East as well as to the South.135 to natural prevalence of the most powerful tribe, Consequently, he considers Eastern Europe and without however excluding - in the cases of the adjacent Western and Central Asia as a pos- denser populations fixed on their land - the sible homeland of the most important crop plants non-recurring intrusion of foreign elements.137 and domestic animals, as well as a possible ori- According to Ratzel, one of the most impor- gin, wherefrom Europe acquired the rudimentary tant facts in peoples’ life is the fact that, in spite knowledge on metals, first copper and gold and of the constant and inevitable influx of several then bronze and iron. He believes that elements elements, only a few negligible elements are were transferred from Egypt to southern Europe, distinguishable, so that practically it is seldom where new “transmission” hubs were shaped in possible to re-build a nation by detaching a part Greece and Italy, broadcasting to the North and of the people from their relationship with the rest the West. After expanding and taking root in of the people, and this explains the failure of any plan to displace foreign racial elements. As a result, just like in 1870 the French failed to 131 10 ä Ratzel, Fr. (1904): Nationalit ten und Rassen, completely banish the Germans living in France p. 465. 132Ibid., p. 465. the anti-Semites could never explain how they 133Ibid., p. 466. 134On the theory of diffusionism See Sect. 5.2. 136Ibid., p. 466. 135Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 137Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, p. 466. p. 467. 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis 93 wish to break the close involvement of the Jews Gulf of Mexico to South Carolina, they constitute in the economic life of the European peoples. It is a foreign component, which interferes to the extremely doubtful whether the Jews ever left harmonious development of the Whites; there- Egypt completely.138 fore, based on spatial unity, the idea of an Using as an example Russia’s failure to intellectual, even political unity, namely the idea exchange the Crimean Tatars with Turkey’s of nationality could be born, which could lead, Christian Bulgarians, despite the ideal condi- through a subtle separation of peoples, to the tions, Ratzel stresses that the removal of opposite risk of the Union’s division into a large white elements by means of their geographical isolation and a small black state, a risk prominent during “reduces”, without however impeding, contact in the bloody war.141 the long term. Under specific conditions it can Ratzel detects such dichotomies only in even become more dangerous than a fragmented Southeastern Europe, since in Western Europe expansion. Having said that, he wonders what wars generally left the people where they were new element Zionism will add in the Middle East and as they were, while the wars in Eastern policy, if a Jewish state in Syria is built with a Europe always resulted in the displacement of closed Jewish population.139 peoples who followed the departing armies. He In fact, Ratzel defines Zionism as an isolating describes the spatial isolation of the Turks (who movement, drastically reinforced by the efforts live in cities and fortresses) and the Serbs (who made at the opposite side to exclude the Jews, live in the countryside) during the 18th century and he forsees that the attempt to unite the Jews, and considers the absence of pure Turkish pop- a people so widely dispersed, of different life- ulation as a privilege for the Serbs against their styles and cultural backgrounds, in such a far- rival Bulgaria, where 570,000 Turks and 2.5 away and not particularly auspicious area is a million Bulgarians are settled. As s similar case new experiment in the life of peoples, which, if he considers the dispute between opposing successful, will trigger in other mixed peoples nationalities who try by “internal migration”142 demands for isolation, if not displacement.140 to demarcate their area, which enemies try to After repeating his well known views on the divide and fragment. He foresaw that this would people’s dependence on the land as a natural happen in Hungary, where Magyars were set- requirement, Ratzel contrasts it with the uniform tling, when the Magyar minorities would grow and without external influences developing stronger or when foreign minorities would nations, who are gaining the power of Antaeus, become divided, while the same, he reckons, was with the Jews, Armenians and Gypsies, who live attempted in Posen and West Prussia.143 within other peoples almost as tenants, without owning land on which to stand as a people, for which to fight as a people, by whose particu- 4.3.3 Incorporation and Isolation larities their own will be determined, as a result of a people’s connection with its territory. Based Ratzel identifies two types of national move- on the example of the USA, Ratzel finds that ment: one mainly political, aiming at the Negroes live together with the Whites, even annexation of foreign peoples, which is run and though in clearly defined areas, while the Native used by political forces; and another clearly Americans are fragmented, and without the land, racial, which turns to expulsion and a possible they are left bereft of healthy growth. He con- siders the growth of Negroes threatening, because within the black belt extending from the 141Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, p. 468. 138 Ibid., p. 467. 142Quotation in the original. 139 Ibid., pp. 467–468. 143Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 140Ibid., p. 468. pp. 468–469. 94 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … displacement, and is driven more by emotions 4.3.4 Race and Language than by some political rationale. He considers any attempt to connect these two directions Ratzel states at the outset that race and language contradictory, emphasizing that the racial feel- are so different elements as to their origin, value ing, endowed by nature with a familial sense, can and effect, that confusing them may not be a mere not serve for long political goals which turn mistake, but an error with terrible political and directly against the race.144 In this direction, he social implications. He criticizes the educational states that it is impossible for somebody to praise system, which exaggerates the importance of his own people, while adding by any means language, since it refers to the past mainly by foreign blood, even the lowest gypsy blood, means of Linguistics. Yet, he considers this since the receiving people is incapable of easily predominance ephemeral, since the actual incorporating all racially foreign elements. As a requirements will prove increasingly demanding. model process for the creation of a new people, He characterises linguistic affinity as an external Ratzel considers the ongoing fermentation of all characteristic compared to racial affinity, which European nationalities into a North American is deep-rooted due to blood identity, without people, asking himself if this successful process however discrediting the language as a charac- will be sustained after the great influx of teristic of a people or as a general cultural attri- Southeuropean and Easteuropean elements, as bute. In contrast, he notices that language is was the case with the Germans and the Celt enriched and deepened as culture progresses, immigrants.145 since it is a tool that interacts with the intellect. According to Ratzel, all these processes of This interaction explains, according to Ratzel, on people absorption can only take place under the the one hand the importance that a powerful, emblem of nationality, as language is considered culturally dominant people attaches to the evidence of affinity and is therefore often inten- spread of its language, and on the other hand the tionally overestimated. Regardless of the fre- passionate adherence of a small, weak people to quent and easily discernible error, for which its language, whose dominance may call into science is responsible by speaking about a question its future and not only that.147 Semitic race, Aryan race, etc., language can not For the purposes of the future-orientated demand a more intimate or permanent relation- political and cultural considerations, language ship with a people that uses it than any other is mainly a means of transport, as all attribute. Ratzel reports examples of Germans culture-orientated peoples learn foreign lan- who, by living abroad, have lost all or part of guages in order to communicate with other their mother language or peoples who have peoples. Nevertheless, each state needs only one adopted a foreign language, abandoning their language for its administration and army and own, while adhering to the rest of the racial Ratzel uses the example of England, where no differences.146 political significance is ascribed to Celtic idioms, or that of Russia and the United States, where the overall importance of Russian and English is maintained, despite their multiethnic composi- tion. With regard to smaller and tiny peoples of 144A logical conclusion, if we follow the general reason- North America, among which German dialects ing of Ratzel, according to which the political processes boom, Ratzel remarks that the sense of are related to culture-orientated, people. Contrary to that, belonging-together, which governs people shar- the racial perception concerns nature-orientated peoples ing the same homeland, is consciously limited to with introspective viewpoints, not exceeding the level of a family or a small tribe. the family level, seeking nothing like political 145Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, p. 469. 147Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 146Ibid., pp. 469–470. p. 470. 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis 95 power or eternal presence of their language As regards the Balkans, Ratzel estimates that idiom. As an example he cites the German set- the actual destabilizing factors are not the lin- tlers of the US, whose native language is being guistic differences but the artificially intensified absorbed by English from one generation to the differences between Christian denominations. next, without that causing any particular Indeed, he regrets the fact that the Serbs, who are sorrow.148 so widely spread out, do not exert any decisive Considering as a misfortune the coincidence power—despite their linguistic unity—due to of two situations, namely the overappraisal of their separation in Bosnian Catholics, Croats and language and the pursuit of an expansion of others, the Muslim aristocracy in Bosnia, the peoples and states, he believes that evidence Orthodox Montenegrins and the Serbs. Russia is leads to the prevalence of several major lan- then used as an example of cohesive operation of guages and the decline of smaller ones, which are Orthodoxy, which brings together a dispersed, to some extent artificially promoted. Ratzel culturally and racially hardly unified nation; in views economy as a factor capable of sur- the case of Russia, linguistic unity would not be mounting linguistic differences, since it forces an effective uniting tool, as the Russians them- peoples to collaborate. In fact, rational politicians selves accentuate many of their differences.152 instinctively raise economic issues, whenever linguistic conflicts threaten the prospect of poised decisions, to the benefit of peoples and their 4.3.5 Uniform (Einheitliche) states. He estimates that, even though a “national and Mixed (Gemischte) boycott”149 never had lasting results in cases of People linguistic disputes, it nevertheless created con- ditions of exploitation and exacerbation of con- Ratzel rejects the viewpoint that a people’s power tradictions only in very small areas and for short is connected with its uniformity, since people periods. In the above context Ratzel considers the with the highest performance consist of very case of Austria-Hungary, where a historically different races and nationalities (Nationalitäten), young people (Hungary) is trying to develop producing political and, more importantly, eco- politically at the expense of the other, as nomical results as a whole. Consequently, he non-indicative.150 presumes that all western-Romance European In the field of science, Ratzel records the countries would be weaker without the German forever increasing use of German, English, additions and compares the contribution of Slavic French and Russian, since, as expected in such elements in Germany with that of Prussia. He cases, anyone who wants to address a large speculates that Russia’s performance in politics audience, can not write in Magyar, Dutch or would be poorer without its German residents and Danish. He foresees that English will soon in economy, respectively without the Jews. Fur- become the commercial language in the largest thermore, Ratzel highlights the important contri- part of the transatlantic trade and transport, and bution of the various nomad invaders and also identifies linguistic conflicts between reli- usurpers to the military force of certain peoples gious communities spatially extending further and wonders what Hungary would be like without than their linguistic regions: Many people who its German settlers and its Slavic background.153 readily relinquish their language would give up Regarding the Flemings in Belgium, Ratzel more easily their lives, than their faith.151 identifies several German external characteristics,

148Ibid., pp. 470–471. 149Quotes in the original. 150Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 152Ibid., p. 472. p. 471. 153Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 151Ibid., p. 472. p. 472. 96 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … but reckons that their French blood and the and Hungary. In both cases he considers the French example have made them much more Germans and the French as fragments of their active and animated, compared to the Dutch and nation, which grows autonomously on the terri- the residents of Lower Germany, with whom tory of Germany and France and therefore does they exhibit differences respective to those not seek to grow autonomously in Switzerland or detected between the Swiss and their racial rel- Belgium, without taking into account other atives, the North Germans: they are talented in nationals. Ratzel also stresses the fact that these arts and science, while their financial potency are two historical peoples, with many interac- surpasses that of the Dutch, because they had to tions. Unlike the previous example, he remarks develop almost from scratch. Belgium has that in Eastern Europe and in the countries of become one of the largest industrial and com- Sudetenland, countries with complete or minimal mercial states. Likewise, while the Netherlands European cultural influence, historically old remained primarily a transit country and man- against historically young ones, are facing each aged to retain only the leftovers of the old other. The latter attempt to balance the disad- colonies, Belgium—alone among the small for- vantages of their late emergence, by overem- ces—succeeded in establishing a colony in phasizing their national element; but, everything Central Africa.154 they do to ensure their national existence Next, he attempts a rough classification of enhances at the same time their overall culture, in people based on their demographic composition, some cases even their economic flourishing. This explaining that statisticians distinguish three is the origin of the passion with which minorities main possibilities: almost uniform peoples, oth- —dependent on their neighbours due to their ers with a strong presence of genealogically small size and geographical location—like the foreign elements, and finally peoples a large part Slovenes work for their own schools and news- of whose population has a foreign origin. He papers, their universities and theatres, their brings the kingdom of Italy (consisting of 99% growth and the possibility of unity.155 Italians, among whom foreign peoples simply Generally, Ratzel believes that nationality is evaporate) as an example of an almost uniform for such young peoples the only element inspir- people, surpassed only by the Nordic peoples. ing feelings of expectation and hope, and he Greater importance is attached to the 5% of stresses that the main concern of a large state Gaelic speakers in England and Ireland and to the entity, to which this element is incorporated, 10% of Polish speakers in Prussia. Comparing should be the protection of its interests and not these cases with the example of Austria (36% the prevalence of a short-sighted national Germans, 23% Czechs, 16% Poles, 13% selfishness.156 Ukrainians) or Hungary (43% Magyars, 15% Ireland is for Ratzel an example of a com- Romanians, 12% Germans, 11% Slovaks, 9% munity of peoples bonded by both history and Serbs, 6% Croats) he illustrates the immense location, but internally dominated by an undying difference, which, however, does not necessarily hatred, which impedes unity. The basic reason lead to fragmentation and conflicts, which is explaining this situation is religious differences what happened in Switzerland (70% Germans, (Catholics—Protestants), a reason that charac- 22% French, 8% Italians and Rhaeto-Romance terises the difference between the Serbs and the people) or Belgium (45% Flemings, 41% French, Croats, children of the same race, who embraced 0.5% Germans and 13% speaking several of Christianity influenced by Rome and Byzantium these languages), where this linguistic dispersion respectively. According to Ratzel, these two reveals internal quarrels between the Flemings peoples live on Europe’s cultural border between and the Walloons, but by no means a paralyzing national dispute, which was the case in Austria 155Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, pp. 473–474. 154Ibid., pp. 472–473. 156Ibid., pp. 473–474. 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis 97 the West and the East, whereas the Westerners, As regards Germany, Ratzel remarks that, he believes, are by far—by several centuries— despite the existence of more German elements the cultural frontrunners.157 compared to other regions in South and West Attempting to demonstrate that inside sup- Germany, dark-skinned people clearly outweigh posedly uniform peoples, borders have been the light-skinned ones. Among them there are raised between constituents that have long been faces and skulls that resemble both the North mixed, Ratzel refers to France, where an initially German Slavic head, as well as another rare type purely literary movement revealed—contrary to in the northeast, the Romanian, with a narrow the prevailing view on the country’s uniformity head, dark hair and eyes, carrying Italian and —some old (Celts—Ligurians) and also new French characteristics all the way to West (Provencal—North French) differences among Bavaria and Württemberg. The concentration the French, despite their 2000-year-old common areas of these dark southwestern Germans are old history. According to German anthropological Celtic lands, once inhabited by Celtic tribes, who studies, the Germans belong to two types of the were romanized, before the Germanic tribes white race, whose main external difference is the (Germanen) appeared in the Rhine region and the broad face of the one and the long face of the Alps. Ratzel estimates that history provides other. Describing various external characteristics plenty of information on the interrelationship and differences of these two types, Ratzel con- between Celts and Germans, pointing out that cludes that the narrow face type has no close even the term “German” is not German, since the relationship—except cases of amalgamation— Celts first attributed it to a German tribe in Lower with any other race, constituting the German Rhine, meaning essentially “neighbour” and type, which had recently been typified as the thence it later extended to all German tribes. In oldest blond race (Xantocroe). The type with the the same way, the Germans called all Celts and short face approaches the Mongolian race, Romans “Welsche” and “Walen”, just like they resembling a mix or offshoot of that race. These called Slavs “Wenden” and “Wieden”. To the properties are also expressed as to their geo- above he adds that Germans differ from the graphical diffusion, since short-faced people are northern Germanic tribes and the Slavs due to the gradually increasing in the eastern part of Ger- influence of the Roman civilization, since they many, while Eastern Europe is full of them. Their have added various foreign elements: Romanic— wide face leads the Slavs closer to East Asians Celtic elements, Roman urban infrastructure, than to the Indogermans or Areans of Europe, names for villages and fields, Roman bridges and Asia and Africa (where long faces are predomi- roads, Roman names in agri-, viti- and horticul- nant) or to the Semites. Consequently, Ratzel ture, in governmental and church laws, and resumes that Central European ground, doing jurisprudence.159 justice to its central position, is the area where As a result, Ratzel views the German people two large racial areas meet. In terms of language, as a people, whose foreign components are as he considers the Slavs as Indogermans, whose clear as the crystals of feldspar and mica in majority bears striking features of the Mongol granite. And it is granite: we associate this rock race due to their long stay on the eastern border with irreducible duration, but it shall forever of the white race that resulted in the amalgama- remain a mixed rock, and it is therefore correct tion with Finnish, Turkish and Mongolian peo- to think that when such rocks undergo degener- ples. He also records the attack of a third race ative influences, they normally occur in the from the South and the East.158 cracks and crevices between the various

158Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 157Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, pp. 474–475. p. 474. Another example of Ratzel’s analytical potential, 159Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, considering the subsequent developments in the region. pp. 475–476. 98 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … components. On the basis of this reasoning, he despite the scientific observations that peoples criticizes supporters of the view that unbridge- are, either by individual or by group mobility, in able differences stand between the German North a state of constant exchange and that peoples and South. Certainly, he accepts the fact that who think of themselves as originating from one geographical conditions had different influences (genealogical) race are in fact a mixture of very on the residents, but considers that it is a German different elements. Therefore, he advocates the attribute, that the most distant genealogical view of Slavici, who did not identify the ethno- tribes can understand each other, unlike many graphic importance of the Romanians in their other European countries. Despite any language Roman origin, as they themselves prefer, nor in differences (without Luther’s neutral standard the fact that they are the descendants of the old German the communication with each other Daci/Darier, but in the reality that they are would be difficult) and any diverging habits, the among the Romans, Greeks and Slavs, remarking way of thinking and feeling is still perceived by that in his time, when spatial conflicts are more all. Within the German people there are violent than ever, it is understood that such genealogical tribes (Stämme), in whose veins genealogy daydreaming does not serve the flows more Celtic and Roman blood, and others modern requirements. Hence, he believes that the with more Slavic blood; however, their nature concentration of Romanians around the river Prut and their living conditions do not differ as much and the Lower Danube was possible and remains as between the Provencal wine and olive oil promising, because a competent people had to producers and the Norman beet grower, the find its position between Austro-Hungary and rough Asturian and the refined Andalusian, or Russia. At this precise point, a common Euro- the ex Liguria resident of Piedmont and the pean interest is revealed: the free navigation in Phoenician Sizilian. In contrast to the above the Lower Danube favored the creation of an cases, the German farmer, claims Ratzel, culti- independent state, incomparable to any vates cereal and potatoes from the Alps to the southeuropean state, both in terms of population North Sea, while his house, his stable, his and in terms of the uniformity of residences.161 worldview, even his stove, near which he sits far He argues that too strong a racial awareness, too often, are similar across the whole country. expressed by the demand for separation, nor- This is exactly the point, where Ratzel identifies mally results in a politically stillborn direction, the great power of the Germans, against which which over time cannot stand against the great only the generally innate, persistent and solvent laws governing the growth of states and peoples. instinct of the Germans could have an effect.160 Germany and Italy have shown the great, forward and upward-moving power that acts counter to national movements and exists within these laws. 4.3.6 Contradictions Moreover, the fact that several hundred French and Ephemerality were sent to the German side, a few hundred of the National thousand Italians remained “unredeemed” and Movements that 10–11 million Germans were excluded from the German Empire shows that the great politi- In this section Ratzel severely criticizes the cians face national unification movements only people who are possessed by the thought of pure as a means, but not as an end; as a means of origin, which blinds them as to the most impor- internal reinforcement and external integration tant events and the drives of the peoples’ and and enlargement of a people at the stage of states’ real life, often reaching the status of myth, decline and retreat. Along the same lines, Ratzel

160Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 161Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, pp. 476-477. p. 477. 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis 99 thinks that rapidly growing young peoples, like the Jewish or Arab Question are terms that the Anglo-Celts of North America, Australia and describe other racial conflicts, arising locally; South Africa who pursue national unity, are lurking elsewhere; bound to be followed by many using national movements. Even if they practi- others. What are the causes and the goals of cally face the spread of their language as a these conflicts? Are they necessary or avoid- facilitation for traveling, they are aware of the able?,163 he wonders. fact that they are providing essential services to Attempting to answer those questions, Ratzel the cause of their state unity. When a North begins by remarking that nature has imposed American evaluates European conditions, think- significant differences on mankind, but no one ing first of England and often forgetting com- knows the depth and breadth of their impact. pletely the mainland, he relapses into the national This leads to certain difficulties, when it comes to —emotional politics of Old Europe. Neverthe- answering questions such as: which members of less, Ratzel considers that England’s attempt to humanity are higher and which are lower? What draw capital for applied politics from this is the contribution of formal learning or educa- genealogy sentiment has remained fruitless, as tion, in balancing the virtues of peoples? The North Americans seek to grow as a special fact that no one has been able to give clear branch of the Anglo-Celtic tree, even introducing answers so far, is explained, according to Ratzel, terms like “American language”. Therefore, he by the impossibility to pin down the exact range discovers a trend running opposite the pursuit of of all the differences. When asked, if the prospect excessive expansion and submission of not only of defining a Negro’s level of skin darkness or a the entire America, but also the Pacific Ocean, to Mongol’s skull width could explain anything for the “American system”. Under the specific spa- the lives of peoples or for the history of mankind, tial conditions he considers this to be a healthy Ratzel replies that as long as the performance of reaction to liquidation and uncontrolled a Negro’s brain or the depth of a Mongol’s amalgamation.162 character can be deduced only by means of expressions and performance, which depend on a host of coincidences, one can not predict with 4.3.7 The Great Racial Issues certainty what a Negro or a Mongol would achieve under conditions different from the cur- For Ratzel, racial matters rank predictably below rent.164 A useful classification of races should the genealogical and national issues, since the not, according to Ratzel, go into depth, but stop expansion of space entails the expansion of the at the visible, the most tangible external features, contradictions arising thereof. He defines races the totality of which—and not merely individual as the largest human groups of natural kinship, features—defines a race. Ratzel believes that it noting that racial clashes sparked disputes among was this fact that impressed Herder at his first (genealogically defined) races and peoples, since steps in the classification of races, so as to (genealogically defined) races blended in differ- exclaim: Holy Mother Nature, you linked the ent peoples and the peoples came closer to each destiny of our race with so many tiny details! other. Recording the results of racial conflicts, Generally, Ratzel records the three main, always Ratzel points out that in the US (where races met, easily distinguishable, races: a. the Negroes, instead of peoples) the Native Americans were defeated in the North, while in the South an 163Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, assimilation process is taking place; in Australia pp. 478–479. the aboriginals tend to go extinct, while in the 164Ratzel expresses the same opinion in his essay Die Antilles they have almost disappeared. The Stellung der Naturvölker in der Menschheit and his article Negro Question, the yellow danger, in a sense Zur Beurteilung der Neger, where he is awaiting to evaluate the performance of the Negroes after a reason- able period of time, after they have used advanced cultural 162Ibid., pp. 477–478. tools. 100 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … characterised by dark skin, curly hair and fleshy art, while in science a respectable performance lips, b. the Mongols, characterized by yellow has already been recorded. This example— skin, straight, thick hair, broad cheekbones and along with the anatomical view that the Japanese an eye fold (epicanthic fold) and c. the White combine Northeast Asian and Malay elements race, featuring white skin, finer, wavy hair and a with those commonly characterized as Mongo- more delicate, more refined face configuration.165 lian—questions, according to Ratzel, the use of Adding more categories by younger scholars (red the old term Yellow or Mongolian race, and and brown race, or the trend to classify the dictates great care in the use of terms and the Australians and Tasmanians along with the ultimate arrival at a verdict. Ratzel praises the Negroes as another black race), Ratzel believes close collaboration between England and Japan, that Anatomy will find more reasons for further despite the previous negative opinion about the classifications, using perhaps criteria, found future of the yellow race. He recommends deeper than those of the racial science of his day, patience until the other aspects of the Japanese which mainly refer to the skin and the hair. performance unfold, and at the same time atten- However, he stresses that it will always be tiveness, so that any assessment is not deter- external properties, which, based on racial mined by views based on the assumption that classification, will allow many conclusions about there are major intellectual and psychological internal (properties), which, of course, are very differences,169 which should correspond to bod- often linked to the former.166 ily, racial differences.170 Ratzel generally believes that Negroes stand Ratzel’s peculiar insistence on the anatomical, lower167 than the Whites and the Australians external characteristics in racial classification is lower than most Negroes. Nonetheless, he rooted in his anthropological origins and on strongly emphasizes that we realize that certain racial classification based on external, anatomical intellectual qualities are not necessarily linked to findings. This precise point triggered personal physical characteristics by which we classify criticism by Chamberlain, the racism theorist races by means of the so-called “exceptions”,168 who accuses Ratzel of being an anthropologist since whoever has an open mind and a warm who calls into question the existence of an Aryan heart, necessary in such cases, realises the race, citing chaotic results of skull kindness, intelligence, courtesy and idealism in measurements.171 the eyes of the Negroes, and steps back when it Alluding to von Brandt, a politician and spe- comes to the point of assessing and criticising cialist on Asia Minor, Ratzel warns against the entire races, after seeing in dark-skinned people overuse of the term “Yellow danger”, since the features of the Whites or Whites having the curly source of the danger is nowhere to be seen. He hair or wide nose of the Negroes. Ratzel stresses wonders whether the danger lies in the pressure that such discoveries are not limited to individual exerted by the Mongol population, numbering people, but change the judgment for entire peo- 500 million, in the competition due to their ples over just a few generations. What were to us acuteness and their manual dexterity or in the the Japanese 40 years ago and what are they huge reserves of anthracite. He therefore puts today, he wonders, remarking that another great forth the need for a clear answer to the question power was added to the world, while new dreamy pages were added to the world history of 169Let us not forget that Ratzel recognizes reason 165 10 Ratzel, Fr. (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, (Vernunft) to all people. This is the starting point for p. 479. the united treatment of mankind. See, Sect. 4.4.3. The 166Ibid., p. 480. unity of the human species in Political Ethnography. 167On the use of the terms high and low see Sect. 4.1. 170Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 168By using the quotation marks Ratzel shows that he p. 480. disagrees with attributing to races other qualities beyond 171Chamberlain, H. S. (1903): Die Grundlagen des the anatomical. neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, pp. 121–122, footnote I. 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis 101 whether the unity of major races, a prerequisite avoids to associate this affinity with the twigs and in such cases, really exists. In this regard, he branches of a tree, but uses the metaphor of initially observes that the unity of major races inflow and interconnections of a system of ocean cannot be documented through studying indi- currents. Consequently, Ratzel defines race vidually the external characteristics of all mem- (Rasse) only as a group of physically related bers of a major race. As their various features peoples, which, through propagation, has pro- appear to be dispersed, he believes that there are gressively achieved in a given area such a certain peoples who present more common fea- majority and pertinence, so that any inflow and tures, but who are not homogenized. According amalgamation do not change the racial type of to Ratzel, this observation has led racial anato- the great majority nor is such possibility pre- mists to abandon mass and weighted research dicted for the foreseeable future.173 and to adopt the analytical method, whose pri- Naturally, he observes that this peaceful per- mary requirement is to take into account all parts ception is surpassed by the race sentiment of the body—apart from the skin, hair, eyes and (Rassengefühl), since at no time does the average skull—during the classification process. Bringing White man wonder why he considers the Negro a into the discussion the work of Hermann complete stranger. He does not even wish to Klaatsch, a racial anatomist, Ratzel notes that understand him or imagine that he might be readers get the impression that no feature is capable of education. He is content to declare unique to a single race; that the higher races him [the Black] a lower member of humanity, bear some of the features of the lower, and that with whom he wishes to have nothing in com- the most distinctive races, those of the Mongols mon. According to Ratzel, the Whites do not try and Negroes, lead to a unilateral development of to upgrade as part of their judgment even indi- properties, which occur scattered and rather vidual cases of people, believing that anyone infrequently in other races. On the other hand he who belongs to a race must remain part of it and verifies coincidences, such as the beautiful skull share its destiny. He considers ridiculous certain curvature of the Europeans and the Japanese, or details (such as an imperceptible yellow tint in other features found in many tribes, which show the white of the eye or a slight reddish-brown tint a parallel development, originating from different at the base of the nail) used as evidence of mis- starting points and leading to the same goal. cegenation with negro blood, while he is ironic Ratzel explains this emergence of common against those who argue they can smell racial properties in the most different races by means of differences and draft papers on the Smell of the inevitable amalgamation.172 Peoples. Generally, he observes that this presti- Despite the above, Ratzel argues that the gious race concept governs all peoples who claim common physical characteristics and the simi- to have a blood relationship and are proud of larity—which is of course much more difficult to their ancestors, rejecting any common element to determine—of intellectual capacities and dispo- people that belong to a different race.174 sitions constitute evidence of consanguinity. He Contrary to these perceptions, Ratzel remarks bolsters this position with the fact that the that the unity of the human species is in no way a Negroes and the mullahs could not—despite any dead letter, citing Herder, who expressed this amalgamation—have acquired their physical idea, which was not negated for 120 years as it characteristics from an ancestor with dark skin was reinforced by science, sometimes even and curly hair, just like the whites from ancestors inadvertently. Even if many things constitute with white skin and curly hair. In that sense, he today mere wishes and hopes for this great term considers all races as large families, connected with common family characteristics. Yet, he 173Ibid., pp. 481–482. In his essay Die Erde und das Leben (1902), p. 626, another definition of race is recorded, See Sect. 4.5.1. 172Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 174Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, p. 481. p. 482. 102 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors …

“humanity”, he notes, it is a fact that people of Does common blood mean nothing whatsoever? the most diverse races mate and produce off- Can the common memories and common faith be springs; that all people enjoy the virtues of replaced by abstract ideals? … Should our Logic, Language and Religion, and that they judgment not be based on a clear law of nature? have some of the most important cultural tools: Don’t biological sciences teach us that in the fire, clothing, huts, boats, the simplest of weap- animal and plant kingdom new pureblood spe- ons and tools for fishing and hunting. Behind any cies emerge—namely species endowed with differences in cultural progress, Ratzel identifies extraordinary physical and mental powers—only as a common basis the sharing of cultural under certain conditions, restrictive with regard achievements and emphasizes that no race has to the creation of new individuals? … What is a proved incapable of accepting the teachings of race? … What will the disappearance of certain Christianity, which—as was the case with the races mean for history? … What are the pure second monotheistic religion, Islam—was cre- races? Where do they come from? Do they have ated by a Semitic ethnic group, enriched with any historical significance? Are these broad or several drops of Negro blood. The occurence of narrow concepts? Do we know something about common elements, whose origins go back to the them or not? How are the concepts of “race” weapons and tools of the Pleistocene,175 is, and “nation” related?179 according to Ratzel, a result of labor and Regarding these two conflicting attitudes: on exchange thousands of years ago,176 therefore he the one hand the sense of community with this predicts that the most distant members of humanity (Gefühl der Gemeischaft mit dieser humanity shall also cooperate in the future; one Menschheit) in which all people partake, and on will not perform the other’s work, but the prin- the other hand the justified race sentiment (Ras- ciple of labor division177 based on each one’s sengefühl), Ratzel discerns an awkward contra- inclinations will be most likely applied while diction between our preferences and our everyone will have participated in the final decisions. Hence, while he points at the historical result.178 doctrine that power belongs to the mentally and The idea of the unity of humanity that was just physically strong and that every people who described is another point of severe criticism wants to exist in the future needs at least the against Ratzel by the racism theorist Chamber- necessary power to defend their territory and lain: … is nation, is race an empty word? Must protect themselves from harmful influences,he we all, as the ethnographer Ratzel insists, keep in also stresses that the cultural progress we have mind the merging of all people into one unity as achieved, inoculates us with a hidden aversion “our objective and duty, hope and longing?” … against the clear acknowledgement of the need for serious racial struggles. If only the Earth had 175 Quaternary is often considered the “Age of Humans.” more space! Ratzel exclaims as the ratio of the Homo erectus appeared in Africa at the start of the period, ’ 2 and as time marched on the hominid line evolved bigger Earth s surface (150 mm ) to the population (1.5 brains and higher intelligence. The first modern humans million) leaves no room to avoid one another. At evolved in Africa about 190,000 years ago and dispersed the same time he remarks that it is pointless to to Europe and Asia and then on to Australia and the conceal the fact that the differences in the phys- Americas. Along the way the species has altered the composition of life in the seas, on land, and in the air— ical equipment of the various races of humanity and now, scientists believe, we're causing the planet to preclude the congruence of performance and warm. http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/ requirements. Therefore, the only solution is, in prehistoric-world/quaternary/. this case too, the prioritization and distribution 176 A clear reference to the theory of diffusionism. See of duties, combined with a spatial separation, so Sect. 5.2. 177The concept of labour division runs many texts of Ratzel. See Sects. 4.2.3, 4.4.3, 4.5.3. 178Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 179Chamberlain, H. S. (1903): Die Grundlagen des pp. 482–483. neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, pp. 263–264. 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis 103 as to reduce the risk of amalgamation for the Today their best friends advise the US Negroes higher race.180 to waive their right to vote, since social equality In that light Ratzel examines the example of has been essentially already invalidated; what is the most burning and most practically tackled more, it could never be fully applied against the racial issue, the Negro Question in the US. Citing opposite race sentiment of the great masses of population data of the time, he indicates that, the Whites: the US president may well appoint a since the abolition of slavery (1863), the negro Negro diplomat, but he cannot enforce the population in the US has more than doubled, Negro’s right to sit in the same railway wagon amounting in 1900 to 8.84 million, and increas- with the Whites!183 ing significantly in the southern states and the Commenting on the White Americans’ inten- Gulf states, where the average density of the tion to provide the Negroes with all the necessary black population is three times higher than that of means to secure for them proper training in the white. Despite the fact that most Negroes in agriculture and manual occupations, hoping that the South live in the countryside, as the whites they can be easily trained as an inferior but useful are driven to the cities, where Negroes are not class—in other words facilitating a return to a used as industrial workers, he records in 1900 structure based on castes, identical to the old over one million Negroes residing in the cities of Hindu social system—Ratzel remarks that the the South.181 Hindu structure was originally based primarily Comparing the cases of Negroes, Native on racial differences and in this case the Americans and Chinese, especially in California, uncomfortable cohabitation of the Whites on the where all three races are importantly present, same ground with a race they loathe would be Ratzel remarks that—unlike the decreasing pop- mitigated by their ability to unfold freely as a ulation of Native Americans and Chinese—the sovereign people over this lower class. Naturally, Negroes record a population growth on a land he estimates that in this case the following two completely foreign to them. Several facts (i.e. no risks would not have been avoided: amalgama- noteworthy transport of Negroes had been tion, which slowly leads to the mitigation of recorded since 1810, while an emigration wave oppositions, and the loss of a direct connection to outside the US, paired with the declining birth- the land, and, along with that, all of the beneficial rate among the Whites to the point that the threat influences of a healthy peasant class by means of of a population decline was imminent without the which a people grows roots in its territory.184 import of new population) show how deeply the For Ratzel perhaps the greatest danger—if Negro question touches the internal increase of a such a settlement were imposed—is the probable new people. He therefore concludes that the atrophy of other altruistic feelings, which are United States may not be able to restrict the unrelated to the racial issue. He characteristically import of white immigrants, as the xenophobic, reminds us that it is from the US white popula- highly influential parties would wish, without tion that both the noblest defenders of Negro risking a change in the ratio of Negroes to Whites human rights, as well as the most brutal racist to the benefit of the former.182 rulers, whose most recent expression are the Furthermore, Ratzel believes that the race executors of lynchings, originate. Whether the sentiment often nullifies in practice the political contact with the coloured people will give rise to will to implement a policy of equality between noble or bad feelings, Ratzel subjects to the Blacks and Whites, which was the result of great high-ranking people, since from the ethnic intellectual struggles and a catastrophic civil war: debates in Austria to the racial conflicts in the new US states the rule is confirmed that the 180Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, p. 483. 183Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 181Ibid., pp. 483–484. p. 484. 182Ibid.,p. 484. 184Ibid., p. 485. 104 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … decision on whether such conflicts would be race per se as unchangeable and liable to mutate beneficial for all or not is in the hands of the only by amalgamation. The first two are destined dominant people or the leading race. The more to a low life, while they have achieved higher potent individuals a people includes, the more performance, such as in the Chinese culture, only efficient and ultimately humane the racial policy after amalgamation with the third race, the they will apply. The weakest people have been Aryans. During the course of human history they involved in the most bitter racial and genealogi- remain the lowest elements, always threatening cal conflicts. We welcome the term “sovereign to drag the Aryan race down low through amal- people” (Herrenvolk), provided that it is not only gamation. Gobineau thinks this undesirable the gift of sovereignty that characterizes us, but development will occur: he predicts an earth the ability to secure for each people special without contradictions, without beauty, without subsistence rights in their field, insofar as they heroism, after the earth’s population is reduced are compatible with the overall interests.185 and humanity has fallen into a state of wretchedness. Chamberlain does not share— 4.3.7.1 Ratzel’s Critique Against according to Ratzel—the viewpoint of his tea- Gobineau cher: he is optimistic and thinks that the potential and Chamberlain186 extinction of the Germans is preventable; he The essay in question ends with a two-page long thinks of the Germans as the flower of humanity, severe critique against racism theorists Gobineau of course only through the use of all available and Chamberlain, who have discussed the racial means in order to distinguish Germanhood as issue, exerting the greatest influence on the the element that will inspire the entire modern German readers. After expressing his genuine history.188 sympathy to their intentions, namely to make Against the above theories Ratzel is extremely everybody realize the importance of race in the harsh, realising that any intention to prove in life of peoples over the course of history, Ratzel which parts these theories suffer or to dissemi- unconditionally condemns the way in which they nate and control the imaginary migration and handle the data of Ethnography and History.187 amalgamation, which exists only in the imagi- Ratzel characterises both of them as brilliant, nation of race fanatics, is simply futile. Aiming but unscientific figures: Gobineau as a kind of to highlight only their key errors, Ratzel first of Viktor Hugo in prose, no less misleading than his all contests the view that races can not be rhetoric; Chamberlain as milder, but in no way transformed in any other way than by amalga- wiser, due to his prevalent Anglo-Celtic mation,189 and argues that both humans as well propensity towards handling the scientific truth as any other living being are subject to the imprudently, when it comes to proving his own changeability of their forefathers. How else can ideas. Noting that this is the nature of many we explain the evolution of even the white Aryans powerful personalities, he stresses that holding themselves, asks Ratzel, using the example of the matters in check through science is essential, as change of the European peoples, including the both try to influence through exaggeration, Jews, in America and Australia. He moves on to reckoning that by means of a simple rejection discuss the need to coassess social influences, the they can forever delete truths which “are not degeneration due to decadence or deprivation.190 correct”. Ratzel summarizes their theory as fol- As a second fatal unilateralism by Gobineau lows: they consider the Black, Yellow and White and Chamberlain, Ratzel records their refusal to accept the impact of geographical conditions. He

185Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, p. 485. 188Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 186The intertitle is not in the original. p. 486. 189 187Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, Ibid., pp. 486–487. p. 485. 190Ibid., p. 487. 4.3 Nationalities and Races: A Human-Geographical Analysis 105 mentions the insular features of the British with human relations, and people’s convergence character and the effects of the isolated location into societies and states, capable of leading to on Norway or Spain, as undeniable proof that conclusions about the future.192 He considers the people’s residence influences their mind and conditions of his time ideal for the development body. The third major error of the racism theo- of that science, since he can discern for the first rists is, according to Ratzel, a fictional creation of time an affinity between peoples, and at the same history. He accuses them of lacking any respect time better knowledge and understanding of past for the truth and any modesty towards things that eras. However, apart from the facts, for Ratzel it they cannot know. Indeed, he characterises their is more significant to discover uniting factors role as a peculiar theatre, since by aiming at the between the peoples and current situations and widest possible influence, they have set a goal— the thread connecting them. Stressing the enor- widely accepted, even if some disagree on the mous number of visitors to ethnographic muse- method to achieve it—which they hope, quite ums, despite the fact that not even 100 years had wrongly, to best achieve by abusing science, passed since attention was drawn on the tools and entering the most absurd paths. Rather than weapons of the so-called wild people, he attri- addressing the simplest human mind, which butes the progress of Ethnography to the partic- supports that both individuals and peoples owe a ular circumstances of his time and parallels it lot to their natural predisposition, and therefore with the progress of Natural Sciences, estimating a lot must be done to sustain their positive that it might bring equally significant practical attributes or improve the race, they look for results.193 evidence in the dim past, and when they can find Ethnography is for Ratzel the child of the era none, they invent it. As a result, Ratzel considers and of “Verkehr”, because (like every other Gobineau and Chamberlain an example of how a science) it is influenced by the era, which sets historical worldview focused too much on the new missions parallel to the timeless overall past creates a distorted perception of reality, objectives. He thus views Political Ethnography while he concludes with the advice that: If racial under the influence of Verkehr, whose great theory wants to offer to the peoples and states contribution lies not in the fact that it diminishes tangible and measurable service, it should quit space, facilitates the exchange of goods and the absolutely unnecessary way of a science that enriches peoples, nor in the direct stimulation of is not a science, and answer current questions the population through the dissemination of the using current data.191 achievements of a higher rank, but much more in the approach of the peoples themselves. Verkehr works more than anything else towards 4.4 Some Tasks of a Political approaching all members of humanity. The Ethnography transformation of humanity in the sense of approaching all peoples is a mission dictated by 4.4.1 Theoretical and Applied divine providence. Nobody has in mind a Ethnography homogenization. If differences were eliminated, the peace characteristic of cemeteries would Using the example of sciences with a theoretical arise. Life needs discrepancy. Gaps are neces- and an applied element (Mathematics, Chem- sary, but only where nature wishes them to istry, Geology, Metallurgy, Zoology and Botany all claim a role as applied medical sciences), Ratzel wonders why a Practical or Applied Ethnography should not exist, a science dealing 192Here we see the required predictive ability, for which Ratzel asks in Scientific Political Geography. 191Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, 193Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen p. 487. Ethnographie, pp. 402–403. 106 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … appear; and we do not want to make them dee- Negroes, who had been imported and subjugated per, than the state history brought them to.194 as slaves, their subsequent overestimation Ratzel suggests the need to approach and caused the most intense crisis in the life of the analyse the world situation on ethnographic young state. The long period of slavery was grounds, not only under the scientific micro- followed by its abolition within a few years. And scope, but as part of the highest education, which now one of the major and most difficult issues of draws from science the theories about life. He America is how to integrate the Negroes in the considers that Ethnography adds to the term states created by the Whites. It would be arro- humanity (Menschheit) a content with tangibly gant to claim that a better knowledge of the and practically useable worldviews, accurately peoples would prevent all disasters and adverse presenting the nature of lower peoples. No matter circumstances; in any case it could have offered how much lower than us stands the Bushmann, in advance the lessons acquired later through the Australian Aboriginal or the Native Ameri- bitter experiences.196 can of the Land of Fire, he ultimately remains human. Estimating that the term “humanity”— like all great terms—runs the risk of becoming an 4.4.2 Land and People empty shell, he believes that science must react and seizes the opportunity to show the way to the Ratzel demands a healthy balance in the practical understanding of the concept of hu- assessment of the land and the people,197 as part manity, instead of simply following develop- of his claim for the establishment of a Political ments: Knowing the nature and the potential of Ethnography, which will explore the political peoples who live far away from us and are cul- consequences and effects of peoples’ natural and turally lower, is the only thing that enables us to cultural properties and delve, as required, into the have the right attitude towards them. Science has historical development of the social and political not yet weakened the accusation aired by an structures.198 Consistent to this rationale, he English traveler 60 years ago: “Political Science criticizes the widespread tendency to examine the seems to be missing the chapter with the basic states more closely from their geographical than principles, which should guide civilized peoples from their ethnographical side. Unambiguously, in the best possible manner in their communi- he warns against overestimating a people’s cation with uncivilized peoples. This chapter has geographical characteristics which could have a hardly received any editing, not only in Political variety of effects on people, despite their Science but also in Ethnography.195 unchangeability compared to the change of Therefore, Ratzel concludes that the goal of human generations, since the impact of geo- Political Ethnography should be the prevention graphical conditions is the same, as long as a of misconceptions regarding the potential of people remains the same with regard to its nat- races and peoples, which are a major cause of ure and abilities.199 The assumption that land political misunderstandings and failures. The unchangeability governs the people is—accord- underestimation and overestimation of the col- ing to Ratzel—misleading and explained by the ored races have both had an equally negative tendency to overlook the internal changes of influence on the policy of European colonial peoples, since historical theories were extrapo- powers. While previously the US history had lated based almost exclusively on the study of been affected by the underestimation of the

196Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ethnographie, p. 404. 197 194Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ibid., p. 404. Ethnographie, p. 403. 198Ibid., p. 404. 195Ibid., pp. 403–404. 199Ibid., p. 405. 4.4 Some Tasks of a Political Ethnography 107 historical peoples of the old world, i.e. peoples of America will never become united, despite its the same race and of great durability.200 geographical isolation. From a European per- Another fact which militates against the spective, he further concludes that South and identification of a people with its territory is, Central Europe offer to the political and eco- according to Ratzel, the suspension of peoples’ nomic entrepreneurial spirit of European peo- properties, the political repression of entire ples a completely different, more open ground peoples.201 This is a view he draws from the than North America.205 example of the Romanians, who were not taken Furthermore, Ratzel points to people who have into account for centuries when describing made better use of their land than its size, position Hungary and Siebenbürgen, because they were a and landscape allows (e.g. Athens in antiquity lower social class, without political rights, under and Prussia in modern history), and he presents the Magyars and the Germans. At his time, Montenegro as a current example of a country however, with more than 2.5 million people, they with minimal political importance, because (par- constituted the third most powerful people ticularly with regard to its size of 1878) it was among the subjects of the Árpád dynasty small, barren due to its exclusion from the coast (Stephanskrone) and, along with the 5 million and unfavorable for transport due to its relief.206 Romanians of the kingdom, Southern Europe’s Therefore, Ratzel thinks that there are peoples, most compact national body.202 whose history and conditions are enough to lead According to Ratzel, the confusion between to a more ethnographic, rather than geographi- land and people plays an even greater role in cal approach as well as countries which have young states and colonies, where it is a common never been so closely connected with their terri- practice to take into account and assess the land tories, that they can not be conceived without it. alone, as if it were empty of people, thinking that One such example is Turkey, where neither in it can later gain value with the arrival of another their rise, nor in their fall were the people ever people, different to the indigenous one, who is closely connected to the land, to the point that left unnoticed. Thus, Ratzel points to many instead of the phrase Turkish Empire, the phrase unwise decisions of many colonial forces to the Turkish Rule is rightly used. Likewise, in the displace the natives from their colonies and case of colonial history a lot depends on the endorses the view of Oskar Baumann, who crit- people that resume work each time. Ratzel icizes the illusion of German officials and offi- believes that the Dutch emerge more frequently in cers, who look down on Negroes and wish to discussions as explorers and conquerors, than to govern Africa without the Africans.203 refer to the Netherlands per se.207 As part of this discussion Ratzel questions These considerations lead Ratzel to the con- even the geographical unity of America, a viction that knowing a country means more than country he praises in many of his writings, col- describing its geographical properties (location, lating the ethnic diversity of the peoples residing land and climate), since we are ultimately always therein, a politically far more important feature directed to the people who live there. And it is than America’s geographical cohesion.204 The harder work to focus on a changing people than greatest contrast between North and Central to describe the physical characteristics of the America is identified in the peoples’ origin and land. According to Ratzel, Geography and history, differences leading to the conclusion that Statistics can contribute to this endeavour, by recording the population, the size of cities, the length of arterial roads and a lot more measurable 200Ibid., p. 405. 201Ibid., p. 405. 202Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 205Ibid., p. 406. Ethnographie, p. 405. 206Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 203Ibid., p. 406. Ethnographie, pp. 406–407. 204Ibid., p. 406. 207Ibid., p. 407. 108 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … data. Moreover, Geography can analyze the dis- ultimate goal of the peoples’ synergy in their persion of peoples and languages, which is where joint missions.212 the subject matter of Geography begins in its For Political Ethnography, the unity of man- political implementation.208 kind means, in essence, the necessity, but also Therefore, Ratzel concludes, the description the possibility of the cooperation of the various of each state has to record the geographic and segments of humanity for the state, the church ethnographic characteristics and every political and the various cultural circles. This cooperation assessment must be based on both. The nature is, in Ratzel’s view, a major step, from which no and type of land and water resources affect the member can be excluded, even if that was his state as much as the characteristics of the people wish, since everything is attached to the common residing on this land, and constituting, together ground, which prevents separations. Further- with the land, the state.209 more, he considers that no part of humanity is so distanced from the others, so as not to undertake any of the common duties, some more demand- 4.4.3 The Unity of the Human Species ing ones and some easier ones. Of course,he in Political Ethnography adds, the duties can not and must not be the same for all peoples, as different skills indicate differ- Ratzel defines the unity of the human species as a ent points, and life lies only in the diversification key fact of Geography in the sense that, as there of duties and the labor division. And the expe- is only one Earth and one undivided Earth’s rience of colonial history teaches us how many surface, so there is only one humanity.210 How- great advantages can be derived from putting in ever, even if there were more human species, in use different skills in different positions. The time they would come into contact and cross- Russian power in Asia is largely founded on the breed. Thus, he parallels this geographical fact fact that Russian settlers do not feel that foreign with the ethnological fact, that they (humans) are to the inhabitants of North and Central Asia, so physically and intellectually connected by means as not to be allowed to participate in major of innumerable transitional points.211 cultural projects, with equal requirements and Although policy, Verkehr and intellectual rights. And perhaps a white colonial policy forces work towards bringing together all parts of should one day secure for the millions of US humanity, Ratzel still distinguishes several Negroes a better future in Western India or the ethnographic elements and traces, which prove Philippines, where they can best utilize their that this process has been evolving since very old assets.213 times. Characteristic examples are the human As to the relation between state and humanity, relics of ancient times such as skulls or bones, Ratzel considers that the state isn’t passively which show that they have come under consid- involved in the latter’s evolution, but rather erable influences and amalgamation. The ques- constitutes one of its most important tools, the tion whether this process will ever be completed driving force of humanity’s evolution, since it can not be answered, since, according to Ratzel, acts through violent expansion and integration old and significant differences still exist, there- towards the same direction as Verkehr does fore the only safe assertion is the approach of the through a peaceful approach and exchange.214 Next, Ratzel analyzes the contribution of Verkehr in the creation of humanity, stressing that Verkehr was the first to break the barriers 208Ibid., p. 408. 209Ibid., p. 408. 212Ibid., p. 409. 210Ibid., pp. 408–409. 213Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 211Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ethnographie, p. 409. Ethnographie, p. 409. 214Ibid., p. 410. 4.4 Some Tasks of a Political Ethnography 109 that prevented small peoples or hordes from attractive, directly displace other, more imper- developing into humanity. The creation of hu- fect creations, and thus improve the cultural manity begins only with the advent of Verkehr movements of a people. However, he generally and the relationships created thereof, since considers this effect anything but favorable, since primitive people lived in small or very small it undermines the economic foundations. And— isolated, out of fear, groups or in also isolated, irrespective of any alcohol consumption—isn’ta hidden tribes. So, larger peoples were created by Negro with a breech-loading gun a man of the grouping of small scattered peoples and now higher rank, compared to a Negro with a bow the states continue this evolution. According to and arrows? He will rise in status, only when the law of political balance, opposite any large trade emerges, which will motivate the lazy son state a larger one is created, while Ratzel draws of a tropical country to work and perform indi- the same conclusions for state-making from the vidually, and when the missionary, the book and spread of Verkehr, since state-making increases the newspaper follow in the merchant’s proportionately to the growth of Verkehr or after footsteps.217 the Verkehr. Stating that the subject matter of Analysing next the relationship between Ver- Political Geography is to prove the expansion of kehr and policy, Ratzel acknowledges the greater areas and states of Verkehr, he refers to his efficiency of the latter, which follows Verkehr, Political Geography [ch. 8–10] where he tried to transforming the trading routes into conqueror follow this essentially simple procedure starting routes and traffic areas into countries. Their from state-villages of natural-orientated peoples main difference is that Verkehr left the decision to the great states of the present. According to on the intensity of the approach and exchange to Ratzel, an example of this process is the case of the tribes, while state-making restrained the dis- the African region, ranging from the area of senters, forcing them to be useful to others and to Nyaugue in the East, the river Kassai in the West, the whole. So, the great empires were created the kingdom of Dar Runga in the North and the from state-villages, and now every habitable part Lunda people in the South, where until 25 years of the earth is politically occupied or a matter of ago weapons and gunpowder were unknown. dispute, including deserts and wastelands, which Shortly after Stanley’s trip to Kongo in 1879 the were once the natural border between states. The European trade penetrated this tranquil oasis and border became virtual lines, concludes Ratzel, 10 years later the state of Congo was created. which do no longer exist in reality. Thus, the The state grew after Verkehr.215 exchange between peoples became more and In this sense, Ratzel perceives Verkehr as a more active, and the creation of humanity as one carrier of culture, labeling as erroneous the idea was essentially possible.218 that Verkehr and trade inoculate directly the Having said that, Ratzel considers a state’s culture of a higher people into the soul of a lesser process of growing, either through the peoples or people. The external mission of Verkehr is pri- the tribes, as a contribution to the evolution of marily to bring peoples closer. They will then humanity, characterizing every state as a tool of interact by themselves. Verkehr has no higher this process. By entering a state, the most diverse intention. It is more of a means to fulfill a pur- peoples get increasingly closer to each other and pose.216 Of course, he remarks that as a means or over time they balance their differences by tool Verkehr is unsurpassed, since it acts con- amalgamation.219 The processes of peoples’ tinuously, effortlessly, without requiring any kind economic, political and ethnographic approach of motivation. The goods and merchandise it are therefore intrinsically connected, since, just brings can, when they are more useful and 217Ibid., p. 411. 215Ibid., p. 410. 218Ibid., p. 411. 216Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 219Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ethnographie, pp. 410–411. Ethnographie, p. 411. 110 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … as the economic connection prepares the politi- Mediterranean peoples, and the most visible cal one, political unity is always the first step proof therefore is the use of Roman words from towards an ethnographic unity. Verkehr allows Syria’s French language, to the British Isles, people to mix in various ways—policy groups from the Atlas Mountains (NW Africa) to the them and lets them interact in a specific place. North Sea. Similarly, Ratzel points out that the This creates what could be called “a political Latin monetary union, expanding from Belgium race” (politische Rasse).220 Ratzel believes that to Romania and Greece, was based on the affinity the Roman Empire exercised to the maximum of the Roman provinces. Moreover, in order to that kind of influence, by erasing the conflicts interpret the huge circulation of French books, he between Greeks and barbarians, which occupied invokes the internal sympathy among Roman a large part of Greek history. Ratzel identifies the peoples, which is still strong enough to overcome roots of the cosmopolitan perception about the linguistic barrier between French, Italian, peoples and racial differences, which was Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian.223 attributed to Christianity, in the unification of Throughout the course of history, Ratzel dis- peoples by the worldwide Roman Empire, with- cerns a tendency to reapproach and get out which Christianity would never become a acquainted with remote peoples. Considering the world religion, as early Christians started barbarians or enemies as subhuman was a com- spreading from its hubs, while missionaries used mon phenomenon until the historical horizon roads created by the Roman troops. So, when extended to forever more population groups and Rome stopped being the capital of the secular the concept of humanity finally took a practical, world, it was already the capital of political form. Important stages of this process Christianity.221 were the reconciliation between the Greeks and It is also very interesting, how the German Westasians, as a result of state-making by geographer comments on the settlement of the Alexander the Great and his successors,224 or conflict between Greeks and barbarians, as a unifications and amalgamation as part of the consequence of the Macedonian Empire, which worldwide Roman Empire. Nevertheless, the was created precisely due to this conflict, but was greatest influence in this direction was exerted by surpassed exactly at that time, when it [the Christianity: When the New World with its Macedonian Empire] arose as a Eurasian state completely new races was discovered, priests construct.222 Quoting Plato (who considered the proclaimed those unequivocal polytheists and conflict between the Greeks and the barbarians barbarians worthy of participating in church; so normal, as they were born enemies) and Aristotle they were rescued from the threat of slavery. (who considered the barbarians as born slaves Nothing shows more clearly the progress made under the Greeks, who were destined to rule), by Christianity with regard to learning about Ratzel points out that such arrogance and exag- and understanding people.225 Estimating that the geration could not be confirmed due to the key Greeks would have never progressed to such an similarities among the Mediterranean peoples. acknowledgement, and that state and church did He also estimates that these views were initially not agree that easily in the cases of other peoples, refuted in the Greek colonies, mainly in Sicily Ratzel praises once again the role of Church in and then in Marseille and South Galicia, coun- the abolition of slavery: The church proved by tries with a truly gifted population, who caught missionary action that it does not doubt the up with the Greeks very soon, even with regard human nature of the Negroes, when secular to the Greek education. Above all, Rome con- bodies considered slave hunting and slave trade tributed greatly towards approaching the 223Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 220Ibid., pp. 411–412. Ethnographie, p. 412. 221Ibid., p. 412. 224Ibid., pp. 412–413. 222Ibid., p. 412. 225Ibid., p. 413. 4.4 Some Tasks of a Political Ethnography 111 as a permitted business venture, widely accept- basis on which to build any assessment.229 This able and negotiable in transnational is the ultimate and highest goal of Political agreements.226 Ethnography: the essential creation of a proac- Accordingly, Ratzel concludes that humanity tive and prudent evaluation of peoples, which is overall in a continuous change, even if certain will guide our behavior towards all other peo- people remain for centuries essentially unaf- ples, thus an implementation of scientific prin- fected, living in sheltered residences. To illus- ciples of the greatest importance and rich in trate the range of changes over the last centuries, consequences. And, of course, it seems to be he invokes the era of great discoveries, when all highly accountable, considering that Verkehr, America and Australia and the greatest part of policy, cultural and religious interactions of Africa were untouched by the Europeans and peoples must be determined by a proper evalu- inhabited only by the natives. The majority of the ation of the nature and skills of peoples. Noting tribes, that the explorers of the New World that the discussion of a topic of that calibre in a encountered, have disappeared. Their place was short paragraph is a difficult undertaking,230 he occupied by the whites or mestizos. Every census limits himself in presenting only the key lines, so in America or Australia provides new evidence of that the major and common mistakes during the the continuation of this process: thousands of evaluation of peoples can be prevented.231 fewer natives, hundreds of thousands of square First of all, he stresses the need to reconsider kilometers of free land for the Whites. More the opinion that the differences in the gifts of space for culture (Kultur), more people working peoples are an inescapable coincidence, since for culture, more people enjoying the blessing of such differences are as necessary as the other (culture).227 Their attitude not to stand differences of life; they are part of life and should empty-handed towards this movement, but try to be acknowledged and leveraged. Therefore, a play a role in determining it, belongs, according people becomes more tolerant as far as the dif- to Ratzel, to the characteristics of peoples who ferences with other peoples are concerned, if it have a future, and to the missions of civilized first examines the way that the preferences of states. Nevertheless, Political Ethnography has each people are linked to its more general prop- to show the direction this movement is pro- erties. What is more, Ratzel reckons that this gressing to and the position that the era, the research should lead to the conclusion that in people and the state have to hold.228 order to avoid the rusting of our own forces, the properties of other nations should challenge us towards imitating them or defending ourselves 4.4.4 Peoples’ Evaluation against them. In most cases he sees the greatness of a people just in its capacity to use any dif- This section is essentially a compendium of the ferences to its advantage, as for example France homonymous text presented in Sect. 4.2. Con- did with its German populations or like Russia sistent with his views expressed over time, Ratzel which in the past utilised the Germans, or Austria points out that the evaluation of a people must with its diverse population.232 Ratzel considers take into account all internal and external facts, the result of the historical movement as a basi- which determine or could determine its actions, cally gradual elimination of differences between namely to take into account all geographical, statistical and ethnographical data. The Political Geography of a country could be considered as a 229Ibid., pp. 413–414. 230It is surprising, that he isn’t referring to his own essay 226Ibid., p. 413. with the same title published in 1878. 227Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 231Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ethnographie, p. 413. Ethnographie, p. 414. 228Ibid., p. 413. 232Ibid., p. 414. 112 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … peoples and he detects a tendency to overesti- their ancient history.235 Ratzel avoids putting all mate their differences, which rises to the surface the blame on them for the lost war of 1897 as people believe that they have to intensify the against the Turks, so as not to commit the same differences in order to emphasize their indepen- mistake vice versa.236 dence. This is where the main tendency to cause With regard to peoples’ potential for educa- major political tension is founded with fatal tion, Ratzel believes that it can be practically results for peoples’ relations, emanating from proved only within certain time limits, and to minor national differences, both at the level of illustrate that point he uses the example of the races (the prevalent units of humanity), and at the Tasmanians; educating them—with a view to level of peoples or genealogical races. One such reaching a level comparable to the European— example, according to Ratzel, is the small dif- would require some centuries, however they ferences between northern and southern Ger- were suddenly lost, because they were given only mans, which were nonetheless enough to keep a few decades: those involved in the evaluation of Germany divided for centuries.233 In order to peoples do not take sufficiently into account the solidify such imaginary, in most part, differences, question of time. Starting from the theoretical some are keen in drawing geographical bound- contention that all people have the same natural aries, whose significance is overemphasized. gifts, they conclude that all people must be Such geographical differences between the North practically equal to each other. According to and the South have been, according to Ratzel, Ratzel, these views lead to the worst misunder- exaggerated in the case of both America and standings. He then uses the example of the Germany. Likewise, he considers that the dif- emancipation of Negro slaves in North America, ferences in the attitude of neighboring who were granted by means of a signature all the genealogical races within the same state are rights of the US citizen without first getting overstressed.234 equipped with the necessary skills. As a result, Examining the examples of more or less equality remained an empty shell and many warlike Negro tribes (Ehre and Dualla respec- claimed that the Negroes were culturally tively) in the Gulf of Guinea or the difference incompetent. This view is clearly rejected by between the decisive Guarani Native Americans Ratzel, when he brings again to the discussion in Latin America and the more apathetic Tupi the issue of time: We could add: Are you eval- tribe—a difference which remained in the mod- uating the Negroes as culturally incompetent ern state under Christian influence—, Ratzel because they failed to learn in these 10 years the concludes that the upsurge of differences leads to things for which you needed 1000?237 Aside incredibly strong biases which are widespread from errors of carelessness and unilateralism, and can be corrected only after a long historical which portray inaccurately the evaluation of process. An example of this is the Greeks’ bias to peoples, Ratzel draws attention to the deliberate consider all their neighbors, even the speakers of slander against peoples, in which the lower Greek dialects, as barbarians; a bias which lead peoples are mainly engaged, describing their to their fall, since it prevented any attempt to neighbours as cannibals or men with dog heads reinforce themselves by means of connecting or people who transform into wild animals. The with the barbarians and timely expanding their same phenomenon was observed among cultur- territory. Similarly, Ratzel believes that Europe ally advanced peoples who try in books to slan- paid for devaluating the Russians, while at the der one another (e.g. the Germans the English same time he considers the Greeks overesti- mated, inaccurately interpreted in the wake of 235Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ethnographie, pp. 415–416. 236Ibid., p. 416. 233 Ibid., pp. 414–415. 237Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 234Ibid., p. 415. Ethnographie, p. 416. See also Sect. 4.1. 4.4 Some Tasks of a Political Ethnography 113 and vice versa). Realizing that the investigation and the illiterate, whose simple and discreet toil, of this phenomenon might require several vol- deprivation and self-sacrifice crushed any cul- umes to be compiled, he simply discusses a tural arrogance is recurrent. Not the brain, but the particularly interesting case, appearing in the myocardium is the essential determinant of dis- earlier works of American ethnographers, who putes between peoples, when conflicts with constantly raised the question whether some of weapons at hand take place.240 the warped ideas of the Native Americans could In the case of low cultural levels, Ratzel be used in order to sugarcoat the barbaric anni- estimates that there is no other means to prove a hilation policy, which brought the New World in people’s value than war, which is also one of the the hands of the Whites. So, this would be a case most important criteria at advanced cultural of malicious falsification.238 levels. The reason thereof is always the same, On the question of whether intellectual pow- since a people uses every resource available to ers should be included in a people’s evaluation, defend itself against an attack, as a short-term Ratzel considers it a mistake to judge a people conflict is often decisive for the distant future only by this criterion. Typical is the example of (e.g. Prussia after the Seven Year War or Ger- the Greeks, who remained politically behind the many after the war of 1870–1871 have com- intellectually inferior Romans, showing that a pletely different political values).241 Of course nation, like an individual man, can not flourish the value attributed to such a challenge is pro- based only on its intellect. Moral forces and portionate to what a nation brings to the war. The willpower should be equally taken into account preparation period, the size of mobilized masses, when it comes to global historical figures, and the extent of people’s participation, are all deci- one should not forget physical capacity. In this sive criteria for the evaluation of a people.242 In context, Ratzel considers as a historically sig- times of peace the peoples’ performance consists nificant quality of peoples their endurance to the of the preservation and propagation of life. hardship of war, even in its most simple form, However, it is on this performance that their walking. Also, the hard character and muscles nutrition, equipment and reproduction, depends characterise the superiority of children from the on, in other words their power and growth. After cold regions of the earth against the soft inhabi- a war the results of long hidden processes or of a tants of warm countries.239 slow decline emerge, a decline which would Clearly affected by a typical Protestant idea have remained unnoticed were it not for that Ratzel stresses that the influence of a people on turmoil.243 the practical world can only depend on its The best school for the evaluation of peoples practical performance, explaining that, even will always be the sovereignty over peoples, though the German poets of the Napoleonic concludes Ratzel, noting that every political world domination or the Italian musicians and sovereignty is a lesson of applied Political artists brought great honour to their countries, Ethnography.244 Attempting to explain the dif- they did not increase their tangible power. After ference between the old Romans, who did not its political annihilation Greece exerted the dare to conquer Greece, and the more modern greatest intellectual and cultural influence on ones, who managed to romanise Britain Rome, without ever managing to recover politi- remarkably fast, he reckons that in the meantime cally by means of that influence. On the contrary, the Romans had learned in Galicia and people without any exceptional intellectual achievement have had an extremely significant 240Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen impact on history. The phenomenon of great Ethnographie, p. 417. historical impact originating from the unskilled 241Ibid., p. 417. 242Ibid., pp. 417–418. 238Ibid., p. 417. 243Ibid., p. 418. 239Ibid., p. 417. 244Ibid., p. 418. 114 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors …

Switzerland how to treat the Celts. Ratzel detects Regarding Spencer, Ratzel considers that he the same difference, namely that a more thorough conceived Sociology to such depth so as to understanding of the peoples in colonial areas simply ignore the practical application of had been achieved, between England and Spain. Ethnography. In order to study Sociology in his Finally he addresses his compatriots, saying that famous homonymous brief work (1873), he in its colonial policy, Germany has to gain more demanded a psychological and biological, but and more knowledge on how to govern each nothing like an ethnographic, preparation, snaps people it is entitled to in the best possible way. Ratzel, adding that in his multi-volume work of The deeper the ethnographic knowledge that Descriptive Sociology, he packed plenty of colonial officials, missionaries or traders in their ethnographic material, aiming, however, more missions have, the greater the ability of a people towards using it to understand the evolution of as a whole to understand other peoples, the more societies, states, customs and traditions, than to effectively a people will be able to learn in the delve into the real nature of today’s peoples and school of sovereignty the art of dominating their objective evaluation. Although he admits peoples.245 that many of Spencer’s and his successors’ writings on peoples, History and Prehistory, the evolution of society, the state or the family, were 4.4.5 Sociology and Political useful to Ethnography, he nevertheless believes Ethnography that very few of them reached the stage of implementation, since sociologists moved very In the final section of the essay, Ratzel discusses quickly to their deductions, without developing a the relationship between Sociology and Ethnog- direct, in-depth study of individual peoples, large raphy, starting from the question whether Soci- and small.247 ology provides or intends to produce what we As a result of the aforementioned, Ratzel demand from Political Ethnography. Of course, concludes with the demand for the creation of a Ratzel admits that Sociology was originally cre- special science, Political Ethnography, which ated as an applied science. He makes a special shall explore the political consequences and reference to its founder, A. Comte, for whom the effects of the peoples’ natural and cultural qual- mission of each science is “avoir pour prevoir”, ities and interfere in the evolutionary history of and who defines society as the subject matter of their social and political creations as deeply as Sociology, including and unifying all mankind. necessary for this purpose.248 Furthermore, Comte expects, always according to Ratzel, the release from any metaphysical residue and the reasonable transformation of 4.5 Racist or Humanist? Ratzel society.246 Although Ratzel considers that there in the Centre of a Big Antinomy can be no higher goal beyond a practical appli- cation, he nonetheless remarks that Comte As is the case with several sub-issues (for understands Sociology mainly in terms of a instance, see the diametrically opposite approach Philosophy of History, since he was not aware of presented in Sect. 1.2 between Wittvogel and Ethnography, which he does not include in his Oberhummer on the question whether Ratzel’s system of sciences. However, his students, who analytical framework included economic and were active at the time when Ethnology was broader social parameters), on the issue of racism flowering, veered to completely deductive paths. too very different approaches have been recor- ded, some of them anthologized by H.D. Schultz

245Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 247Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ethnographie, p. 418. Ethnographie, p. 419. 246Ibid., p. 418. 248Ibid., p. 419. 4.5 Racist or Humanist? Ratzel in the Centre of a Big Antinomy 115 in the monography Friedrich Ratzel: (k)ein confidence that he proceeded on the basis of the Rassist?. H.D. Schultz cites M. Bassin, who existence of a graded humanity, adhering to a advocates that Ratzel is characterized by an qualitative inequality of races based on their innate and profound humanism (an opinion that potential for cultural performance.252 needs to be revisited according to H. The idea of a hierarchical racial classification, D. Schultz249), or Hans Jürgen Hildebrandt and i.e. the evaluation of the differences against the Stefan Breuer, who consider Ratzel’s stance as other with a view to one’s own benefit constitutes controversial.250 Christoph Marx discerns a clear the core of any biological and cultural racism, underestimation of the Negroes, since the intro- remarks Prof. Schultz, considering that Ratzel duction of willpower (Wille) as an interpretative hides his racist vision behind the concept of factor (which explains what Geography can not humanity, which makes everyone, both the rulers explain) connects the parameter of willpower to and the repressed, servants of a single humanity: racial theory (Rassenlehre), justifies the These views on the global division of labor inevitability of colonization as a result of the constitute the theoretical background of the stronger willpower of the nobler white race and colonialists, against which the unilateral colo- attempts to ground theoretically the general nial exploitation was justified.253 demand for world domination of the white race To further substantiate this opinion, and its culture. At the same time, he accuses H. D. Schultz also accuses Ratzel of a desire to Ratzel of trying to reconcile his view on the unity apply methods of eugenics,254 aiming at a policy of humanity and its internal racial hierarchy of race improvement. He therefore invokes under the guidance of the noblest race, which (a) Ratzel’s aversion to Gobineau’s and Cham- seeks to elevate the other races, but never to the berlain’s intention to interpret the significance of same height.251 race on peoples’ lives, as well as (b) his sug- Professor Schultz himself concludes in this gestion that they could simply appeal to the essay that Ratzel’s perspective is not free from current common sense, using the simple argu- racism, admitting that Ratzel did not draw ment that both individual people and peoples between races fundamental physical and intel- owe a lot to their natural predisposition, there- lectual borders in order to exclude specific fore much needs to be done to maintain their groups from the large human community. In fact, gifts and talents or to improve the race,255 (c) his he did not even praise any remaining differences, views on controlled amalgamation, so as not to but did exactly the opposite: he smoothed them change the nature of a dominant race,256 and out. He emphatically defended the amalgamation (d) Ratzel’s reference to the possibility of a between races and peoples, but not every amal- mass movement of the US Negroes, which gamation, particularly not the one between the H. D. Schultz considers a galvanisation for a Whites and the Blacks. No matter how firmly he geographical apartheid.257 insisted on objectivity and impartiality in matters pertaining to racial research, demanding caution 252Ibid., p. 38. when formulating practical conclusions due to 253Ibid., p. 38. 254 the existence of many open questions, no matter Eugenics: the study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or a human how carefully he distanced himself from any population, especially by such means as discouraging extreme attitudes and imaginary creations, which reproduction by persons having genetic defects or he clearly commented upon, it is with equal presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits (negative eugenics)or encouraging reproduction by persons pre- sumed to have inheritable desirable traits (positive 249Schultz, H.-D. (2006): Friedrich Ratzel: (k)ein Ras- eugenics) http://www.dictionary.com/browse/eugenics. sist?, p. 37. 255See Sect. 4.3.6. 250Ibid., pp. 37–38. 256See Sect. 4.2.7. 251Schultz, H.-D. (2006): Friedrich Ratzel: (k)ein Ras- 257Schultz, H.-D. (2006): FriedrichRatzel: (k)einRassist?, sist?, p. 37. p. 36. 116 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors …

At this point it must be confessed that reading that area, shape such a majority, that the arrival these passages along with the analysis of H. of foreign elements is unable to rapidly change D. Schultz—studied at a later stage—was at the its racial type, generated through amalgamation beginning of the present research truly disheart- and configured forever more clearly through ening, since studying or using them fragmentar- domestic propagation.259 Two years later, in the ily can easily generate a negative racist magazine Nationalitäten und Rassen Ratzel impression about Ratzel. However, the conflict defines race as … a group of only physically between his concept of the unity of humanity and related peoples, which through multiplication in the racist feelings attributed to him remained so a specific area has progressively achieved such evident that it took multiple readings and endless great majority and affinity, that any accessions hours of studying and analyzing in order to and amalgamation do not change the racial type interpret this particular gap and place these of the vast majority, and nothing of that kind is parameters as accurately as possible in the rat- expected in the foreseeable future.260 selian mosaic. From the above definitions261 it becomes clear The main arguments of those accusing Ratzel that Ratzel defines race based on political and of racist ideas will naturally be discussed over the geographical parameters, i.e. as a group of rela- next paragraphs, within the overall matrix of his ted peoples, numerically predominant in a standpoints on the basis of the following key specific geographical area, without introducing aspects: criteria of any intellectual or moral affinity, the way Chamberlain uses them in his perception of • The content of the term race and his opinion race.262 on controlled amalgamation (Sect. 4.5.1) The absence of almost any biological element • The supposedly meritocratic classification of from both race definitions—even the superficial races (Sect. 4.5.2) reference to the criterion of physical affinity • His views on the global division of labor occurring only in one of the definitions, obvi- (Sect. 4.5.3) ously as part of an anthropological, anatomical • His views on the causes that trigger racial and assumption, is in no way connected to the mental ethnic conflicts (Sect. 4.5.4). abilities of people263—creates the need to give the term race a different content, an undertaking that Ratzel attempts in the works of his mature period. 4.5.1 The Debiologicalisation First of all, let us recall that Ratzel suggests of the Term Race the use of the term cultural race (Kulturrasse), thus connecting the physical development of Always based on the central assumption that peoples with their cultural living standards. To after so many movements and displacements, so this end he invokes the anatomist Gustav Fritsch, much penetration, stratification, enlargement and amalgamation, the existence of unified and 259Ibid., pp. 626–627. 260 10 pure races is impossible,258 Ratzel provides two Ratzel, Fr. (1904): NationalitätenundRassen, – definitions of the concept of race: In 1902, in the pp. 481 482. 261 fi fi … Of course, in these de nitions two inconsistencies are magazine Die Erde und das Leben he de nes identified: the reference to a physically delimited area, race mechanically as nothing more than a group included in the first definition, is omitted in the second, of related peoples who move within a naturally whereas the reference to physically associates peoples of demarcated area and, by complete occupying the second definition is not included in the first. This is another case of inconsistent use of terminology, a symptom identified also in his definition of the state. 262 258Ratzel, Fr.74 (1902): Die Erde und das Leben, p. 626. Chamberlain, H. S. (1903): Die Grundlagen des This viewpoint runs through his entire work, as shown by neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, pp. 310–311. the ratzelian articles, presented in Chap. 4. 263Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): NationalitätenundRassen, p. 480. 4.5 Racist or Humanist? Ratzel in the Centre of a Big Antinomy 117 according to whom the harmonious development The invocation of cultural (Kulturrasse), of the human body is possible only under the political (politische Rasse) and social races influence of civilization.264 (soziale Rasse)—embedded in political and Furthermore, Ratzel defines as the basic ethnographic essays—debiologizes the content research unit of Political Ethnography the polit- of the term race, which Ratzel intergates in his ical race (politische Rasse), which is a result of analysis of the race as a culturally—and not the inextricably linked processes of the eco- biologically—defined group. He characteristi- nomic, political and ethnographic approach of cally considers dangerous for the political unity peoples, given that, just as the economic con- of the US the development of an intellectual and nection prepares the political connection, the political affinity, i.e. a nationality, among the political unity is always the first step towards an numerous coloured people of the South; a polit- ethnographic unity. Verkehr allows peoples to ical unity that, combined with the territorial mix variously—politics groups them and lets cohesion, could lead to the division of the USA them interact within a specific area.265 into a northern state of the Whites and a southern Apart from a cultural and political entity, state of the Coloured.267 Ratzel gives the term race a clear social status, The previous observations certainly constitute noting that social differences are responsible for a starting point for approaching the ratzelian the racial aversion. Based on the observation viewpoint on controlled amalgamation, whose that marriages between Whites and Negroes fragmented reading can lead to easy and unilat- occur in lower social classes of the US and that in eral conclusions, if one ignores the fact that Siberia North-Mongolian women do not get Ratzel’s appeal to the need for controlled amal- married to upper Russian officials but to farmers, gamation to secure that one or the other race he remarks—in combination with the widespread remains a majority occurs in the context of the miscegenation of the Whites—that races do not debiologized term race, as it is formulated by present an innate aversion for each other. On the (a) Ratzel’sdefinitions of political, cultural and contrary, he believes that the social degradation social race, (b) his view that pure races do not of a lower race widens the gap with the higher exist,268 and (c) the view of the non-innate pre- races, citing the example of Australia: when disposition, that rejects amalgamation.269 Australians are relegated to the status of a gypsy Based on the aforementioned considerations, proletariat, without permanent employment and the impartial reader may draw the safe conclu- fixed residence, while the white settlers get richer sion that Ratzel does not use the term amalga- on the territory that once belonged to the natives, mation in its biological sense, but in terms of an then the contact of the two strata stops, and they exchange of cultural, social, economic, intellec- move into opposite directions. In this case at tual and other characteristics and qualities, both most only the lower members of the white society complementary and contradictory, since the mix with the superficially and incompletely predominance of one or the other characterizes europeanized coloured people. The above the whole. In this context, Professor Schultz’s described process of social discrimination leads, opinion that Ratzel asked for the implementation according to Ratzel, directly to phylogeny, since of biological methods of eugenics is unjustifiable social races (soziale Rassen) are created, which, through the ratzelian writings. For example, despite their transient character, are continually Ratzel’s reference to the regression of the Por- created within all peoples.266 tuguese because of their amalgamation in South America,270 does not mean that the Europeans

264Ratzel, Fr,5 (1882): Die Stellung der Naturvölker in der 267 Menschheit,p.4. See Sect. 4.3.6. 268 265Ibid., pp. 411–412. See Sect. 4.3.3. 269 266Ratzel, Fr.74 (1902): Die Erde und das Leben, pp. 628– See Sect. 4.5.2. 629. 270See Sect. 4.2.7. 118 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … became people of lower quality and capacity tools: fire, clothes, huts, boats, simple weap- because of their biological involvement with the ons and tools for fishing and hunting274 natives, but that the prevalence of indigenous • invokes the religious idea of the human nat- cultural characteristics has carried along the ure of Negroes, in a time that secular bodies Europeans towards a cultural retreat. The sig- still considered slave-hunting and slave trade nificance of the parameter of the majority, used an authorized business venture, apparently in both definitions of race, becomes clear when acceptable and negotiable in transnational Ratzel draws a parallel between the German agreements275 people and granite, where the German majority • welcomes the abolition of slavery276 constitutes the key component and feature, while • characterises as arrogant and exaggerated the various other rocks/synthetics supplement and Platonic and Aristotelian views on the natural improve the properties of the raw material, conflict of peoples or on peoples naturally which, despite any impurities, remains… granite. destined to be rulers or slaves277 • driven by the paleontological sciences, he recommends attention on the use of the word 4.5.2 About the Allegedly back, which has a chronological and not Hierarchical Race evaluative content, as the commonly used Classification term down. As all people have the gift of Logic, they are able to participate in cultural With regard to the view that Ratzel classified achievements in order to enrich themselves races hierarchically (based on the distinction culturally. In the case of the Negroes, Ratzel between races which are destined to rule and is very clear—mentioning the same opinion others to serve), it should be further stated—in twice—about the time they should be given in addition to the comments of Sect. 4.5.1—that order to unfold their virtues after a time of Friedrich Ratzel: contact with the advanced cultural tools.278 • disagrees with the prevailing jargon of his • makes absolutely clear that the term nature- time, that uses terms such as so-called or al- orientated people has no anthropological, legedly superior or inferior peoples.279 He anatomical-physical content, but is a purely even records his disagreement with the com- ethnographic and cultural term. It refers to monly used term “yellow danger”.280 culturally poor peoples, which may belong to • underetimates—almost annihilates—the bio- any race, regardless of their physical ability, logical differences between races, even those people who have not yet progressed at a attributed to the cultural level of life during cultural level, or people in a state of cultural the evaluation of peoples281 decline.271 • mentions the criterion of physical affinity in • refers often to the unity of the human species, only one of the two definitions of race, stating that there are no uniform, but only apparently as part of an anthropological mixed peoples, and that people of the most different races mate productively,272 while he 274 detects no innate aversion to the amalgama- See Sect. 4.3.6. 275 tion of peoples.273 See Sect. 4.4.3. 276 • accepts that all people share the gifts of See Sect. 4.1. 277 Logic, Language and Religion and that they See Sect. 4.4.3. 278 5 ö have some of the most important cultural See: Ratzel, Fr. (1882): Die Stellung der Naturv lker in der Menschheit; Ratzel, Fr.25 (1892): Zur Beurteilung der Neger. 271See Sect. 4.1. 279See Sects. 4.1, 4.3.2, 4.4.1. 272See Sects. 4.3.6 and 4.4.3. 280See Sect. 4.3.3. 273Ratzel, Fr.74 (1902): Die Erde und das Leben, p. 628. 281See Sect. 4.1. 4.5 Racist or Humanist? Ratzel in the Centre of a Big Antinomy 119

anatomical classification, which is in no way anything but a racist propensity, could—always connected to the mental abilities of peoples282 combined with the two chapters presented above • voices fierce criticism against racism theorists —in itself constitute evidence that this passage is Gobineau and Chamberlain, accepting not characterised by an attempt to implement any equally harsh criticism from the latter. kind of eugenics policy, but by Ratzel’s theo- retical pursuits regarding cosmopolitism and the From the above it becomes clear that for global division of productivity. Ratzel the unity of mankind is no dead letter, as The above claim is firmly validated, as soon Professor Schulz implies, but this view consis- as the term unity of mankind in Political Geog- tently directs his thinking and analytical method. raphy is accurately understood. By this term Moreover, it is obvious that Ratzel does not Ratzel means practically the need, but also the classify peoples and races evaluatively, but possibility of cooperation between the most dif- detects different levels of cultural progress, ferent segments of humanity as part of the state, clearly aware of the fact that over time the most the church and the most diverse cultural circles. culturally regressive peoples and races will reach This is already too much. No [part] can exclude the cultural level of the advanced Whites. This itself, even if that was its intention, since all of parameter rejects, apart from accusations of bi- them are attached to the common land, which ological racism, any accusation of a supposedly does not allow any separation. In addition, no cultural racism. part of humanity is so distanced from the others, so as to be unable to resume any of the common duties. Of course, these duties can not and must 4.5.3 About the Worldwide Labor not be the same for all people, as different skills Division dictate different positions, and life exists only in the diversification of responsibilities and the As to the suggestion of a geographical isolation division of labor.285 of the coloured people by which, according to H. The above quote highlights three fundamental D. Schultz, Ratzel proposes a territorial apart- aspects of Ratzel’s political-geographical think- heid, in addition to the previous conclusions (i.e. ing; namely the worldwide range of his analysis, the debiologized concept of race and Ratzel’s the equally wide range of the division of labour, deep commitment to the unity of mankind) the and the relationship between man and land. The following should be noted in advance: in fact it is last two are directly linked to the cultural level of not a suggestion, but an extremely abstract each political formation. The careful reading of enunciation, fraught with possible and hypo- ratzelian writings will realise that Ratzel thetical elements [a smart colonial policy of the approaches these parameters from multiple per- Whites could one day create for the millions of spectives: as a geographer, as a supporter of US Negroes a better future in the West Indies or Germany’s colonial expansion, as a national- the Philippines, where they can make the best use liberal, and as a Protestant. of their assets],283 whose isolated reading can a. From the viewpoint of the human- undoubtedly lead to unilateral impressions. geographer, firstly, Ratzel points out the need Moreover, the fact that the passage in question for a holistic286 (hologäisch) observation of appears in the essay Nationalitäten und Rassen events, which includes the entire Earth.287 His (1904) in the chapter on The unity of the human range of thinking was clearly influenced by that species in Political Geography,284 which emits

285Ibid., p. 409. 282 10 Ratzel, Fr. (1904): NationalitätenundRassen, p. 480. 286hologäisch: compound of the greek words όkom / whole 283Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen jai caίa / earth. Ethnographie, p. 409. 287Ratzel, Fr.11(1909): Anthropogeographie. Erster Teil: 284Ibid., p. 408. Grundzüge…, p. 59. 120 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors … idea and explains the view of the unity of with greater precision—even prophetically—at humanity. Of course, let us not forget that Ratzel the level of Europe, considering the accurate was a successor of Ritter’s school, placing people division of labour, based on the principle of at equal terms with the natural environment at the complementarity, as the cornerstone of European epicentre of both geographical as well as political- cooperation.292 geographical research.288 He even adopts the view d. Ratzel’s Protestant worldview should also be that peoples develop general characteristics and taken into account, according to which the only qualities depending on the geographical condi- way to live a life favoured by God was not to tions under which they live.289 surpass worldly kindness through monastic b. These geographical ideas also find fertile asceticism, but only to execute the duties corre- ground in his views on colonial practice, which sponding to your position in the world.293 In this he does not approach as war expansion, but context, sorting people into classes and profes- primarily as an economic—commercial expan- sions was considered by Luther a result of divine sion of power, protected each time by the con- will and a person’s biding within the limits des- cerned state. What is more he does not consider ignated by God constituted a religious duty.294 the colonial expansion a process of displacement Especially the Puritans believed that the purpose of indigenous peoples, criticizing practices, of the division of labour is God-sent. Conse- whereby … in young states and colonies … it is quently, Richard Baxter expresses himself in a common practice to take into account and terms repeatedly reminiscent of the well-known assess the land alone, as if it were empty of apotheosis of the division of labour by Adam people, thinking that it can later gain value with Smith. By opening the way for the development of the arrival of another people, different to the craftsmanship, the specialization of professions indigenous one, who is left unnoticed.290 There- leads to a quantitative and qualitative improve- fore, Ratzel refers to many wrong decisions by ment of production, and thus serves the common many colonial powers that decided to displace good that is the good of the majority of people.295 the natives from their colonies, and endorses the The combination of the aforementioned four view of Oskar Baumann, critisizing the illusion schools of thought that have a clear influence on of German officials and officers, who look down Ratzel, accurately interprets the development of a on the Negroes and wish to govern Africa with- theoretical model for a worldwide division of out the Africans.291 labour (let us not forget that Ratzel expresses c. As a supporter of national-liberalism Ratzel theoretical considerations rather than precise pro- embraces the inevitability of the increasing cos- posals), which originates in the need to improve mopolitanism (namely globalization) of his time, global productivity296 and not in any racial not only in its cultural, but also in its economic worldview or an aim to apply eugenic policies. sense. Well aware (as was shown in Chap. 2)of Especially with regard to the supposedly pro- the theories of Smith and List, Ratzel adopts the posed geographical apartheid, another explana- perspective of a globalized economy, as part of tory observation should be added as to Ratzel’s which he is naturally concerned (as Smith and analytical depth and neutrality. Multiple readings List were) with the problem of the division of of this passage lead to the conclusion that Ratzel labour, as a requirement for the improvement of did not suggest any spatial separation of the the production process. He approaches this issue

292 288I.Th.Mazis und A. Stogiannos (2011): Die Boden – See Sect. 6.5. Staat Relation in Friedrich Ratzel’s politisch-geographis- 293Weber, M.: H Pqosersamsijήηhijή jai so pmeύla cher Lehre, p. 19. sot Kapisakirloύ, p. 62. 289See Sect. 1.3.2.1. 294Ibid., p. 118. 290Ratzel, Fr. (1900)64: Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 295Ibid., p. 119. Ethnographie, p. 405. 296It should be remarked, that at that time Malthus’ ideas, 291Ibid., p. 406. to which Ratzel often refers, were extremely current. 4.5 Racist or Humanist? Ratzel in the Centre of a Big Antinomy 121

Coloured people in order to avoid the amalgama- appearing in the previous paragraph) as a unit of tion with the Whites, but simply expresses the reference. Moreover, it becomes clear through realisation that spatial separation is a prerequisite his general use of the term members of humanity for the achievement of such an objective. or the political term peoples. This observation is of particular value, since it clarifies even further his analytical methodology:300 Ratzel identified 4.5.4 Racism and National Conflicts his analytical units based on political/social and not biological criteria. The above subsections aim to support the view that The debiologized perception of mankind and Ratzel was in no way a supporter—let alone a the clear—as demonstrated—aversion against theoretician—of racism. Of course, as part of his racial theories, which were at that time extremely theoretical-analytical approach he included racial popular, do not mean whatsoever that Ratzel and ethnic conflicts of his time, attributing to them perceived or envisioned a world free of conflicts. respectively sociological and political motives. After all, he admits that the term unity of Therefore, he observes that the cause of the humanity does not mean homogenization, attempted exclusions between different races is since… life needs contradiction.301 neither their physical differences nor conflicts As an analyst of power, Ratzel did not con- over their physical talents and abilities, but pri- sider the ongoing conflicts at a biological level, marily the hatred towards anything foreign, but at a purely national/political sphere. He was which one or the other theory about lower inspired by the sense of power and strength and potential or a supposedly physical inability to by the competition between great and smaller become civilized later tries to justify.297 This powers, which forced a people to be economi- observation constitutes one more clear concrete cally, culturally and politically robust. A people’s clash with racism theorists, who supported that survival and predominance over the others in the people belonging to the black or yellow race can arena of international competition constitutes, as not partake in the culture of the Whites. is evident in all of the essays presented in this Additionally, it should be noted that Ratzel chapter, a pivotal point in the ratzelian analysis considered the phenomenon of the conflicts as and at the same time an evaluation index, as he progressively diminishing, thanks to the contri- himself observes in 1900, by stating that the best bution of both Verkehr—which works more than school for the evaluation of the peoples will anything else towards approaching/(or each always be its predominance over the other peo- other) all members of humanity. The transfor- ples.302 Assuming any political predominance as mation of humanity in the sense of approaching a lesson of applied political Ethnography,303 he all peoples is a mission dictated by divine welcomes the necessity for the establishment of providence298—and culture: the cultural level we Political Ethnography as a science, which ex- have achieved gives rise to a secret aversion plores the political consequences and effects of against the open acknowledgment for the need of peoples’ natural and cultural qualities and intense racial conflicts.299 interferes in the evolutionary history of their The rejection of racial conflicts is realised— social and political creations as deeply as is apart from all of the above—by the fact that the required for this purpose.304 term race is not used (in both excerpts from the theoretical writings of Ratzel’s mature period, 300See Chap. 2: F. Ratzel’s State as a “social organism”. 301Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen 297Ratzel, Fr.74 (1902): Die Erde und das Leben, p. 627. Ethnographie, p. 403. 302 7 298Ratzel, Fr.7 (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ratzel, Fr. (1900): Einige Aufgaben einer politischen Ethnographie, p. 403. Ethnographie, p. 418. 303 299Ratzel, Fr.10 (1904): Nationalitäten und Rassen, Ibid., p. 418. p. 483. 304Ibid., p. 419. 122 4 Social/Cultural Aspects as Factors of Power Contributors …

4.6 Conclusions convergence towards a possible research target, namely the decipherment of the racial factor in Letting Ratzel himself speak—through an extended history evolution, does not constitute under any presentation of his less studied works—,this circumstances proof of racist views and there are chapter attempts to indicate that Ratzel’scosmo- two reasons therefor: a. Ratzel concludes that this theoretical analytical framework was never study is scientifically unattainable and b. He geo-deterministically specified, but, contrary to the negates the question in principle, by approaching monistic views of that time, it was multi-factorial, the heart of the question from a sociological, cul- as it included (apart from the geographic parameter) tural and religious, rather than a biological per- all the dimensions of social human expression. spective, and he formulates the idea of the Ratzel understands evolution not as a linear uniformity of mankind, as part of which all humans causal procedure of progress, subject to ever- are open/eligible to culture, and therefore capable lasting rules,305 but as a procedure deriving (also) of acquiring the same cultural level, given the right from circumstantial factors, capable of leading to conditions, among which Ratzel identifies—and a reversal, a negative course, and even to the this is most interesting—the parameter of time. extinction of some peoples/states. Taking into Surely, the prevailing spirit of Ratzel’s days, consideration the changes in production and namely the rivalry at a national level and the social structures, he links the prosperity of peo- eagerness to acquire national power, permeated ples mainly to the economic and technological Ratzel’s views. The presentation and interpreta- progress and he seeks a balance in the new—for tion of the above analysed texts makes manifest his time—conditions of cosmopolitanism, since that when Ratzel analyses the notion of power he the development of transportation, along with its does not make any use of the biological factor as financial dimensions, allows for extended cultural an assessment criterion for peoples or a means of communication and interaction, rights brought power acquisition. On the contrary, he condemns forth mainly with the abolition of slavery. The racial conflicts as culturally unacceptable and implementation of the theory of diffusionism, focuses his analysis on the competition among reveals that Ratzel explicitly distances himself nationally determined acting forces. from the social-Darwinist perspective,306 as he Colligating Ratzel’s ideas—on the need for studies the evolution of humans as a relation of power acquisition, predominance in the arena of interdependence in a culturally (spiritually and national and colonial competition of his time, etc. technologically) advanced—thus complex—en- —with any contemporary racist beliefs is not vironment and not as a procedure of biological justified in any case by his texts and thus con- adaptation to the natural environment. stitutes an arbitrary generalization. However, Furthermore, the aforementioned observations several reasons led to this idea; for example, rightfully contradict the accusations of racist Kjellen’s erroneous conclusion307 that Ratzel beliefs. As shown on this chapter and Chap. 3, supported a naturalistic/organismic perception of Ratzel never used the biological factor as an state, or, later on, Karl Haushofer’s allegation assessment criterion for humans. Critical to this that Ratzel’s ideas were included in Hitler’s issue is also the emerging fact that Ratzel was speeches308 and his book with extracts of Rat- always in major conflict with Gobineau and zel’s work, which, being out of context, served Chamberlain, the theorists of racism, the latter of the Nazi ideology. whom criticized him with equal severity. The

305About the content of Ratzel’s law, see Sect. 5.5. 307Kjellen, Rudolf (1917): Der Staat als Lebensform, 306For Ratzel’s contribution to the theory of political p. 21. diffusion (diffusionism), and its difference to the theory of 308RatzeL, Fr. 75 (1941): Erdenmacht und Völkerschick- evolution, see Sect. 5.2. sal. Foreword by Karl Haushofer, p. X. Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist Circle of Leipzig”. 5 The Meaning of Fr. Ratzel’s Law

arguing—influenced by Haeckel3—that there is 5.1 Partial or Complete no difference between the two kingdoms and that Renunciation of Darwin? the transition from the inorganic to the organic by abiogenesis (generatio aequivoca)4 is an ’ As already mentioned in Sect. 1.4, Steinmetzler s indisputable fact. He perceived the sea as the ’ work is key to the analysis of Ratzel s philo- ancestral mother of the world and life5 and sophical and worldview ideas. Steinmetzler dis- questioned in the same book the existence of a tinguishes three periods, the second of which is higher being, considering that the Darwinian ’ characterized by Ratzel s detachment from Dar- natural selection explains more accurately the win and Haeckel. purpose of nature.6 Although he admitted that it As part of this periodization, Steinmetzler was impossible to scientifically verify with argues that the concept of evolution, namely the extreme precision the above opinion, the question about the creation of the various species sequential development from inorganic to in the organic world and of forms in the inorganic organic constituted a fundamental scientific ’ 1 world, is central in Ratzel s work. Considering hypothesis/concession, and at the same time the fi rst the inorganic forms as inherited by the core of his holistic worldview.7 evolutionary process of previous forms, Ratzel as According to Steinmetzler, until 1870 Ratzel a young scientist was attracted mainly by the classified himself firmly among the Darwinists, organic world. Fascinated as a young zoologist admitting, however, the need to improve the by the ideas of Darwin and Haeckel, before 1869 theory. Since 1875 he completely denounced he focused his research interest on the evolution Darwinism as to the part of natural selection. of the animal kingdom, later extending it to This was also the starting point of the harsh anthropogeographical studies, formulating the criticism against Haeckel, which was based on concept of a general telluric unity of life.2 In fact, in his first monography, Being and Development of the Organic World (1869), he discusses a new 3Ibid., p. 89. at the time evolutionary problem, namely the 4generatio aequivoca: spontaneous generation of living transition from the inorganic to the organic, beings from inorganic (autogenous) or organic substances (plasmagene) Source: Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG, 2002, Sat_Wolf, Bayern. 5Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- 1Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- drich Ratzels und…, p. 84. drich Ratzels und…, p. 82. 6Ibid., p. 85. 2Ibid., p. 83. 7See Sect. 2.4.1.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 123 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_5 124 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … the monistic worldview, to which Haeckel had In this dominant ideological context, Stein- directed the theory of evolution, and which he metzler classifies Ratzel as a true advocate and preached more and more anti-scientifically and staunch supporter of evolutionary views11 in dogmatically.8 In the next Sect. 5.2 a more thorough analysis 11The prevailing interpretation of the term “evolution”, of the above view will be attempted; namely of which means the gradual shift of beings or reality in general to superior or most perfect forms, is not identical the idea that Ratzel denounced Darwinism only with the perception of simple change, but with the as to the part of natural selection, adopting evo- progress to a higher grade, an gradually and rarely rapidly lutionism instead, a theory marshalled to connect ongoing process. Evolutionism presupposes that evolution Ratzel with Social Darwinism, given that Stein- is the key factor of differentiation and of the appearance of such different forms (inorganic, organic, psychological), metzler seems to disregard the anthropological the cause for the enrichment and perfection of various aspect of the ratzelian ideas, which led Ratzel to forms. The Evolutionary Theory is closely connected with a direct conflict with the theories of evolution, the law of progress or the necessary development of formulating the theory of cultural diffusion human societies to higher and better levels which prevailed in France in the 19th century, but its roots go (diffusionism). to the 17th century when Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) Then Sect. 5.3 Ratzel’s answer to one of the claimed that the continuity of human generations can be central questions of his era, the conflict between likened to a person who lives and steadily accumulates religion and science, will be explored and the knowledge (Timashef, p. 32). The idea of progress was developed by Jacques Tyrgko (1727–1781), who mosaic of his worldview will be completed attempted in his A Philosophical Review of the Successive through his participation in the Positivist Circle Advances of the Human Mind (1750) to show that the of Leipzig [5.4]. Finally, after analysing the progress of human’s nature was accompanied by a content of the term Law [5.5], an extensive pre- gradual emancipation his mind from anthropomorphic conceptions. Another adherent of the progress theory, sentation of the essay The Laws of spatial growth Marquis de Kontorset (1743–1794), writing from jail of the states. A Contribution to scientific Political shortly before his execution his book Sketch for a Geography will follow [5.6], due to the fact that Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, the Seven Laws are frequently mentioned epi- accepted the possibility of creating a science, that could predict the future progress of humanity, and thus accel- grammatically in the literature, but rarely as part erate and direct it. In order to distinguish laws that would of the actual text. allow people to predict the future, history should cease to be the history of the people and become history of human masses (Timashef, p. 32). Certainly, among the theorists of the 19th century the opposite, denying evolution view 5.2 Diffusion, Evolutionism opinion is also found, the principle of stability and and Social Darwinism statism, according to which the world was from the beginning so as we see it today, it did not change at all or In the 19th century the theories of evolution were very little. Progress failure leads to degeneration or fi extinction. The pessimistic theory of regression, namely de nitively standardized in the (ancient, medie- that human history can be summed up as a time sequence val and neoclassical) metaphysical views on the of gods, heroes and finally confusion and mediocrity, unchangeability of species.9 In 1866, when Rat- during which human societies become herds, advocated, zel started his scientific career, the discussion on among other things, the theorist of racial determinism Arthur de Gobineau (1816–1882), claiming parallel that the determinants of social change did not revolve racial conditions dominate all the problems of history around the idea of evolution, but on the spectrum (Timashef, p. 88). The idea of linear evolution towards and interpretation of progress.10 progress also opposed the Russian naturalist Nicholay Ntanylevsky (1822–1885), adherent of a cyclical theory of social change (Timashef, p. 92), the American anthropologist Edward B. Taylor (1832–1832) who did

8 not believe that progress is necessarily accompanied by Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- cultural development and often quotedfor the pessimist … drich Ratzels und , p. 90. French philosopher de Maistre (Timashef, p. 86), the 9 Ibid., p. 82. French Frédéric le Play (1806–1882), who argued for 10Timashef, N. (1976): Irsoqίajoimxmiokocijώm cyclical perceptions of social change, considering that no hexqiώm, p. 96. civilized race could not escape from a vicious circle of 5.2 Diffusion, Evolutionism and Social Darwinism 125 both the organic and the inorganic world, Ratzel—already in 1882—clearly distances understanding evolution as the creation of higher himself from both the theory of evolution and forms from lower ones12 and subjecting to the the theory of regression law of evolution man, peoples, humanity and the • Nonetheless, most important is the observa- entire world.13 In order to substantiate this tion that Steinmetzler takes no account of the argument, Steinmetzler cites passages, where observations Ratzel formulated in Human Ratzel sees the possibility to follow the course of Geography (1892) on the theory of diffu- evolution backwards, from the flower back to the sion17 and imitation, which at the end of the seed, the earth back to its alleged liquid form, 19th century unsettled the opinion that all and man back to the animal world,14 or obser- human societies had to go through specific vations such as that the entire wealth of our earth evolutionary stages.18 is a consequence of evolution.15 Having previ- ously accepted Ratzel’s refusal of natural selec- Indeed, Ratzel is regarded among the leading tion, Steinmetzler concludes from the above that theorists of the development and dissemination Ratzel viewed man, peoples, humanity and the of the theory of cultural diffusion and migration, entire world in the light of the evolutionary which unsettled the evolutionary theories19 and law.16 developed at their antipode.20 It introduced the Before an actual evaluation of Steinmetzler’s criteria to compare the external (formal), arguments, the following should be observed in non-functional characteristics of objects, since it advance: was impossible for these characteristics to have been invented simultaneously.21 • he mainly refers to Ratzel’s early works of, a The end of the 19th century was the peak of period during which Ratzel was (as Stein- the ethnographic conflict on the question, whe- metzler himself points out) influenced by ther the numerous similarities of cultural forms, Darwinian theories. observed in tribes distant from each other, were • passages and examples presented by Stein- attributed to independent processes of creation, metzler, lead under no circumstances to the i.e. to a parallel development similar to biological generalization that Ratzel views peoples, i.e. convergence, or to a cultural transfer (diffusion) social groups, in the light of the laws of through migration, trade, transport, etc. Bastian evolution. and Tylor did not dare to respond decisively to • he never refers (although included in the this question, emphasizing in theory the parallel bibliographical list of his book) to the essay creation, but in practice considering both options presented in Sect. 4.1, The position of nature- 17 oriented peoples within humanity, in which Diffusion can be simply defined as the spread of a cultural item from its place of origin to other places. (Titiev 1959: 446). A more extensive definition considers four elements: simplicity, complexity, corruption and diffusion as the process by which the particular charac- finally reform or destruction (Timashef, p. 80) and finally teristics of culture are transferred from one society to the Polish-Jew social darwinist Ludwig Gumplowicz another, through migration, trade, war, or other contact. (1838–1909), who considered that there were always (Winthrop 1991: 82). Source: King G.–Wright M. Indi- barbarians, ready to destroy any progress made (Tima- catory references: Titiev M., 1958 Introduction to shef, p. 107). Cultural Anthropology, Henry Holt and Co, New York; 12Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- Winthrop R. H. 1991, Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural drich Ratzels und…, p. 84, footnote 442 with reference to Anthropology, Greenwood, New York. Ratzel’s book «Vorgeschichte des europaischen̈ Men- 18Timashef, N. (1976): Irsoqίajoimxmiokocijώm schen», published in 1874. hexqiώm, p. 223. 13 Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- 19See Footnote 18. … drich Ratzels und , p. 82. 20http://www.encyclopedist.gr, Vocabulary entry: theory 14 See Footnote 13. of diffusion. 15 Ibid., p. 82. 21King G.–Wright M., p. 8. Reference to (Barnard 1996: 16See Footnote 15. 588). 126 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … as possible. As part of this conflict between Frobenius27 and Fritz Graebner, according to evolutionists and diffusionists, Ratzel developed whom cultures stem from a limited group of the ideas of Georg Gerland (1833–1919), pro- cultural centres (Kulturkreise), it is possible to fessor in Strasbourg, who taught that from its draw the conclusion that the argumentation very early stages humanity carried a common concerning an evolutionary (i.e. Darwinian) stock of inventions and that all subsequent approach to the course of events in socially acquisitions became common property only organized groups weakens to the point of rejec- through diffusion.22 tion for at least one objective reason (apart from The above viewpoint—even though it should the other aforementioned arguments, which be noted that Ratzel is completely liable for could be considered products of a subjective concealing Gerland’s authorship of the the- analysis): Ratzel’s recognized and instrumental ory23—distances Ratzel from the evolutionary contribution to the development of cultural dif- theories. Already since 1892 he had identified fusion, a theory rebutting the theory of evolution! cultural similarities between cultures developing Of course, the complete renunciation of Dar- in very different environments, similarities that winism, regarding both natural selection and could thus be interpreted as the result of con- evolution, obviously weakens any accusations of tact.24 Indeed, he warned that, before interpreting Social-Darwinism against him: Ratzel could not certain transcultural similarities as independent have been a Social-Darwinist, since in his mature inventions, potential phenomena of migration or period he was not even a Darwinist! other contacts should previously in each case be excluded.25 B. Streck even considers that Ratzel’s interest 5.3 Between Religion and Science in the external form of cultural trends through diffusion paths became popular and led to the The aforesaid suggests another important shift in famous reconstruction of cultural levels of the Ratzel’s worldview with regard to the existence Cologne, Frankfurt and Vienna schools. He of a higher power, namely the existence of God, notices that the Darwinist Ratzel considered which he denies as a young Darwinist scientist,28 evolution as the creation of distances, which but invokes for the first time in 187929 in his occur through the approaching of spaces. article For the 100th anniversary of Ritter’s birth, Thereby, cultural goods are diffused; this diffu- where he publicly recognizes for the first time an sion is considered by Ratzel as the main argu- otherworldly ultimate reason/ultima ratio, ment against the national thinking attempting at the same time to defend Ritter (Völkergedanke), which is widespread in the against his critics, saying that religious people are contemporary ethnology of Alfred Bastian.26 incapable of conducting real scientific research.30 Adding to the above Ratzel’s confirmed influence on the main representatives of the German school of cultural diffusion, Leo 27Leo Victor Frobenius (1873–1938): Ethnologist and archaeologist, a major figure in German ethnography. Influenced by Richard Andree and his own teacher, Friedrich Ratzel, he defined in 1897/1898 several “culture areas” (Kulturkreise), cultures showing similar traits that 22 Mühlmann, W. (1968): Geschichte der Anthropologie, have been spread by diffusion or invasion. https://en. p. 84. wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Frobenius. 23 Ibid., p. 85. 28See also Sect. 5.1. 24 Timashef, N. (1976): Irsoqίajoimxmiokocijώm 29Ratzel falls also in his Lebensraum back to a transcen- hexqiώm, p. 223. dent power, in order to interpret the instinctive move- 25King G.–Wright M., Diffusionism and Acculturation, ments of organisms. See also Sect. 3.2. p. 8, reference to (Harris 1968: 383). 30Ratzel, F.71 (1879): Zu Karl Ritters hundertjährigen 26Streck, B. (2001): Diffusionism and geopolitics in the Geburtstage, pp. 415–416. See also: Steinmetzler, J. (1956): work of Friedrich Ratzel, p. 54. Die Anthropogeographie Friedrich Ratzels,p.85. 5.3 Between Religion and Science 127

Being a devout Protestant and a restless reason. Since these relationships exist, they can researcher at the same time, Ratzel attempts to be researched, irrespective of whether one sees accommodate the terms evolution and creation, in them a coincidence or an intention. At most, suggesting—according to Steinmetzler—that one has the right to say that: by assuming divine their meaning is essentially the same and that intentions in all cases, one looks for and per- their differences are only time-related: the cre- ceives more relations of that kind than those ation of man is a matter of a few moments for the actually existing. This is something completely believers of Genesis, and a process lasting mil- different. Here, it should be admitted, lies a lions of years for the evolutionists. Therefore, for source of error, whose consequences can indeed Ratzel the fact that a transcendental power is be found in Ritter’s work.33 involved in the process of creation, while evo- The same opinion about the mitigation of the lution describes a purely mechanical process is conflicts between Natural Sciences and Religion inconsequential, and he argues that the theory of through their clear demarcation is also supported evolution is insufficient without the existence of by Albert Schäffle, indicating the need to limit a creator. Creation and evolution do not preclude Sociology to the empirical phenomena and to each other, according to Ratzel, who concluded distance it from any attempt to interpret the that creation is a special kind of evolution.31 “essence” of matter, the spirit or the unknown Therefore, Steinmetzler’s conclusion that after essence of their coexistence, in order to propa- a questioning period the Protestant Ratzel had gandise for a metaphysical system, be it materi- reached a harmony between faith and knowl- alism or spiritualism.34 edge,32 is pertinent and very useful for the Schäffle believes that the Natural Sciences understanding of Ratzel’s broader frame of mind undermine the foundations of vulgar material- and interpretation. In the same essay the German ism,35 perceiving the ultimate form of matter as geographer demarcates the scope of science in energies that fill the world, but cannot be further the space between religion (which is drawn only investigated. Matter as a whole viewed as an by the ultima ratio to the extent it is involved in individual substrate of movement and movement science) and a natural phenomenon, which sci- as a whole viewed as the energy expression of ence is called to interpret: individual masses would lead an ultimate anal- If we young people do not like those points in ysis of natural science to an eternal force. What (Ritter’s) writings, where his religiosity is pal- was considered until now impermeable and pable, then we should be fair enough to recog- stable as to the essence of matter would essen- nize that many physicists of his time and of later tially be a Quantum (size, force), not the periods express the same conviction. Should we expansion of the One in the form of an inde- assume that they were incapable of conducting structible, imperishable power, in all its possible real scientific research for this reason? But the forms.36 At the same time he scorns Metaphysics religious factor, whenever it slips into science, for trying to discover the unknown and the refers only to the ultima ratio. Whatever lies unrecognizable, to interpret God attributing to between that and the phenomenon under him a rather symbolic meaning and human research constitutes the subject matter of sci- qualities. If “Metaphysics” worked the same way ence. So, if Ritter sees in the relations between a people’s history and its area of residence any 33Ratzel, F.71 (1879): Zu Karl Ritters hundertjährigen signs of divine intentions, this does not in any Geburtstage, p. 416. way mean that the research on these relation- 34Schäffle, A. (1896): Bau und Leben der sozialen ships follows the wrong direction due to this Körpers,p.7. 35Ratzel’s agony to demarcate himself against materialism is also recorded in his conflict with the historians from 31Steinmetzler, J. (1956): Die Anthropogeographie Frie- Berlin. See Sect. 2.4.1. drich Ratzels und…, p. 86. 36Schäffle, A. (1896): Bau und Leben der sozialen 32Ibid., p. 85. Körpers,p.6. 128 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … as Natural Science, the present rupture between • It complements Ratzel’s true nature as a faith and knowledge, religion and empirical Christian/humanist, described in the previous research would not exist, and the other group of chapter, which contradicts any efforts to pre- natural scientists would not be tempted to jux- sent him as a Social-Darwinist natural tapose the more concrete metaphysics of mate- scientist rialism to the masterpieces of abstract • It clearly portrays him as an empiricist/ spiritualism. If empirical science someday positivist, who accepts as sources of knowl- believes to have achieved its scientific goal, after edge his sensory organs and conducts thor- elevating the interactions of external phenomena ough analyses on matters, to the extent on empirically perceived relationships of the One allowed by the concrete scientific data. eternal power, instead of wandering in materi- alistic, metaphysical paths in the realm of the This worldview found fertile ground in Leip- unknown, and if, on the other side, Theology and zig and was developed in collaboration with Metaphysics choose to stop aiming at the inter- eminent scientists, his fellows at the Positivist pretation of an unknown reality, if they stop Cycle of Leipzig. conducting profit-driven analyses and trying to handle the data of the empirical world using the results of this chimera, then no one would be 5.4 The Positivist able to predict the reason why the internal con- and Interdisciplinary tradiction between Faith and Knowledge, Reli- Indagation of the “Positivist gion and Experience should continue. Then, Circle of Leipzig” Science would stop exactly at the point, where the realm of Faith begins, and this would come An important parameter in the effort to define to an end, where Experience and along with that Ratzel’s theoretical background is his Leipzig the realm of Science begins. The final result of an period. Leipzig saw a rapid population growth in empirical research, namely the unity and the second half of the 19th century (100,000 preservation of power in all associations and inhabitants in 1872 increased to 460,000 in 1900) forms of expression, could accurately define the due to its progressive industrialization. This boundary where the realm of Faith starts, the growth was naturally beneficial for the Univer- religious and metaphysical engagement with real sity of Leipzig, with regard to the increasing but empirically unknown cosmic matter; then the number of both students and professors.39 only scientific theoretical mission of the religious Located in a city with a great intellectual and case would be only to defend all empirical con- artistic heritage, and also the epicentre of cepts against the concepts of “absolute” and Protestantism, Leipzig University became one of “divine”.37 the leading German institutes of higher educa- The aforementioned attempt to maintain a tion. Like other German universities, Leipzig balance between religion and science is also University expanded and was redirected towards pivotal for the understanding of Ratzel’s world- a diversification of the Philosophical Faculty, view—apart from being another point of agree- ment between Ratzel and Schäffle38—because:

37 Schäffle, A. (1896): Bau und Leben der sozialen 39Middell, M. (2004): Friedrich Ratzel, die Universität Körpers, pp. 6–7. Leipzig und die Historiker. Lecture, attended by the 38The harmonization of mechanistic theories and teleo- author, at the international conference on Ratzel’s 100th logical conceptions, in other words the compromise of death anniversary in Leipzig (2004). The references do German Idealism with Science was the aim of Hermann not include the page number, as it refers to the unpub- Lotze’s teleological idealism, who clearly affected both, lished written text of the lecture, politely provided by Schäffle and Ratzel. See also Sect. 2.4.1. Prof. Middell, to whom thanks are addressed. 5.4 The Positivist and Interdisciplinary Indagation of the … 129 with a parallel declining trend for the Faculties of succeeded Gustav Theodor Fechner, the chemist Law, Medicine and Theology.40 Wilhelm Ostwald,45 Karl Lamprecht,46 who From the mid 19th century, a central theoret- focused on Economic and Cultural History, and ical problem among Leipzig scientists was the Karl Bücher,47 an economist and expert on Press pairing of events and history, life and structure, issues. the discovery behind cultural variety of general evolutionary laws and the expectation of elevat- fi 41 ing human civilization to a nal unity. These founded the first formal laboratory for psychological problems were at the heart of the Institute of research at the University of Leipzig. This marked psy- Cultural and World History (and the focus of all chology as an independent field of study. By creating this of its directors, starting with its founder Karl laboratory he was able to establish psychology as a sep- arate science from other topics. He also formed the first Lamprecht and all the way to Walter Markov and academic journal for psychological research, Manfred Kossok after 1945), which contributed Philosophische Studien (from 1881 to 1902), set up to to the separation of Sociology as an independent publish the Institute's research. https://en.wikipedia.org/ science. As a result, Leipzig adopted a wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt. 45 – social-historical direction in research, which was Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (1853 1932), chemist, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1909 for his clearly different from other universities and sig- work on catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction naled the beginning of modern cultural and social velocities. Ostwald is credited with being among the sciences.42 modern founders of the field of physical chemistry. He The source that generated this distinct and adopted the philosophy of Monism as advanced by Ernst Haeckel and became President of the Monistic Alliance in truly progressive for that time viewpoint was a 1911. He used the Alliance's forum to promote Social scientific panel of eminent and innovative sci- Darwinism, eugenics and euthanasia. Ostwald's Monism entists, known as the “Positivist Cycle of Leip- influenced Carl G. Jung's identification of psychological zig” (Leipziger Positivistenkränzchen). types. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald. “ 46Karl Lamprecht (1856–1915): Karl Gotthard Lam- As a debating club the Positivist Cycle of – ” “ ”43 precht (1856 1915), historian, taught at the university in Leipzig or Leipzig School emerged in the Marburg and later at Leipzig, where he founded a center last decade of the 19th century, when leading dedicated to comparative world and cultural history scientists of the city’s University gathered (Institut für Kultur- und Universalgeschichte). He aroused weekly at the Hannes coffeehouse. The panel considerable controversy with his loose interdisciplinary methods and focus on broad social, environmental, and consisted of Friedrich Ratzel, the philosopher even psychological, questions in history. His ambi- 44 and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, who in 1875 tious Deutsche Geschichte (13 vols., 1891–1908) on the whole trajectory of German history sparked a 40 famous Methodenstreit (methodological dispute) within Middell, M. (2004): Friedrich Ratzel, die Universität Germany's academic history establishment. https://en. Leipzig und die Historiker. wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Gotthard_Lamprecht. 41Üner, E. (1998): Kulturtheorie an der Schwelle der 47Karl Bücher – Zeiten. Exemplarische Entwicklungslinien der Leipziger (1847 1930): Karl Wilhelm Bücher (1847–1930), economist, one of the founders of Schule der Sozial- und Geschichtswissenschaften,p.2. 42 non-market economics, and founder of journalism as an Ibid., p. 2. academic discipline. In 1901, Bücher became co-editor, 43 Dr. Elfriede Uener believes that the cooperation of this with Albert Schäffle, then sole editor after 1904, of the group, the theoretical interaction and common philosophy eminent Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft or worldview would justify the use of the term “Leipzig (Magazine for All Political Sciences) established in 1844 School” in the form that the term had before the Second as the first German economic journal of an academic World War, that of a loose social or spiritual connection, standard and is still published today as “The Journal of which one could define as scientific fellow nation. Institutional Economics” (JOIE). In 1916 based on his bad 44Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832–1920) was a German experience with press and propaganda during World physician, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, War I, Bücher founded the Institut für Zeitungswis- known today as one of the founding figures of modern senschaften (Institute for Newspaper Science) at the psychology. Wundt, who noted psychology as a science University of Leipzig (after having established a depart- apart from philosophy and biology, was the first person to mental division already in 1915), the first such institution ever call himself a psychologist. He is widely regarded as in Europe. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_B%C3% the “father of experimental psychology”. In 1879, Wundt BCcher. 130 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist …

Their debates, described as particularly vivid, Lamprecht also appealed for private donations in revolved around interdisciplinary cooperation order to fund the research activities of the pres- and the synthesis of their sciences. Despite the tigious Institute.52 opposite trend developing in Berlin and some Inoculated with a strong holistic perception, internal reactions, the scientists in question did these scientists searched deeper for a positivistic not hold back, as many of their colleagues, in (and not metaphysical) philosophy of science, further specialisation in order to prove their which would connect all individual sciences and scientificity, but tried to have a long-term impact ultimately lead to a philosophy of immanence on the developments in their fields,48 always in (Immanenzphilosophie), that would perceive all the shadow of the then heated debate on the natural and cultural objects as the result of the superiority of Science due to its provability. unity of human experience.53 Spirit and matter, culture and nature had to Regarding the unity of science, the argumen- become the subject matter of a joint observation, tation of the “Leipzig Cycle” can be summarized notes Professor M. Middell, stressing that on the assumption that the evolution of cultural thecharacterization of the cycle as positivist does forms, institutions, societies, even personality, not allude to the positivism of Comte and can ultimately be understood as an evolving law, Spencer, but to methodological ideals. The rea- i.e. a law adapted through the ongoing empirical son thereofwas that essentially it was a connec- process. This law on the one hand demonstrates tion (by theoretically self-taught academics) of the constant factor of personality and on the other the positivist axiom according to which scientific hand creates in the historical world the structural progress is achieved through empirical research continuous order. This regularity should not be and the formulation of medium range regulari- under any circumstances perceived negatively, ties, with the holistic prerequisite of German as a static or natural constant, but more as a idealism.49 This is their great contribution to the “code” constantly evolving based on the ongo- history of science,reflects Matthias Middell, ing experience or as a “grammar”.54 since without their tendency for an academic In this context, E. Uener claims that the fel- universality, their books would have probably lowship of coffee Hannes considered themselves turned dusty long ago in libraries, forgotten after positivists, attaching to Psychology initially a the fall of the history of ideas. Their activity left more important role, thus substituting Philoso- long-lasting traces which helped reconstruct phy, which veered off to pure Metaphysics.55 their sciences and open them to interdisciplinary Based on regularities/laws, deriving from expe- collaboration.50 rience, they did not axiomatically separate the Interdisciplinarity, however, had another more areas of nature and culture or intellect, consid- practical dimension, as they had to cover finan- ering the distinction between idealism and cial deficits. Experience costs, Lamprecht used to materialism or naturalism, i.e. between a leg- say,51 (the man who co-founded with Ratzel the islative general—regulatory interpretation and historical-geographical seminar, where cartogra- idiographic,56 namely mental interpretative view, phy was introduced as a probative method in history) referring to the financing of the experi- 52See Footnote 51. ments, as well as data collection. Consequently, 53Üner, E. (1998): Kulturtheorie an der Schwelle der in order to cover this deficit interdisciplinary Zeiten,p.2. cooperation was employed to save on resources. 54Üner, E. (1998): Kulturtheorie an der Schwelle der Zeiten,p.3. 55Ibid., p. 2. 48Middell, M. (2004): Friedrich Ratzel, die Universität 56 Nomotheic Leipzig und die Historiker. Nomothetic and Idiographic Methods: 49 methods is one of the research method in which analysis See Footnote 48. is directed towards formulation of general principles. 50 Ibid. From sociological perspective, application of this method 51Conversation with Prof. Middell in Leipzig, 2010. entails that individual events are studied not for their own 5.4 The Positivist and Interdisciplinary Indagation of the … 131 as an apparent problem. The evolutionist rules of The holistic interpretative framework of the nature, man and history can at the same time be Positivist Cycle of Leipzig, which rejects the historically-interpretatively described, induc- established range of topics of the current philo- tively investigated and deterministically inter- sophical schools, pursuing to interpret the status preted. The situations that followed are explained quo interdisciplinarily based on the experience by the ones that preceded by means of laws, and the positivistic method, is—in our opinion— which should be perceived as a systematic and ideally condensed in the term New Metaphysics60 generalizing a posteriori understanding, not to be introduced in 1907 by W. Wundt. In an article of confused with a formalistic meaning of Law.57 the same name, W. Wundt unleashes fire against This philosophical perception should be a Classical Metaphysics because it appeals to constant interpretative tool in the ratzelian transcendental interpretations, its followers claim research, firstly because it defines Leipzig posi- the absolute validity of their system, as well as tivism against the classic positivist theories of because of the general perception that Meta- Comte and Spencer, and secondly, because it physics is an utterly futile science.61 As a con- highlights the background of the conflict with the sequence, Wundt suggests that Metaphysics be currently dominant conservative philosophical declared outdated62 and an attempt be made to schools of thought (mainly the Neo-Kantians of transcend the existing particular positivism Berlin). The invocation of empirical data led to (partikularer Positivismus)—stemming from the the formulation of mid-range regularities, based human drive to consider as more important the on empirical data,58 and constituted an outright things one is engaged in—towards a synthesis of rupture with Neo-Kantians, who followed a strict two conflicting trends, i.e. those who consider regulatory axiology, namely they did not con- natural science as “liable” for solving the world’s sider values as a result of historical develop- puzzle and those who argue that this responsi- ment, but as supreme laws, that may be bility belongs to the field of History or recognized, but never “set”.59 Psychology.63 In this context, W. Wundt speaks of a New Metaphysics, cultivated by a small group of sake but for their significance in so far as they contribute professional philosophers, but standing at the to the formulation of generalization. Sociology and heart of Science, among physicists and chemists, physical sciences are regarded as nomothetic sciences zoologists64 and physiologists, jurists, econo- because of their primary goal is to abstract generalization mists, theologians and historians.65 The driving from specific event and individual facts. Idiographic method on the other hand is a technique of studying force of this New Metaphysics is the natural human behaviour by a thorough analysis of individual inclination to unify human logic, an inclination cases. Here emphasis is more on detailed description and unsatisfied by understanding the unit only and in-dept study than on generalizations The case study relating it to other units within the limited sphere method may be considered on idiographic method where emphasis is on the complete understanding of each indi- 60 vidual case rather than upon deriving analytical general- Wundt, W. (1908): Metaphysik, p. 103: Wundt explains ization from characteristics of a large number of cases. that the term Metaphysics refers essentially to Aristotle's History is regarded as an idiographic discipline because it texts, which followed after Physics and that the use of is more concerned with study of particular event. http:// therm with its transcendent meaning of being beyond sociologyatglance.blogspot.gr/2012/12/nomothetic-and- nature, which has prevailed to date, is due to an incorrect idiographic-methods.html. interpretation of the Neoplatonists. 61 57Üner, E. (1998): Kulturtheorie an der Schwelle der Wundt, W. (1908): Metaphysik, p. 104. 62 Zeiten,p.4. Ibid., p. 104. 63 58MiddelL, M. (2004): Friedrich Ratzel, die Universität Wundt, W. (1908): Metaphysik, p. 105. Leipzig und die Historiker. 64The reference to such a specialized discipline is 59Üner, E. (1998): Kulturtheorie an der Schwelle der obviously for the sake of Ratzel. Impressive is his failure Zeiten. Exemplarische Entwicklungslinien der Leipziger to mention Geography, which can probably be explained Schule der Sozial- und Geschichtswissenschaften,p.6. on the basis of the dispute over its scientificality. On the use oft he term law by Ratzel see in next Sect. 5.5. 65Wundt, W. (1908): Metaphysik, p. 105. 132 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … it originally belongs to, but tries to attain a whereby the positivists of Leipzig sought to worldview to unite separate or loosely connected interpret the status quo, create the need for a parts of our knowledge into a whole.66 more detailed insight into the ratzelian concept of Of course, a prerequisite for this is the posi- Law (Gesetz), given that Ratzel formulated the tivistic, scientific and not metaphysical (in the so-called Laws of the Spatial Growth of States. current sense) approach of this system, and Researching on this issue, J. Hunter recorded therefore Wundt warns that not every effort, in Ratzel’s Politische Geographie the term arising from a unifying need to create a single Gesetz (Law) 3769 times and only once (p. 5) did system can be considered a metaphysical system Ratzel vaguely suggest the formulation of a or else every religious or poetic worldview should generally applicable law, while in many cases he be regarded as Metaphysics, as part of which refers loosely to laws without ever actually ver- imagination and the soul seek satisfaction. Con- balising them. In four cases (pp. 72, 133–34, sequently, he limits the scope of New Meta- 156, 557) Ratzel refers to modern legislation or physics to attempts stemming from the need for political data, in other five cases (pp. 97, 179–80, scientific knowledge, which they try to satisfy.67 206, 459, 459–60) Ratzel uses the term when On this basis, Wundt defines Metaphysics as quoting other authors. He refers twice (pp. 161, the attempt to adopt a worldview that connects 448) to the laws of economics, on page 103 he the elements of individual knowledge, based on refers to the laws of Biology, and on page 223 he the overall scientific knowledge or the particu- mentions the Law of the Balance of Power.70 larities of an era. This means that Metaphysics After adding the following three comments— constitutes neither an unchanging nor an pertinently in our opinion: unswervingly evolving system. What is more, it does not simply partake in the various destinies • The term Gesetz (Law) has multiple meanings of scientific thought, but reflects the most diverse in German, ranging from the concept of the directions of this thought and at the same time its absolute decree or statute,toanabstract history depicts continuously the dominant influ- model or a paragon ence of specific scientific fields that attract the • In The Laws of the Spatial Growth of States public interest. For this reason, not only one Ratzel tends to use the term rule (Regel) metaphysical system, but many emerge within a • That the term Gesetz (Law) does not any- specific era, one next to the other. It is by means where appear (chapters titles, subsections, or of the divergence of those concurrent systems, as indexes) in Politische Geographie.71 well as the dominant influence of specific posi- tivistic scientific fields that the unique Zeitgeist J. Hunter concludes that the primary objective of an era is expressed, through a plethora of of Ratzel’s Political Geography was not the attempts and its particular characteristics.68 formulation of laws for scientists of his field,72 but the verbalisation of certain common general conclusions reached by researching more than 5.5 Law (Gesetz), Conformity to the Law (Gesetzmäßigkeit), 69Hunter, J. (1983): Perspective on Ratzel’s Political Rule (Regel) Geography, pp. 400–413. J. Hunter records the term in following pages of the 1st edition of Politische Geogra- The points raised in the previous paragraph, phie: pp. 1, 2, 5, 25, 72, 79, 80, 85, 97, 103, 108, 133–34, especially considering the formulation of 156, 157, 161, 179–80, 189, 206, 223, 248–49, 249, 284, – short-term or mid-term laws/conformity to law, 298, 302, 307, 361, 363, 448, 456, 459, 459 60, 518, 555, 557, 562, 680, 718. 70Hunter, J. (1983): Perspective on Ratzel’s Political 66Ibid., p. 106. Geography, p. 414. 67See Footnote 66. 71Ibid., pp. 414–415. 68Ibid., pp. 106–107. 72Ibid., p. 414. 5.5 Law (Gesetz), Conformity to the Law (Gesetzmäßigkeit), Rule (Regel) 133 forty (40) cases of countries and kingdoms,73 unambiguously explains that, despite following without claiming their full validity, but rather the methodology of Natural Sciences, Human considering them as paragons.74 Therefore, Geography (therefore Political Geography too), Hunter concludes that his literary study and —just like the other sciences about man—cannot inductive empirical methodology clearly indicate demand the discovery of natural laws, express- that he was looking for principles or norms in ible in mathematical formulas.77 order to build a scientific Political Geography.75 Ratzel correlates this conclusion with a peo- In essence, J. Hunter’s interpretation coin- ple’s free will, similar to man’s free will, which cides with those of M. Middell and E. Üner is subjected to geographical constraints only, presented in Sect. 5.4, but also with Wundt’s such as the planet’s size, the eternal ice of polar article, in that the fellows of the Positivist Cycle regions, the mountains, deserts or climate. In of Leipzig did not intend to formulate universally these cases man’s free will can intervene to make applicable laws, capable of being named natural conditions more bearable, but it can never elim- laws. In modern epistemological terms, it would inate them completely. Consequently, according be possible to talk about an attempt to formulate to Ratzel, every people embodies the character- empirical relationships, as equations derived istics of its living grounds, and Human Geogra- from the statistical normalization of experimental phy studies people only within their living data are called in Science, without general grounds, therefore Human Geography sees the application but applicable only to the specific laws of the life of peoples broken on this par- system, from which they experimentally ticular ground. And it deals with those laws only, emerged. Empirical relations do not constitute a which can be geographically formulated.78 theoretical explanation of the phenomenon under Interpreting the concept of geographical for- consideration, but a simple recording of experi- mulation of laws, Ratzel discusses the possibility mental data. The term is used in contrast to the of measuring the increase or decrease in popu- term theoretical relations which have been lation in relation to the expanse a people occu- proved both theoretically, as primary principles, pies, the distinction between similar impacts of and experimentally, constituting fundamental the insular or continental position of various laws of nature. Empirical equations, however, countries or the propensity of robust peoples to have been so firmly established, that their dif- gain access to water and control trade routes. He ferentiation from natural laws is often incon- concludes that based on the size, location and spicuous; furthermore, they are present in many form of a state, principles for the evaluation of scientific fields.76 even the life of a people can be deduced. These The above interpretative model is certainly principles remain stable as regards the land, but generally applicable in Ratzel’s thinking, how- sometimes become dormant, depending on the ever in this aspect of his work too, particularities peoples who come into contact with a particular arise and no clear theoretical and epistemological territory.79 background. Ratzel discusses the question on the As a result, Ratzel reaches the very important possibility of formulating anthropogeographical conclusion that it is possible to formulate a his- laws in paragraph 40 of Anthropogeographie, torical equation (geschichtliche Gleichung) titled The anthropogeographical laws. There he using human geographical data and one unknown factor every time, Time. An event will occur under given conditions of size, space and 73 Hunter, J. (1983): Perspective on Ratzel’s Political location, but we remain unaware of when it will Geography, p. 423. occur. If the observation extends over fairly long 74Ibid., p. 424. 75See Footnote 74. 77 11 76http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BC%CF% Ratzel, Fr. (1909): Anthropogeographie, p. 63. 78 11 80%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE Ratzel, Fr. (1909): Anthropogeographie, pp. 63–64. %AE_%CF%83%CF%87%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%B7. 79Ibid., p. 64. 134 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … time periods, then a recurrent event will allow us of his general perception that the regularities to attach to the estimation as a whole greater of Political Geography should normally be validity.80 part of the regularities of History.83 It should Regarding the issue under dispute, namely not escape our attention that since 1898 Rat- whether Ratzel sought the formulation of gener- zel and Lamprecht ran together a historical- ally applicable natural laws, it must be stressed geographical seminar, within which the that each interpretation of ratzelian work should introduction of cartographic methods in the be based on the clearly expressed general prin- historical apodictic procedure was developed, ciple that human sciences cannot formulate nat- a tradition continued to this day by the His- ural laws in mathematical formulas. This tory Committee of the Saxon Academy of statement is clear enough to verify the view that Sciences (Historische Kommission der Säch- Ratzel did not talk about natural laws. Given the sischen Akademie der Wissenschaften), as above, it must be clarified that the terms law, well as the Leibniz Institute of Ethnology historical equation or even natural law81 must be (Leibniz-Institut fürLänderkunde).84 conceptually devitalised when interpreting the ratzelian work; they shouldn’t be used out of The above parameters, especially in relation to context, but be dequantified to some extent and Ratzel, and considered parallel to the belief perceived only as results of empirical shared by the Leipzig positivists that Natural and observations. Theoretical Sciences share methods and inter- The preceding paragraphs illustrate two facts: ests, namely the discovery of regularities in a a. Ratzel’s verbal and methodological acrobatics, variety of phenomena,85 demonstrate in any case since he seems to support contradictory things, that the question of creating a quantified inter- and b. the resulting ease with which contradic- pretative model (and this is probably more tory views could be supported. obvious in Wundt’s essay) should not be con- Certainly, several parameters should not be sidered a minor pseudoscientific undertaking. On ignored, such as: the contrary, the above quoted excerpts docu- ment a strong intention to find positive applica- • Ratzel’s anguish to convince others of the tions in order to interpret the status quo. Of scientificity of Human Geography and Polit- course, another fact should be taken into account: ical Geography, which epistemologically at that time science did not have enough ana- includes the idea of the experiment and lytical and synthetic tools to quantify social data, predictability. as is now the case thanks to various mathematical • the extensive use of the terms law, natural and IT applications. To sum up, any attempt to law, conformity to law, rule, etc. signals his project the role of that specific group in modern clear intention to support the scientific conditions, would certainly find them standing in method. the forefront of mathematical modeling, neural • his clear ambition to interweave Geography networks or similar applications aiming to with History, considering—as seen above— quantify and interpret social processes.86 as possible the creation of a historical equa- 82 tion with human geographical data, as part 83Ratzel, F.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. III. 84Middell, M. (2004): Friedrich Ratzel, die Universität Leipzig und die Historiker. 80 11 Ratzel, Fr. (1909): Anthropogeographie, p. 64. 85Middell, M. (2005): Weltgeschichtsschreibung im 81Ratzel, Fr.63 (1898): Betrachtungen über den Zusam- Zeitalter der Verfachlichung und Professionalisierung, menhang zwischen dem deutschen Boden und der p. 169. deutschen Geschichte, p. 597: Initially we want to remind 86I. Mazis deals extensively with this issue, suggesting for the natural law (Naturgesetz), that all States are created by the research programme of Systemic Geopolitical Anal- small outbreaks. ysis a structure based on the theoretical approach of Imre 82Ratzel, Fr.11 (1909): Anthropogeographie, p. 64. Lakatos. See MAZISIOANNIS6., Analyse metathéorique 5.5 Law (Gesetz), Conformity to the Law (Gesetzmäßigkeit), Rule (Regel) 135

Based on the above interpretative framework, the momentum of growth only recently here follows a presentation of The Laws of the completed.89 Spatial Growth of States. A contribution to sci- • the refutation of the descriptive perception of entific Political Geography. State Geography, by stating that any descrip- tion, illustrating a state territory as a constant fully completed object, is led to this dogmatic 5.6 The Laws of Spatial Growth. and inorganic perception, mainly because A Contribution to Scientific these penetrations were disregarded.90 Political Geography All these elements reinforce what Ratzel Although many of the following quotes have considers as the only correct view, namely that already been cited in the first part of the present the state is of an organic nature, to which an work, where an epistemological approach to inflexible entrenchment is diametrically opposed. scientific Political Geography is attempted, for The organic nature of the state is not a direct the sake of conceptual flow some fundamental effect of the land only, but mainly of the people ratzelian thoughts are briefly repeated here, such living on it. Therefore, for Political Geography, as: which of course principally focuses on the immobile subsoil of peoples’ movements, it is a • the disengagement of Political Geography fact (never to be forgotten) that a state’s form from the attachments and clauses through and size depends on its inhabitants, it therefore which International Law expands a state’s follows the residents’ mobility, a fact especially territory in airspace to an indefinite distance, reflected in instances of growth or decline. The or in the depth of the earth, and to all ships, state territory is associated to a number of peo- particularly warships, which are considered ple living on it, making a living from it and being floating parts of the country whose flag they moreover spiritually connected to it. Along with bear.87 that piece of land they constitute the state.91 • the demarcation of Political Geography In the light of what was described above, against the sciences engaged in a descriptive every nation constitutes for Political Geography or international-juristic analysis of states, a living body on a mainly static ground, which while clarifying that Political Geography expanded on a part of the earth’s surface and gives prominence to facts pertaining to the isolates itself from the other likewise expanded expansion of state territory beyond the bodies by means of ideal border lines or vacant neighbouring sea expanses and to those space. Nations remain in a constant, internal easements, which permeate and penetrate the motion, which turns into external motion, pene- state territory for the benefit of another.88 trations or setbacks, when a new piece of land is • the correlation of the above cases with the occupied or an earlier acquisition is lost. As a spatial growth of countries for two reasons: result, we get the impression that the people are firstly, because they normally occur in the moving back and forth like a languid liquid peripheries of the areas, where growth is mass. Historically, rare are the cases where a prepared by means of laxity and, secondly, movement like this expands to unoccupied space; because they are signs of imminent growth or this normally leads to invasions and deporta- tions, or to the unification of small areas and des relations internationales et de la Géopolitique. Le cadre du neopositivisme.Géocultures, Papazissi, 2015 . 89 87Ratzel, Fr.8 (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen Wach- Ibid., p. 98. stums der Staaten, p. 97. 90See Footnote 88. 88Ibid., p. 97. 91See Footnote 87. 136 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … their people with larger ones, without a change offered to the people a progressively greater area in their location.92 of spatial expansion, creating the need for polit- Clearly influenced by Moritz Wagner’s93 ical management of new territories. Homoge- migration theory (Migrationstheorie) Ratzel nization and maintenance of these territories supports (without however quoting Wagner or required forces, which could slowly be devel- his theory) that large states disintegrate again, oped only through culture; culture was the cre- and this process of compounding and disman- ator of cohesive starting points and of the means tling, growing and shrinking is an integral part of for the maintenance of a people’s coherence, by historical movement, geographically reflected as gradually expanding the cycle of men who an alternation of small and large surfaces. How- develop the awareness of belonging together. ever, that kind of process has an inevitable The ideas and material possessions spread impact on all bordering areas (in Europe certain from small starting points and points of creation; effects even reach a continental scale) and its they find new paths and expand their areas of transmission from one area to another is one of prevalence. Thus, they become forerunners of the the major causes of historical evolution. In this development of states, which use the same paths spatial pattern Ratzel identifies two trends: and expand in the same areas, states Ratzel, Growth (Vergrößerung) and reproduction discussing the close relationship between reli- (Nachbildung), which act as perpetual propellers gious and political expansion, which is never- of this movement.94 theless outperformed by the enormous impact of Finally, Ratzel criticizes all philosophical Verkehr, which has a vivifying effect on every theories of historical evolution, which suffer expansive enterprise, like a large flywheel. especially in that they overlook these immediate These driving forces are certainly not requirements for the evolution of states. This is self-contained, but feed continually from the precisely the weak point of the so-called theories population97 that increases through culture and of progress, regardless of whether they presup- leads to expansion due to the resulting spatial pose straight, spiral or other evolutionary needs, having previously functioned—via the courses. The consolidation (Befestigung) or the densification of the population—as a credible mode of coexistence of land and state must be agent that boosts culture. Ratzel recognizes, added as a third motive, specifying the course of however, that the greatest agents of culture were growth and particularly the duration of its not always the most powerful creators of states, effects.95 since the process of state founding is an imple- mentation of cultural forces thriving under specific conditions. Nonetheless, he notes that all 5.6.1 1st Law: The Size major states of history and of the present belon- of the State Increases ged to culture-orientated peoples (Kulturvölker). with the Development Looking back at the spatial growth of the then of Culture96 large states, clearly shows that they are located in Europe and in the European colonial territories. Initially, Ratzel notes that the expansion of the Thus, he implies the superiority of European geographical horizon, resulting from the mental culture, distinguishing, alongside the European and physical efforts of countless generations, 96Ibid., p. 98. As laws are presented successively, 92 – Ibid., pp. 97 98. only the pages with the header of each law will be cited. 93 The reader should not forget that in 1899 Ratzel 97At this point we see a large difference of Political distanced himself from implementing Migrationstheorie Geography in relation to Biogeography: In Political in Human Geography. See Sect. 3.5. Geography Ratzel identifies culture as a driving force of 94 8 Ratzel, Fr. (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen Wach- people, while in Biogeography, where he can not isolate stums der Staaten, p. 98. the driving force of bodies, he recourses to a transcen- 95See Footnote 94. dental factor. See Sect. 3.2. 5.6 The Laws of Spatial Growth. A Contribution to Scientific … 137 states, China as the only large country of conti- is the subject matter of the ratzelian Political nental dimensions, belonging to a non-European Geography: to record and analyse the factors that cultural circle. feed and redistribute power! Looking back at the beginning of civilization, The political powers expand through trade, Ratzel detects larger states around the Mediter- religion and European culture to the non-Eur- ranean, which, due to their shape and location, opean countries of America and Asia, estab- were not able to create state constructs of conti- lishing in wide space states, twice and three nental size in a region of steppes; he considers times the size of all hitherto known states. that out of all of the early global empires only the According to Ratzel, colonialism was decisively Persian is entitled to bear that characterization to boosted by the accelerated progress of geo- a certain extent, having occupied the entire Asian graphical discoveries and by getting to know mainland, especially Iran, a space five times the other peoples, factors that enabled the new global size of Asia Minor.98 As regards the extent of the empires to expand in less than300 years to medieval empires, he stresses that both the America, North and South Asia and Australia. empire of Charlemagne and the Roman Empire Additionally, he considers as important parame- of the Staufer99 are only an aliquot part of the old ters of the growth of powerful states—accepting Roman Empire, occupying approximately ¼ of Malthus’ extremely prevalent ideas—the unin- its territory. terrupted for over 200 years increase in the Next, the German geographer notes that the European population and the invention of new feudal system favored the creation of small states vehicles that constantly create new means and by continuously dividing countries as if they were reasons to expand while bringing unity and private property, and he believes that the tran- duration unheard of in world history heretofore. sition to a new era was characterized by an In this context he records the British World almost universal disintegration of states, in Empire (including Canada and Australia), the which every relic of the old Roman concept of Eurasian Empire of Russia, the USA, China and wide space disappears, since two of the condi- Brazil as countries of unprecedented size. tions of this concept had previously collapsed: In the previous paragraph Ratzel briefly science and transport. Ratzel sees new forma- describes the parameters that contribute to the tions rising from the ruins, extending in Europe growth of political forces, whose influence is at under the reign of balance, enforced by means of the heart of his entire analytical methodology: wars and aiming mainly at the equal distribution Trade, religion, culture, population growth, of land, while the real power is distributed technological evolution are tools of space asymmetrically. This remark is very important, growth, space occupation and arrangement. since he challenges the European balance as the Since the space occupied by states increases result of the equal distribution of land, while with its culture, the peoples of lower civilizations dismissing the land factor as an exclusive indi- will be organized in small states, says Ratzel, cator of state power. As an effect, he demon- observing that going down to the lowest cultural strates the existence of further (beyond territorial) levels, the states remain smaller; their size is a parameters, which create conditions of an means to measure their cultural progress, since asymmetrical distribution of power. Exactly this nonature-orientated people has created a large state, not even proportionate to the size of a 98 Comparing with other empires, Ratzel finds that the medium German state.100 He justifies this empire of Alexander (4,500,000 km2) and the Roman Empire (3,300,000 km2) after Augustine's death did not reach these truly continental dimension. 100The distinction between culture-orientated (Kul- 99Hohenstaufen, Staufer: German dynasty that held the turvölker) and nature-orientated (Naturvölker) people Imperial throne from 1138 to 1254, whose last male has ben pointed out many times, because of the its descendant was Duke Konrad von Schwaben, beheaded in fundamental function in Ratzel’s analytical system. Ratzel 1268 in Naples, Italy. Source: Brockhaus 1906— makes at this point clear how a different degree of cultural Konversationslexikon. maturity reflects different perceptions of the land value. 138 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … opinion by means of a plethora of examples from agriculture, politics recognized gradually the Indochina and West Africa, where the explorers latent power of the land and the history of each recorded autonomous small village-sized states, state always tells the story of the gradual evo- characterized by a presbyopic worldview and lution of its geographical conditions, observes little potential. This situation was comparable to Ratzel. Equally, he estimates that political power the segmentation the Romans encountered in the unifies small areas into one large area, while to countries of the Illyrians, the Gauls and the the countries of nature-orientated peoples, that Germans, but also the Germans in old Prussia, are organized into small states, this process is Lithuania, Estonia and Livia. Ratzel records the introduced as a new invention. In this context existence of only small state formations even Ratzel identifies the key cause for the decline of among better-organised peoples, whose terrify- nature-orientated peoples—since they came into ing appearance often fueled fear in the young contact with culture-orientated people—in the colonies of South and North America. But these devastating effects of the struggle between the peoples, even if they spoke highly of open space, diverse, micro-state and mega-state, perspectives were unable to maintain and unite it. and the different resulting requirements. To that Using examples from Africa101 and South end, Ratzel invokes Mommsen, who considered America,102 Ratzel concludes that the empires of the absorption of politically immature people by the Incas and Montezoma lacked rigorous the developed ones as a deterministically coherence, while they did not constitute great unavoidable fact, or, to put it more accurately, states in the spatial sense either. In this context, even a law of so wide general validity and actual the Inca Empire occupied at its peak, the time scope as the law of gravity. Of course, Ratzel when Pizarro arrived, less land than the Roman argues that the wideness of the land is not a Empire during the reign of Augustus, and it was stand-alone condition for the development of nothing more than a loose union of conquered peoples and states, substantiating this perception tax-paying countries, with no stable or long- by means of a comparison of political spaces and lasting link, less than one generation old and the conclusion that North America, which already in decline, before the Spaniards brought included two of the largest countries in the world, it down like a house of cards. had not produced until the 16th century even one From Ratzel’s perspective, another crucial state of what we now know as medium sized factor for the growth and strengthening of a state.103 people is the level of cultural maturity, which Following the above, Ratzel elucidates that determines how deeply the political importance states demonstrate a spatial stratification analo- of the land is recognized. Before the Europeans gous to their historical age. Of the continental and the Arabs established large states in Amer- sized states he considers old only China, whereas ica, Australia, North Asia and Central Africa he emphasizes that China acquired more than through conquest and colonization, those wide half of its current territory (Mongolia, Man- areas were politically unexploited. The political churia, Tibet, Junnav, the D. Sretschuan and value of the land was dormant. Just like Formoza) only recently.

101Basuto and Zulu, countries which would have been further fragment even without mixing with the whites. 102The Federation of the five, since 1712 six, races of the Alleghay area was considered for over a century as the 103This is an important argument against those, who worst enemy of the new Atlantic Pelanzstaaten (colonies), accuse Ratzel of geo-deterministic perceptions, since he since it occupied about 50,000 partially inhabited km2, doesn’t believe that land ensures the state-making process, and disposed (in 1712) 2150 warriors. without the contribution of cultural and political aspects. 5.6 The Laws of Spatial Growth. A Contribution to Scientific … 139

5.6.2 2nd Law: The Spatial bishops as a weak reformatting of this situation. Development Having noticed that Christianity and Islam had of Countries Follows founded in Africa (unlike the pagan religions of Other Growth microspatial orientation) states centred around Phenomena the idea of wide space, he praises their role, of the People, Which since, beyond a general political degradation Necessarily Precede104 that turned all European peoples against each other, there stood the Christian Church which In his 1st law Ratzel demonstrates movements of prepared the creation of new larger states, while expansion, which develop faster than the state. Islam undertook the same mission in West Asia Therefore they precede it and pave the way, and North Africa. The wide-space mindset of the without, however, having their own political ecclesiastical forces that remained in the realm of goal, but being very closely connected with the the imaginary, was at that time a great asset per life of states and having aspirations that extend se, as far as the cosmic forces agreed to this. beyond the state’s boundaries. Quoting Ranke— Along with Science and Trade, Christian mis- who beyond the history of individual peoples, sionaries paved the way for the creation of new discerned the principle of the unified life of European states in Africa, concludes the German mankind in the general history of humanity, a geographer, commenting that the idea of wide unity which includes all nations and rules over space, contributed by the Church to the process them without, however, permeating each one of state founding that ocurred in conditions of seperately—Ratzel identifies the unity of life in progressive decline, is evidenced in Germany by the ideas and goods exchanged between people. the role of the Order of Prussian Knights. States rarely manage to set political limits to Ratzel believes that the primitive states have a each other, and usually follow the path they hardly national character, but over time they themselves have created. Having the same acquired national characteristics in the sense of expansionary fervour and moving in the same an understanding of wide space. The states of paths, ideas and goods, missionaries and tra- nature-orientated peoples (Naturvölker) are fam- ders, meet often, bring peoples closer, make them ily states, but even their first increase is often similar and thus prepare the ground for political achieved by the arrival of foreigners. Genealog- approaches and unions, notes Ratzel, interpret- ical relatives are accepted only under the condi- ing the existence of common (often identical) tion that there is territorial adequacy, and do not religion, weapons, housing, crops and domestic develop a national feeling, even if common lan- animals among states, that are completely guage and manners facilitate a political connec- seperated by wilderness in Africa or America. tion through the -non political- Verkehr. In times Steadfast in the distinction between of greater intellectual progress, this connection is nature-orientated and culture-orientated peoples, consciously manifested as a national sentiment Ratzel remarks that all of the old states and all of and has a unifying and cohesive effect. However, the low level states constitute theocracies, where since the rapid spread of religion or Verkehr do the world of spirits dominates the life of every not characterize the nature of great intellectual human being and rules over the state as a whole. progress, they collide earlier with the spatial In these states there is no chieftain without a perception of state (Raumauffassung), which has hieratic function, no tribe without a sanctuary, always prevailed over racial differences, since the no dynasty without a reputation of divine origin. Roman Empire pursued for the first time to Moreover, from a clearly Protestant perspective become global. Yet, the state recognizes the he characterizes the system of indulgences and connective value of national consciousness and tries to artificially reproduce it as a state con- 104Ratzel, Fr.8 (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen sciousness through the merging of peoples, in Wachstums der Staaten, p. 100. order to use it to serve its own purposes. 140 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist …

The case of Pan-Slavism illustrates, according history of North American states, which often to Ratzel, how time-consuming this process can begins with the creation of a commercial point; be, requiring the mobilization of all cultural the history of Nebraska started with the creation forces and, thus, being more apt for states that of a base for the American Fur Company. The constitute at the same time cultural regions same model is found in the German unification (Kulturgebiete). The modern, spatially wide and process, where the extension of customs borders yet essentially national state is their achievement. preceded the expansion of political borders,in Between this and the real, archetypal, limited other words, the Customs Union (Zollverein) was state, namely the tribe, there are plenty of states a forerunner of the German Empire. of the past and the present, whose cultural power To the apolitical growth that must precede (Kulturkraft) did not suffice to unify their color- political growth Ratzel finally incorporates the ful ethnographic base. expansion of the geographical horizon, which is Therefore, Ratzel concludes that trade and initially effected by the apolitical growth, but Verkehr are far ahead of politics, which follows later becomes independent, an objective of sci- them in the common paths and may never be entific efforts. He sees this need clearly stemming clearly separated from them. The peaceful Ver- from the fact that the horizon of some small kehr is the first condition for the growth of states. Negro states does not reach the size of a medium The primitive circulatory networks need to be sized German state and the horizon of the Greeks created beforehand. The moment a state is in the days of Herodotus was not larger than involved in a process of growth, it shares with Brazil. The very close connection between geo- Verkehr a common interest for the transport graphical discoveries and state growth emerged networks; it even precedes Verkehr in their sys- clearly through the achievements of Alexander tematic expansion. As an effect, the elaborate the Great, Caesar, Vasco da Gama, Columbus, or routes of Iran and the ancient American states, Cook, who widened the geographical horizon, should be perceived in terms of political rather while also contributing to the growth process of than economic-geographical motives. Since the the states. legendary rulers of China and Egypt, road and Finally, Ratzel praises the contribution of canal networks had to serve the unity of the state Geography in the design and implementation of and every great ruler aspired to construct roads. colonial policy, noting that until then the greatest Every road paves the way to political influence. achievements of expansive policy had been pre- Each river network is a natural organization for pared by the development of Geography, as the the states’ evolution; each federal state delegates role of the Russians in Central Asia witnesses. to the central authorities the responsibility for the traffic policy; every Negro chieftain is the first and probably the only trader in his country. 5.6.3 3rd Law: The Spatial Growth By the aforesaid Ratzel essentially substanti- of States Evolves Through ates the contribution of Economic Geography the Annexation of Smaller and Geography of Trade/Transport to the state’s Parts in a Merger, political homogenization: apolitical processes Through Which and movements come under the state’s supervi- the People’s Connection sion and assistance, to later obtain a political to the Ground Becomes content. The above described process clearly Increasingly Closer105 refers to the German colonial expansion, when Bismarck put under German protection private In his 3rd law Ratzel examines the qualitative interests, which had previously spread in Africa. characteristics of the relationship between state Ratzel highlights this process, noting that fl during the colonization process the ag normally 105Ratzel, Fr.8 (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen follows trade. To illustrate his point he uses the Wachstums der Staaten, p. 101. 5.6 The Laws of Spatial Growth. A Contribution to Scientific … 141 and land, formulating a fundamental distinction originally the organic concept of the state, com- between the automatic land annexation and the paring the efforts of a single man to make the merging of land. Initially, he observes that the new lands cultivatable to a people, who usurps automatic unification of land units of any land or with blood and sweat more and more land, so population size and cultural stage leads to an that it is unimaginable to consider the land as organic increase through the approach, the separate from a specific people. Who could communication and the miscegenation of the imagine France without the French or Germans residents, while, in cases where the precursors of without Germany, asks the geographer, translat- political growth106 have prepared this unifica- ing the “organic” concept of the state as the tions, the automatic annexation leads faster to a relationship between people and land, thus merger. Thus, it becomes clear that by the term between state and land.107 merge, Ratzel is in no way suggesting the need Of course, he observes that this bond was not for a territorial expansion by means of the use of always so strong; therefore it is subjected—as is weapons, which he was perhaps accused of. By also the case with the state’s size—to a historical contrast, he refers to a long lasting cultural pro- classification. Making a special reference to na- cess, stressing that the growth of states, that does ture-orientated peoples, he infers that nowhere in not exceed the stage of a simple annexation, the world is a complete severance from the land creates only a loose, easy to decompose hetero- to be found—a characteristic of an earlier situa- geneous union, maintained only temporarily due tion, according to some theorists—and this to the persistence of one factor, which imple- relationship becomes looser, as we look back to ments the notion of wide space. A clear example more primitive conditions. He observes that in of this is the Roman Empire. It was continuously such conditions people live less densely and threatened with disintegration until the first cen- more dispersedly, the crop is weaker, and easy to tury BC, when it produced the military organi- transfer from one field to another, while their zation to secure its cohesion and won on behalf social relationships are kept so strong—partic- of Italy economic sovereignty, which turned this ularly in pre-Christian social organization peninsula, favorably located in the centre of the (Gentilverfassung)—that the relationship with Mediterranean, to a transit area with excellent the land is comparatively weak; The fact that roads. Similarly, he observes that the Roman states of this stage are separated by wild and traders were trying to find their way in the laxity barren border areas (Grenzwildisse) or other of regional Celtic unions (Gauverband) that similar areas, politically nullifies a lot of space would constantly waver between alliances and and eliminates competition for the exploitation of hegemony. Then followed the settlers and then politically valuable land. Thus, he concludes, the soldiers, all aiming to unify into a great neither the Indians nor the Negroes used the Empire elements that are adjacent in an almost great rivers as borders or roads, and, when they organic way. This process of the unification of areas means at the same time a closer connection of a people ’ to its land, analyses Ratzel, as the state s 107At this point Ratzel defends the territorial conception of growthon the earth’s surface is accompanied by the state, i.e. the view that a state can’t exist without growth in depth, leading to the consolidation on territory, against the view that did not regard the existence the land. The reference to the consolidation of a of land as a condition of existence of a state. (See Chap. 2). This dimension leads to the difference between Classical people is not just a picture, since a people con- and Critical Geopolitics, where the main disagreement is stitutes the organic factor, which in the course the perception and the assessment of the territorial factor. of history becomes more and more attached (See also I. Mazis, «Critique de la Géopolitique Critique “ é ”» to the land where it resides. Thus, he interprets ou bien Qui a peur de l'analyse g opolitique moderne? . Revue d'Études Internationales de l'Association des Rela- tions Internationales, Tunis, Association des Relations 106i.e. religion, commerce, Verkehr. Internationales-Tunis, no. 106, vol. 1/2008). 142 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … were conquered by the Europeans, their ines- boundaries, Ratzel finds an equivalent to this timable value became obvious. situation in the case of the Roman Empire of As an effect, looking back from the newest German Nations, a mingled mass of lords— states to the oldest ones, he observes a political kings, vassals, crowned priests and free cities. devaluation of land, which is closely linked to the He finally pays great tribute to Caesar, precisely reduction of political space. This observation because of the fact that along with spatial growth further weakens any allegations of an ostensible he managed to create fixed, demarcated, guar- geographical determinism, since it downplays the ded borders. importance and function of natural borders in the political process, even in an environment of cul- turally less developed people, who either did not 5.6.4 4th Law: As a Peripheral Organ appreciate or did not need the demarcation of of the State, the Border Is such borders. He presumes the devaluation of the the Agent of Both Its land in culturally immature societies from earlier Growth and Its scientific narratives, according to which constant Consolidation, minor wars did not bring territorial gains, but only Participating in All prisoners, i.e. slaves. He further highlights the Transformations severe consequences arising thereof for the his- of the State’s tory of black Africa, where slave hunting deci- Organism109 mated the population and prevented the evolution of states. Nonetheless, what he considers most Having previously described the agents and significant is the fact that in these circumstances a growth mechanisms of a state, as well as the state cannot calm down, since the constant con- qualitative conditions for the consolidation of the quering movements make it a starting point of annexed territories, Ratzel examines in his 4th conquering raids, surrounded by a zone of unin- Law the role of borders and border regions in the habited barren land. Uncertainty rules beyond its growth process, starting from the observation borders, since borders depend only on invasive that spatial growth is expressed as a peripheral activity, whose obstruction leads again to phenomenon by the outward rearrangement of shrinking, as there is no time to consolidate on a the borders, which the growth agents must specific land. Therefore, Ratzel concludes that exceed. These agents participate more easily in these acting forces are normally short-lived.108 this process, as long as they live near the border. He finally notes that land acquisition is only a The longer the state borders, the more peripheral side effect of the major political transformations the growth. of the past, invoking mainly the wars of the Ratzel points out that a state arranges certain Asians, whose war trophies—hence diffusion areas as if they were the frontline of growth, factors—were the slaves, treasures and power. where more life is created, namely greater growth According to Ratzel, the first true battle for land than in the rest of the region, higher population acquisition were the wars of Pyrrhus, since the density and accumulation of other available aspiration to create an empire presupposed his power resources. As such examples he indicates prevalence over a system of allies and extor- the progress of Peschawar and small Tibet, Merw tionists. Sharing Mommsen’s view that in the 8th and Kokan, that allow immediately, even to those century Rome was a muddled mass of countries not acquainted with their history, to understand without intensive occupation and proper that the British Indies and Russia are growing rapidly in opposite directions, trying to gain all 108On the nature of these states Ratzel considers that the advantages of the countries in-between, in many examples can be found in SE Africa, from Zulu to Wattehe, while he gives examples of other races, whose territory can’t be properly identified, nor politically 109Ratzel, Fr.8 (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen assessed. Wachstums der Staaten, p. 102. 5.6 The Laws of Spatial Growth. A Contribution to Scientific … 143 much the same way that Rome was once devel- borders. Where space is not readily distinguish- oping against the advanced Germans by con- able, its periphery may be equally unclear,he quering Galicia. Thus, he deems that France, in stresses, noting that the practice of conveying our an attempt to reverse its declining course, perception of the border as a clearly defined line accumulates its power forces at its borders with when the state occupies one single, not fully Germany and Italy, for centuries areas of par- demarcated, position on earth, was the cause of ticularly vibrant growth. He attributes to the serious misunderstandings both with regard to functionality of those border areas the fact that a the policy of the Americans against the Natives great part of the state’s common life is led and in Africa. Ratzel’s proposition is illustrated thitherward, as was the case at the border duchies by what Lichtenstein said on the border of the of the eastward expanding Germany, which were Kafra; namely, during the peace negotiations one by one established and immediately colo- every attempt to determine fixed borders failed, nialized after their annexation. According to since neither of the two sides could pass them Ratzel, this process is repeated at the western without the permission of the leaders; It is not the extreme of the USA and the southern end of lines (Linien), but the locations (Lagen) that are Argentina, where within a few years the primi- essential according to their perception, says tive huts inside the demarcated Native American Ratzel, emphasizing that in this case interaction borders developed into big cities. and frequent contact are avoided, and the state Applying this model in Europe, Ratzel shrinks by being surrounded by politically bare believes that in such restricted conditions these space. fine parts of the periphery are the most threat- In combination with the detrimental distance/ ened, but at the same time the most fortified; the disagreement regarding the political appreciation/ wounds they might suffer are more formidable evaluation of land, the perception of fuzzy bor- than others. derssignificantly accelerated these peoples’ dis- Investigating the special character of certain placement, estimates Ratzel, highlighting that rather outward-orientated parts of the state terri- political negotiations were conducted in the same tory, consisting of once autonomous regions that way astrade, where they easily offered their most develop along with the state, Ratzel detects in valuable belongings, because they did not have the every major border region the remains of earlier slightest inkling of their value. The cultural hand- state, province and community borders whose icapof isolating a small state from the others mutations are minor and proportionate to both became clear much earlier and this explains the the limited adjustments they have suffered from stagnation, which took the form of recession after advancements or retreats and also to the degree theEuropean intervention. of their functional adaptation, i.e. their adjust- At a higher level, in Sudan and in Indochina, ment and alignment to the earth’s relief. He Ratzel detects in only a few peripheral areas compares these differences to the differences properly demarcated borders, often defined by between a smooth windward coast and the rich in mountains and aquatic dividing lines. This was coves leeward coast of a sandy headland, or the also the case in China, as he remarks, which was difference between a centuries-long fixed border separated from Korea by means of a similar and an evolving border, as for example a Sax- clearly defined border area (Grenzsaum),in ony’s western and southern borders. contradiction to similar areas in Africa or Convinced that the borders follow the course Indochina. of the space, the consolidation and the longevity On the further developments, which have not of the state, Ratzel looks back at the borders of even occurred all over Europe, namely on the the older states, only to find a certain vagueness scientific demarcation of geodetically defined, —to the point of erasure—with regard to their fixed borders, protected by castles and carefully 144 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … guarded, he refers back to his essay “On the Even if the occupation changes politically, the general characteristics of geographical borders oldest colonial population has cultural advan- etc.” published in 1892.110 tages, notes Ratzel, thus interpreting the cultural failure of many politically successful invasions.In this way, the ratzelian perception on growth, 5.6.5 5th Law: When Expanding, which does not concentrate on conquering mili- States Seek tary movements, but primarily on long-term eco- to Appropriate nomic, social and cultural processes, becomes the Politically Valuable very clear and comprehensible.112 Locations111 The German geographer goes on to highlight that people of the same culture have in general Here Ratzel examines, always on the basis of the same perception of land value; therefore, the completed events, the geographical conditions of identical evolution of all European colonies over growth for a state or a people, either in a state of the last years is justified, stressing that in differ- war conflict or as part of a process of occupying ent times of history (the ancient Peruvians—the free land. In this Law too the distinction between ancient Greeks—the Turks) the perceptions of nature-orientated and culture-orientated peoples land value differed. Of course, apart from the is very clear. Thus, the concept of politically cultural level, he also mentions the power of valuable position must be understood in con- habit, due to which political growth occurs for a nection with the cultural maturity of each agent, long time in areas with the same living and people or state. working conditions (the Phoenicians, the Dutch, Following on the above, he explains in advance etc.). that during the process of growth and consolida- The appropriation of political advantages is tion the state identifies any geographical advan- also expressed in the form of a state, which we tages, and first occupies the favourable locations perceive as the temporary repose of an essentially of an area. When its expansion is linked to the dynamic organism.113 Germany’s expansion to retreat of other states, then it wins the advanta- the North Baltic Sea, the French embracement of geous points and the regression occurs at the the Maas River, north of Sedan, the Austrian worst areas. Observing the creation of the new expansion beyond the ridges of the Urals almost countries (colonies), he finds that new political all over the Saxony—Bohemia border and their formations have apparently been established by southern end that surrounds the bay of Gattaro, priority close to the sea, rivers, lakes and fertile the English embracement of the Channel islands plains, while older political formations are dis- (Kanalinseln) are all characteristic examples. placed to the inland, to locations initially difficult Such movements have suddenly changed, to access and hardly desirable, to steppes and according to Ratzel, the form of newer, unready deserts, mountain ranges and swamps. Ratzel countries, such as Chile, whose northern border, observes the same phenomenon in North Amer- etched at 24° along the seemingly worthless ica, Siberia, Australia and South America, where desert of Atacama, expanded to 23°, once the the advantages of the first settlers determined early and for a long time the fate of many countries.

112How were the Westerners supposed to impose Western-style state formations in Afghanistan or Iraq? 110Ratzel, Fr., «Über allgemeine Eigenschaften der Ratzel’s glorious analytical potential! geographischen Grenzen und über diepolitische Grenze». 113This passage shows the clear distinction between the Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Königlich Sächsis- state territories and other forces (economy, religion, chen Gesellschaft derWissenschaften zu Leipzig, philolo- culture, etc.), which form the substance of public policy. gisch-historische Klasse, Bd. XLIV, pp. 53–104. The notion of combinatorial function of those forces on a 111Ratzel, Fr.8 (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen particular land constitutes Ratzel’s organic perception of Wachstums der Staaten, p. 103. the state. 5.6 The Laws of Spatial Growth. A Contribution to Scientific … 145

Guanolager114 were discovered on the coast of process is followed by two families, when exo- Mjilones. The discovery of diamonds in Vaal gamy is the prevalent practice. Races or tribes River was followed in 1867 by the expansion of generate, in turn, again a family branch ab & c England over the Oranje (river) in an area, which and all these bodies are transformed by their belonged to the independent state of Oranje. This connection to the land into states. The propaga- is precisely the direction towards which the tion of these units does not, however, generate a country of Betschuanen expanded northward. greater state from a smaller one, but a number of Finally, at lower levels he identifies that states are states of always the same size. In these states the preferably positioned next to or around highways, population is held in check and within specific like in Sudan or in continental Africa. limits in every possible way—even by means of Finally, the fact that the direction of state the most outrageous traditions—in order to hin- growth often remains stable for a long time is a der state growth, with a view to maintain a state consequence of appropriating the political size easy to supervise and administrate. A state’s advantages. Since political growth constitutes a enlargement is often further hindered by the movement or, what is more, composed of count- existence of an area empty of people. less movements, it considers its connection to Based on what we know about the states of natural areas which favor movement as advan- nature-orientated peoples, their growth never tageous. As a result, Ratzel comments, we see it advanced without external influence, remarks (political growth) move towards the coast, stream Ratzel, adhering to the distinction between along rivers and open towards the plains, while nature-orientated and culture-orientated peoples, another part of it is squeezed due to the limited and considering that their origin is colonization in accessible areas. This compression is not only the broad sense of the term. In this context, he due to the existence of various obstacles, but due believes that people from areas with a wider to the need to fill the areas demarcated by natural spatial perception introduce the thought of a borders (examples of spatial expansion of states). larger state in areas with a narrower spatial perception. An important parameter in this rela- tionship is the supremacy of the foreigner who 5.6.6 6th Law: The Initial Stimuli knows at least two states; who is at an advantage for the Spatial Growth over the native, who has always known only one. of States Are External115 Therefore, the geographical location clearly shows how the older states penetrated from the In the 6th Law, Ratzel examines the roots of accessible external points, i.e. from the coastline broad spatial perception, but also the origin of the or the desert edges, and grew in the territory of idea to create large states. small states: If we think of Africa before the time With regard to the creation of primitive states, of European colonies, we will find larger states he first of all observes that the self-sustaining on the line where the Negroes came into contact growth of a simple political body continuously with the Semites and Hamites, and almost no renews and multiplies that body, without how- states at all where Negroes bordered with each ever creating any new ones. At the level of other or are separated by sea. Yet, wherever we family, renewal is effected through its offsprings find negro-states in the inland, they are usually and the creation of new families, which remain accompanied by the myth of a foreign founder, a together in the form of a family. The exact same myth spread all over the earth. The role of moving hunters is often invoked, which alludes to the historical role of the Kioko who migrated slowly 114 Residents of the Marshall Islands. Source: http://www. —rather diffused—into the new, reorganized ub.bildarchiv-dkg.uni-frankfurt.de/Bildprojekt/Lexikon/ php/suche_db.php?suchname=Jaluit-Gesellschaft. forms of the Lunda Empire. All African countries 115Ratzel, Fr.8 (1896): Die Gesetze des räumlichen are conquered and colonial states. History illus- Wachstums der Staaten, p. 106. trates, according to the German geographer, by 146 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … means of hundreds of cases this quiet migration areas towards all directions, Ratzel observes that and expansion of a people who, having made its these expansions supplied huge numbers of presence merely tolerated, suddenly comes to the manpower, that caused a war influx and a slow fore as the holder of power. Ratzel considers that colonial conquest. However, rapid population almost all European colonial movements but also growth and territorial growth are not sufficient the establishment of the Chinese empire in Bor- conditions for creating large states. As a result, neo occurred in that way. At the beginning of the Ratzel stresses that the political organization of Roman Empire he discerns, even though in the these masses, as well as the possession of wide shadow of myths, the foreigners who settled in space, factors for the creation of seperate Rome, whose position was favourable for trade countries, originated in the steppes, whose and shipping lines, thus tilting the scales against founders came from large countries such as other Latin cities. Listing examples of other Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, even countries, whose creation is attributed to foreign African Sudan. The fact that during the settlers, Ratzel then talks about the pre-European era America lacked the pastoral culture-orientated peoples of America, claiming peoples, once prevalent over the largest part of that on the one hand the historical core of ancient the world, deprived America of a restless politi- American migratory legends cannot be ignored, cal enzyme, whose absence partly explains the and on the other hand that the fact that all legends inability to create states in America. attribute the creation of countries to foreigners However, the impact of wandering pastoral cannot be a coincidence. All other American peoples on the permanently settled farmers and states of memorable size started from the Euro- traders demonstrates, according to Ratzel, only pean settlements and spread out towards Indian one side of a deeper contrast. The same contrast areas that included small states. America, Aus- is the key fact regarding the state creation of tralia and Africa south of the equator, the poorest seagoing peoples, the Phoenicians, the Normans areas with regard to stimuli and at the same time and the Indonesians, but also the younger Euro- areas under the control of their own inhabitants peans colonies. It also appears in the globally before the European invasion, recorded the most growing trend of settled peoples—especially powerless state formations. rural populations—to politically retreat or isolate Ratzel believed that Europeans are the main themselves. He detects this kind of political supporters of the view that large states need to be inflexibility in all rural settlements demonstrating created; at the same time in areas where no an inclination towards settling down, as the Europeans are involved, its supporters are peo- Achaeans in Greece, the Germans in Siebenbür- ples of the sea, peoples of the desert and the gen and the Boer in Africa, remarking that steppe: the Hamites and Semites, the Mongols Rome’s global success must be attributed to the and Turks. If we further wonder where the fertilization of an uncouth, rural people with research on the roots of this perception among stronger elements of mobility, that have a deep Europeans shall lead, we will end up in the paths knowledge of the world. of eastern Mediterranean, where creative peo- Finally, he detects a difference in the historical ples are located at the center of great steppes. movement, which rules mankind. Some remain Egypt and Mesopotamia, Syria and Persia are still, others are on the move, both favoured by the large oases-countries, which favour the concen- nature of their places of residence. That is why tration of inhabitants in a narrow region, sur- the creation of states starts from the seas and the rounded by areas that prompt their populations steppes (areas of mobility) moving to the forests to expand. It is from this difference that a rich and the cultivated areas. In cases of inactivity, source of historical life stems. Studying the weakness and dissolution occur; on the contrary, examples of the expansion of Southern Egypt to movement promotes the organization of people the North and China’s expansion from the sandy leading, despite the scarce concentration of 5.6 The Laws of Spatial Growth. A Contribution to Scientific … 147 power, to great achievements (as was the case of According to Ratzel, this objective was a law of the Tatars or the Vikings). The most extreme the spatial evolution of states long before the cases show in Africa a people organized for war, 16th century,117 when the concept of the Euro- to the point of eradicating the family, such as the pean equilibrium was created, because of the Zulu and next to them a fragmenting and for rivalries between Spain, Austria and France for many generations slavishly alienated people, like the supremacy over Europe. The seeds of this the Mayehona. These two peoples complement idea are already found in the late 15th century in each other, as the former live off the latter. Of the Burgundian, Swiss and Italian cases. At the course, Ratzel does not consider as inevitable the lower levels of evolution, he believes that the obligatory imposition of the folk traditions of the limited capacity for land control may act as a people who created the state over a politically co-efficient (as for instance in Uganda, Unyoro, passive people, the way for instance Babylon Rwanda or Bornu, Baghirmi, Wadai, Darfor). became a semitic area, since the laws of the Even at lower levels, he stresses the cooperation growth of peoples and states differ. of small tribes after being attacked by a more powerful neighbor; attacks that forge political unity. 5.6.7 7th Law: The General Tendency From the beginning of growth till the gigantic Towards Spatial states of the present Ratzel detects the same Adjustment trend: smaller (states) aspiring to resemble the and Balancing Transmits big ones, and big ones aspiring to resemble the Spatial Growth from One great ones. This trend is alive and influential, State to the Next despite any vacillations and regressions, and and Continuously encourages all expansionist ambitions. He con- Intensifies It116 siders it to have proved efficient in both the village-states in the Sandeh region, as well as the In his last Law, Ratzel essentially discusses ter- gigantic states occupying one half of a continent. ritorial competition, which began when the Of course, he believes that this trend is extremely political value of land increased, turning it pro- timely and raises the awareness of continental gressively into a measure of political power and Europe that a unification—even only financial— a prize in the conflict of states for greater influ- to a larger space against the giants of Russia, ence. Observing that since the beginning of North America and the British Empire is essen- political competition, small states aspired to tial. In the new colonies, he even considers that resemble the powerful ones, he projects this this law was confirmed: in Africa it caused a fight relationship on the level of the land as an of powers for land acquisition, while the rest of ambition for spatial adjustment and balancing. New Guinea was shared between England and The fact that the territories of Austria-Hungary, Germany in a ratio of 125:100. Germany, France and Spain correspond to a ratio The objective of territorial adjustment and of 100 to 86, 84, 80, those of the Netherlands and balance can be achieved, according to Ratzel, in Belgium to a ratio of 90 to 100, of USA and the various ways: British N. America (including Newfoundland) 100 to 96, of Ontario and Quebec 100 to 97, a. A small state obtains from its neighboring along with the fact that similar conditions have states the amount of land which will make it historically existed in the most diverse scales and the same or similar to the largest of them: locations, is considered by Ratzel as a result of a Prussia, later Germany between France and slow evolution and a spatial adjustment and Austria. balancing, achieved after many struggles. 117Certainly, the spatial parameter is not an exclusive 116See Footnote 115. power indicator. See Sect. 1.3.2.1. 148 5 Fr. Ratzel’s Worldview and the “Positivist … b. States develop in parallel and sequentially for a number of states of the antiquity and a from common land, whereas subsequent distant resemblance is even evident in the states states resemble the dimensions of the initial of ancient American plateaux, becoming truly ones: Spanish America, the French North impressive by means of the elaborate road America, the USA and the British North construction. America. Finally, he believes that the same rule is in c. A state is divided into two states, which do effect in both peaceful competition as well as not want to have different sizes: the kingdoms war: the attacker has to put his foot on the same of Holland and Belgium. ground with his opponent. Beating him means d. b. States develop in parallel and sequentially becoming equal to him. During their rivalry with from common land, whereas subsequent the steppe peoples, the states next to the steppes states resemble the dimensions of the initial should adapt so deeply so as to draw power from ones: Spanish America, the French North the advantages of the steppe. Russia and France America, the USA and the British North have illustrated that example in Central Asia and America. Algeria respectively. e. A fragmented community, such as Hansa, made calculated efforts to prevent the unifi- cation of the northern states, aiming to 5.7 Conclusions maintain them in a condition identical to hers. f. In South Italy the Phoenicians and the Greeks In Chap. 5 an analytical as well as synthetic weighed things with great precision, so that interpretation of Ratzel’s cosmo-theoretical and Rome in central Italy could reach the level of scientific background was attempted at first. This power of the two of them. Having turned their background was subsumed in the narrower eyes towards a large area, where nobody can intellectual environment of the protestant remain immobile, according to Wenjukouw, Leipzig. Russia and China will rule over Central Asia, Being both a devoted protestant and a scien- after resolving similar problems, the former tist, Ratzel followed the philosophical steps of with the Turks and the latter with the Leibniz, Lotze, Fechner, Schäffle and others, Mongols. who attempted to surpass the ultimate dilemma of Faith or Knowledge, creating a scientific As expected, Ratzel notes that proactivity context that interpreted the interpretable mecha- against other states does not end at the level of nistic expressions of Nature, as part of a teleo- land size, since neighboring states share the logical frame, in which the final data which could advantages of their location or their natural not be subjected to scientific research were resources, thanks to which several common placed. Typical is the case of the instinctive interests and functions arise. motion of organisms which is impossible to Next, he concludes that the large states finally interpret. adjoin in a small space. Aside from the Pacific— Without, of course, expecting Ratzel to ham- Atlantic connections of the US, Canada estab- mer out an analytical and complete philosophical lished its own Canadian Pacific, while navigation system, it is clear that the link with the specific in the great seas uses on both sides special philosophical schools of teleological idealism, canals. The imitation of the free North American panpsychism or vitalism, along with the incorrect states is apparent across America regarding the —as thoroughly analysed in Chap. 2—but constitution and the organization of political life. widespread idea of the supposedly organismic Similarly, Sudan is a bright paragon of all Isla- notion of state, contributed significantly to the mic states, irrespective of whether their founders weaving of a web of naturalistic mysticism over were Fulves or arabized Nubians. Likewise, the Ratzel, which distorts completely his positivistic Persian and the Roman Empire were paragons analytical approach. 5.7 Conclusions 149

It was this positivistic approach that the Pos- no one can demand to discover natural laws, itivistic Circle of Leipzig developed. In its wider which could be formulated in mathematical for- sphere, Ratzel and his fellows attempted to create mulas. However: an integrated positivistic system for the inter- pretation of historical processes, setting the • The adherence to the use of the terms Law, foundations of an interdisciplinary collaboration, Normality, Rule, Natural Law which was for their time—a time of extreme • The idea that formulating a historical equation specialisation—truly groundbreaking. (geschichtliche Gleichung) with human- As an important aspect of Ratzel’s thought, geographic data, with Time and the Possibil- the present chapter focuses on the implementa- ity of Prediction by Observation functioning, tion of the theory of diffusionism, which was one at a time, as unknown variables minimally considered in research up until now, • The strenuous attempt to classify Human and due to which Ratzel is placed among the Geography as a science equal to others forerunners of empirical philosophical schools • The use of the term Scientific Political and is irrevocably distanced from Darwin’s the- Geography ory, not only with regard to the idea of natural choice, but also the part on evolution. indicate that the extraction of scientific (ob- Finally, a conceptualisation of Ratzel’s Law servation–experiment–prediction) conclusions in has been attempted. Ratzel’s Law must not be order to interpret the flow of history was Ratzel’s interpreted by means of the classic idea of the absolute intention. generally valid natural Law (an interpretation The Laws of Spatial Expansion of States were which significantly reinforces the faulty opinion also thoroughly presented, showing—apart from about the supposed organismic notion of state), the relativization of the strict notion of Law—the since it focuses on the identification of normali- decisive importance of culture in Ratzel’s ana- ties in the flow of history. Despite the fact that lytical system, being a pillar of power preserva- Ratzel clearly concludes that in Human Sciences tion and redistribution. Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union” 6

The architecture of wider Central Europe, which over Central Europe was, by definition, related to aimed at a unified economic, political, cultural the future of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. and transportational space (based on the priorities of each political subject), brought to life the concept of Central Europe. Without defined 6.1 Organising Models geographical, political or cultural borders, the of the Central European Space motives of this expansive perception were (as was the case with the colonial motives) eco- In his book Geopolitics of the Central European nomic, thus also geostrategic, namely economic Region O. Krejčí recorded, in addition to the and political power rivalries, shaped into two Pan-Germanic model presented in Sect. 6.2, four major currents: Pangermanism, expressed by other organizational models for Central Europe, aspirations towards the East (Drang nach Osten) which are briefly described as: and Panslavism, expressed by the Russian attempts to occupy the West (Stremlenije na • The creation of a Pan-Slavic Federation,as zapad).1 The main field of conflict between these described in 1866 in the book Russia and two great currents was geographically and cul- Europe by Nikolas Yakovlevich Danilevski, turally the broader Balkan region and the region Russian natural scientist and sociologist, of Austria-Hungary, whose demographic com- whose aim was to combine the eight ethno- position (Germans, Magyars, Czechs, Serbs, graphic countries and groups, in which the Croats, Romanians, Italians, etc.)2 caused inter- Slavic world was divided: the Russian nal turmoil and disputes. The population diver- Empire, the kingdom of the Czech–Moravia– sity, coupled with the poor economic and Slovakia, the Serbian—Croatian—Slovenian administrative situation, prevented kingdom, the kingdoms of Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary from evolving in the European Romania, the kingdom of Greece (comprising geographical area. That was possible only in the of Thessaly, Epirus, NW Macedonia, all of East, where it benefited from the full support of the Aegean islands, Rhodes, Crete and the the Germans.3 Hence, the german-russian brawl Aegean coast of Asia Minor.), the kingdom of Hungary and the wider region of Istanbul (Czarigrad), which would be the centre of the 1Krejčí, OSKAR (2005): Geopolitics of the Central Federation of 125–140 million inhabitants.4 European region, p. 89. 2Ibid., p. 81. 3Kalogeropoulos—Stratis (1959): Diplomatic history 4Krejčí, O. (2005): Geopolitics of the Central European from 1814 to 1914, p. 142. region, pp. 177–178.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 151 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_6 152 6 Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union”

The defeat of Russia by Japan in 1905 ended a federation containing national entities the expectations of a concentration of Slavs appeared in the late 19th and early 20th around Russia, while sparking the ideas of Neo– century as a rational perception of a unified Slavism, lead by František Ladislav Rieger Middle Europe that is not under German (1818–1903), Czech politician and lawyer. The rule.9 A pivotal supporter of this idea was Neo–Slavs supported the promotion of a Slavic Frantiśek Palacký (1798–1876), politician, cooperation in the fields of culture and finance, founder of modern Czech historiography, respecting the principles of equality of the Slavic who was considered the founder of modern nations and recognizing their distinct identities, Czech patriotism of the intelligentsia (in 1848 traditions, histories, languages and religions,5 as with his Letter to Frankfurt he denied the well as the prospect of settling the disputes invitation to the pre-parliament of between Russia and Poland.6 Frankfurt).10 The role of Karel Kramář (1860–1937) in promoting Pan-Slavic ideas was also pivotal. He According to Palacký, the balance of powers was a Czech political figure, who promoted the in Central Europe (although he himself never idea of Neo-Slavism as a new phase in the evo- used this term) was linked to the resolution of the lution of Slavic reciprocity after 1905, to the national issue of the Czechs and the existence of direction of federalising Austria-Hungary, while Austria, whose support would safeguard the strengthening the political and economic role of interests of the Czechs.11 Recognizing that the the Slavs. The purpose of this aspiration was to area underwent constant pressure, exerted in the prevent the growth of Germany, against which East by the Russians and in the West by the the Austrians had adopted an increasingly sub- Germans, Palacký considered suicidal a possible missive policy. According to Kramář, the stron- participation of the Czechs and Austrians in the ger role of the Slavs under Austria-Hungary German Empire.12 He also viewed the potential would lead to its detachment from Germany, to partition of Austria in small states as the ideal the discontinuation of the Triple Alliance and to basis for a worldwide supremacy of the Russian a cooperation with Russia. His ultimate secret monarchy.13 Thus, he proposed the creation of plan was to create a Slavic Empire under the eight groups of countries: the German-Austrian leadership of Russia,7 extending from the Pacific lands, the Czech lands, the Polish, the Illyrian, Ocean to the Sumava Mountain Range (Bohe- the Italian, the Yugoslav, the Hungarian and the mia), boasting a population of over 200 million, Romanian lands.14 The members of the Federa- and comprising: the Russian Empire, Polish tion would provide the central government only Empire, Bulgarian Empire, the Kingdom of the national independence necessary for its Serbia, the Kingdom of Montenegro and the existence and reinforcement, while the imperial Czech Empire.8 government would consist of six members, the Prime Minister and the members responsible for • The Austrian Federation: The idea of foreign affairs, war, economics, trade and transforming Austria or Austria-Hungary into government-funded constructions.15 Naturally, the developments in the region ý’ 5Ibid., p. 190. contributed to the shift of Palack s views, who 6Ibid., p. 191. Generally, the leaders of Czech Panslavists exhibited little understanding for the Polish struggle foe 9Ibid., p. 198. independence, while the Czechs politicians required 10 Ibid., pp. 199–200. means of an autonomous expression in the Austrian 11 – context. Indeed, the Czechs considered Poles of the Ibid., pp. 204 205. 12 Austrian monarchy as the politically favored nation. Ibid., pp. 205–206. 13 7Ibid., p. 192. Ibid., p. 207. 14 8Krejčí, O. (2005): Geopolitics of the Central European Ibid., pp. 213–214. region, pp. 193–194. 15Ibid., p. 213. 6.1 Organising Models of the Central European Space 153 in the mid-1860s pinned his hopes for the pro- Transylvania, Romania, Croatia, Serbia and the tection of the Czechs on the Russian Empire,16 Southslavic provinces. (This proposal was sub- anticipating a change in Austria’s role, due to mitted in 1862 and did not include Poland and three main causes: Prussia’s growing influence, the Czech Lands, whose participation he had Austria’s decline from a centre of international supported in 1850.20) politics to the object of international politics, and Other authors who drafted federalistic models the increase in the pro-German sentiment of the for Middle Europe were: Austrians.17 These parameters were decisive for the • the Romanian politician and writer Aurel Austro-Hungarian reconciliation in 1867, when Popovic (1863–1917), who supported the Austria-Hungary succeeded the Austrian Empire. creation of a Danubian Empire with 15 The full name of the federation was The King- semi-autonomous states, constituting together doms and Lands Represented in the Imperial the United Nations of Great Austria.21 Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian • the Hungarian sociologist, journalist and Crown of St. Stephen, and it was geographically politician OszkárJászi (1875–1957), who divided into two parts on the sides of the river explored solutions within the Monarchy, after Leith: (a) Cisleithania, the Austrian part of its prior transformation into a democratic Austro-Hungary across Leith, where the Habs- federation, which would preserve the existing burgs reigned as emperors of Austria and (in 1918) national units. He thus contrived the (b) Transleitania or Kingdom of Hungary, the idea of the United Danubian States, with the Hungarian part of the empire on the other side of participation of five federal states: Hungary, Leith, which included all of the Lands of the without Croatia and Slavonia, Austria, Crown of Saint Stephen, under the crown of the Bohemia, the United Poland and Illyria, Habsburg kings. Officially it was a unified state, without excluding the participation of which recognized greater independence to Romania.22 Croatia18. • the Austrian Marxists Karl Renner (1870– Apart from Palacký, an advocate of the fed- 1950) and Otto Bauer (1882–1938) devel- eralization of Central Europe was Lájos Kossuth oped in the late 19th and early 20th century (1802–1894), a Hungarian politician, lawyer and their own proposal for resolving the national writer, who combined national, liberal and question of Austria, based on the idea of occasionally democratic views and led the radical natural rights rather than historical rights. Hungarian opposition. The prospect of a Danu- Considering the nation as an intermediate bian Federation was the response to the defeat of stage between individuals and the state, they the Hungarian revolution, which led him to the faced the national identity as a matter of belief that the Pan-Slavic danger (that would cultural and linguistic agreement. The mem- threaten the national identity of the Poles, bers of each autonomous nation would create Czechs, Serbs and Dalmatians) could be a special legal unit, a personal union. The addressed only by the unification of Central cultural autonomy of ethnic groups would be European states and nations.19 Geographically, secured by applying the principle of personal this federation would be defined by the cultural autonomy. Each member of an Carpathians, the Danube, the Adriatic and the independent nation would be included, irre- Black Sea, meaning the inclusion of Hungary, spective of their place of residence. For example, a Czech resident of Prague and a 16Krejčí, O. (2005): Geopolitics of the Central European region, p. 211. 20Ibid., p. 218. 17 Ibid., p. 201. 21Krejčí, O. (2005): Geopolitics of the Central European 18Ibid., pp. 201–202. region, p. 221. 19Ibid., pp. 217–218. 22Ibid., pp. 222–223. 154 6 Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union”

Czech resident of Vienna and Bratislava National Party of Slovakia and founder of the would be members of the same union. Agricultural Party in 1910, proposed during Overall, those personal unions would aim the Second World War, the establishment of a towards a transformation of Austria into a Danubian Federation including Poland, Cze- federal state of nations, with a complicated choslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, dual administrative system.23 Romania, Bulgaria and Greece. The territory • The national state: Tomáś Masaryk (1850– of this Federation would be approximately 1937), first president of the Czechoslovak 582,000 square miles, almost as large as the Republic (1918–1935), was a key figure of overall size of England, France, Germany and the theoretical preparation and implementa- Italy, boasting a population of about 100 tion of the plan for the establishment of an million inhabitants. Hodža attached to this independent Czechoslovak state.24 In order to region a strongly agricultural character, esti- create a small national state with international mating that it could become the source of interests,25 Masaryk grounded his analysis on agricultural produce for Western Europe. the existence of a radical Pan-Germanic movement and the concept of Slavic solidar- ity,26 with a view to create an alliance of the Slavic countries of Central Europe. 6.2 The Pan-Germanic Central Europe27 Masaryk aimed at the establishment of a zone of Slavic states in Central Europe: Poland, At the heart of the debate on this region in Bohemia (Czechoslovakia) and Yugoslavia, Germany was Friedrich List, who had insisted which, having more than 40 million inhabitants, since the 1840s on the creation of a strong would create a natural boundary to the East (the German-Magyar Eastern Empire, extending from Balkans, Istanbul, Baghdad) against the German the Adriatic to the Black Sea. By forging an pressure. alliance with England and building a common Considering the Serbs as the closest natural economic space, this Empire would constitute allies to the Czechs, he proposed a connection of both a counterweight against the emerging gar- Czechoslovakia and the Serbs, through the cre- gantuan empires of the US and Russia, and at the ation of a corridor from southern Slovakia to same time a potential ground for the reception of Yugoslavia, which would demarcate a compact German immigrants. Although List regarded this zone of Central Europe, expanding from the German-Magyar Central Empire mainly as an Baltic to the Adriatic. It would also unify small economic partnership and had little in common Slavic states against the German pressure and with the expansionist ambitions of ultranation- separate the Germans from their natural ally and alists, the latter still considered him a precursor antislavic country, Hungary. of their rationale.28 Bismarck initially seemed to underestimate • The Danubian Federation: Sharing the Middle Europe affair with the creation of Palacký’s geopolitical ideas on the future of Little Germany that excluded Austria. However, Central Europe, Milan Hodža (1878–1944), a further actions are clear evidence of his escalat- significant Slovak and Czechoslovak politi- ing effort to promote the (pan)Germanic influ- cian, deputy president since 1906 of the ence on Central Europe through Austria.

27 “ 23 For Sect. 6.2., parts from the article, STOGIANNOS, Ibid., p. 224. Alekos. Friedrich Ratzel And The Eastern Question: Flag 24 Ibid., p. 227. Follows Trade. Civitas Gentium, [S.l.], v. 2, n. 1, pp. 79– 25Krejčí, O. (2005): Geopolitics of the Central European 124, Jan 2013. ISSN 1792-9474” were taken region, p. 228. and reformulated. 26Ibid., p. 230. 28Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation–Volk–Rasse…, p. 204. 6.2 The Pan-Germanic Central Europe 155

Immediately after Austria’s exclusion from uni- Netherlands, Luxembourg and the Flemish fied Germany his tactics against the former regions of Belgium, the central goal of their opponent took a different direction and he expansionist plans remained the acquisition of eventually avoided any onerous clauses of a living space in Central and Eastern Europe, peace treaty. He tried not to hurt the neighbor’s mainly in the regions of the Habsburg Empire, ego,29 while he decisively encouraged Austria’s where German-speaking populations lived. The penetration in the Balkan region, as a Drang nach Osten was thus connected also from Pan-Germanic eastward expansion required the an ultranationalist perspective with the future of preservation of the Slavic peoples within Austria the Austrio-Hungarian Monarchy,34 under the and the annexation to the German sphere of shadow of national-cultural conflicts in Central interests of the Christian Orthodox lands under Europe, whose future was rendered precarious. the Sultan’s rule.30 Having secured reverence and Having in mind the example of the German a weighty opinion on global issues within a rel- Customs Agreement (1866), a precursor of the atively short period, the German chancellor German Union, the ultra-nationalists of the starred in the Berlin Congress (1878), where, Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband) among other provisions, the administration of predictably advocated the creation of a Bosnia–Herzegovina and the Muslim sanjak of German-influenced Central European economic Novi Pazar separating Serbia from Montenegro region. In the shadow of the aforementioned were ceded to Austria.31 This concession was a national conflicts in Austria, the Union’s Chair- German penetration to the East so clear as to man Ernst Hasse35 propagandised the creation of vindicate the claim that with this treaty opened a “Central European Customs Union” as the for the entire Germanism the route to the East overriding consideration of German world poli- towards Asia Minor and the Persian Gulf. At the tics (Weltpolitik).36 same time it triggered a conflict of interests Similar ideas can be detected later in the between Germanism and Slavism.32 writings of more moderate publishers like Ernst The new crisis in German-Russian relations Jäckel and Paul Rohrbach, who had been pub- (1879–1880) made Mitteleuropa again the sub- lishing since 1914 a magazine with the pro- ject of a German public debate. Many saw the grammatic title Greater Germany. Through its answer to the challenges of the increasing eco- pages Jäckel and Rohrbach supported an eco- nomic globalization in the redefinition of the nomic and sovereign expansion of the German German foreign economic policy. A Central Empire to Southeast Europe and the Near East on European Union under German hegemony raised the basis of a merger with the Habsburg Empire. expectations of economic growth within a Consequently, the need to settle the problems of domestic market and was at the same time con- an eastward expansion was not a privilege of the sidered an economic and political counterweight Pan-Germanists only, but rather a publicly to the global powers (England–Russia–USA).33 debated multifaceted concern.37 Characteristic of As far as the ultranationalists are concerned, the Zeitgeist of the era is the establishment and imperialist objectives on European soil were operation (in Berlin already since August 1887) identified mainly in the East. Although the of the Institute for Eastern Languages,38 where intended Great Germany included the 34Ibid., p. 203. 29 Kalogeropoulos—Stratis (1959): Diplomatic history 35Hasse, Ernst (1846–1908), Professor at the University from 1814 to 1914, p. 128. of Leipzig and a member of the national-liberal party from 30Berstein, S.-Milza, P. (1992): History of Europe 2, 1893 to 1903. He was president of the Pan-German p. 149. League and maintained close contacts with F. Ratzel. 31Ibid., p. 157. 36Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation–Volk–Rasse…, p. 206. 32Naltsas, Ch. (1953): The Treaty of Saint Stefan and 37Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation–Volk–Rasse…, p. 220. Hellenism, p. 83. 38Ruppenthal, J. (2007): Kolonialpolitik der Metropolen; 33Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation–Volk–Rasse…, p. 205. Hamburg und Berlin…, p. 146. 156 6 Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union” interpreters of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as Under the influence of the First World War, well as other professionals were taught Chinese, H. Hassinger left his mark from 1917 to 1945 on Japanese, Indian, Arabic, Persian, Turkish and the literature on Mitteleuropa, with his study on Swahili. In those seminars, co-organized by the The geographical nature of Mitteleuropa (Das Imperial and the Prussian government, language Wesen geographische Mitteleuropas), in which– training was accompanied by information on criticizing Kjellen for not taking sufficiently into religion, customs and rites, geography, statistics account the parameter of Geography–he presents and the recent history of these areas. What is Mitteleuropa as a natural-geographical and more, between Berlin and Hamburg fierce sci- political-geographical unit, whose dominant entific competition centred on colonization characteristic is not the border, but its central and gradually developed, which led to the establish- intermediate position.42 41 The identification of ment of prestigious university schools and the natural-geographical regions of Europe with institutes. the regions of German-Austrian interests led to the idea of a hegemonic German presence in the wider region and to the propagandisation of the 6.2.1 Central Europe in German Berlin—Baghdad axis, as a direction of the Political Geography expansion of German culture43 (see Maps 6, 10, and Geopolitics 15 in Appendix). Opposite Partsch and Hassinger, staunch Mitteleuropa was the subject of study for the advocates of the creation of an expanded eco- German Political Geography in the first half of nomic Central European bloc, German Geogra- the 20th century, when two basic schools of phy recorded views on the organization of spatial organization were developed on both a Mitteleuropa in a smaller geographical scale, broad and a limited scale.39 extending in the South along the Alps and the J. Partsch (1904) regarded the natural and Carpathians, in the East between the Rivers political borders of Mitteleuropa as identical, Memel and Weichsel, and in the West all the way attributing to the German states a dominant role in to Geneva. This perception was promoted by this area.40 Spatially, he perceived the Central Hettner, Braun, Kirchhoff, and Hermann Wagner European area extending from the North and (who changed position after World War I), all Baltic Sea to the Black Sea and South Adriatic fervent supporters—irrespective of the criteria— Sea. Despite the large number of countries, he of a small in size Mitteleuropa, almost coinciding anticipates the attainment of geographical order in with the borders of Germany. Mitteleuropa thanks to the complementarity of Even though in the German Geopolitics of the Germany and Austria. The political-geographical time a spatially clear perception of Mitteleuropa Mitteleuropa should—always according to is not recorded, K. Kost distinguished three Partsch–set primarily economic objectives, which general ideas: would be imposed by means of military force upon the other competitors, namely England, • geopolitical research based on geographical Russia and France41 (see Map 9 in Appendix). studies, which are adopted unchanged • the placement of Mitteleuropa in the territory 39For the organization of the Central European space as of Austria and the German Empire, with an part of the German Political Geography, see Annex maps innate tendency to expand eastwards, towards (Maps 3–8 in Appendix). the “area of German influence in the fields of 40Kost, K. 1 (1988): Die Einflusse Geopolitik auf der language and culture” Forschung und Theorie der Politischen Geographie, p. 269. 41Kost, K. 1 (1988): Die Einflüsse Geopolitik auf der 42 Forschung und Theorie der Politischen Geographie, Ibid., pp. 270–271. p. 270. 43Ibid., p. 271. 6.2 The Pan-Germanic Central Europe 157

• the concept of Mitteleuropa as a geographi- • regulate jointly and more extensively than in cally indefinite spatial sense without border the past specific points of their financial sys- specifications, where Germany would act as tems and economic legislation the hegemonic centre.44 (η tporηleίxrη • provide to each other facilities in various edώ diauέqei ίrx1 apό sηm amsίrsoivη 905 sectors, such as border control, imports and rso ekkηmijό). exports control, clearings • develop privileged or at least special relations relevant to the specific conditions of their economies, customs agreements, railway tar- 6.3 The Central European Economic iffs, etc. Association • research constantly the potential in this area, instead of restricting themselves to negotia- The foundation of the Central European Eco- tions hastily conducted every ten years nomic Association (Mitteleuropäischer Wirt- • entrust their representation in faraway coun- schaftsverein) was a first attempt to construct a tries to collective bodies, provided that there unified economic Central European area. The are no conflicts of interest idea was materialised in January 21, 1904 in • negotiate in agreement with faraway coun- Berlin, under the guidance of Julius Wolf, an tries, if that is deemed profitable economist at the universities of Breslau and • constantly refer their international differences Berlin. Similar associations were established in the fields of economy and especially cus- later in Hungary, Austria and Belgium, while toms affairs to arbitration courts in order to be similar plans were unfruitful in Switzerland and settled.48 the Netherlands.45 Denying any political targeting in its founding Their intention was the enlistment of people declaration,46 the union aimed to raise the from the sectors of politics, manufacture and awareness of both people and governments on agriculture from Germany, Austria, Hungary, issues of common economic interest, without Switzerland, Italy, Belgium and France, in order threatening the states’ economic independence to combat and reduce the protective or pro- and sovereignty, and without raising issues that hibitive taxes, a target more easily realizable would create a conflict of interests. The Associ- among cooperating countries. Wolf drew atten- ation also renounced any idea of a Central tion to the risk posed by the emerging American European or European customs union,47 pro- financial and industrial competition, saying that claiming that its founders are convinced that the Europe faces the danger of getting in the way of Central-European states will be able to secure two millstones, East Asia and North America.49 their prosperity if they: Reaching in 1907 the number of 700 mem- bers, the Association got more and more involved in the political maelstrom of expan- sionary plans for Mitteleuropa and after World War I it suspended its operation.50 44Ibid., p. 270. Ratzel analyses the architecture of Central 45Kiesenwetter, H.: Der Mitteluropäische Wirtschaftsver- ein,p.2. Europe as well as the foundation of the Central 46Wolf, J. (1904): Materialien betreffend den Mitteleu- European Economic Association in one of his ropäischen Wirtschaftsverein, pp. 10–11. 47 Despite initial renunciation of the prospect of a customs 48 union, the Wolf reportedly admits his intention to create a Wolf, J. (1904): Materialien betreffend den Mitteleu- ä – Central European Customs Union, initially between rop ischen Wirtschaftsverein, pp. 10 11. 49 Germany and Austria-Hungary, the intention of which Kiesenwetter, H.: Der Mitteleuropäische Wirtschafts- he could at first not make public. See: Kiesenwettwer, verein, p. 24. p. 5, footnote 14. 50Ibid., p. 2. 158 6 Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union” last essays, the Central European Economic Germany’s mindset was followed by Austria, Association,51 which will be presented below. Italy and Switzerland, a development which, according to Ratzel, should have led (based on what followed during the 12-year agreements on 6.4 Central Europe from Ratzel’s Verkehr and exchange among the major nations Point of View of Europe, especially of Mitteleuropa) to even more concessions and excesses, as it becomes Already in the first lines of the essay, Ratzel increasingly clearer that the evolution of Verkehr stresses the importance of Verkehr, in response to follows the consequences of natural and histor- a letter sent in 1891 by Kaiser Wilhelm II to the ical conditions, which made Mitteleuropa a general Director of the Stephan Post Office, in unified economic region. The location, climate, which it was stressed that at the end of the 19th natural terrain, the peoples’ characteristics and century the world revolves around Verkehr. the history: all point and lead to this direction.54 Verkehr pulls down the borders that divide Furthermore, Ratzel gives prominence to a peoples and builds new relationships between speech by Chancellor Caprivi, delivered in the nations.52 Considering the first part of this parliament on December 10, 1891, in which he statement as one of the most well known and described as a political necessity the impact on often quoted, Ratzel highlights the conclusion of fragmented Europe of the existence of large the second part, which contains the quote’s states: Lately, a global phenomenon which I practical value. consider crucial has been imprinted in the con- Given that these views were expressed in a sciousness of peoples: it is the creation of great time of conflicts over the new trade agreements, empires, the flaunted confidence and ambition to Ratzel undertakes a retrospective analysis of the demarcate themselves against other peoples. The time–1st February 1892—when most trade theatre of world history has broadened, chang- agreements with European countries expired. At ing the analogies; thus, it is possible that, in that time the Parliament was forced in late 1891 terms of material power, a state, which, being a to set the terms of the agreements with Austria, great European power, once played a role in Italy, Switzerland and Belgium aiming both to history, will be considered in the near future reduce Bismarck’s protective customs measures among the small states. Should European states —to the extent required by the country’s evolv- wish to maintain a strong global position, they ing industry and population growth–and to effect will not be able to avoid a close connection, at equivalent reductions and waivers of other least to the extent their other facilities render that countries, mainly Russia, with which the customs feasible.55 Correlating the statements of the war had ended in 1893 with an equivalent Kaiser and the Chancellor, Ratzel accuses of agreement imposed despite the harsh reaction of poor knowledge of history the advocates of the farmers. Ratzel considered that development opinion that the idea of a synergy of the Central almost deterministic, noting that thus the way European states has been forgotten exactly where was paved for long-term trade agreements, it was first emphatically formulated (obviously which, naturally, preserved each state’s separate alluding to Germany). Of course, he believes that operation, but at the same time effected several the implementation of these thoughts requires a facilitations, required by the uncontrollable major reversal, which will peacefully occur only growth of Verkehr.53

51 Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische 54Ibid., pp. 253–254 Also in this passage Ratzel’s Wirtschaftsverein, pp. 253–259. multidimensional analytical framework is clearly 52Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische distinguished. Wirtschaftsverein, p. 253. 55Ratzel, Fr.68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische Wirtschafts- 53Ibid., p. 253. verein, p. 254. 6.4 Central Europe from Ratzel’s Point of View 159 if left entirely to its own internal driving forces56 structure, German: the Germans (Germanen) are (as will be further elucidated, he is here referring represented by more than 3/5 of the population primarily to the economy and culture). and their language is dominant in trade and Next, Ratzel attempts an analysis of the situ- Verkehr.59 Furthermore, he estimates that ation in Central Europe, where he initially iden- national conflicts cannot cancel the common tifies57 six states, sovereign and independent, historical bases of peoples’ lives in this part of characterised, however, by different dynamics. the earth and the maintenance of their Verkehr He also emphasizes that in this particular area, will anything but damage their healthy national where states have concluded numerous pacts and targets, as ultimately an economically prosper- neutrality treaties, differences with regard to the ous nation is always sure that its overall life is on means of power that consolidate political inde- the right track.60 pendence must be seriously taken into account. In fact, he considers a supranational integra- tion in this region almost deterministic, in the German Empire 548.000 m2 with 56 m. sense that with so many common elements neither Inhabitants natural nor political borders could keep the Austro-Hungary 676.000 m2 with 47 m. peoples of Mitteleuropa divided for long. Of Inhabitants course, he does not perceive political boundaries Switzerland 41.000 m2 with 3.3 m. as bare elements defining a shape and an origin. It Inhabitants is precisely at this point that he detects the 2 Holland 38.000 m with 5.3 m. peculiarity and difficulty of Europe’s political Inhabitants evolution: in the fact that, in the era of large 2 Belgium 29.000 m with 6.8 m. spaces and rapidly increasing and vivifying Inhabitants 2 Verkehr, states and peoples have adopted the Luxembourg 2.600 m with 0.24 m. narrow borders and partly narrow horizons of Inhabitants yesteryear. The need for circulation and exchange creates, however, roads everywhere. Excluding Dalmatia with its Bosnian midland, To that end, he invokes the forty railway lines the German geographer remarks that all these connecting Germany and Austria, the seven lines countries stand geographically on the strip of connecting Germany and Switzerland, the twenty land between 55° and 45° North, creating a solid leading to the northwest neighboring areas, the mass, enlivened by its parallel connection to the Verkehr taking place in the rivers Elbe, Rhine and North Sea, the Mediterranean, and rivers Rhine, Danube, the 1000 German ships of 2 m-tonnage Danube, Elbe, these dynamic arteries of Eur- capacity in Antwerp and the 1000 of ope’s inner Verkehr.58 In three of these countries 1.2 m-tonnage capacity in Rotterdam (1902). All he discerns a majority of Germans, in the fourth these constitute given facts, such as the complex he considers the German element to be politically customs borders and laws, as Ratzel points out and economically dominant, while in the other emphatically, in order to show how such needs two he identifies a majority of residents related to create institutions and new paths, as becomes the people of Lower Franconia (Niederfranken). evident in the new postal and telecommunications Despite the presence of 45 million Slavs, Mag- agreements, as well as in the example of the yars, French and Italians, Ratzel believes that German Railway Administrations Association, these states are, with regard to history and their whose spectre of action started from the river Schelde reaching the mouth of the Danube.61 56Ibid., p. 254. 57Ratzel saw the possibility of a wider European conver- 59 gence, beyond the Central European countries, as it will Ibid., p. 255. be will demonstrated later on. 60Ibid., p. 255. 58Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische 61Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische Wirtschaftsverein, p. 254. Wirtschaftsverein, p. 255. 160 6 Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union”

People travel with goods and ideas with Austria, finding particularly ardent supporters in people. This is how Ratzel condenses his theo- Austria and quite a few in Italy, where in 1902 retical model of new, twentieth century, cos- the politician and economist Luzzati65 proposed mopolitanism,62 an approach that ranks him a European Customs conference aiming at the rightly among the first theorists of globaliza- exchange of ideas between men thinking in a tion.63 Of course, influenced by List—as clarified wider temporal and spatial scale; people who in Chap. 2—Ratzel envisions a globalized will consider the possibility of a closer economic economy, in which nation states seek to find their union of European countries and would over- role, thus defining the economy as a primary come possible barriers, to the extent that they driving factor in history; to put it in geopolitical occur in parliaments.66 The main motivation terms as the dominant geopolitical denominator. behind this demand was the defense against the In this context, Ratzel makes the following American danger, while in Italy the idea for a observations on export trade in the region64: propaganda committee in favor of a European customs federation was expressed, along the • Germany’s export trade in 1902 was higher to lines of Carnegie’s67 famous urge to the German England, Austria-Hungary, the Netherlands, Emperor for the creation of the United States of France, Switzerland and Belgium. Europe. Ratzel points out that such and other • the four Central European countries neigh- similar proposals were analyzed extensively in bouring Germany received about 2/5 of the the press, but in a way that raises suspicions, far German exports to Europe. too cautiously or epidermally, the way one han- • Austria-Hungary’s exports are forwarded for dles trivial matters. Commenting on how the the most part to Germany, which received in daily press deals with political issues, Ratzel 1902 more than 50% of the Austro-Hungarian remarks that, unfortunately, it [the press] has no exports. time anymore to check innovative thinking, at • Switzerland directed in 1902 one fifth of its best it devotes the “theorists” who represent that total exports to Germany and [innovative thinking] a column. The same Austria-Hungary, while the Netherlands for- occurred during the discussion of individual warded 47% to Germany and Belgium 22% cases of this major issue, such as the design of a of its total exports to Germany. German-Dutch postal pact along the lines of a • Italy, which is perceived both as a Central previous German-Austrian pact. He ultimately European and Southern European country–its records as the minimum advantage of these dis- railways following Central European cussions the acceptance of the fact that some time-forwarded (1902) to Germany, Switzer- plans were identified as unfeasible and their land and Austria 43% of its exports.

Such close economic relations—which can, according to Ratzel, be termed affinities–reason- ably lead the countries in question to the demand 65Luigi Luzzatti (1841–1927): Italian economist, aca- for the development of open and expanded demic and politician. He was prime minister (1910–1911) fi relations. He believes that this concern never and oftentimes nance minister, excel in the development of Italian cooperatives. He was the first Jew Italian prime faltered from public debate in Germany and minister. 66Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische Wirtschaftsverein, p. 256. 62 A term used by Ratzel yielding the modern term 67Ratzel refers to the American tycoon of Scottish origin, globalization. Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919), who emigrated to Amer- 63 Wardenga, U. (2004) 1: Friedrich Ratzel. 100. Todestag ica in 1848, creating a colossal business group, including am zum 9. August 2004, p. 50. steel companies, mines, commercial fleet and a railway 64Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische line. Source: Bibliographisches Institut & FA Brock- Wirtschaftsverein, p. 255. haus AG, 2002, Sat_Wolf, Bayern. 6.4 Central Europe from Ratzel’s Point of View 161 possibility of occurrence was reduced and lim- systematically and silently promoted and orga- ited in the eyes of self-disciplined people.68 nized by America and we saw its exports more The continuation of this specific discussion than double over the last 5 years of the nine- was perhaps, according to Ratzel, due to the so- teenth century. We will see this huge increase called American danger, since the US is the most return and [USA] surpass itself. At the same time, effective area among the world’s closed eco- there is an internal market, which spatially nomic regions, therefore the area, on which coincides with Europe’s size, but presents a European politicians involved in finance must uniformity which Europe will never achieve.70 keep their eyes. Bearing in mind that the upsurge This is exactly the point where the efforts to of North America’s economic life revived abate the narrow political and economic barriers thoughts of creating a Central European customs of Europe, recognizing that the differences will association, Ratzel discovers qualitative differ- not disappear, but will simply be mitigated. ences in the risks emanating from England and Evidently, Ratzel does not consider an exclusive the US and criticizes the German press, which stake71 the common defense against this “Amer- incorrectly makes the reading public believe that ican danger”, but more so the establishment of a the greatest danger to the continent’s economic European cooperation, aiming at the division of life must be sought in the policy of Chamberlain labor and saving of resources.72 As a result, he and Great Britain. Our agriculture has hardly describes a European architecture, which has any reason to fear the English colonies—which much in common with the European cooperation are in fact nothing more than satellite countries, that occurred about 50 years later: in contrast to Canada and Australia, while England is not an the artificial manipulation of industries through industrial competitor of a caliber so high as to the “national system” of Political Economy, intimidate Central Europe. So, Ratzel flouts the which asks for every specializations in each prevailing view, while stating that the risks country and separates one country from another, stemming from England are political rather than a healthy division of labor should be sought, economic.69 which will correspond to the given conditions. Instead of the political risks emanating from Enhanced competitiveness, reduced production England, Ratzel analyzes the threats deriving costs, the confidence of the internal market, all of from US’ economic advantages stating that the these advantages of large economic space should US are experiencing… in every aspect a process be secured by the central European countries, of growth: in terms of space, with regard to their both for producers as well as for consumers.73 political prestige, in terms of wealth and eco- Ratzel notes that this view is strongly nomic powers of all kinds. Over the past decade expressed in all recent German writings on they became a colonial power, their influence Northern America, whether from people of the continuously growing in the Pacific Ocean, while market (e.g. Goldberger) or poets (Polenz). the prediction that the export of agricultural Having himself closely analysed the US, Ratzel products should decline due to the population concludes that wide space, as well as the growth was disproved by means of a more wide-space perception of American citizens and intensive crop. It is a well-known fact that the US entrepreneurs are so admirable, that all European is the world’s first country in iron and steel production, resulting in an overall industrial upsurge. The increase in industrial exports is

70Ibid., pp. 256–257. 71The quotation marks come from the original. 68Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische 72Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische Wirtschaftsverein, p. 256. Wirtschaftsverein, p. 257. 69Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische 73Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische Wirtschaftsverein, p. 256. Wirtschaftsverein, p. 257. 162 6 Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union” researchers pose the same questions: How could eloquent subtitle Mitteleuropa with France.78 Old Europe take advantage of its space? How This text supports the need for a European could the detrimental narrow spatial perception cooperation against the superpowers of the time, be remedied?74 since the destiny of Central Europe had been Ultimately, Ratzel praises Julius Wolf, whose determined for centuries by three countries, perennial and conscious efforts led a number of which extend successively from the Ocean to the eminent businessmen, politicians and scholars to flatlands of Eastern Europe, namely France, finally agree on a program, which could lead to Germany and Austria-Hungary. Expressing his the path of a closer economic co-existence of conviction that the major economic and political Central European countries.75 He also admires interests will override the national ones, when the earnestness with which Wolf and others they eventually obtain an intimate, familial advocate the economic synergy of the Central character,79 Ratzel invokes extended data on European countries, both in newspapers and demography, economy and transport infrastruc- magazines (led by the Magazine on the Social ture, which contribute to economic partnerships. Sciences which he had been publishing since Especially with regard to France, he remarks that 1898) as well as in speeches to an audience of among the major European countries it has the politicians or other audiences of special interest. most favorable position to the sea. Hence, being He further mentions a thorough study by Sarto- the largest sea power of the European continent, rius von Waltershausen (without however citing France has gained importance for Europe, which it accurately) on the economic federalisation of will become increasingly more prominent, the Europe, as well as one of Wolf’s books, titled more the continent juxtaposes its joint interests “The German empire and the world market”,76 against England.80 In this context Ratzel con- in which Wolf objected to the constantly refor- siders France an important constituent of an mulated and never realized at the time plan for economically unified Europe, justifying its the creation of a European Customs Union, with importance by means of: or without England and Russia; the practically possible and partly already launched synergy of • its position in the Atlantic Ocean and the a number of Central European, perhaps also canal (apparently Suez), where France is the southern European countries. The prospect of an nearest neighbour and rival of England economic union reaching the Mediterranean • its timely completed national integration, appeared particularly attractive to Ratzel, who in which allowed the country to lead the way the same text analyzed the favorable conditions politically and economically compared to all of Italy’s participation in such an effort. other continental European countries. He It is a fact that six years earlier (1898) Ratzel points out that France had also developed had even argued for the participation of France77 earlier its ancillary sources on a military level in the common European design, as part of a and after the fall of Holland it was for over general political—geographical review under the two centuries the only shipping rival of England. Of course, he attributes England’s 74 Ibid., p. 257. predominance to the reluctance which still 75 Ibid., p. 257. characterizes France as a sea power, citing in 76 Wolf, J. (1901): Das Deutsche Reich und der Welt- support of that view Vidal de La Blache. He markt, G. Fischer. finally concludes that even a rich and mature 77In the presented essay [Ratzel, Fr.68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische Wirtschaftsverein], where he com- ments on the foundation of the Central-European Eco- 78 – ü nomic Union. Ratzel isn’t referring to a probable Ratzel, F. 64 (1898): Politisch geographische R ck- participation of France, which can be attributed to the blicke. I. Allgemeines. Mitteleuropa mit Frankreich, – strong French reaction against the project. Whatever the pp. 143 156. 79 circumstances, however, Ratzel’s desirable extension of Ibid., p. 145. an European economic bloc is well perceived. 80Ibid., p. 153. 6.4 Central Europe from Ratzel’s Point of View 163

state like France failed to cope with the dual Customs Union as impractical. Yet, it com- role of sea and continental power, recording mences from the view that the Central European territorial losses when prevailing at sea and states may initially secure more surely than now vice versa. Finally, Ratzel stresses that the their prosperity, through a symmetrical settle- French fleet (with 36 ships of over 5000 ment of specific matters of economy and eco- tonnes and 83 cruisers of over 800 tonnes), nomic law, the joint provision of all available although three times larger than the German, infrastructure, e.g. border control, imports and is the second most powerful naval power after exports control, clearings and other similar England, despite the fact that the distance transactions, paying special attention to any kind between the two has increased.81 of tarrifs, railway taxes etc., constantly studying the area’s potential, instead of limiting them- All the above elucidate Ratzel’s opinion about selves to negotiations taking place once a decade the need for European cooperation, which would under great time pressure. Moreover, the pro- constitute a strategic alliance of nation states. He spect of occasionally assigning to joint delega- finds (and highlights) this crucial for his ethno- tions the representation of their interests in centric perspective attitude in Wolf, who reiter- distant foreign countries or the possibility for ated in numerous publications in German and one state to make its institutions available to Austrian magazines his idea of “ecumenical another, to negotiate together with distant alliances”, which will not limit the self-determi- countries, when this seems beneficial, or to cre- nation of states, will not serve political goals and ate permanent arbitration courts for the settle- will only seek consensus in handling economic ment of international disputes in the sectors of affairs, on which the interests of those states economy and especially the customs system, coincide.82 seem viable.84 In the final section of the text, Ratzel Finally, he insists on the prospect of ensuring describes the preparatory work for the creation of each state’s autonomy, referring to the epilogue the Association launched by Wolf in 1903 in a of the programmatic declaration of the Central volume titled “Material on the Central European European Economic Association, which states Economic Association: An association for the that from the systematic work in all these areas promotion of the common economic interests of every state should benefit and there are the central European states”.83 It is in this vol- undoubtedly many opportunities and motivations ume that the programme is developed; the posi- for such an undertaking; that this must be tive, non-aggressive and apolitical character of effected without jeopardizing under any circum- the movement is highlighted and the Central stances the economic and political sovereignty, European countries’ position towards North as well as the states’ right of self- America and England is analyzed in detail. determination.85 Summarizing the Central Economic Associa- Commenting on the establishment of the tion’s programmatic principles, he emphasizes Association (effected on January 21, 1904 under that it rejects in advance any propaganda in the presidency of Duke Ernst Günther von Sch- favor of a central European or European leswig—Holstein and with members of the Ger- man, Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, 81Ratzel, F. 64 (1898): Politisch–geographische Rück- eminent men of industry and commerce, partic- blicke. I. Allgemeines. Mitteleuropa mit Frankreich, ipating in the Advisory Committee), Ratzel adds p. 154. that the instigation towards such a positive tar- 82Ratzel, Fr.68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische get, especially in today’s era of fragmentation Wirtschaftsverein, p. 257. 83Wolf, J. (1904): Materialien betreffend den Mitteleu- 84 ropäischen Wirtschaftsverein. Zweite Ausgabe, Heft 1. Ratzel, Fr. 68 (1904): Der Mitteleuropäische Berlin, Puttkammer & Mühlrecht, Buchhandlung für Wirtschaftsverein, p. 258. Staats–und Rechtswissenschaften. 85Ibid., pp. 257–258. 164 6 Fr. Ratzel, Central Europe and “European Union” and unwillingless, has to be welcomed with great would contribute to the maintenance of peace joy. He expects their objectives would be wel- among the peoples of Europe. comed and facilitated by Switzerland, the • He distinctly stresses the need for political Netherlands, Belgium, and Italy. He then admits unity—apart from an economic collaboration, that, even though the immediate goal of the since he considers the convergence of Euro- project is economic, he considers this kind of pean forces essential in order to show unity European cooperation—in the absence of some against the major forces of that time, espe- unforeseen obstacle—extremely useful for the cially the U.S. nations’ overall welfare and the peace between • Being conscious of European national par- the European races and states under the Central ticularities resulting from the history courses European Economic Association.86 of each one of the peoples, he does not fail to underline the need to preserve the autonomy of each and every state, as part of the pro- 6.5 Conclusions posed collaboration scheme, and the preser- vation of its economic and political Based on the findings of Chap. 6 it is possible to sovereignty. rank Ratzel not only among the first theorists of • As part of this economic collaboration globalization,87 but also among the first theorists scheme and in accordance with the previous of the United Europe, since the model for the point, he pursues a German hegemony. organization of European space, proposed by the German geographer, includes elements that The fact that this collaboration was made dominate even today the debate on the future of possible 50 years later, after two catastrophic Europe: wars, is further proof of Ratzel’s analytic potency. At the same time it introduces another • He mentions—contrary to the presented pro- argument against all those who insist on placing posals of other German geographers and him in the ranks of the ideological forefathers of geopolitical scientists—the need to incorpo- national-socialism and among the people rate France and Italy in what was traditionally responsible for the crimes committed during the considered the geographic complex of Middle first half of the 20th century. Europe. Apart from his views on the architecture of • He subsumes the concepts of allocation and Europe, his multi-factorial, analytic approach and complementarity in the production process the predominance of the economic factor were and the use of infrastructures, with a view to a revealed once again in this chapter. He cites scale economy, the specialization–therefore evidence of bipartite commercial transactions, more productivity—of each partner in speci- transport infrastructure, and he evaluates the fic production branches, but also a secure and political, economic and geographic condition of large domestic market where the produced France and Italy so as to formulate the products will be placed. ground-breaking proposal for his time to expand • He regards—prior to the onset of the two the collaboration of the Central-European states catastrophic World Wars—that the European towards the South. economic collaboration and convergence

86Ibid., p. 259. 87See Wardenga, U. (2004)1: Friedrich Ratzel. Zum 100. Todestag am 9. August 2004, p. 50. Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade 7

latter’s collapse and with main object for each of 7.1 The Eastern Question— the opposing European powers the control of the Approaches Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East, against rivals’ interests.2 The Eastern Question, a term which was estab- French historian and geographer E. Driault, lished in the vocabulary of national diplomacy defines e.g. the Eastern Question in the wide since the period of the Verona conference,1 is sense of the term, considering that the Egyptian met in bibliography with two notions: on the one Question and the African Questions in general hand, through the wide historico-philosophical are closely related to the fourth3 risk, which prism, as a struggle between eastern brutality and threatens European peace, the Muslim risk, or, in western culture, which was transformed into a other words, to the Eastern Question.4 Despite struggle between Christianity and Islamism, and the remarks in the introductory texts of the book, on the other hand, in a narrower sense, as a the French historian and geographer admits that conflict between western countries and the the initially cultural and religious character of the Ottoman Empire, with the expectation of the problem was transformed into economic, into a form of vital conflict, which brings even cousin peoples against each other.5 Attributing to the This chapter is an updated version of the article Eastern Question wider geographical dimen- „STOGIANNOS, Alekos. Friedrich Ratzel And The sions, he describes the Suez Canal as the great Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade. Civitas Gentium, commercial road of the Old Continent, which [S.l.], v. 2, n. 1, pp. 79–124, jan. 2013. ISSN 1792-9474”. connects Europe with India and China, and notes German merchants’ saw, (Dem Handel folgt die Flagge), that all European countries need to occupy a with which they expressed at the end of 19th century position on this great commercial artery. For it their strategy, aiming at the colonial activation of the seems that the ones which will not participate, under Bismarck German government. It refers to the view, according to which commercial and economic relations are initially established with areas, which later on are militarily occupied. The opposite view, that trade follows flag (Der Handel folgt der Flagge), supports the 2Driault, E. (1921): To Amasokijό fήsηla [Introduction reverse process. This phrase is also found in the English by I. Aktoglou, pp. 18–19]. colonial dialect (the flag follows the trade). In Ratzel’s 3 works appearing in the bibliography, this phrase is The other three are, according to the writer, the spotted at least three times: Ratzel1, p. 363; Ratzel4, American, Chinese and African ones. p. 44; Ratzel8, p. 101. 4Driault, E. (1921): To Amasokijό fήsηla [G. Monod, Foreword, p. 65]. 1Kάrjaqi1,M.H. (1978): To amasokijόmfήsηla, p. 11. 5Ibid., p. 84.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 165 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_7 166 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade will have to quit the ambition of playing a between cultural traits characterizing the beha- leading role in the future economic activity.6 viour of political subjects. Crucial parameter of Contrary, Th. Laskaris (H. Kάrjaqi1) con- the Eastern Question is—according to Engels— siders that Driault’s wide definition is due to his the importance of Straits and Black Sea for nationality, as it includes the issues of Syria, western trade, as well as for Anglo-Russian Lebanon, Egypt etc., for which there was great commercial competition.10 French interest. Therefore, he adopts W. Miller’s The Marx and Engels go essentially in a definition, according to which the Eastern purely geopolitical analysis, identical with the Question is the problem of filling the space left by analysis of Mackinder and Spykman, who had the gradual retreat of the Turkish Empire from discerned as the region’s decisive question the Europe, a definition which restricts the question Russian descent in warm seas. Sir Halford in between the geographical boundaries of Mackinder located in 1904 in his Geographical European Turkey.7 Pivot of History around region—axis controlled From the English view, G.D. Clayton con- by Russia (Pivot Area) two other physical power siders that the decline and probable collapse of positions as potential mounds against Russia’s the Turkish empire was a diplomatic constant descent to the south: a large inner or marginal throughout the period, that had already provoked crescent, including Germany, Austria, Turkey, rival ambitions among the powers by 1821,8 India and China, as well lands of an outer or which were able, while the Ottoman Empire insular crescent, to which he classified Britain, existed, to compete each other without risks, for South Africa, Australia, the United States, political influence and secondly for territorial or Canada and Japan.11 More precisely, Nicholas economic gains, taking advantage of its weak- Spykman referred to the Russian pursuit, in the ness. Collapse of the Sultan’s authority, however, 19th century, to acquire access to the sea, which would mean a total disintegration of the empire, was ruled by the British naval power, that for no one power was strong enough to dare to expanded across the Eurasian coastal zone.12 take it over complete.9 The above indicative definitions of the Eastern This extremely up-to-date, for that period of Question denote the (geographical and temporal) time, issue was also thoroughly treated by the broadness and complexity of the subject, which theorists of historical materialism, Marx and creates the ability of multiple approaches, depend- Engels, who analyse the complicated correla- ing on the specificities (national, religious, ideo- tions, on the background, of course, of their logical) of each of the concerned parties. In ideological perception and the expectation of a bibliography is recorded an amazing range of the- pan-European revolution. So, Marx notes that the matic units,whichconcern distinct regionaldisputes Eastern Question is principally geographical and and conflicts (e.g. Austria—Bosnia, Cretan ques- military, but he doesn’t miss to note its com- tion), localisms or national integrations (Greek, mercial aspect. He also considers that Russian Serbian question), pan-ideatic expansionist policies politics is composed by geographical, historical (pan-Turkism, pan-Germanism, pan-Slavism), factors and the desire of descending to the hot imperialistic and economic recriminations (conflict seas. He describes at the same time a competition between colonial powers), religious and cultural between West and Russia which is not confined conflicts, each of which caused diplomatic to the conflict between opposing economic interests, but which is defined as a conflict 10Marx, Engels: H Ceqlamijή Ideokocίa [Die deutsche Ideologie]. Introduction by P. Kondylis, pp. 71–72. 6 mas kijό fήsηla Driault, E. (1921): To A o , p. 85. 11Mackinder, Halford, Dηlojqasijά Ideώdη jai 7 Kάrjaqi1,M.H. (1978): To amasokijόmfήsηla, p. 12. Pqaclasijόsηsa άkke1 Tqeί1 Eirηcήrei1, O 8Clayton, G.D. (1971): Britain and the Eastern Question, Cexcqauijό1 Άnoma1 sη1 Irsoqίa1, pp. 476–483. p. 9. 12Spykman, Nicholas, H Cexcqauίasη1 Eiqήmη1, p. 105 9Ibid., p. 10. and following. 7.1 The Eastern Question—Approaches 167 manoeuvres, treaties and conferences, or However, the creation of the unified German short-lasting strategic alliances with armed conflict state provoked a new wave of ultranationalism in as usual outcome. Therefore, we could talk about Germany, due to the absolutely different evalu- many regional conflicts, which could be considered ation of this establishment and its meaning for as components of a bigger and more complicated German nation. Contrary to the widespread— question, titled Eastern Question.13 after 1871—view that the creation of the empire We could note here that apart from the fall of was the apex, the end of along and hard course of the Ottoman Empire, concerned parties’ analyses Prussian-German history, extreme national- included also the possibility of collapse of the ists15—organized since 1890—considered Bis- Chinese Empire too (after being defeated by marck’s national state not as completion, but as Japan, in 1894/95). This expectation led all the the beginning of Germany’s national mighty powers to obtain an as good as possible development.16 starting-point for the Scramble for China.14 In these conditions, in the newly established A modern geopolitical look on the Eastern state began immediately the conversation about Question can distinguish historical, political and the participation of Germany in the colonial economic sequences, that cover long historical game, a perspective to which Iron Chancellor periods and wide geographical areas, placing the strongly resisted (until 1895), aiming at peaceful facts within the evolutionary frame of an age-old, coexistence with the European colonial powers. always feedbacked and at the same time extre- Bismarck, who was a realist, took into consid- mely up-to-date collision of powers (national, eration the economic consequences of a colonial supranational, economic or of another nature, expansion, as well as the inefficiency of German depending on the period of time), always having navy, which rendered pointless any thought for as stake the international (re)distribution of overseas colonies. Typical of his perception power, as this is conceived in each historical about colonial issues was the rejection of the frame. French offer (during the post-war negotiations of 1871) to cede the colony of Cochichina to Ger- many with the argument that Germans were not 7.1.1 The Eastern Question rich enough to economically sustain the luxury of from the German colonies. 17 Ultranationalists’ Point Chancellor Bismarck’s resignation, in 1890, of View favoured the political and organizational expression of a powerful nationalistic movement, Having fulfilled with a long delay but success- having as landmark the year 1891. In this year, fully its national integration, the under Bismarck with the occasion of the Helgoland–Sansibar newly established German Empire was expect- Treaty,18 was established on 9th of April the edly left behind in the colonial competition which reached an apex by the end of the 19th 15P. Walkenhorst uses the term radikaler Nationalismus century. Furthermore, at that period of time, the (radical nationalism). In the present essay was chosen its almost total occupation of Africa caused a turn of conventional translation as “extreme nationalism” or “ ” all the colonial powers to the East and more ultra- nationalism , without any effort to grade national intensities of that period of time. Certainly this distinction specifically towards the territory of the—con- is crucial and necessary, since German nationalism sidered as about to fall—Ottoman Empire, Mid- experienced many changes until the tragic events of dle East and China. World War II. 16Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse…, p. 12. 17Hauke, H.: Die Krise der deutschen Kolonialpolitik, p. 1. 13 Similarly Ratzel titles the below presented work “The 18Treaty signed between Germany and England on the 1st Eastern Questions”. July 1890, with which Germany quitted its claims on 14Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation–Volk–Rasse…, p. 189. Witu, Somalia and Uganda for England, receiving as 168 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade

General German League19 (Allgemeiner Deut- fundamental reasons for the redefinition of Ger- scher Verband), which was renamed in 1894 into man policies in the direction of fulfilling its Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband). pretensions to the East, since the perspective of Among its founder members were many eminent obtaining sufficient overseas colonies was mov- German nationalists, such as Alfred Hugenberg, ing away due to delay in the fulfilment of the Emil Kirchdorf, Friedrich Ratzel et al. Its aim navy arming programme, a fact which did not was initially to support government, according to allow military conflict with England. That atti- its proclaimed and programmatic aims.20 tude of the German government was considered Although at that period of time there were by its critics as lack of decisiveness, which many nationalist unions in Germany, the impact constituted precondition for the creation of a of the Pan-German League seemed to be greater World Empire. Pan-German League was the in political level, as it posed with great emphasis cream of the discontented ones and so it became the question of exercising international policy the strictest judge of German foreign policy.22 (Weltpolitik) and therefore the foundations of The long-lasting preparation of a combative Pan-Germanism. Characteristic of how wide- navy, combined with German government’s spread were pan-Germanic views was H. Mor- hesitation, would postpone the German expan- genthau’s view (USA ambassador in Turkey sionist plans and many ultranationalists believed from 1913 to 1916), who used to consider that the cost of this delay would be very high. So Pan-Germanism as a philosophical and political there were many voices which demanded even movement which reached a peak at the time of the annulment of the expansionist policy over- Wilhelm II and revived with Nazism.21 seas and its replacement with continental east- Although the idea of Weltpolitik coincided ward expansionism.23 Indeed, in the Pan-German with Wilhelm’s ambitions, Pan- German League League broke out (from 1904/05) hard con- exercised since 1903 a nationalist opposition, frontations concerning the question whether which adopted gradually more and more radical Germany should insist on obtaining overseas attitudes, and after World War I emerged among colonies, or focus on the area of Central Europe. its members a latent anti-Semitism. Although this disagreement never came to an As we will analyse below, conflict between end, gradually dominated the opinion that the nationalists and ultranationalists was one of the endeavours in continental area had more chances to succeed, at least as long as Germany did not reparation a strip of land in SW Africa and Helgoland, have navy capable to confront England. The which was since 1815 under British domination. This fi treaty was judged by the ultra-nationalists as extremely rede nition of objects provoked the request for negative for German interests. creation of a competent army—without ques- 19 In September 1886 the establishment of “General tioning the navy arming programme—which was German League for the representation of German interests considered as equally important to navy in ” abroad had preceded, a kind of secondary union, as exercising international policy.24 a result of a conference which took place in Berlin with the participation of many nationalistic and colonial Apart from the above disagreement, it is also organizations. Walkenhorst, p. 67. recorded a qualitative difference concerning the 20In its declaration it defined as main aims the revitaliza- way of expansion, which ultranationalists strictly tion of patriotic conscience, the treatment and support of perceived as territorial, and they did not content German interests abroad, the promotion of an effective themselves with commercial and economic pen- dynamic in favour of German political interests. Pan-German programme was in fact created during the etration in the claimed territories. Typical last decade of 19th century and included: territorial example of this different approach is their atti- expansion of Germany, fleet reinforcement, promotion of tude towards the agreement of Jaugtse, within Germandom (Deutschtum), fight against minorities in Germany. This last position was mainly against Polish 22 and French in Elsaß—Lothringen. Walkenhorst, Nation—Volk—Rasse…, p. 183. 23 21Morgenthau, H. [1994]: Ta ltrsijά sot Borpόqot, Ibid., p. 239. p. 40. 24Ibid., p. 216. 7.1 The Eastern Question—Approaches 169 the framework of the race for the partition of 7.2 Die Bagdadbahn: Railway China which was realized—with the participation Connection from Berlin of Germany—principally with the form of to Bagdad unofficial economic penetration in Chinese mar- ket. With this Treaty, in October 1900, Berlin The territorial expansion in “Central Europe”27 and London agreed on the principles of free trade gave birth at the same time to the vision of and open doors, while at the same time the two German predominance in the whole Middle East, parts were bound to respect and defend the ter- which inspired the plans for the creation of a ritorial integrity of the Chinese Empire, given the railway line from Berlin to Baghdad. In other occasion, against attacks of third powers. Prac- words, German domination in Central Europe tically, this agreement meant (after the suppres- was the first step for the creation of the German sion of Boxer rebellion and after the war of Boers World Empire, the borders of which they envis- reached a climax) a demarcation of the economic aged extending to the Arabian Peninsula. In this influence zones of the two powers, which turned sense Hasse had proposed since 1896 the con- particularly against Russian expansionist pur- cession of whole Asiatic Turkey (except for poses. However, this, oriented to free trade Armenia) to Germany in case the Ottoman imperialism, policy met the ultranationalists’ Empire fell.28 refusal, who supported territorial expansion.25 On the expectation of an imminent collapse of Another typical example of German ultrana- the Ottoman Empire were also based Albert tionalists’ different approach of the colonial Ritter’s expansionist views. He was a political competition is the Morocco Crisis, during which columnist and former vice-chairman of the the imperialistic interests of France, England and Pan-German League. He published in June 1913 Spain were initially focused on acquiring naval —using the pen name Karl v. Winterstetten—a bases and economically penetrating into Moroc- booklet with the programmatic title «Berlin— can commercial centres. In Germany, contrary, Baghdad», which was republished seven times this was considered as an ideal place to create a until World War I broke out. A. Ritter was of the colony, with population transfer.26 opinion that concepts German Empire and Under the above briefly described pressure Austria-Hungary had lost their magnitude due to from the ultranationalist circles (and as the ful- economic and political developments and he was filment of the navy arming programme was asking for the creation of a Confederation of delaying), took place at about the end of 19th States including German Empire, Eastern Balkan century in Germany the conversation about the Countries and Turkey. Its members would be expansion to the East, which had as ulterior typically independent, de facto recognising Ger- motive the descent to the hot sees of Persian Gulf man primacy.29 creating a continental railway and commercial Political and geographical preconditions for axis Hamburg—Persian Gulf. The fulfilment of the fulfilment of this ambitious plan—ulterior this plan basically included two fulfilment stages: aim of which was to render the whole area of the creation of a unified, under German domination, East a commercial and economic space—was on Centro-European area (Mitteleuropa) and of the the one hand the control of Balkans, where Berlin-Istanbul-Baghdad railway axis (Bagdad- Austria served as passage for the commercial bahn), which would connect North Sea (Ham- burg) with Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean.

27The first axis of the Eastern Question under German nationalist view is presented in Sects. 6.2 and 6.2.1 (see Maps 3–8 in Appendix). 25Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rasse, p. 189. 28Walkenhorst, P. (2007): Nation—Volk—Rass, p. 210. 26Ibid., r. 192 29Ibid., p. 220. 170 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade expansion of Germany,30 and on the other hand Deutsche Bank finally undertook the financ- the Ottoman Empire’s liberation from English ing of the second and biggest part of Bagdad- influence. This liberation was facilitated after bahn, unwillingly and after being forced by the Egypt’s detachment from England, Persia’s Kaiser and the German government35—when all colonial partition31 between England-Russia and their efforts to get funds from England and the gradual abandonment—by Britain—of the France failed—since the German bank knew that doctrine for territorial integrity of the Ottoman it did not dispose enough funds to finance the Empire. whole project. Therefore, already in 1899 Wil- From 1888, when they received permission to helm II travelled to London in order to convince construct a railway line from Istanbul through his grandmother Queen Victoria for the partici- Anatolia to Ikonion, German businessmen and pation of English banks in this project. Although bankers tried to economically penetrate in the the English Prime Minister Lord Balfour initially territory of the Ottoman Empire. So, Anatolische agreed, he was soon forced to fall back, under the Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft joint venture32 (Eastern pressure of the sharp critique exercised by the Railway Company) under Deutsche Bank, with Lower House and the English Press, according to the participation of Austrian, Italian, even Eng- which he was favouring with this railway line the lish investors, created for the first time a modern German descent to Baghdad and to the Persian economic connection between Berlin and Tur- Gulf.36 key’s Asiatic part.33 Finally, this great project was fulfilled with Tracing a Muslim policy during the next 30% French funds, since German financing was decade, Emperor Wilhelm II appeared almost as not sufficient and gradually appeared difficulties patron of the Muslim countries. He visited in the payment in full of the commitments Istanbul during the autumn of 1898 for fifteen assumed.37 But apart from the economic aspect, days (after the slaughters in Armenia) motivating rivalry between the powers in the area created for Sultan Abdul Hamit II to actively work for the Germany serious problems concerning the safe revival of Islam with the help of Germany. At the use of the line, which were overcome with the same time, the Ottoman government charged a Potsdam Agreement (4th November 1910). With German society with the construction of the that agreement, Germany recognized the supre- Baghdad railway—which would have a length of macy of Russian political interests in North 3000 km—decisively contributing to the German Persia (reaffirming the Anglo-Russian treaty of expansion on the Hamburg–Berlin–Vienna– 1907) and resigned from the exclusive exploita- Istanbul–Baghdad axis.34 tion of the Baghdad–Basora line, which would be constructed by a Turkish company with interna- tional funds and under equal Anglo-German influence. Russia recognized to Germany total 30Driault, E. (1921): To Amasokijό fήsηla, p. 306. 31During the British-Russian approach were also arranged commercial freedom within the zone of the line the two countries’ disputes in Asia. So, it was accorded and in the whole Persia, declaring that it would that they would not be involved in Tibet, that Afghanistan not hinder the passage of the Bagdadbahn. Fur- would remain under British influence and Persia would be thermore, it committed itself to connect Persian separated in three zones. The southern zone belonged to the British sphere of influence, the northern one (includ- railways with the line of Baghdad, creating ing Teheran) to the Russian sphere, while the branch-lines to the East. At the same time, south-western zone remained neutral. Morgenthau [Greek England withdrew its veto from all which could translation, p. 77, Footnote 26]. 32http://www.wasistwas.de/technik/alle-artikel/artikel/ link//74d7e0d2f1/article/die-konstantinopel-bagdad-bahn. html. 35 33www.jahrbuch2002.studien-vonzeitfragen.net/ www.bagdadbahn.de/ Weltmacht/Bagdadbahn/bagdadbahn.html. 36www.vorkriegsgeschichte.de/content/view/15/31/. 34Driault, E. (1921): To Amasokijό fήsηla, pp. 306–307 37Driault, E. (1921): To Amasokijό fήsηla, p. 307 7.2 Die Bagdadbahn: Railway Connection from Berlin to Bagdad 171 hinder the continuation of the Baghdad railway 7.3 The Eastern Question in Ratzel’s construction, gaining Turkish recognition of its Political Geography economic and political interests’ supremacy in Kuwait and Mohamerah.38 Ratzel’s Political Geography is a theoretical text, The Bagdadbahn became subject of thorough in which the German geographer analyses the discussion in Germany during the second decade parameters influencing the development of states, of 20th century among politicians, speakers considering as constant the existing between about public issues, even scientists, who were them rivalry for (re)distribution of power. trying to scientifically substantiate the impor- Therefore, in this fundamental work it was not tance of that project, when the war solution of the possible to use case analysis for the Eastern Eastern Question seemed inevitable: Our mission Question (as it happens in the homonymous must be the development and financial support of study), but were only included his views inter- industry in the East, supported for example in spersed in an effort to substantiate his theories 1917 the engineer of the Prussian railway service using examples. and former engineer of the Nouvelle Ligne de Bagdad, Karl Hermann Müller, warning, though, that they should avoid to create factories, before 7.3.1 Importance ensuring the necessary raw materials.39 In a and Interdependence study of 128 pages he examined the economic of Verkehr42 with Politics importance of the railway, mentioning—admit- tedly striking—analytic elements for the soil, Nodal notion of Ratzel’s analytics is Verkehr, economy and habitants of Asiatic Turkey. which constitutes principal precondition and Earlier, in 1913, Professor F. Frech used to precursor of states’ territorial growth.43 class Bagdadbahn in the category of According to Ratzel’s point of view, the railways-pioneers, which promote civilization in increase of population and of produced material sparsely or not at all populated areas, showing a goods44 bring a people in contact with others, in power which contributes to the creation of states. a process through which it obtains the means for Furthermore, he gave to this railway line great quicker development, in order to become cultural importance, since—contrary to the wealthier and more powerful. This connection American and north Asiatic railways which cross takes place with Verkehr via individuals, who lands without historical and cultural past40—it cross the boundaries of an actually immobile enclosed and connected the partly deadened state, carrying the state itself in their luggage. lands of civilized peoples of antiquity and early Citizens’ removals from one area to another Middle Ages: Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, bring, however, political consequences, able N. Syria and Asia Minor.41 even to unify the two states, underlines the German geographer noting that the development of a necessary road network—even rudimental— must precede the growth of states. In this way, economy and politics develop a common interest

38 Ibid., pp. 312–313. 42The term Verkehr is translated as (vehicular) 39Müller, K.-H. (1917): Die wirtschaftliche edeutung der circulation/traffic, transports and communications, even Bagdadbahn,p.80 as association. In the present essay it is used untranslated, 40According to the imperialistic view of that period of since all its versions define an important parameter time, redskins’ culture was not … culture, neither had any of Ratzel’s thought: the ability of space management. historicalness. 43Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 357. 41Frech, F. (1913): Die Bagdadbahn und ihre Kulturbe- 44I.e. cultural development! Culture is a central notion of deutung, p. 29. Ratzel’s geographical and cosmo-theoretical view. 172 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade to connect settlements and countries, surpassing based on the increase of land’s value, through its any possible obstacles. development. This process leads, according to Ratzel, to Analysing deeper the relation between Ver- creation and development of states, since the kehr—politics, i.e. the relation between Geogra- initial area of circulation (Verkehrsgebiet) aspires phy of Transports and Politics, he does not to become political area. In colonization usually hesitate to note even an unbalanced analogy in “flag follows trade”, the German teacher notes, favour of Geography of Transports (and of invoking the history of the internal states of USA Economic Geography in general), which politics with special reference to Nebraska, sperm of has to follow, even against its will, as happened which was a commercial place of the American with England in the case of the Suez Canal or in Fur Company. He parallels this process (without N. America in some phases of the railways and directly referring to it) with the process of the canals construction in the continental straits of German unification, as it is the same phe- Central America.47 He also notes that Verkehr’s nomenon, when forerunner of political borders aim is the political isolation of areas absolutely promotion is a customs agreement.45 necessary due to their position for the transport Despite the close relation between Verkehr of long distances, mentioning as typical of this and politics, Ratzel perceives them in a dialectic parameter the example of Syria, as well as Egypt, way, since the former is more and more released which is so important for Verkehr, that it is not from political bonds appearing independently. allowed to remain independent.48 This remark From servant of states’ creation it became really makes clear the way in which economic- important prop of theirs and often their fore- geographical analysis and particularly its runner, he notes, considering that this indepen- branch, Geography of Transportations, drives us dence was favoured by the developments in the to important geopolitical and geo-strategic con- means of transport. Facilitating the transfer of clusions of scientific validity. cargos, mainly with locomotive and railway, Concerning international relations, the above without further territorial claims, Verkehr remark is interpreted as an effort of great political increased the abilities of transports and the profits formations to satisfy the continuously growing entailed and gave to big transport companies the transportation demands by concentrating circu- ability to exercise great influence. Mainly in S. lation in the best, from economic-geographical America, railways increased their influence aspect, roads. In this effort, whole countries beyond transportations, since their owners constitute transit areas, characteristic which much obtained a lot of metallurgies, shipyards and increases their political value. To support his repair zones, merchant fleet, hotels, coal under- point of view, Ratzel mentions the examples of takings et al.46 Austria (which needed to occupy the area of This is the way in which total independence of Steiermark, in order to keep the way to Adriatic Verkehr from politics derives, since the com- Sea and Hungary open) and Syria (country which mercial arteries take over political functions of once constituted passage of Mesopotamia powers higher level, penetrating independently into cul- to the Mediterranean Sea and to the rapidly Hel- turally poor areas, having as conscious aim to lenized Iran during Greece’s Macedonian Era). culturally and politically develop them first. However, he attributes great importance, as areas Typical example of this influence of Verkehr of passage, to the straits of Suez and Central on territorial policy is—according to Ratzel—the America, which possess—as conveyors of the American payoff system for the roads and rail- shortest connection between Atlantic-Indian and way lines construction, taking in return land on Atlantic-Pacific—a real international position, both sides of the line to a certain extend, a model since they connect the largest natural spaces of

45Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 358. 47Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 371. 46Ibid., p. 370. 48Ibid, p. 369. 7.3 The Eastern Question in Ratzel’s Political Geography 173 the earth. The effort of a single power to occupy relation with the age of the former, since the them, gives to the term ‘world domination’ this newer a state, the more the space occupied by the more practical meaning.49 This important economic interests in its political life. Having geopolitical conclusion, which interprets lots of studied well American history, he classes this geostrategic events that took and will take place factor as one of great importance for the relation in the area, is the result of a specific between colonies and metropolis, which often economic-geographical analysis, which pene- maintains only political form around an eco- trates all texts of his geopolitical period of time. nomically independent content. Besides, this is Certainly, the nationalist and defender of the reason of customs frontiers creation between Weltpolitik, Ratzel, could not define the metropolises and colonies, or of the friction state-Verkehr relation as a non strictly antago- between the preceding expansion of transport nistic relation, allowing funds “without nation- areas and the following with lower pace expan- ality” to determine the political game all over the sion of states. The fact, however, that Verkehr world. So, he conceives the autonomy of Verkehr develops before politics does not exclude the —which initially serves state … and creates case that the apex of historical value of an area or interests preceding political expansion—as a sea precedes their transport value, since the virtually transitional stage, since, one day [in- utmost transport value presupposes a series of terests preceding political expansion] will shed conditions, principally productivity in all direc- their apolitical mantle and immediately support tions, which is not prerequisite property of his- state.50 Here Ratzel in fact clarifies the difference torical magnitude. Mediterranean’s historical between geopolitical analysis and geostrategic value was greater in antiquity than at the present use and interpretation! So, he considers that state time, but its transport value nowadays is greater and Verkehr (in its economic, as explained than ever.52 At this point, we should note that to above, dimension) are ultimately the components a certain extent the two geopolitical pillars, cul- of acquiring power, which allows the exercising tural and economic, of the under Professor of international policy: But due to the fact that Ioannis Mazis53 Systemic Geopolitical Analy- every artery is actually ground, i.e. a part of sis are compared. political space which is surrounded by ground, Apart from its significance for the developing, unable to be detached from it, a politico-geo- economic and expansive course of states, Ver- graphical parameter necessarily interferes in kehr plays a significant role for their internal every circulation issue. A linear policy, a policy organization and cohesion. The developing of simple linear directions and lines of force countries in particular need it constantly for their cannot exist. The spaces between the lines of organization and for the development of each force are swept along by the great movements authority. Initially Verkehr unifies politically made in this direction. The historian says that splintered states, while political unification fol- wealth, power and culture follow the interna- lows. Ratzel considers the case of Germany— tional route; but concerning power, he considers with the innumerable internal customs frontiers that it extends from the international route in all and transport obstacles—similar to that of China, directions, having as binding agent power itself, which in correspondence to its political splin- which dominates on the same international tering was a transport underdeveloped country, route.51 as its local sovereigns isolated as much as pos- The economic-geographical conditions precede sible their territory from land, preferring to let the political, but Ratzel associates state-economy transport arteries in border areas get destroyed

49Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 367. 50Ibid., p. 366. 52Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 359. 51Ibid., p. 366. 53The other two pillars are the defensive and political one. 174 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade and to use sea ways instead.54 This situation was of merchant shipping in the Ministry of Finance. different during Mongolian domination, when He praises even more Tsar Nicholas and the Marco Polo faced during his visit in China a rumours that, facing the initial project of the really good road network, proof—according to 700 km long railway line Petersburg-Moscow Ratzel—of the close relation between state which had many turning points, he drew a power and transport infrastructures which is straight line between the two points indicating demonstrated better than nowhere in China.55 that the connection should be done in straight Finally, Ratzel directly associates the impor- line. This line did not only express the vigorous tance of Verkehr—and consequently of the imperatorial will, but something more: the Geography of Transports—with each state’s ter- higher, heavy duty that an Empire as Russia has ritorial width, underlying that the smaller the towards Verkehr, comments Ratzel, making dis- state, the smaller the organizational significance tinction between connections of long and con- of Verkehr, becoming minimum in the cases of nections of short distances. The former ones the smallest states, due to the isolation tactic connect the most important places either inland they choose because of their inability of or on the periphery, while the latter ones carry self-protection. Contrary, the expansion of Nat- out local transport. The bigger is a country, the ural Space, Human Space and Economic Space more important are the connections of long dis- of goods production56 entails immediate increase tances, since they are necessary for the manage- in Verkehr’s importance. This reaches a peak ment of space. Which greater connection could when it concerns a country, such as Russia, for exist now in European Russia than the one which the creation of transport arteries does not between two megalopolises and capitals, the only means facilitation of goods exchange and historical capital and the present administrational people’s moving inland and abroad, (but)…it is a centre? wonders Ratzel, adding the remark matter of existence, not only from economic, but that Petersburg is the biggest marine jai com- also from political and military scope.57,58 mercial city of Baltic Sea and Moscow the big- Without transport arteries, Russia is a colos- gest inland industrial and commercial city. The sus whose power is in hypnosis and which can- trans-Siberian railway is a point of reference and not even move,59 comments the German comparison too, since it connects Moscow with geographer, underlining that the opening of big Irkutsk, a distance of about 6000 km, without canals and railways were considered in Russia, many turning-points. and abroad, as political actions. He praises at the Similarly, first duty of Austria-Hungary after same time the Russian administrational well- the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina— adapting in the new facts, the establishment of which did not have railways, not even local roads separate sections in the Russian Ministry of —was the improvement in connection of the Transport for the construction of railways and the occupied area with the monarchy and secondly management of sea ways and of trading powers, with the Adriatic and the Aegean Sea.60 as well as the establishment of a separate section

54Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 358. 7.3.2 Railways, Telecommunications 55Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 365. and Military Roads 56On geographical spaces see Mazis1, pp. 34–37. 57Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 363 7.3.2.1 Railways 58At this point a methodological coincidence with Sys- The previous chapter clearly shows the impor- temic Geopolitics (Defensive, Economic and Political tance given by Ratzel to the railway development, pillars) is evident. See: Mάfη1,I.1 (2002): Cexpokisijή. Hexqίa jai pqάnη, p. 140 and MAZIS IOANNIS4, «Writing Methodology of a Geopolitical Analysis. Struc- ture, Concepts and Terms». 59Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 363. 60Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 363. 7.3 The Eastern Question in Ratzel’s Political Geography 175 as a means of connection not only between big separately is searching for access to large areas of commercial centres, but also between sea areas. carbon and iron, while the effort of finding ways Observing that the density of the European to England is particularly intense, the success of railway network generally increases from East to which is the reason of their economic growth.64 West, he attributes the backwardness of Eastern The development of railways signals, Europe on the one hand to the width of space and according to Ratzel, the rise of a new era of great on the other hand to the cultural youth (Jugend continental commercial arteries construction, der Kultur) of habitants, so that the construction which find their politically more important of a dense network is not possible.61 expression in the great trans-continental railway He substantiates the above remark using ele- (American railway, trans-Siberian), because of ments about the density of the railway network, which the too long sea bypasse are reduced. The according to which Russia has 88 km network revival of transport arteries, for a long time for every 10,000 km2, Siberia 119, Romania inactivate, from Danube to the Aegean and Black 242. N. Europe includes under-populated, there- Sea, with which the political uplift of Balkan fore transport ing poor areas, such as Finland countries is closely associated, is—according to with 76 km and Sweden with 237. Moving Ratzel—the most eloquent expression of this towards Central Europe, the density of railway movement in Europe, having as a result that even network increases: in Hungary 550 km Great Britain itself was looking for new terres- network/10,000 km2 ground, in Austria 673. trial ways between India–S. China, in order to Among the great powers of Europe, Germany ensure its relations with the latter, mainly con- presents the highest development in its railway cerning the opium trade, but also to pull it away network: 1005 km/km2. Therefore, in Germany’s from the U.S.A.’sinfluence.65 borders with Russia, the “intensity” of density of the railway network („Spannung” in der Dichte 7.3.2.2 Telecommunications des Eisenbahnnetzes) is the highest.62 The most important political attainment of Main care of the big powers after the occu- transports is news transfer, mentions Ratzel, pation of a new area is, according to Ratzel, the analysing the telecommunication and postal construction of a capable transport network. So, standards of areas which he placed within the Russia—the wide spaces of which had demon- geographical area of the Eastern Question. He strated the political necessity for transport detects in China a—since centuries existing— infrastructure—immediately after its expansion postal service, with emissaries, more than 10,000 in Turkmen steppe and the occupation of Gök stations, minimum railway network, but also Tepe and Nerw started constructing a railway. 23,000 km long telegraphic network. This situ- Typical is also the example of Austrians, who ation corresponds, according to the German entered Bosnia (in 1878)—a country almost geographer, to the particularly close connection without roads until then—and constructed in the between politics and this branch of transport, occupied area until 1901 a 760 km long railway when the arteries and means of transport are network.63 much behind: Telegraphic lines have been cre- Commenting on the development of the ated even in those countries where other modern English railway network, he notes that it clearly means of transport faced suspicion and negation. shows an expansion of transport areas, through So, telegraph preceded all the other European the shortest possible way in the direction of the inventions in China, even in the most xenophobic great sources of transports. Each company regions, such as the region Unan, where initially only faced habitants’ denial.

61Ibid., p. 350. 62Ibid., p. 350. 64Ibid., p. 333. 63Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 365. 65Ibid., p. 333. 176 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade

He observes the same phenomenon in Persia 7.3.2.3 Military Roads too, where the telegraphic network precedes all Apart from the advantages mentioned above, the the other arteries and means of transport in the control of nodal points of Verkehr, ensures the country. Having a length of 7700 km, it is among control of the roads beginning there. This is the the most advanced ones in Asiatic countries. reason for the ambition of countries to occupy However, he observes that more than such points, which are always politically central 1800 km were administrated by two English points and the loss of which have often led to the companies and he thoroughly analyses the Eng- loss of entire wars.68 lish penetration in Persia’s telegraphic network, The development of arterial roads also corre- mentioning facts according to which the depen- sponds to the military needs, since many roads dent on English government Indo—European have been constructed exclusively to meet them. Telegraph Department in Persia possesses the Terms military roads and strategic railway Tehran-Bushir line. The under Persian posses- characterize this relation, says the German sion Tehran-Meshed line is administrated by the geographer, noting that in Asia Minor there are same company, while the English Indo–Euro- some military roads which are used by oxcarts pean Telegraph Cy. possesses the Tehran— too, but in general transport vehicles are horses, Dschufla (Russian borders) line. England and donkeys and mules.69 Persia signed in 1901 an agreement about tele- Therefore, it becomes clear that Ratzel exam- graphic connection between Kashan–Bushir, via ines and underlines the contribution of Defence to Yerd, Kirman and Bampur, with the same con- the Security of Transport and Telecommunication ditions under which the Tehran–Bushir line was networks and infrastructures. constructed in 1872 by the English. The line, three wires, would be constructed by the gov- ernment of Persia under English supervision and 7.4 The Need to Support would be leased by the Indo—European—Tele- the Ottoman Empire graph—Department. This agreement was not welcomed by Russia.66 Considering that Asia Minor in general is an area Further, Ratzel opines that comparing Indian of passage between East and West,70 the German administration before and after telegraph shows geographer attributes the great historical position that, once, kings were enthroned and dethroned of Syria, S. Arabia and Asia Minor to their role or empires were conquered without the rest of the as conveyors of a politically and culturally world learning much. Now the relation between effective circulation. For the same reason, he Indian government, India Office and Parliament correspondingly attributes to Hebrews great his- is much closer and soon we will learn about the torical value, considering that as neighbours of most important events from India as quickly as important arteries of international trade—in the from Ireland, he observes, adding that only past but nowadays as well—they have played telegraph renders possible the current organi- maybe the most active role in the spread of zation of India Office, the distance between culture.71,72 vicegerents–administrators and governmental centres during periods of tension, the uneven 68Ibid., p. 336. 67 distribution of power et al. 69Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 335 & 345. 70Ibid., p. 234. 71Ibid., p. 238. 72Contrary to the widely held view, Ratzel’s distancing from any anti-Semitic attitude becomes evident, at a time, when antisemitic perceptions were prevalent in Europe, 66 1 Ratzel, Fr. (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 351. particularly in Germany. The same approach is found in 67Ibid., p. 363. other Ratzel’s works. 7.4 The Need to Support the Ottoman Empire 177

However, particular position on this road modern cultural projects, if it successfully fin- possesses the Ottoman Empire, which is men- ishes the construction of the railway to Mecca.73 aced by the shift of old arteries towards India and Attributing, as expected, great importance to Suez Canal. Ratzel sees as unique possibility for the opening of the Suez Canal, Ratzel goes on the survival of the Empire and its economic value with a flashback of the situation in the area: the development of road networks in its Asiatic Starting from the period of time when the Suez part which extends between the Mediterranean canal was being constructed, he mentions that and the Indian Ocean and urgently needs Red Sea was a Turkish Gulf in its north half, transports. while in its south half there were only vague The German geographer substantiates his claims of weak countries. Only Massana belon- opinion about the geographically important ged to Turkey, the territory of which extended to position of Turkey mentioning that: Idwit in Arabia, opposite the Farisan islands. It was only a narrow strip on the coast—which of • all the roads from the Mediterranean to the course included Mecca and Medina—while it Indian Ocean are passing through the Turkish extended approximately to the area above Suakin territory or by its side. on the African side. Egypt was then a protected • despite the loss of Egypt, the crescent flag country in a notion stricter than today. Only waves along the whole East coast of Red Sea. England—which had already occupied Aden • the eastern of Port Said access in southeast since 1839—coveted Socotra, without, however, direction towards Persia, having as starting having occupied this island which had a really point Aegean, Bosporus or Euxine Sea, is good position. At the end of 19th century the possible only through Turkish coasts. These image is completely different: Turkey has areas have, indeed, the greatest Turkish pop- appropriated the whole Arabian coast on the Red ulation, while Asia Minor, having 5 million Sea to the borders of the expanded English col- Turkish people in a total of 8–9 million ony in Aden. Yemen is a turbulent province, habitants, is the powerful rear-guard of the though firmly occupied by the Turkish Empire. Turkish race in Asia. On the African side, the Egyptian coast cannot be really characterized Turkish, despite that the Despite any discussions about the imminent official Turkish occupation on Khevide still fall of the Turkish Empire (which is traversed by exists. Now, however, north of it begins the the Eastern railway and the Baghdad railway in a Italian area of Eritrea, which extends to the length of 2800 km, both in very fertile areas), its politically insecure princedom of Rahaita, next to existence is a fact. Therefore, protection and which lie the French colonies Obok and Tad- support of Turkish authorities is—always schurrah, on a bay with exceptional position, and according to Ratzel—a necessary precondition after those the English colony on the northern for the success of all these great projects. He coast of Somalia and the Italian one on the cape believes that these new transport arteries will Guardafui. Apart from that, England has settled balance the disadvantage for Asiatic Turkey on the island of Perim, in the entrance of Red caused by the opening of the Suez Canal. This Sea. It has also occupied the twin islands in front opening had shifted westwards a large part of the of the cape Guardafui. Socotra—coveted since long distance transport, which until then was many years—finally became English colony in usually carried out through Asia Minor and 1886 and, with Aden, Perim and Somalia, are Syria. The opening of the Suez Canal meant for administrated by India, in which they are mili- Syria and Mesopotamia the beginning of a tarily included.74 ceaseless regress, which can be treated only with railway connections with Persian Gulf, underli- nes the German geographer, adding that Turkey 73Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 333. will be included among those who fulfilled great 74Ibid., p. 369. 178 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade

7.5 The English—Russian 7.6 Suez Canal Changes Balances Geostrategic Dispute for Persia in the Wider Area: A Geopolitical Approach Having detected the agreement for partition of Russia’s and England’s interests in Persia, Ratzel Having analysed the value of the Suez Canal in considers reasonable the effort of Russia to relation to the need for protection of Turkey, undertake the construction of roads and railways Ratzel compares the political value of Bosporus– in Persia as counterbalance to the English pre- Suez, referring to Lesseps’ saying77 (1854) as dominance in the sea transports of Persia. At the self-evident. Lesseps had said—surprising the same time he underlines that the aim of Russia to diplomats of that time—that the political impor- render Black Sea a Russian sea becomes more tance of Bosporus will be in the shadow of the and more difficult with the construction of every one of Suez Canal. It is peculiar that this was not additional railway line in Asia, since Turkey’s discovered earlier, despite that Venetians had and other powers’ interest of free navigation perceived it and used all their power to occupy becomes more and more intense, while Turkey’s the sea straits, he wondered, clarifying that military preparation in the countries of S. Pro- Bosporus and Suez have in front of them exactly pontis is intensified.75 the same seas, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic The relation between Russia and Persia shows Ocean. The great difference, however, is the fact the variety of possibilities to promote political that behind Bosporus there is only the Black Sea, influence using economic means. Initially, Rus- while behind Suez the Indian Ocean and after it sia favours its trade with Persia using the the Pacific. The access to regional seas always advantages that the Caspian Sea offers in navi- constitutes gate to the inland of continental gation, subsidizing sugar and cotton textiles countries.78 exports, establishing Russian banking and com- Ratzel appreciates that the occupation of land municational institutions in Persia. The mortgage between Baltic and Black Sea is for Russia a of Persian customs roads for the Russian loan of political advantage of isthmian type, and he 1900, with the exception of Gulf and Farsistan refers to the development of railway lines after ports, allowed a Russian influence on the greatest the opening of Düna–Beresina–Dnjepr canal: part of Persian trade, which seemed to scary even where terrain is not suitable for connection the, organized by Belgian clerks, port customs through canals, a railway line takes over the authorities. At the same time there were English connection between the seas. Countries having protests claiming hindrance of their trade, while the same position in reference to an isthmus Indian merchants too faced a lot of difficulties always had the same function with this of concerning the new route of tee import from peninsulas in reference to islands.79 Syria and India through Quetta—Nuschki to Seistan [see Egypt are countries of passage between the map 2]. Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Ratzel foresees that a greater part of Persian Through Syria passed the Arabian road, through trade will definitely end under Russian control, Egypt the road of Eritreans. So, Bagdadbahn will since Persians who have commercial transactions be one day equal to the Egyptian Suez Canal. with Russia consider as benefit to become vassals There was a time during which Cyprus and of Russians, in order to enjoy protection and 76 advantages. 77Ferdinand de Lesseps (1805-1894): French diplomat and engineer. He undertook in 1854 the opening of the Suez Canal, which held from 1859 to 1869. Contrary, his involvement in the construction of Panamas Canal was unsuccessful and resulted in bankruptcy of the offeror company, and his sentence in five years’ imprisonment. 75Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 333. 78Ratzel, Fr.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 498. 76Ibid., p. 358. 79Ibid., p. 465. 7.6 Suez Canal Changes Balances in the Wider Area: A Geopolitical Approach 179

Bosporus were the final points of opening of the Suez Canal as the great cultural Indo-Mediterranean roads, and those areas—ex- event, which gave great geopolitical value to the actly as the countries of passage in relation to Mediterranean Sea, creating new terms for sea peninsulas—were theatres of fighting between transports and the possibility of easiest access to the policies of great neighbour powers. Egypt, the new countries for the great powers: When Assyria, later on Cappadocia, Pergamon, Arme- transport towards India was looking for Atlantic nia, even later Venice, France, England were paths, the Mediterranean Sea was lying aside. looking for space and influence on Syria.80 But when the routes to India, East Africa, East Asia and Australia were crossed on Suez Canal, the Mediterranean constitutes again prize for the 7.7 Presentation of F. Ratzel’s greatest political ambitions.81 Analysis: The Eastern Questions

7.7.1 The Mediterranean Sea 7.7.2 Geostrategical Competition Subsystem of a European and Conflicts of Great System Powers in the Sub-system of Balkans— Ratzel notes that historical activity does not take Mediterranean Sea place any more exclusively in Central Europe, since it is now unthinkable that wars with so Paralleling the position of Russia in Central important goals, as in 17th and 18th century, Europe with that of France, Ratzel detects in the could nowadays take place only in Germany, Balkans a severe conflict between Russia Holland and Hungary. Noting that the view of and England, which had as stake the access of interdependence between Central Europe and the former to the Mediterranean sea: Russia Balkans becomes wider and wider, he attributes approaches the Mediterranean Sea from North, to the Mediterranean Sea international signifi- where, looking for free expansion, it hits on cance, not only due to its position on the inter- England which seeks to block its (Russia’s) free national transport axis, but also due to: access to the open Mediterranean. Aiming at this, England has made great sacrifices, while at • its position in the middle of the three known the same time it has convinced other powers to continents of the Old World make greater ones. England achieved to render • the control of all great European powers— widely plausible the view that “the occupation of except for Germany—on its coasts and Istanbul means world domination and the islands and Crimean war was them apex of this policy”. The • the dependence of weak countries of the area end of this war meant as well the fall of this on these great powers. policy, he notes. He also estimates that Russia has totally different motivations, maybe much more During the Greek-Turkish war of 1897, he temporary than those of the Centro-European considers that issues such as the possible reoc- powers. So it desires the maintenance of the cupation of Thessaly by Turks, the change of Ottoman Empire, since the need for concentration situation in the Aegean sea, the outcome of the is extremely important for it, after a period of Cretan Question and the general turbulence in the expansions.

Mediterranean Sea will have pan-European and international impact. However, he defines the 81Ratzel, Fr.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, 80Ibid., p. 466. pp. 355–356. 180 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade

Concerning the determination of the space for the cultural work of the western Centro-European interests82 in Balkans, Ratzel countries. accepts Albert Schäffle’s analysis, who foresaw He considers as main geopolitical issue for in his book German current and central issues England the ensuring of at least two ways to (Deutsche Zeit- und Kernfragen, 1894) the need India (Nile—Suez) and the colonial control of for: the areas around the above mentioned arteries, which Russia contests too from North. • satisfaction of Russia’s natural desires According to the above gambles within the • isolation of England frame of the Central Europe–Balkans system, he • effort to render the remnants of the Ottoman analyses the geopolitical situation in the Empire free field for common European Mediterranean Sea and he also defines the pur- economic and colonial activity.83 poses of great powers, as well as the situation in the countries of the area. He places on the focal He also expresses his satisfaction about the point of his questioning the ability of free navi- attitude of German and Austrian officers during gation in the area, using the words spoken by the negotiations about Crete, which concurred French Deluns–Montaud during the ceremony with that of Russians, while it was totally oppo- for the constitution of an Egyptian committee: site to the English one, and he observes that The question is nowadays whether an exclusive Germany and Austria have the same interests in domination on lands and seas should be in the the Balkans. Furthermore, he estimates that exclusive interests of a unique people, or whether Austria improved its position with the expansion each culturally advanced people may hope that beyond Sava River since, trouble spots around it, with cheap agreements it will ensure a place in which formerly always threatened with disaster, the sun and it will be able to expand up to the were wiped out, while the independent and semi- borders of neighbour empires, and finally whe- independent Balkan countries constitute a com- ther international transport should be equally mercial and suitable for transport networks area, accessible by all.84 the relations with which become more and more close and profitable for Germany and Austria. In the area of Balkans he does not observe any 7.7.3 Ratzel’s Geopolitical Doctrine Russian precedence but rather a recession of the for the Eastern trade of England, which used to take advantage Mediterranean Sea: of theses countries from sea without any Chock Points and Islands competition. During this Russian-English conflict, he Based on the above, Ratzel creates his geopolit- defines the mission of Central- European coun- ical doctrine for the East Mediterranean85 which tries in the East (relating it with that of France could be summed up as follows: during the flourishing period of Napoleon III) as Having as main aim to ensure the commercial preservation against Russia and England of the roads to the East, the construction of the Suez non-European Asia’s interest to maintain the Canal has given great value to the Eastern Basin Mediterranean space east of Italy as a large free of the Mediterranean Sea. Within this frame, he finds in Mediterranean 4 strategic points of pas- sage, in areas where it becomes narrower 82The term Centro-European interests should be inter- preted within the frame of the view about the need to create an economic space as counterbalance to the great 84Ratzel, Fr.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 356. empires of that era. The powers which, according to 85Ratzel considers Eastern Mediterranean as “metacenter” Ratzel, define Mitteleuropa’s fate are Germany, of the Mediterranean, since France and Spain were not Austria-Hungary and France. any more great sea powers and trade with India was held 83Ratzel, Fr.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 365. now on through Mediterranean. 7.7 Presentation of F. Ratzel’s Analysis: The Eastern Questions 181 between the south-European peninsulas and the Russia and England as geographically and his- north-African coasts, i.e. Gibraltar, Malta, Crete torically great Mediterranean powers that lie and the artificial canal of Suez.86 behind the Greek-Turkish warfare having as Since these three areas are under British ulterior aim to control Crete, Greece and Tur- occupation, the effort to set Crete under interna- key.89 He notes that the other powers are tional control is significant and has as obvious involved via those two and because of those two, aim to deter England’s total control. The signif- and he continues demonstrating realism: If the icance of Crete is presumed by its position in the rules of diplomacy allowed it, then the other centre of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. This powers could actually leave for those two the position is of great importance for sea transports arrangement of the disorder. It is incredibly on the horizontal sea axis, since it controls the characteristic, how international conditions entrances to Adriatic and Aegean Sea, as well as govern and paralyse local interests. The Mar di Levante and Port Said. Consequently, he Mediterranean Sea does not exist any more for considers Crete87 much more important than itself, but it is important only as a small part of Malta and he attributes to the Gulf of Souda the world with an incidentally important equal importance with that of Kiel for the East position.90 Sea.88 These views obviously influenced Mackinder The domination of England on the way to and Spykman, who spoke about Heartland and India, via Suez as well as via Egypt, renders Rimland creating the basic view for the creation necessary the discovery of alternative continental of NATO, which caused as counterbalance the accesses to the area. Varsovia agreement. Especially during the sec- ond half of 20th century, USA and Soviet Union imposed through these two great military coali- 7.7.4 Geopolitical Players tions the rules of geopolitical game in the largest and Realpolitik part of the planet, subordinating the regional conflicts or needs to the aims of their bipolar It is obvious that Ratzel has perceived the com- rivalry. plexity which characterizes international rela- The German geographer also considers that tions, recognizing only a few dominating the Centro-European powers do not certainly geopolitical players. He conceives international have only economic motivations as the English relations as relations of competition between the press supported, but it is clear that through cul- Great Powers, and considers as secondary the tural predominance (Kulturarbeit) they try to gain role of some weak countries–satellites. At the in Nearer Asia the benefits which correspond to same time he describes the relation between core their position. For this reason he considers as countries and countries-satellites. The latter ones self-explanatory Turkey’s calm reaction and subordinate their interests to those of great Turks’ friendship, whose policy should be powers for reasons of survival. So, he considers praised twice, if it manages to deter the imminent compromise between England and Russia, which could bring greater risks for Germany than a possible alliance between Russia and France. 86On the modern geopolitical influence axes see Mάfη12, p. 17 and Mάfη15, p. 28. Within this frame-although he refers with 87The Cretan question is at this period of time top sympathy to the fair patriotic feelings of Greeks, problem of the Eastern question and pretext for a conflict who ask for their national integration through the on European territory between England–France–Russia annexation of Crete (too) to Greece-, he subor- ’ and Germany. Since the former ones supported Cretans dinates the Cretan question to the geopolitical right to choose their sovereign, while Kaiser Wilhelm II reinforced the uncompromising Turkish position for election of a Turkish national for this post. 89Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 357. 88Ratzel, Fr.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 359. 90Ibid., p. 357. 182 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade necessity of that period, i.e. the control of the policy of France is not dominated by the vigor- island by the great powers of that period of time. ousness of economic interests. However, these Finally, Ratzel considers state—which is continue to be important, but its commercial expressed through its political and intellectual relations and investments are not so developed elite—as the only responsible to draw and as the English ones, the German ones and partly implement foreign policy and as absolutely cap- the Austrian ones. able of analysing and taking decisions. Consid- He characterises reasonable the irritation ering (in his work presented here and in other caused in France when it became known that the works as well) that people are not at all capable French trade in Crete falls short of the Austrian, of planning foreign policy, he attempts a clear German, English, Turkish, Greek and Italian, distinction between people and elite/authorities. according to extracts of the annual report of Canea’s Consul General, published in Figaro, which brought to light that France has lost 7.7.5 Economic and Political important ground in this field too. He notes that Parameters of the Eastern in 1895 the exports of France and Austria were Question almost at the same level (while the exports of Germany towards this area were sextupled dur- Attributing great importance to economic activ- ing the period 1890–1895 and tripled towards ity, Ratzel approves England’s policy in Greece) and he criticises—as too optimistic due Mediterranean, which, as everywhere, is based to the powerful English competition—the former on powerful economic interests that concern ambassador Neumann’s prediction, in the book citizens and enjoy their understanding. This gives Modern Egypt (Das Moderne Ägypten, 1893), to English policy an air of brutal health and that time passing Germany will occupy the first determination. Contrary to England, which trades position in the main Egyptian markets. in the Mediterranean sea products having value Having evaluated, already since 1878,92 the more than 5 billion Marks annually, he notes— economic parameter as condition for a people’s mentioning economic elements—a general lag of general progress capable to drag along other France concerning the economic activity in the fields of activity too, this time he refers to it as area,91 which he attributes to the fact that its precondition of power and control on seas from Mediterranean policy vacillates between reli- coasts and islands, and he gives the example of gious, political and economic motivations and England, which gets on its feet with difficulty does not have duration: this is the biggest error of because it possesses economic omnipotence and France against England and Russia. still tries to obtain more land. As anti–example The German geographer makes a distinction he refers to the fall of ancient Athens, which between English economism and French cultural collapsed due to its limited geographical base, expansion and detects a difference in the moti- trying to become world power, and he foresees vations of exercising international policy the same fortune for the policies of the Great between these two countries: The Mediterranean Idea, due to the lack of an organised expansion of Greek people. 91Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 356: Apart from the economic parameters, which “…external trade with Turkey falls short comparing with inarguably play dominant role, he analyses cul- that of England, however its is a little bit greater tural parameters making clear a priori that cul- comparing with Austria, while French ships which traversed Suez in 1895 were 8 times fewer that the tural issues (Kulturfragen) must be separated English ones, and the number of the under German flag from political events. Perceiving any political ships was greater than the French ones. Even in the arrangements often as superficial balancing and countries paying tribute to Turkey, Bulgaria and Egypt, reassurance, he indicates that via cultural work France falls much short comparing with England, while French steamships are in Syrian ports more seldom that the Austrian ones.” 92Ratzel, F.9(1878): Die Beurteilung der Völker, p.187. 7.7 Presentation of F. Ratzel’s Analysis: The Eastern Questions 183

(which must be ceaseless either during wars or state structures. Athens remains intellectual during diplomatic negotiations) they can change centre not only of the whole Greece, but of absolutely tacitly so many things, so that in the Hellenism in general, while splendid institutions next conflict will be brought to the fore totally and eminent academics contribute as well to the different powers, either new or older ones, which uppermost—but politically insecure—position of earlier had demonstrated no activity. Athens. Calling it small Paris, he notes that it has He considers that the position of Turks and no relation with the simplicity of province, Greeks in the Mediterranean is not going to be where, apart from primary schools, there is a lack definitely judged neither by the war successes of of good secondary schools and he reaches the the former ones nor by the defeats of the latter pathetic conclusion that an educational prole- ones, since for the peoples of the East is usual tariat paves the way in contemporary Greece, as phenomenon a defeated in war people to be in the past, for political corruption. Not con- compensated by the triumphs of its peaceful tenting himself with the newspaper reporters’ attainments. He finally concludes that in Asia impressions, he goes back to old books of Greeks has no other choice but to culturally Fallmerayer, Ritter, Roß, Steub, in order to dominate, because no people has ever achieved compare the impressions of a decisively phil- to impose its domination for a long period of hellene generation with the ones of his genera- time on culturally advanced peoples. tion. It is strange, according to Ratzel, that the efficiency of the—hard working and receiving low wages—Greek man is very high, but it 7.7.6 Greece becomes lower and lower, as social class rises.94 After that, he distinguishes a cultural differ- In a particularly extensive report on Greece, ence between Greeks of waterside towns and Ratzel analyses in an impressive way almost all habitants of the hard-scrabble mountains and aspects of the juncture: economy, culture, army, inland. He considers the latter ones so oriental, education, regional development. From his ana- that, with only few exceptions, they do not accept lytic view does not escape even the (diachronic) culture: Greeks of inland are not Europeans and problem of corruption. do not want to be. Impulsively they are afraid of Greece has made progress in all fields, in Western influence, which will be dangerous for which its miserable government has not inter- their simple, isolated life, the geographer notes, fered, Ratzel supports with a really aggressive considering that the highlander farmers con- tone, and then he mentions the economic devel- sciously destroyed roads, made by politicians, in opments of Greeks, among which he places its an effort (with roads accessible only by animals) merchant fleet with 312,000 tones (162 steam- to reduce transport, which blends nations and ships), one of the biggest in Mediterranean. smoothes differences. He predicts, at the same Despite the national bankruptcy and the fall in time, that western spirit will overpower their the price of raisins, its external trade is greater infantile views and superstitions and he observes than that of Serbia and Bulgaria. He observes that that the convergence between Europe and agricultural methods are improved, giving as Athens, Patras, etc. is as quick as the political example Greek wine and the reduction of cereal progress, electoral falsifications, lies of newspa- imports, while he refers to the internationally pers, briberies, flatteries. Within this frame, he known success of Greek merchants abroad.93 perceives that a Greece of European spirit was In intellectual level, he considers that Greece created, making the faults of a debutante in a has preserved something of its old teachers’ culture, living in cities and gradually lacking aptitudes. He evaluates basic education as more understanding for the old, truly working inland than necessary good, in comparison to the rest Greece. This gap is not new. It was decisive for

93Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 366. 94Ibid., pp. 366–367. 184 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade international history, when it separated Athens Europe as is Asia Minor. Therefore, they are from Boeotia and Corinth from Achaia.95 going neither to quit Giannena, nor to allow He detects the same situation in the army: Greece to expand up to the gates of Thessalonica. capable soldiers badly trained and led. He con- These are, after the loss of East Romilia, Turks’ siders as advantage of Eastern nations—mainly best positions in Europe.99 Turks—their valour, but at the same time he He estimates that in Istanbul and Asia Minor speaks negatively about Levantines,96 the position of the now dominating race of semi-European concerning blood and training. Greeks has significantly changed over the last He considers them as the worst among the years, but domination on Armenians is not going innumerable national and religious types of the to bring any political benefits for them due to East, characteristics which, along with the caus- their economic development, as the temptation ing splits national and religious jealousy, are the for Greeks will be greater to be promoted in keystone on which Turkish power is firmly based positions which Armenians possessed until now for the present.97 as politically weak-minded servants of Turkish He completely sets aside the old discussions domination, a process from which Greeks may about miscegenation, stressing that old and only morally loose. The lack of home-country modern Greeks are not a pure race, since nobody renders them politically suspect, as Armenian denies anymore their Albanian, Slavic and people for which no great European power was Roman elements. He also notes as main subject really interested. Co-estimating the massive the fact that the 2.2 billion habitants of the adherence in Islam which ensures for Turkey kingdom consider themselves Greek and that, ceaseless influx of new powers, and the arrival of apart from its habitants, other 4 million people in Syrians, Levantines and Europeans—mainly Turkey (6 million according to Greek sources) Germans—in order to cover possible deficien- consider Greece as their spiritual centre. This is cies, he concludes that in Asia too Greeks have for Ratzel a great advantage of Greece against no other choice but to continue peaceful work, in Turkey, and mainly against its unhesitating riv- which they are more skilful, and to forget any als, Armenians. Therefore he considers as political utopias.100 absolutely understandable political plan the Co-estimating also that Greeks’ hopes for effort of Greeks from Asia Minor to enjoy possible Hellenization of Bulgarians in the South Greek influence as protection against Turkish of Balkans went up in smoke,101 he concludes oppression.98 that Greece should quit any effort of territorial Further, Ratzel examines Greek ambitions for expansion and be consoled by the cases of territorial expansion, foreseeing that next aim of Switzerland and Belgium, which became great Greece should be the annexation of those areas of without needing square kilometres of land, but Epirus and Macedonia populated with Greeks. with internal work.102 Concerning Macedonia, he considers that only Referring, finally, to its ecclesiastic issues, he the area of Bistritsa can be included in Greece, as motivates Greeks to quit their ecclesiastic policy, Thessalonica presents no analogy with the con- so that the hatred of Slav coreligionists does not tested against Koutsovlachs areas of Epirus. He some day overflow. Their future is in tranquil refers of course to the Turkish reaction too, work, says the German geographer, estimating noting that Albania is so important for Turks in that in this way they will finally surpass Turkey, since no nation has ever achieved to impose its

95Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 367. 99 2 96Residents of Mediterranean countries situated in Eastern Ratzel, F. (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen., Italy. pp. 368–369. 100 2 97Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, pp. 367– Ratzel, F. (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 369. 368 101Ibid., p. 368 98Ibid., p. 368. 102Ibid., p. 368. 7.7 Presentation of F. Ratzel’s Analysis: The Eastern Questions 185 domination for a long period of time on cultur- formerly of Italians, comments Ratzel, consid- ally advanced nations. Turks seem that they are ering this sympathy as one of great political not going to progress. On this ground Greeks value, especially inm areas where peoples have coincide with the other cultural powers, for not yet politically matured. In Cyprus, however, which they constitute—due to their position and he does not detect such sympathies, since structure of their country—connection with the Englishmen face there hatred, which diminishes East. In the international perception of history, the value of the island. Principal factor of this ancient Greece was the linchpin between ancient diminished value is considered, however, by civilizations of the East and modern nations of Ratzel Cyprus’ position in front of the Syrian- the West. The same role, although not so Cilician corner, away from the big European– important—time passing—modern Greece, Indian international road, which is always of which has oriental characteristics, has to maximum importance for England. Its wild play.103 coasts do not render it ideal neither as a coal station, he insists, evoking again English officers, among which Dilke, who had characterised 7.7.7 Cyprus Cyprus a while after its acquisition as an island without any military value. Finally, he does not Cyprus was not—according to the Ratzel’s view either foresee the possibility of a longterm —nodal geopolitical point at about the end of development, with the Gulf of Alexandretta 19th century. serving as terminus of the Indo–Syrian railway, He characterizes its occupation multiply dif- appreciating that this cannot be ascertained even ficult, from economic and administrative scope, nowadays—due to its position next to Crete. with 4 million Marks incomings, from which 1.8 million are paid to Sultan. England has to pay 5– 6,000,000 Marks for administrative expenses, 7.7.8 Syria while at the same time population protests for high taxation and very few money is expended Syria used to be always, according to Ratzel, one for infrastructure (improvement of water system, of the most important countries of passage roads and ports). Furthermore, Ratzel estimates between Europe and Asia for all trading peoples that the island presents too small economic and he predicts that the growth of railway net- development under English administration, so works will give back to terrestrial commercial that old Gladstone would possibly dare to pro- roads their lost—due to sea transports—value. pose either the concession of the island to Greece The lack of big ports in Syria downgrades it in or the establishment of an independent state, comparison to Crete. However, the development excluding in any case possible return of it to the of Beirut with the doubling of population and intolerable Turks. with the imports and exports fluctuating around Evoking other administration officers too, 60 millions Marks, show the potency of Syria, who talked about the small value of Cyprus, he which is gradually coming in the spotlight as refers to Hartcourt, who (on 5/2/1895) had supplier of silk. Furthermore, he attributes great characterised as mistake possible acquisition of economic virtues to the 2 millions of its—actu- Cyprus. The always repeated self-praising ally Semitic—population, 5% of which are argument about the ostensible liberation of the Turks. Contrary, he evaluates negatively Syrians’ island from Sultan’s tyranny, but also that pos- political and human virtues, the internal contro- sible return would be a mistake, seems to be versies of which (such as the conflicts between addressed to Englishmen’s feeling, but it prac- Maronites and Druzes, both Christian popula- tically aims to gain the sympathy of Greeks, as tions) facilitates Turks’ domination. Acting according to the theorem that our 103Ibid., pp. 369–370. traditions is our power in the East, France gives 186 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade great importance in gaining the sympathy of First of all, he detects quite a lot of noticeable Christians in Syria, of which only Druzes cause elements concerning Germans’ attitude vis-à-vis to to England a constant, but attempered with gifts, the Greek-Turkish collision and he discovers insecurity. French have preceded silently through philhellenic feelings only among some classic their cultural attainments, the most important of philologists and fanatic Christians, who almost which are the port and the water network of never express themselves publicly. Referring— Beirut, while they may undertake the greatest about the same subject—to the attitude of press, he part of Syrian railway network expansion. describes how the press of Munich hurried to Ratzel considers that a connection with Jer- admonish the well-known unpredictable politician usalem, Haifa and Dead Sea in the South and Sepp, when in one of his speeches he included with Adana in the North will give back to Syria some cordial words about Greeks, with the argu- its old international position between Europe and ment that it is not proper to defend people con- India, not of course monopolistically, but as one temning international law. Among the big of the sea arteries into which the old streams of newspapers, only the independent of Frankfurt movement to the East are split. Adding to Syria’s occasionally dedicated some words about Greece, current value the value of holy places and its having the courage to blame Germans for their good future international position, he evaluates it tactlesness against Greeks. Furthermore, he criti- as equal to Egypt. cizes big newspapers—which supposedly fight for Finally, Ratzel refers to the colonial suitability throne and religion—for their attitude, as they seem of Syria and shows the way in which he per- to have forgotten religion in this case, since this is a ceives colonialism: not as a violent displacement conflict between Islam and Christianity.He of indigenous populations but as a process of appreciates that centrist newspapers showed occupying free space. So, after noting that there greater sympathy for this aspect of the battle than is no other free space, he does not propose (in protestant Press, although without special ardour. disappointment of many of his critics) military He also refers to independent magazines, such as solutions, but—what else?—economic and «Grenzboten»,106 which have published articles commercial expansion: The most practical and aiming to temper disapprobation against Greeks, most possible solution is in this case too only the without being heard though: It seems that not many participation in trade and economic life of the people perceived that this is not about just matters country, i.e. competition initially with France of international law or bankruptcies, but great and then with England.104 cultural issues, which we conceive purely human- istically, continues German geographer his unex- pected critique, blaming newspapers, which talk 7.7.9 Psychology of Peoples—The about German international policy, for scornful Role of Press attitude towards serious cultural issues of the East as if their news editors were minor police officers, Extremely important are Ratzel’s remarks refer- who only dreamt of law violations and penalties.107 ring to the formation of public opinion and to the From the position of a passionate patriot he role of Press. Evoking the applied psychology of discovers that against Greece there was some- peoples, he considers as political duty the careful thing like bureaucratic rage, plenty, aimless and observation of a people’s behaviour during a superficial scoff, with no understanding for the conflict, since this gives us elements about its gentle motivations of a rich in victims national sympathies and antipathies, as well as about the rebellion, no glimmer of sympathy for casualties degree of political consciousness.105 and frustrations. Wearing, however, the mantle

104Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, 106A magazine, main contributor of which was Ratzel. pp. 360–361. 107Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, 105Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 370. pp. 370–371. 7.7 Presentation of F. Ratzel’s Analysis: The Eastern Questions 187 of Realpolitik, he subordinates the above remark politically, so that, in all big issues different to German ambitions and purposes, noting that public statements are actuated by the same international policy is not fulfilled with bungles, instinct of England’s real interests, clearly and a nation unreasonably provoking hatred implying an agreement between editors and state against itself does not act in a clever way. Far- in big issues. 110 ther, he makes an inspired distinction, between Furthermore, he finds out an organized com- official diplomacy and relations between coun- municative policy from the part of England and tries: Our diplomacy may have million reasons France, as they proceed in philhellenic state- that bring it by the side of Turkey, and our nation ments of low intensity, which offer them the may approve of this policy, even if it does not ability of total tutelage of Greece. What is left, thoroughly understand it. This, however, does however, is the grateful friendship of Greek not mean that the whole public opinion should people, which would be offered twice as much, if share this view.108 this people became one day master of itself, Noting that the continuous coincidence of a seeking protection from these friends, notes people’s views with its diplomacy is a risk, Ratzel, appreciating that, if most of these state- Ratzel blames the attempt of newspapers to ments are proved insincere or totally ineffective become attractable to their readership, popular- as time passes, then there will be left widespread izing a realistic policy (Realpolitik), for which the view about English and French politeness. even the most tough diplomat would be ashamed He also considers as an advantage of Italians the and he warns that popularity of violence is a fact that they were not involved with all their dangerous sign of the times. Consequently, he powers in the battle, as they were not in the believes that this policy of German and Austrian unpleasant position to joust or change gunshots Press is ineffective and short-sighted, considering with their friends Greeks.111 that the Centro-European powers have no reason How unreasonable are peoples! will he to be anti-Greek as they wait for the great eco- exclaim. Drawing in fact a separating line nomic expeditions in the East. He concludes with between folk and elite, he will add that they are an admirable realism in the ideal analogy: In so unreasonable, that everyone who does not order to pick the fruits of our diplomats’ policy co-estimate this absurdity does not follow right e.g. in Asia Minor, friendship with Turks and policy. We want to shout at every people: Leave non-enmity with Greeks are equally the state trace its policy and trace yours. If you important.109 follow the right way, you will finally meet each Concerning the policy vis-à-vis to other peo- other at the same destination.112 ples, he detects a major lag of Germany com- Contrary to Germany, Ratzel finally considers paring to England and France, which do France unrivalled in gaining the sympathy of everything in order to gain the sympathy of small masses and in expanding, due to this sympathy, and weak countries. He considers as planned and to Latin peoples. So it is seeking (not without intentional action the aid offered to Greeks, success) for new investments in the—not ances- Armenians, Bulgarians, Serbians and Rumani- trally but psychically—relatives, Slavs and ans, which appeared as a spontaneous burst of Greeks, politically and selfconsciously based on ruthful humanity and Christian feelings. He its treasures of art and literature, on Catholicism apprehends that high policy goes against this and the enchantment of Paris. Contrary, he con- sentimental policy of newspapers and public siders the attracting power of England apolitical assemblies. Especially in England he detects but not at all negligible, since Anglo-Saxons have much greater connection and understanding between those who speak, write and act 110Ibid., pp. 371–372. 111Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, 108Ratzel, F.2 (1897): Die Orientalischen Fragen, p. 371. pp. 372–373. 109Ibid., p. 371. 112Ibid., p. 373. 188 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade all over the world a great number of supporters substantial territorial sovereignty,114 as our maps and people who are willing to believe in them. characterize it as neutral water, but in reality it He also underlines, evoking Goethe’s similar is Russian to the piers of the Persian ports or it is critique, that Anglo-mania among high German under Russian influence, like Persia, or a field circles exercised from time to time great political English-Russian mining, as it is the case in influence and he attacks Englishmen for the brute Afghanistan.115 cruelty of official England’s political exploita- tion, which misleads with a veil, with which a plethora of religious and charitable speeches of 7.8.1 The Armenian Question official England wrap up this policy. To support the above statements he mentions the case of Ratzel interprets the Armenian Question in rela- fighting off slave trade, due to which England tion to the position of England in Egypt and gained great sympathy and at the same time India, but also the Russian projection in Asia, economic and political influence.113 along the two major roads leading to India and China, in an effort to encircle Central Asia from the side of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. 7.8 Dardanelles and Nile (I & II): Beyond the Armenian, Ratzel records in the A Geopolitical Approach region other problems such as the Bulgarian-Macedonian or Syrian, all referring Working on the map of the Middle East, Ratzel basically to the same issue: the Question of the observes that the straight line from England to Turkish Empire. To this context he also subjects India intersects the fatal maritime Straits of the the competition for the acquisition of Middle Aegean and the Sea between Europe and Asia Asia and India, thinking that the region’s inher- and that the shortest sea route to India passes itor power will control the Near Asia, through through an artificial sea strait between Africa and whose centre or edges the roads go from Europe Asia, the Suez Canal. Further, he sees that the to India and from the Mediterranean to the Indian two focal points of these policy guidelines, Ocean. But given the Russian-British confronta- Istanbul and Cairo, make up with Russia the tion in the region, two powers rivaling in Central angles of a triangle within which lies the Turkish and Eastern Asia, Ratzel argues that all issues of Empire with its major Asian provinces. One the Turkish Empire are connected with any other corner of the triangle is the capital of the Turkish threatening or potential Anglo-Russian conflict Empire, the other the capital of Egypt—formally in Asia. In the background of this conflict, he still part of the Turkish Empire—while M. Asia, advises the Germans not to underestimate them- Syria, Armenia, Kurdistan and Mesopotamia are selves, without however forgetting that giant crowded in front of it. Due to their location, nations, whose land is higher than the European wealth and population they form the heart of the continent, should have very different interests in Turkish Empire, whose bastion is the neigh- the Eastern issues, from the Aegean to the Dead bouring European Turkey. Remarking that the Sea, compared to the smaller central European shortest railway route between Europe and India countries, which have no territorial possession in will once pass through this central point, he this area. To substantiate the interaction of the comments that all regions, located behind the wider region’s movements, he highlights the Indian political angle triangle were already partly sudden appearance of a Russian embassy in belonging to Russia. The Caspian is also recor- Afghanistan, India back in response to the ded as another conflict case between formal and

114This imbalance between legally identified and effec- tively controlled areas is a key research topic of Political Geography. See Sect. 1.3.2.1. 113Ibid., pp. 373–374. 115Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, p. 513. 7.8 Dardanelles and Nile (I & II): A Geopolitical Approach 189

English decision (in 1878 after the negotiations seemed not to claim for himself nothing more of Ag. Stefanos) to send Indian troops in Cyprus, than the right to ensure, even being submissive, in order to put pressure on Russia. The English its physical survival. Comparing them to the were immediately concessive, emphasizes the Greeks, Ratzel considers the Armenian advan- German geographer, considering that one should tageous in that they do not have long historical be blind to not recognize that England’s memories to make them proud and full of hope, aggressive, really revolutionary policy in the which makes them the most pleasing among the Armenian issue has decreased since several Christian servants for the Turkish master, to months.116 whom they bind, taking low positions in admin- Whereas Russia is threatening to expand its istration and acquiring parallel a more influen- sphere of influence in East Asia against the weak tial position, due to their money businesses. China to a greater extent than England’s interests In Russia Ratzel attributes the Armenians would allow, Ratzel reflects that there would be successes mainly to their financial skills, despite no better mean to restrain Russian influence or of their often stand at higher administrative and force Russia to an influence spheres’ distribution, military echelons. Placing Armenians in their than the distraction of its attention to an area ten cultural milieu, he remarks that in Russia times more interesting for Russia compared to Armenians live with people, whose ethnic char- Korea or Manchuria. So, he considers the Eng- acteristics is sluggishness and torque to the lish analysis right that the other powers would do pleasures, while they have undertaken towards everything in order to extinguish the fire that the noble Georgian loafer, a role equivalent to England itself had lighted. Besides, Ratzel that of the Jews in Poland or Romania, so taking believes that England does not seek the frag- advantage of the people’s characteristics even mentation of the Ottoman Empire, but he con- better than Russians themselves. Their contact siders each kick, e.g. Salisbury’s famous with European educational sources, allowed threatening speech, which challenged the Otto- them the control rapidly the Press, literature, and man dominance and its administration by com- even the theatre, forced thus the Russians to paring it with, a small earthquake, which scatters brake the national feelings, expressed in these everywhere insecurity and fear. The English sectors. Ratzel sees Tbilisi, with a population of knew of course that waves of such vibration 100,000 Armenians, evolving to the cosmic would reach neighbouring areas and that except Armenian capital and Echmiadzin to their spiri- by Turkey they should be felt by Russia, in its tual, in contradiction to the decreasing old capi- Armenian part.117 tals Erzurum, Yerevan, Trabzon and Man. Here is a comprehensive presentation of the Besides, he records an old Russian sensitivity Armenians’ situation, who (having a population towards the passionate national movement of of more than 2 mil. in Russia and slightly more in Turkish Armenians, who dream to create a great Turkey) are one of the most closed, composed of Armenia between the Black Sea and the Caspian uniform breeds, and confidential and farsighted Sea, from Caucasus Mountains to the Zargos people of Asia, who managed, both in Turkey Mountains. Next, he quotes a viewpoint, and in Russia to gain particular importance under expressed by an Armenian, that the Armenians very adverse conditions. Ratzel considers that the dispersion among Russians, Turks, Persians, Armenians are responsible for Turkey’s pre- Georgians and Kurds makes national unity very dominance, but they gain from this situation, difficult and that the Armenians’ aim is to be since until recent years they were the most, in the recognized as the most educated and powerful Jewish standard, flexible people of Turkey, who people within the border of old Armenia, from where the rest will be guided. Russia seeks, so 116Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, pp. 513– Ratzel, to control its Armenian nationals, deny- 514. ing many freedoms, as Turkey does, avoiding 117Ibid., p. 514. thus the consolidation of some anonymous 190 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade committees in London or Athens. Obviously,he peoples by the two world powers, Ratzel recog- concludes, that Russia wants to control itself the nizes that England must constantly pay surveil- pace of developments. Thus the awakening of the lance efforts of the Russian projection, Armenian national sentiment by English support particularly since the moral conquest of Persia is extremely inconvenient, especially now that it from the side Caspian raised the left wing of this has increased obligations in East Asia. In this region under Russian domination. He considers, context, Ratzel reflects the negative attitude of however, that England cannot clash with Russia the Russian Press against the Armenian incite- in terms of dominance and direct influence in the ment that Russia should invade in Turkish region,121 resulting to a desperate attempt to Armenia.118 obtain the sympathy of the Middle Asia’s peo- Armenia’s geographical position would give ples. Russia is considered by Ratzel strong Russia the dominant position in the Near Asia, against these peoples, to which it has given more Persia and Mesopotamia, Ratzel observes and tangible benefits, than 1000 English missionar- evaluates this area as equal to Dardanelles, since ies, commissioners and press correspondents it constitutes parallel a transit region to the would have ever achieved, despite the fact that Indian Ocean and its possession would make a the British are due to India well aware of what a potential blockade of the Dardanelles less pain- people’s reputation means in the East, seeking ful for Russia, than England imagines. As to the therefore everywhere in the world to be the Armenians’ geographical dispersion, he distin- protecting power of freedom and advocator of the guishes that Russian Armenia encompasses more oppressed. Ratzel considers this psychological than half of the former Armenian kingdom, factor extremely significant, calling fools who including the patriarchal monastery Echmiadzin, mock all this as sentimentality. Behind them lies an Armenian ecclesiastical centre. In this area a very practical understanding of the value of adjoins the Turkish Armenia, the only area of political “uncertainties” and a remarkable self- pure Christian population in Asian Turkey, while awareness, he observes, while remarking that a considerable part of the Armenians located in where the ships don’t reach, England should act the neighbouring Persian province of Azerbaijan. through goods, money, ideas, sympathies. As an Despite the fact that parts of the old Upper example he captures the Harcourts’ humanist Medea and Armenia are very limited in size, the attitude (obvious ironic reference), who collates German geographer remarks that they are very to the Cypriot protests against the English tax determinately located in Near Asia119: a potential pressure and to their demands for a potential acquisition of the upper region of the Halys river return to the Turkish domination, that England [river Kizilimak] and Euphrates—this is a pre- could not under any circumstances commit such, dominant area between Kurdistan, Persia and political, but inhuman and anti-Christian act.122 Mesopotamia—would make Russia dominant in In this light, Ratzel interprets England’s Asia Minor, since above this region should pass pro-Armenian attitude, before hearing even Tur- towards the Indian Ocean the Euphrates’ or key. But he is rather neutral, as he refuses to Tigris’ railway line.120 equate Armenians with lambs and the Turks with Passing from the geographical features to the wolves, recounting parallel incidents of Arme- psychological manipulation of the regions’ nian attacks. Additionally, he believes that Muslim Kurds are a great misfortune for the 118Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, pp. 515– Ottomans, warriors by nature according to 516. 119Vorderasien: the southwestern part of Asia between the Mediterranean and the river Indus, including Asian 121Once again, Ratzel’s multidimensional perception and Turkey, the Russian Transkafkasia, Persia, Afghanistan, his analytical power are revealed, which repulse any Baluchistan and Arabia. Source: Bibliographisches Insti- charge of geo-determinism. tut & F. A. Brockhaus AG, 2002, Sat_Wolf, Bayern. 122Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, pp. 516– 120Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, p. 516. 517. 7.8 Dardanelles and Nile (I & II): A Geopolitical Approach 191

Moltke, who raise territorial claims against Despite the positive qualities that characterize Armenians, estimating that the Turkish admin- some classes of the Turks, Ratzel ponders that istration will not be able to control the the crucial difference has not changed, since Kurdish-Armenian conflicts, because of both its Turks are culturally poor compared with their inadequacy, as well as the Kurds’ Muslim Christian slaves, and to this cultural superiority origin.123 they will be subordinated. He identifies in this Entering in the field of Anglo-Greek relations, area a sovereign Turkish people, who uses his Ratzel record as a particular incentive of the martial and state machine in each branch, but English support to the Armenians the harm the underestimates trade and mostly commercial Greeks suffer, when their strongest competitors activity. Almost all of the commercial life, all upgrade. Generally, he believes that England has higher education, all organic fruitful relationship experienced a few joys in Greece, since Russia with Europe belongs to Christians, while, where and France share the administrative influence in the primitive, barbaric Turkish method was sus- Athens, and that the Greek merchant fleet is pended, i.e. the ruthless exploitation of Chris- detrimental for the English, as the Greek ships tians, as it happened in Syria after the reforms have improved their position next to or after introduced under European occupation, there the English in the main ports of Syria and Asia Christians’ prosperity increased in contrast to the Minor. Finally, he considers the Greek move- situation of the Turks. This explains, so Ratzel, ment of “great idea” in Cyprus fatal, to the point to a big extent the increasing tension between that it is preferred to assign annually 1.84 million Muslims and Christians and many of the conflicts Mark from the Cypriots’ money to the Sultan, of recent months, which he attaches directly to but to surrender to King George, the little income the growing hatred and jealousy, resulting in the bringing, but wonderful situated island.124 inevitable European mediation, as it happened in Syria and Greece.126 At this point once again the diversity of 7.8.2 Culture Clash—Islam geopolitical factors found in the ratzelian analy- as a Culture sis becomes clear, in a hierarchically revert order than many probably imagine: cultural superiority As deeper than the conflict between the two and trade are means for a long-term enforcement, superpowers on the Near Asiatic ground Ratzel much more effective than violence. reflects a rather unresolved cultural problem, Continuing in the same political and ethno- which is a serious illness for the Turkish Empire, graphic interpretative framework, Ratzel analy- since there is no state in the world showing ses the situation of the Christian population, endurance, while the sovereign people is con- recording an incredible growth of Christian stantly decreasing in number, education and schools in Syria and Minor Asia, supported by welfare, and while its vassals are gaining polit- millions of grants from Europe and North ical power from all these sources. Behind the America, in form of unpaid teaching, goods and racial and religious differences, he sees in Turkey cash. He considers that the indigenous Christians the most active, appearing always and every- are receptive to learning, hardworking and gifted where cultural difference. For this reason he by nature, but because they find jobs only in the considers this calamity incurable, because Islam lower administrative echelons, they are forced to is not a religion, but culture, and because no one maintain a commercial proletariat, which, from can uproot Islam from this land like a weed.125 Jaffa to Trabzon, makes life difficult for honest traders, especially European companies, raising disrepute feelings among European business 123Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, p. 517. circles. Although he detects in Syria several local 124Ibid., pp. 517–518. 125Ibid., p. 518. 126Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, p. 518. 192 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade trading houses with good reputation and large well as the creation of rail network by foreign financial capacity, distinguishes due to the countries. Confirming the privileged relations excessive influx in the trade sector developing a between Ottoman Empire and Germany, Ratzel mass of shipwrecked, unmet and suspects who stresses that the German Eastern Railways constitute a growing danger to the rulers of, Company could not build without governmental considering any political vibration advanta- help in less than three years the 498 km long geous. This class does not nourish friendlier, railway line Ismid—Angora.129 compared to Muslims, feelings against Euro- Whereas he things that the fertility of Asia peans, fearing that Europeans will benefit eco- Minor’s ground is overestimated, Ratzel high- nomically from the enlightened Turks lights its extremely advantageous location, which employees, more than their own interest requires. justifies the colonial powers’ focus on the area. In view of this situation, Ratzel does not deny However, he shares the view of Roß, Fabri and that European nourishes more sympathy for the Schäffle, proponents of colonial expansion in honest Turk, than for the trickster Armenian or Middle Asia, that the aim to place German Greek.127 farming colonies in the calm, fertile areas of Asia Of course, Ratzel discerns that the foreign Minor would be worthy only if protection and powers’ opportunity to intervene in the economic some specific freedoms could be guaranteed. field is not the same as in the political level, Furthermore, he is in line with Fabri’s view that where foreigners are not free to do what they Germany could not claim more (e.g. a piece of want, despite the Sultans’ and some officials’ Asia Minor or Syria) from the Turkish legacy, goodwill. An important factor is the Christians’ unless the birth of German interests in the Levant religious and national division, which requires was announced. Finally, he considers idiocy any the presence of Turkish troops for peacekeeping potential effort to implement large projects, as even at the holy places of Palestine. Wondering long as the English flag overrides the German in whether the Sultan will have the ability to the Aegean ports, even in those of the lower introduce institutions, like the mixed courts or Danube. The political influence follows its own Egypt’s International Economic Comity, Ratzel economic and spiritual influence accentuates foresees that Turks will, despite their retreat in Ratzel, prioritizing once again clearly the number, power and property, maintain their importance of geopolitical pillars.130 strong martial qualities and their faith and they According to the above, Ratzel considers that would not allow that easily, as the tenuous the issue of Asia Minor is not simple for the Egyptians, the Koran to lose its power as a legal German foreign policy, as it should firstly be text, and even as a law of all Sultan’s vassals, examined in relation to the German cases. At this giving Islam a particular political power.128 level, it is revealing that the sense of threat by the British power projection and demands, stimu- lated by France in Syria, in Egypt, as well as in 7.8.3 The German Policy the peninsula of Indonesia and in East Asia, contributed more to the development of a Ratzel is not doubting the serious intentions of Prussian-French friendship, despite the the Turkish government to lift Minor Asia eco- improvement of German—France relations. As nomically, invoking therefore it the progress Germany has the edge on the other major powers achieved in road and transport infrastructure. in term of its minor interference in the Mediter- While this infrastructure was almost non-existent ranean problems, Ratzel believes that at the until a generation ago, since then the construction current constellation of influence, goals or of 5000 km of provincial roads are recorded, as expectations Germany represents the overall

127Ibid., p. 519. 129Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, p. 519. 128Ibid., pp. 519–520. 130Ibid., p. 520. 7.8 Dardanelles and Nile (I & II): A Geopolitical Approach 193

European interests in the Turkish Empire, with between Russia and England the European non- which Germany’s economic interests are cur- Asiatic powers’ interest, that Levantine main- rently fully identical. As a great power, which is tains an area, where culture-orientated people delated in the process of peoples’ and territories’ will once peacefully compete. For the rest, it is distribution, Germany initially aims at the pre- well known that whoever steels in this battle, he serving of open economic areas everywhere in will not be left without a share when the fatal the world, where they have not been colonially comes. delineated. Turkey’s, China’s, Korea’s, Travs- The last aversion encapsulates the ratzelian vaal’s etc. territorial losses constitute, so Ratzel, conception of Geopolitics, which—to repeat it losses for German industry, trade and migration. with the risk of becoming tedious—interprets To that extent he alleges that towards the Turkish power mainly as a projection of economic and side the German policy is an honest political cultural interests and characteristics; very impor- mediation and conservation of things, whose tant is the analysis of economic-geographical data, advantages can be found only in Germany’s which were (and still are) significant for the eco- position in Europe.131 nomic life, such as the transit of railways, ships etc. Next, he highlights the danger raising from As to the specific situation in the region, it the cooperation between England and Russia seems clear that Ratzel holds for Germany the against the Central European powers, but he role of leading power among Central European considers that these two powers’ interests cannot countries, whose interests Germany aspires to coexist, since Russia’s dominance in Asia Minor represent in Middle Asia. Surprisingly, but also a and the Euphrates’ sources is incompatible with sign of objective analysis, is his assessment about England’s safety in Egypt. He believes that these the definite dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, events will lead the two forces to conflicts, formulated despite his pro-Turkish stance in all reflecting as decisive the Russian—French his writings. approach, which reduced the risk of an Anglo-Russian approach for a long time. Since 1885, when they were sworn enemies, but acted 7.8.4 The Egyptian Question hand—hand in the Montenegro Case against Turkey, England and Austria, France stands in The Ratzel devotes the second part of his the East between Russia and England. Regard- study,133 which is published in the next issue (no. less of any opinion or fear for a Russian—French 51) of Die Grenzboten, to the case of Egypt. By approach, Ratzel praises France’s achieving that way of introduction he comments on the occu- the two giants cannot limit and oppression of pation of Cyprus and Egypt by England, which Europe. As a Mediterranean power France will was a result of exploiting the weak Turkey. do everything to prevent a Russian-English Egypt, so Ratzel, belongs according to the diktat agreement on the Turkish Empire.132 of 1841, formally to the Sultan, but is essentially This is how, he concludes, Germany sees the under British sovereignty, creating perhaps a East issues: without been directly affected, like precedent for the establishment of such a “gov- Austria or Italy, Germany shares their interest in ernment” in Asia Minor and Syria, if others a unhurried solution of Turkey’s problems, far stakeholders were Bosphorus and not France, away, if possible, from any violent interventions. which handed in a weakness crisis Egypt. Russia Germany exerts an Eastern policy similar to isn’t however suspicious of such behaviour yet, France’s in the era Napoleon III, but thankfully since it has gained everything from Turkey with quieter and without cheap show: it represents real war, while what is in English hands has been detached by fraud. So, in Constantinople they 131Ratzel, F.50 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil I, pp. 520– 521. 133Ratzel, Fr.51 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil II, pp. 561– 132Ibid., pp. 521–522. 568. 194 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade know the value of English friendship, as they across it 3352 vehicles with 8mil tons and know precisely the great powers’ inability, which 100,000 passengers on average of 20 h. 71% of do not recognize England’s position of in Egypt, these vessels were English, while of the to reconcile.134 remaining the German (296) and the Dutch (191) Egypt intervenes, so Ratzel, for the second are more than the French (185, i.e. 5.5%)— time in a century catalytically in Turkey’s his- constitutes, according to Ratzel, a fundamental tory, not directly but indirectly, through the force change of England’s position.135 which controls it Egypt, threatening really The proud project of the French intelligentsia, France. If Egypt stays in English hands, then the but also of its practical capacity, has been a case decomposition process of the Turkish Empire of England, politically surrounded, military so will be typically sealed, Ratzel foresees, esti- controlled that any idea of neutrality seems funny mating that Turkey cannot hope to rebound to, financially dependent on the purchase of Egypt, but to benefit from the conflict between shares by Egypt’s regent. In the above passage the Mediterranean forces, caused by the English the Ratzel eloquently expresses the German dis- act. Therefore, Ratzel puts Egypt back at the satisfaction and concern about the developments heart of the Eastern Question in total interde- in the Suez Canal,136 considering any intention pendence with the question of the Ottoman for a judicial fight—against the will of the Empire, but also because of its position as a Egyptian government—from the French part, transit country. which continues to consider the Canal a French England’s conquest of a first-class transit business doomed to failure. The hunting of old country saddens Europe more than the situation memories is not a political act , warns Ratzel, in Turkey itself, says the German geographer, recommending the use of more powerful actions, considering this as an outcome of the develop- according to the philosophy that either you let ments over the last 3, 5 decades. So, he attempts something completely go, either you win it back. a comprehensive analysis of the occurred in the He connects the Canal’s regaining by France region power redistribution. Initially, he recalls with its great ain in the East, namely the the great importance old England attributed to regaining Egypt and its relocation next to Syria, the Strait of Suez, as a transit area to India, and to but also its appointment as the protecting force of the construction, even without the Ottoman the Turkish Empire’s Catholics. Simultaneously consent, of the railway line Alessandria—Suez— however, he believes that the achievement of the Alexandria, when Egypt was much more con- French objectives requires the rectification of its nected the suzerain state. This fact is worth to errors in the commercial sector, since the French remind, not only because it shows the English participation in Egypt’s foreign trade has drop- efforts to convince the Ottomans to prohibit the ped to 6%, while the corresponding English is Canal’s construction by the French, who had 50%, affecting therefore extremely Egypt’s already started, but because it shows shortly after internal economy. the Crimean War, how little the English took Next, Ratzel highlights the importance of the Turkey’s interests into account, when they con- economic pillar in interstate relations, analysing flicted with their own. Refer to statements of the English influence in the Egyptian economy, important English, such as Palmerston and Stie- whose nature is exclusively rural, since its steady vens, who declared in 1856 that the Canal cannot food source is the Nile’s waters. According to be constructed, while in the rest of Europe there Ratzel, Egyptian exports consist, with a few was no doubt that it would happen, and even exceptions, of agricultural products (cotton, threatened Said Pascha for the confidence he beans, sugar, onions, wheat, barley, rice and showed in Lesseps. The Canal’s establishment as fi — a basic artery for global traf c 1894 sailed 135Ratzel, F.51 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil II, pp. 562– 563. 134Ibid., p. 561. 136See about Sect. 7.6. 7.8 Dardanelles and Nile (I & II): A Geopolitical Approach 195 maize), while industry is almost at zero point, a powers to govern Egypt. To the fact that the situation resulting the dependence of Egypt British are aware of the techniques of people’s financials on the world prices of a few products. methodical exploitation, without using extremely Furthermore, he emphasizes on the way England cruel means, he adds that the British adminis- managed, despite the cotton prices’ fall (from tration has many employees and officers, very 1889 to 1894 fell by 50%), to balance the capable in handling eastern Despots who have Egyptian economy through the corresponding turned to science the parenting of Pascha’s and increase in production, which was achieved with the Sultans’ children, knowing just as well to various technical interventions and improve- smile, like to use handcuffs. England knows very ments, based on a plan that was in progress at the well to exploit successfully the differences time of writing this article.137 between Turks and Arabs, while in Egypt it It lies in the sphere of English interests, but follows a goodwill policy towards indigenous, not of the other forces, to involve Egypt in large culminating in conflict between Turks and other economic enterprises, aiming increase the foreigners. Despite the selfish interests and Anglo-Egyptian relations, attracting thus more nepotism, Ratzel distinguishes that the English British to Egyptian services, underlines the administration could be better than the local, German geographer, crediting England with the therefore popular in the population. This is pre- improvement of the Egyptian economy, freed cisely the French fear, which (also due to tradi- since 1887 from the hopelessly deficits. After the tion) stands on the side of the Pascha and loans’ adjustment some Egyptian loans grew, Effendi, who want, as once, to bleed the farmers; however, Europe has not reduced its oversight from this direction comes the tough oppositional through the Commision de la Dette publique, criticism against England.139 which is based on the liquidity commission of Characteristic sample of the English failure to 1880. Ratzel recalls that the participation of a impose western governing models is the trans- German and a Russian representative to the formation—by Lord Dufferin—of Ismail Pasha’s committee was achieved despite of England’s Council of Notables in a Legislative Council by and Nubar’s (anglophile Armenian finance European standards. This act led England in Minister) opposition, thanks to Austria’s and inaccessible paths, as this body became the Italy’s loyalty. Certainly, he highlights that champion in accusing and opposing England, England was able to base its claims for a privi- showing Egypt as miserable governed and leged position in the management of Egypt’s bloodletted.140 finances to the fact that the big adjustment of In those circumstances, Ratzel considers the 1890 revealed that 65% of Egyptian debt is to reports—especially the English—and articles on England, 25% to France, while the German rate Egypt as extremely unreliable, since they present is 7%. Moreover, the English share in the Suez things pleasing to gray, depending on whether Canal is accounted, which is approximately 2/5 England and its trustworthy servant Nubar are of the total cost.138 happy with the Viceroy and his friends. But as Having argued on the extent of British eco- equally unreliable are also French reports eval- nomic penetration in Egypt, which largely uated where threats to Russia occupy a signifi- ensures the control of the wider region, Ratzel cant place, while in general the French views on refers to the psychological techniques and the this issue involve many uncertainties and sick English government’s ability to enforce in the rhetoric, constituting a disadvantage, compared region, estimating that England graduated in with the constant, careful and planned English India from best eastern school administration; policy. As a result of all these drawbacks Ratzel therefore it is the most competent of all European is very poignant, regretting the fact that this

137Ratzel, F.51 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil II, p. 563. 139Ibid., p. 564. 138Ratzel, F.51 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil II, p. 564. 140Ibid., p. 565. 196 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade essentially so culturally stalwart people is a bad moreover, that Germany does not expect any representative of the continental—European kind of repayment from this side. interests against England! Its political and eco- The history of Euro-Egyptian relations does nomic retreat in Egypt is clear. The mistakes of not give the slightest reason to assume that the French diplomacy are stairs, on which the Germany supports in the region the French English influence stepped. Only Turkish diplo- retreating for the benefit of England, Ratzel macy acted clumsier than the French. Indeed, remarks, explaining that this retreat is a conse- Ratzel goes beyond the French leadership’s quence of the overall decrease of the French criticism, assessing negatively the French people influence since 1870, and only to that extent can as a whole, which deprives the French policy of the French charge the Germans with a joint the support by a broadly economic and colonial responsibility. He proclaims that Germany active people. It may be guided wittily and very doesn’t wish either French or English Egypt, intelligently, but from its veins are missing the warning, with a strong dose of realism, that the healthy juices a people, who increases with the French involvement in the internal Egyptian physical drive and creates the appropriate land politics and the raising of excessive demands on conditions. Comparing data between France and foreign policy issues could potentially make a Germany, Ratzel demonstrates that the Germany concurrence with the England more attractive.142 economic and transportation interests in Egypt Ratzel prognosticates that the forthcoming are rapidly increasing in the last 15 years (in developments in Central Africa will attach to the 1882 109 sea German crossings were recorded in Egyptian issue an ever increasing importance, a Suez, in 1891 318, while the French were 165 potential development reducing the need for and 171 respectively), while the Germans retain a eliminating England from the Nile Delta; equally politically absolutely calm behaviour! In a pro- probable is however the possibility that England grammatic style Ratzel will declare that Germany gains new power by its involvement in the will never accept Egypt’s subjection in the Eng- central-African issues, so to face protests on its lish world empire, whose position in the global position in Egypt. Therefore, Ratzel foresees that transport permits this less than that of France’s, Egypt will be the starting point in the effort to stressing however at the same time that he cannot encircle the entire Nile and monopolize it in become a partaker of France’s hasty, fussy favour of the English trade, as has already Mediterranean policy, for whose practical goals happened with the rivers Niger and Venuo. This most French politicians do not know anything view was expressed, so Ratzel, both by the Times else to say, but that France should regain its due on 05.03.1895, as well as at a City traders’ influence on the Nile.141 meeting (4 days after Times’ publication), where Ratzel rejects the French accusations of the government stated that as a result of English England’s alleged German moral support in and Egyptian requirements the English sphere of Upper Nile, remarking that German and French influence includes the entire Nile’s sea route. interests are obviously coinciding not only there, This statement received sounding applause and but in Africa in general, stating that France and was accompanied by the encouragement to take Germany have offered, where they participated, seriously the implementation plans of the railway many common services to Europe, like it hap- Mombasa—Uganda. pened at the Berlin conference in 1885, when The announcement of a political project, Congo was created in order to keep the British extending over a range greater than 30° latitude, away from the Congo River and the Upper Nile. in areas with almost unknown states and peo- England’s acts in Africa since 1890 show, ples, seems dangerous for the Germans, says Ratzel, which is not the case for the British, who

141Ratzel, F.51 (1895): Dardanellen und Nil II, pp. 565– 566. 142Ibid., p. 566. 7.8 Dardanelles and Nile (I & II): A Geopolitical Approach 197 have completely different measures, and the only define the other, in addition to the territorial question of concern is the correctness of such a factor, pillars of geopolitical influence that venture. Ratzel cites therefore an English mis- compose his broader geographic perception.145 sionary, who said 13 years ago (when Germany Ratzel does not classify the factors of had not even stepped foot on Africa) that the Nile geopolitical influence univocally. He rather has huge political and economic future, since it is investigates them in terms of interdependence, best way to the African mainland. Of course, a even if this is realised in a poorly systematic and colonial policy’s success would be Germany’s intransparent manner. However, from his afore assertion against the English aspirations—but the presented texts, as well as from his other writ- 1890’s conditions forced it not to go beyond the ings, it can be safely concluded that his thought 1° south latitude. As it was the case with Italy, revolves around the “predominance of econ- which stopped under different circumstances in omy”. This is expressed through Verkehr and the region of the Nile’s sources Abyssinia, so trade, whose intense expansive trend creates Germany and Italy were at the situation to look conditions of state expansion, taking into account from the sources of the Black and White Nile at the following two parameters, which accentuate Nile’s navigability works, which will soon be the scientifically primary role of the finished.143 economic-geographic analytical tool: Nile’s navigability is important for African conditions, says Ratzel, figuring that the river has • The conditions of land and sea expansion a 3000 km long navigable route, besides the differ radically, since in the case of sea closed sea of Rhanza. The natural mouth of this expansion, trade and flag inevitably converge, route are in Cairo and Souakin, both cities almost due to the increased need for armed in English hands, while the capture of Uganda protection.146 means control over the of upper points of this • The common economic interests are rounded route. off with the homogenisation of areas, while Finally, he believes that claim and recycling any potential for further expansion can be of this large river throughout its total navigable realised only by organised national entities.147 length, meant originally for England the ensuring of the Red Sea and of the roads to India against As a result of his long commitment to the French and possibly the Russian attacks. Anthropogeography and Ethnology, Ratzel attri- Later the exploitation of natural advantages for butes to civilisation—intellectual and technical— the English trade were added.144 a central role in the conflicts taking place in the area, followed by politics, which imposes mostly circumstantial and superficial settlements. 7.9 Conclusions Wealth and the cultural level of a people are irrevocably connected. Therefore, cultural The analysis of Ratzel’s views on the Eastern expression and technological progress constitute Question confirms the theoretical approaches an important assessment criterion, as well as a presented in the previous chapters. This analysis factor of medium-to-long-term mastery over sheds light on economic, cultural, demographic, technologically poorer people. It is in this context historical facts, as well as elements of mass psychology, and even on the role of the Press, that Ratzel takes into account, in an attempt to 145Ratzel, F.1 (1923): Politische Geographie, p. 112. 146Ratzel, F.3 (1900): Die Großmächte der Zukunft, p. 45. 147Ibid., p. 44. He refers to the example of the German Customs Union, which contributed to the creation of a 143 51 Ratzel, F. (1895): Dardanellen und Nil II, p. 567. unified state, but did not achieve to expand via the 144Ibid., pp. 567–568. creation of colonies. 198 7 Fr. Ratzel and the Eastern Question: Flag Follows Trade that a particularly discrete reference (driven by be formulated, in a more complete manner, later the Greek-Turkish war) is made to the conflict on (1900); more specifically, when he reformed between Christianity and Islam, which shows the long (for four centuries) and well-accepted that the German geographer co-evaluates the political idea of a dominant conflict between land cultural difference between West and East, and naval forces, believing that the new great without, however, regarding it as a cause but forces should be equally strong at sea, as well as rather as a medium (tool) to engage in any on land, since the vivid contrast between sea and conflicts. land forces is fading, as the land forces have Ratzel defines the Eastern Question with acknowledged that the army alone cannot considerable geographic broadness (including respond to the duties of a great force. The new places as distant as the Far East and Australia) as naval forces are all powerful on land.149 As part a conflict of the great forces over an economi- of this idea he attempted to justify as a privilege cally pristine and politically unprepared land. of the land forces over the naval ones, the control Geostrategically, he openly supports the German over considerable expanses of land, used not only descent to the warm seas by land and the pro- as points of departure and arrival of ships,150 but spect of a land connection between Hamburg and also as points wherewith to control the seas, the Persian Gulf in order to promote pan-german especially the narrow sea passages.151 interests in the wider area. On the same stream of Apart from the above, in an obvious attempt thought, he stresses the commercial and trans- to justify the Turkish-friendly stance (of the portational value of the Balkan countries as official German politics, as well as his) he sepa- transit areas of the renowned Bagdadbahn. rates the diplomatic actions of the state from the Nevertheless, managing the mostly continen- cultural sympathies or antipathies among peo- tal area between Asia Minor and India, whose sea ples. According to Ratzel, the major priority is access points were under the absolute control of the national interest, which dictates specific the British, required a tool for the organisation of policies that might even oppose the “rights” of the area that was on land and which was no other smaller forces. Clearly influenced by Bismarck’s that the railroad. He predicted that the develop- foreign policy, he describes a complex mosaic of ment of railroads would render the land areas potential allies and relations, which he considers important and the Eastern Mediterranean would capable of creating fertile ground for develop- gain value with every progress step made in the ment for Germany and Austria in the Balkans as Far East. Therefore, given the change in owner- well as in the wider area of Asia. At the same ship of the Suez Canal, Ratzel actually prompted time, he stresses (in a distinct elitist attitude, the Germans148 to seek land access to India. typical of the ultranationalists of that time) the Certainly, he goes beyond defending the con- inability of the masses to contribute to the pro- struction of the Bagdadbahn, by analysing the cess of designing national politics. current situation in the wider area and indicating Acknowledging to the other great forces more the need to construct many high quality transport historical rights in the area of the Near East, he networks—roads, railroads, even telegraphs—as envisions the creation of a financially competi- prerequisites to an effective management of the tive environment and a final settlement of the area. zones of influence, instead of an armed conflict. The idea of the systematic development of land Despite the fact that he regards the belligerent means (the railroad being the most crucial) was to atmosphere of the time as dangerous, he clearly

148The Suez Canal had been funded by the Egyptians 149 3 ß ä (44%) and the French, but was controlled by the English Ratzel (1900): Die Gro m chte der Zukunft. 150 6 since 1895, as the vicegerent of Egypt, Ismael, had been Ratzel , (1903): Die geographischen Bedingungen und forced in 1895 due to the economic crisis to sell his shares Gesetze des Verkehrs und der Seestrategik, p. 512. to the English, for the unthinkably low amount of 4 m. 151Ratzel4, (1900): Das Meer als Quelle der Völkergröße, Sterling, straight from Rothschild’s bank. p. 31. 7.9 Conclusions 199 supports the prospect of a German-Russian land Germany’s active involvement in the interna- alliance as a counterweight to the English marine tional race for the (re)distribution of power in the expansionism. East, since he openly advocated the option of In conclusion, a complete concurrence of economic and cultural penetration against the Ratzel’s views and the ultranationalist ideas of militaristic expansionist rationales of his time, those days cannot be ascertained on the need for which promoted violent and radical solutions. Final Conclusions 8

The findings of the survey can be formulated as humans, peoples have free will,1 stated Ratzel in follows: his Anthropogeography, noting at the same time that this will should always take into considera- tion the conditions on earth. However, this for- The myth about geographic determinism mulation does not go beyond the obvious, and up After the relatively laborious analysis of Ratzel’s to now valid geographical facts, such as a desert, views on: the everlasting ice at the Poles, the high mountain ranges, where life for humans is unpropitious, • His perception of culture, economy, com- and, so it is for states. merce and circulation as the driving forces of More specifically, regarding Political Geog- history raphy, it becomes clear that Ratzel deconstructs • The perception of state as a phenomenon of the prevalent view at the time that territorial the new social life expansion secures power, introducing in his • The insistence on defining the social param- analysis many more factors of geopolitical eters of human activity and placing humans at influence, just as economy, culture, politics, the core of geographic research demography, etc. • The interdisciplinary and multi-factorial ana- lytic approach during the analysis of periph- A Pioneer of interdisciplinarity on the eral problems, such as the Eastern Question, analysis of power His conviction that power is not expressed ter- it becomes clear that Ratzel cannot be accused of ritorially, but is asymmetrically allocated, led any kind of determinism, much less geographic. him to the quest of a more complex—compared Especially the accusations of geographic to the existing monistic systems of his time— determinism are unconditionally refuted not only interpretation model of the world, which led as a based on the above observations but also from a matter of course to an interdisciplinary collabo- clearly geographic perspective: according to his ration with other scientific fields. Complex line of thought, humans are connected to the questions, such as the attempt to decipher world land, but are not defined by it. On the contrary, evolution, require multidimensional approaches. they fight the land, with culture as their weapon, This is how we could formulate in a nutshell using it to acquire technological skills in order to Ratzel’s core research perspective which was surpass natural obstacles. Consequently, the impact of the geographic environment is more 1Ratzel, Fr.11 (1909): Anthropogeographie. Erster Teil: direct on primitive peoples (Naturvölker) and Grundzüge der Anwendung der Geographie auf die relents with the advent of culture. Just like Geschichte. p. 63.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 201 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5_8 202 8 Final Conclusions eloquently imprinted on the tables of contents of Application of scientific methodology in the Anthropogeography and Political Geography. field of international relations The request to recognize the scientificity of The previous conclusion does not constitute in Political Geography, the demand to collect and any case a theoretical approach, but is verified in utilize countable facts, but also the frequent for- practice both in Ratzel’s work and in his col- mulation of Laws (in terms of Regularities), rank laboration with the other prominent and innova- Ratzel among the pioneer researchers, who tive scientists of the “Positivistic Circle of attempted to integrate the analysis of power and Leipzig”. In essence, this was a postmodern international reality in a scientific/positivist scientific circle at that time, which, understand- methodology. Once again, the contribution of ing the new arising complexity, materialized an the Positivists of Leipzig proves to have been early and still methodologically obscure form of influential towards this direction. interdisciplinary collaboration. Despite the fact that it was short-lived, it should be acknowl- Equally interesting—even though examined edged that that circle entered into the scientific only skin-deep—is the philosophical justification agenda of that time, the particularly contempo- of the demand to interpret reality scientifically; rary, fundamental and at the same time burning the attempt to make compromises between issue of an interdisciplinary collaboration, which Knowledge and Faith, with the intention to is discouraged, on the one hand, by the medley of bridge two conflicting roles in that time, namely proliferating scientific branches and, on the other the “Christian” and the “Scientist”. hand, by the demand to demarcate each and every scientific branch; a demand triggered by The issue of continuity–discontinuity in the necessity of professional survival. geopolitical analysis The present study proved that Ratzel’s Based on the above facts, namely the resolution political-geographic or geopolitical perception is of the misinterpretation regarding the use of the not restricted in any way to the analysis of geo- term Geopolitics by Kjellen, but also the juxta- graphic parameters. Therefore, the simplistic position of the analysis systems of Ratzel, Kjel- (and eventually misleading) idea that the len, Spykman and Mazis, it can be supported that ratzelian Political Geography examines only the Ratzel’s analysis methodology—even though state-land relation–an idea that leads to univocal never formulated in a coherent and cohesive way conclusions and incorrect assessments of his —has found in its general lines application in supposed geo-determinism- should be modern geopolitical analysis ever since. reexamined. Fairer towards Ratzel and serving the ideal of Early theorist of globalization scientific accuracy would have been the state- Having perceived in time the oncoming world ment that, apart from the territorial factor, change, caused mainly by the development of geopolitical understanding and analytics are technology and circulation, Ratzel was inspired co-shaped by culture, economy, demography, by the contemporary idea of cosmopolitanism, history, sociology, politics, individual and mass the early form of globalization. He underlined the psychology or even the role of the Press in their gradual change of societies from closed to mul- several expressions. According to Ratzel, all ticultural and he analyzed the new conditions those parameters (factors of geopolitical influ- arising with the industrial and technological ence) are taken into consideration for the analysis boom; conditions which made the transfer of of power, which can be considered the people, ideas, goods and capitals possible within subject-matter of Ratzel’s Political Geography. a given time and space. 8 Final Conclusions 203

Early theorist of European unification and difference between nature-oriented (Naturvölker) architecture and culture-oriented (Kulturvölker) peoples. At Long before the onset of the two catastrophic the same time they are the most convincing wars, at the apex of national disputes, Ratzel evidence for the assessment criteria for humans became a proponent of the idea of economic and peoples, which were never biological. The collaboration of the European states—among present study also analyses the strong dispute which he included Italy and France—as a pre- between Ratzel and Chamberlain that had never requisite for the maintenance of peace in Europe. been sufficiently discussed before, and proves the On an economic level, a European collabo- existence of polar viewpoints between the Ger- – ration would allow Europeans to confront the man geographer and his Anglo-Saxon and Ger- — other great forces, which smaller European states man citizen by choice racist rival. would not be able to hold back alone. More According to Ratzel there are no non-historic specifically, Ratzel describes a forward looking or–by biological criteria—culturally incompetent for his time economic collaboration—with the peoples, but rather conditions that define (quali- use of common infrastructures, the security of tatively and in terms of time periods) the evolu- domestic markets, common representation and tion of each people. Particularly interesting is the common negotiations (e.g. what is the logic attempt to “debiologise” the term race (Rasse), behind E.U. importing goods from overseas, which he incorporates in his analysis as a cul- when the domestic produce remains unsold?)— turally–and not biologically—defined set, as based on the concept of complementarity and not cultural (Kulturrasse), political (politische on internal competition and approaching the idea Rasse) and social race (soziale Rasse). of a political union. About the alleged organicistic percep- Of course, he does not put forward the idea of tion of state a political union, knowing well the particular The organicistic perception of state, attributed to European conditions, which could not produce Ratzel, constitutes a fundamental interpretational results like the ones in the USA, a country he absurdity, for which—apart from the fact that the admired. After all, the special nation-oriented original writings have not been thoroughly view with which he faces the European economic studied—Kjellen is mostly responsible, as he collaboration, in which Germany will be ensured attributed to Ratzel the perception of state as a a hegemonic role, is obvious. natural organism (Naturorganismus). It is definite that in those transitional (all over Europe but also in Germany) years, during which Contrary to the above view, which became his activities reached a peak, he acted based on dominant with time, Ratzel, following the line of ä fl liberal ideas, namely on the expectation of a thought of sociologist A. Sch f e, perceives the global economy, aiming at the same time at an state as an organised social body, a set of social economic boom and the shielding of the processes and associations. By strictly rejecting newly-established state, so as to participate as a every attempt to identify the state with a living national entity in the globalization process with organism or compare the state to it, he leaves no the best possible terms. room for misinterpretation, whereas his use of sociological, ethnological and geographical tools, About Racism which is more than evident, serves to analyse the According to Ratzel, the development of tech- relations that control the evolution of history, nology and the access to it constitute the essential social reality and interstate relations. Appendix

A.1 Maps

See Maps 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

Map 1 The colonial forces, according to Ratzel, in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden in late 19th century

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 205 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5 206 Appendix

Map 2 Indian traders were facing many difficulties in importing tea through Quetta to Seisten province. Historical Map of 1856. Sourcehttp://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/persia_afghanistan_1856.jpg

Map 3 Central Europe according to Partsch. Source Kost1, p. 269 (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, Bonn, 1988) Appendix 207

Map 4 Central Europe according to Hassinger. Source Kost1, p. 271 (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, Bonn, 1988) 208 Appendix

Map 5 Central Europe’s boundaries according to Grabowsky. Source Kost1, p. 273 (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, Bonn, 1988) Appendix 209

Map 6 Central Europe according to von Schumacher. Source Kost1, p. 274 (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, Bonn, 1988) 210 Appendix

Map 7 Central Europe according to Ziegfeld. Source Kost1, p. 275 (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, Bonn, 1988) Appendix 211

Map 8 Central Europe according to Penck. Source Kost1, p. 278 (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, Bonn, 1988) 212 Appendix

Map 9 German territorial interests in Central Europe according to Karl Haushoffer. Source Kost1, p. 285 (Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, Bonn, 1988) Appendix 213

A.2 Maps of Friedrich Ratzel

All maps of A.2 were accesed at the library of the Institut fürLänderkunde (IfL), Leipzig

See Maps R1 and R2. 214 Appendix Map R1 Map of Germany Source Deutschland, Einführung in die Heimatkunde (Fr. Wilh. Grunow, Leipzig, 1898) Appendix

Map R2 Ethnological map of Central Europe Source Deutschland, Einführung in die Heimatkunde (Fr. Wilh. Grunow, Leipzig,1898) 215 216 Appendix

See Maps R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7. Appendix 217

Map R3 Temperature map of the USA. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 1 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1878) 218 Appendix

Map R4 Forest map of the USA. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 1 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1878)

Map R5 Altitude map of the USA. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 1 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1878) Appendix 219

Map R6 Map of rainfall concentration in the USA. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 1 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1878) 220 Appendix

Map R7 Geological map of the USA. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 1 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1878) Appendix 221

See Maps R8, R9, R10, R11, R12, R13, R14 and R15. 222 Appendix

Map R8 Vegetation zones in the USA. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 2 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1880)

Map R9 Corn crop in the USA. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 2 Appendix 223

Map R10 Wheat corp in the USA. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 2 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1880)

Map R11 Cotton cultivation in the USA, January 1877. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 2 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1880) 224 Appendix

Map R12 Bovine animals per square metre. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 2 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1880) Appendix 225

Map R13 Population density. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 2 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1880) 226 Appendix

Map R14 Territorial growth. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 2 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1880) Appendix 227

Map R15 Spread of the colored races. Source Die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, Vol. 2 (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1880) 228 Appendix

See Maps R16, R17, R18 and 19. Appendix

Map R16 Cultural map of the USA. Source Politische Geographie der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, 2nd Edition (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1893) 229 230 Appendix

Map R17 Density of German population in 1880 (according to Engelbrecht). Source Politische Geographie der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, 2nd Edition (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1893)

Map R18 Shift of the population center, 1790–1890. Source Politische Geographie der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, 2nd Edition, 1893 Appendix 231

Map R19 Cities in the lower part of the Hudson River and the highest population density areas between the rivers Hudson and Potomae. Source Politische Geographie der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika, 2nd Edition (R. Oldenbourg, München, 1893) 232 Appendix

See Map R20. Appendix 233 Map R20 Map of Mexico, including a special altitude legend. Source Aus Mexico (J.U. Kern’s Verlag, Breslau, 1878) 234 Appendix

See Maps R21 and R22. Appendix 235

Map R21 The Mescherda Delta. Source Die Erde und das Leben (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien, 1901) 236 Appendix

Map R22 The port of Hamburg. Source Die Erde und das Leben (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien, 1901) Appendix 237

See Map R23. 238

Map R23 Universal classificatory map. Source Anthropogeographie, Vol. 2, 2nd Edition, 1912 (Verlag von J. Engelhorns Nachf., Stuttgart, 1912) Appendix Appendix 239

See Maps R24, R25, R26, R27, R28 and R29. 240 Appendix

Map R24 Ethnographic map of Oceania and Australia. Source Völkerkunde (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien, 1895) Appendix

Map R25 Ethnographic and cultural map of America. Source Völkerkunde (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien, 1895) 241 242 Appendix

Map R26 Cultural map of Afrika. Source Völkerkunde (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien, 1895) Appendix 243

Map R27 Ethnological map of Africa. Source Völkerkunde (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien, 1895) 244 Appendix

Map R28 Cultural map of Asia and Europe. Source Völkerkunde (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien, 1895) Appendix 245

Map R29 Ethnographic map of Asia and Europe. Source Völkerkunde (Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig und Wien, 1895) Bibliography

Friedrich Ratzel’s Books and Articles RATZEL, FRIEDRICH12., Der Lebensraum – eine biogeographische Studie. Verlag der Laupp’schen 1 Buchhandlung, Tübingen, 1901. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH ., Politische Geographie. a RATZEL, FRIEDRICH12 ., Der Lebensraum – eine R. Oldenburg, München und Berlin, 1923. biogeographische Studie, Festgaben für Albert Schäf- RATZEL, FRIEDRICH2., «Die Orientalischen Fragen», fle, zur siebenzigsten Wiederkehr seines Geburtstages: Kleine Schriften, Bd. 2, pp. 355–374, R. Oldenbourg, Verlag der Laupp’schen Buchhandlung, pp. 104–181, München und Berlin, 1906. First Published: Das Tübingen, 1901. Leben, I, pp. 230–245, 1897. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH13., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- RATZEL, FRIEDRICH3., «Die Großmächte der geographische Rückblicke auf das Jahr 1881», Das Zukunft», Die Woche, Nr. 6, 1900. Ausland, Nr. 1, S. 8–11, 1882. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH4., Das Meer als Quelle der RATZEL, FRIEDRICH14,., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- Völkergröße. R. Oldenburg, München und Leipzig, geographische Rückblicke auf das Jahr 1881». 1900. DasAusland, Nr. 5, S. 81–84, 1882. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH5., «Die Stellung der Naturvölker RATZEL, FRIEDRICH15., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- in der Menschheit», Das Ausland, Nr. 1, S. 3–8; Nr. 2, geographische Rückblicke auf das Jahr 1881». Das S. 21–25; Nr. 4, S. 61–64, ohne Namen, 1882. Ausland, Nr. 6, S. 109–112, 1882. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH6., «Die geographischen Bedin- RATZEL, FRIEDRICH16., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- gungen und Gesetze des Verkehrs und der Seestrate- geographische Rückblicke», Das Ausland, Nr. 1, S. 8– gik», Geographische Zeitschrift, IX, S. 489–513, 11, 1883. 1903. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH17., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- RATZEL, FRIEDRICH7., «Einige Aufgaben einer poli- geographische Rückblicke», Das Ausland, Nr. 2, S. tischen Ethnographie», Kleine Schriften, Bd. 2, R. 27–31, 1883. Oldenbourg, München und Berlin, S. 402–419, 1906. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH18., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- First Publication: Zeitschrift für Socialwissenschaft.3. geographische Rückblicke», Das Ausland, Nr. 5, S. Jahrgang, Nr. 1, S. 1–19, 1900. 81–84, 1883. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH8., «Die Gesetze des räumlichen RATZEL, FRIEDRICH19., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- Wachstums der Staaten. Ein Beitrag zur wis- geographische Rückblicke», Das Ausland, Nr. 13, S. senschaftlichen Politischen Geographie», Petermanns 247–254, 1883. Mitteilungen, XLII, S. 97–107, 1896. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH20., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- RATZEL, FRIEDRICH9, «Die Beurteilung der Völker», geographische Rückblicke», Das Ausland, Nr. 14, S. Nord und Süd, Bd. VI, S. 177–200, 1878. 266–271, 1883. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH10., «Nationalitäten und Rassen», RATZEL, FRIEDRICH21., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- Kleine Schriften, Bd. 2, R. Oldenbourg, München und geographische Rückblicke», Das Ausland, Nr. 15, S. Berlin, S. 462–487, 1906. First Published: Türmer- 286–292, 1883. Jahrbuch, S. 43–77, 1904. RATZEL, FRIEDRICH22., «Politisch- und wirtschafts- RATZEL, FRIEDRICH11., Anthropogeographie. Erster geographische Rückblicke, Das Ausland, Nr. 18, S. Teil: Grundzüge der Anwendung der Geographie auf 341–347, 1883. die Geschichte. Dritte Edition, Verlag von J. Engel- RATZEL, FRIEDRICH23., «Entwurf einer neuen politis- horn, Stuttgart, 1909. chen Karte von Afrika. Nebst einigen allgemeinen RATZEL, FRIEDRICH11a., Anthropogeographie. Zwei- Bemerkungen über die Grundsätze der politischen ter Teil: Die geographische Verbreitung des Men- Geographie», Petermanns Mitteilungen, XXXI, S. schen. Verlag von J. Engelhorn, Stuttgart, 1891. 245–250, 1885.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 247 A. Stogiannos, The Genesis of Geopolitics and Friedrich Ratzel, Historical Geography and Geosciences, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98035-5 248 Bibliography

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