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Home , Hindu iconography

Chapter I; INTRODUCTION TO

I. Problem statement and the purpose of the study a) Goa's cultural scenario is undergoing a tremendous change in the modem age. Goa since the ages has been a rich repository of rare antiquities and artifacts. Though archaeological evidences of megalithic culture have been unearthed in few villages its historic period can extend up to 4"" century CE. Goa constantly exchanged hands with many dynasties which brought in their own cults, worships and traditions which were rooted in this soil in the form of sculptures, icons and other archaeological remains. Its political boundaries also underwent constant changes and shifted with the reign of every king or dynasty depending on his or its ability to rvle. Such icons always provide clues to reconstruct the religio-cultural past of Goa as they are the most vital evidences of archaeology. b) History of Goa has been studied by using different methodologies and has been mapped out using different yardsticks. The present research will focus more on icons and sculptures to reconstruct Goa's past thus giving it a new outlook. Icons have historical outlook and importance. Hence it reflects the contemporary socio-culture and religion of a region. Icons are product of human creation and are indicators of development of art. c) With modernity creeping in every aspect of life; our age old traditions, lifestyles are undergoing a drastic change. In the garb of renovation old temple edifices, stone sculptures are being replaced with new ones thus, destroying valuable archaeological sources of the past. Ancient stone inscriptions go uncared for due to lack of awareness of their importance. d) The iconoclastic laws of the Portuguese many deities flee from the region to neighboring areas and many sculptures of the deities were destroyed as a result of which there has been a change in the religious setting of Goa' ancient past from the 16 century i.e. from the arrival of the Portuguese. e) A general notion that this region being highly influenced by the 16"* century Portuguese culture will be critically analyzed and reviewed. Hence this study will be an attempt made by the researcher to document and record the various archaeological sources in the form of icons before they are lost forever. This study will also try and

1 investigate the reasons of evolution of various cults, induced worships and role played by an icon of worship in a society. II. Territory extent or geographical setting of the area under study:- Goa today; is a state of has a territory admeasuring 3702 sq. km. It is bounded by the state of Maharashtra on the north and on the south and south east by the state of Kamataka. The Western on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west Goa's political boundaries kept changing with its history, it lies between 14" 44' 30" and 14" 53'30" north latitude and 73''45' and 74''26' east longitude. Most of the landscape is covered by paddy fields. It is basically divided into three parts geographically.- a) Coast line on the western side. b) Plateau:- covered with laterite c) Western ghats The Khajan lands are cultivable land stretches which are formed by bunding the rivers and streams in a traditional manner. There exists a well designed ancient sluice gate system called the Manas which prevents the saline water from entering the fields. With navigable saline rivers like Mhadayi, Mandovi and Zuari Goa's landscape is enriched by green virgin flora and fauna Modem Goa is divided into two districts viz. North Goa and the South Goa It comprises of twelve districts viz Pemem, Bardez, Tiswadi, Mormugoa, Salcette, Ponda, Dharbandoda, Bicholim, Sattari, Quepem, Sanguem and Canacona The talukas of Pemem, Bardez, Tiswadi, Mormugoa, Salcette and Canacona enjoy a coastline running from its one side which does not exist for talukas of Ponda, Dharbandoda, Bicholim, Sattari, Quepem, and Sanguem.

III. Goa; as one cultural unit for study The present Goa is a result of Portuguese acquired territories. The acquisitions of territories to the 'Portuguese Goa' went on late as IS"* century. However the scenario of the political boundaries of ancient Goa kept changing. Historically speaking Goa came under the Bhoj dynasty from the 4* century epigraphical records mention the name oiDevraj to be ruling over Chandraur which is identified with today's Chandor in Salcette taluka Names of around three more are found to kings precede him. Fragmentary epigraphical record mentioning a King Chandravarman ruling from Shivapur of the Konkan Maury family was found in Bicholim. The Chalukys of also held Goa under their sway. They ruled from Revtidvip which is identified with Redi near Sawantwadi. Records of kings like Pulakeshi II and Kirtivarman I mentioning the details of their rule over this region are available. The South Konkan Shilahars also held this region under their sway for some time and last chief Mdmmuri having being killed by the founder of the Goa Kadamb dynasty is available through folklore in Chandor. The Goa Kadamb branch was founded by King Shasthdev I whose inscriptional records date to 960 CE. Their rule extended from Banvasi in Uttar Kannad district of Kamataka uptill Khanapur near Belgaum. The last king of this lineage ended his rule by 1300 CE. Goa remained in the hands of local chieftains like Bhimbhupdl, Ndgvarm, Vimn Mantri are found in the epigraphs of post Kadamb period until it was taken over by King Harihar II under his able minister Madhav Mantri. It remained with the Vijaynagar kings like Devrdi I and Devrdi II till it was attacked by the Bahdmani sultans. Further it exchanged hands with the Adilshdh of Bijapur and in 1510 CE some part of Goa was conquered by the Portuguese. The region is also inhabited by the tribes locally called as the Kulmi. They are found in almost all the talukas of Goa but are known under different names due factors like interference of the Portuguese in their original religion. In talukas of Canacona, Sanguem they are called as Kulmi whereas in Quepem, Salcette, Mormugoa one finds this community converted to Christainity. Here they are addressed as Kunbi or even Gdwde. While in Tiswadi they are called as Nav-Hindu Gawde or the Neo Hindu Gdwde as they were brought back to the Hindu fold by various Hindu seers after their conversion to Christainity. In Ponda too they are known as Gdwde.

IV. Selection of the period chosen for the study. The period chosen provides enough and more evidences and archaeological sources which show that various dynasties ruled over this region of Goa These dynasties were well known for their sculptural. Obviously the influence of their religio-cultural trends must have had influenced the study region. The following factors are to be considered important for choosing the period of study:- a) Goa's religio-cultural condition appears to have been quite different prior to 4*^ century CE as archaeological sources of the megalithic period found in Goa point out to a different kind of society with following a complete different religious ethos. b) Each dynasty patronized various deities. These deities and their place in the society can be observed in this period. Different inscriptions and charters issued by the kings speak about the various worships introduced by these dynasties. c) Due to this one can study a pattern of worships and the transformation of folk deities into new enttttes can be observed in this period. d) The Portuguese Inquisition in the 16* century threw away forcibly; many deities out of the Portuguese acquired territories. Moreover in case of some deities which faced the wrath of the Inquisition were forced to vanish from Goa as a resuh of which their worship ceases to exist today.

V. Sculptures as a source of micro level studies for tracing the religio-cultural pattern. a) Micro level studies of the religo-cultural past of Goa with the sculptures as the primary source has almost been neglected. Such archaeological sources allow us to critically examine the origin, growth and the development of a Goan society. Thus facilitating the minute recording of the changing cultural trends which help us to construct a social pattem of the ancient society. b) Sculptures of archaeological importance are found in almost all the talukas of Goa. But their concentration is more in the New Conquests (territories which came under the Portuguese after the abolishment of Inquisition) as the policy of religious persecution of the Portuguese had died out. c) Sculptures portray the society of the yester years. They are a mirror to the various aspects of the society. One can not only trace the cults and the various worships and cults prevalent during that time by the help of sculptures but also draw an outline of the various features of the social customs, traditions and trends in dresses, ornaments etc. d) Sculptures have proved to be an important source of dating an antiquity of a region in archaeology. They are very good indicators of history in the absence of written evidences like epigraphs or inscriptions. e) An attempt to sketch an outline of Goa's religio-cultural past with the help of sculptures through this study vsall map out the changes and modifications in various areas like religion, society, worships, cults etc. VI. Methodologs- 1) Archaeological sources: a) The primary source for this study are the sculptures which have been found in almost every village of Goa. Some are under worship and are housed in temples while some are scattered in forest, wild life sanctuaries etc. Epigraphs, stone inscriptions available were surveyed and they were retrace their location today was done. Some of them are in fragmentary form while some are still intact b) Photo documentation of each and every sculpture along with its detail was carried out. 2) Field work a) Extensive site visits to the area to be studied was carried out. For this a preliminary' survey of the taluka was carried out and the first hand information in the form of folklores, documents in the form of papers, oral information mentioning the locations of sculptures was initially gathered. b) Site visits to places and historic sites from where the dynasties in Goa originated were carried out. Even the places or sites which came under the sway of the dynasties who ruled over Goa but are a part of the neighboring states of Maharashtra and Kamataka were also visited. c) Sculptures of all these sites were documented and were compared to the sculptures of the proposed study area so as to get an overall idea of the impact of these dynasties on Goa. 3) Language barriers Apart from sculptures the other primary sources used in this study are published and unpublished stone inscriptions and copper plate inscriptions available in relation to the study. Some have been studied and deciphered while the just the transcript of some inscription are available. The early inscriptions are in Brahmi script while those of the medieval ear are in Nagari. The languages used are Sanskrit, Kannada and even Hale Kannada. The Portuguese documents of the Inquisition and the post Inquisition period regarding the properties of the shifted and destroyed temples were also studied. These documents are handwritten and the language used is old Portuguese. Many terms, words and phrases in these documents still remain un- deciphered. Since the study not only demands the knowledge of a wide range of ancient, medieval Indian languages and also medieval period Portuguese language many texts had to be got translated by various people available in the region. These scholars were so required that they were well versed with the local culture and customs of the region under study. Regional scholars in Sanskrit like Shri Devidas Devari from Bori, late Durgaram Shastri Upadhye from Keri from Ponda taluka; Shri Vinayak Khedekar from Panaji, Portuguese experts and scholars Shri Percival Noronha from Panaji, Smt. Vanda Femandes from Porvorim were consulted and their guidance was used. VII. Primary sources 1) Sculptures: They are the prime source of knowledge and information for this research. They are used as reference material because they provide the first hand information about the development of a religion along with culture of any given region. 2) Textual primary sources:- These texts provide descriptive information and the guidelines of how an icon of a deity should be sculpted. Some of them also prescribe the various mediums of making icons. Some texts describe the evolution of icons. Hence they can be classified into seven types of primary sources for this study. i) Epics and Purans:- like the Matsy Purdn. Kurm Purdn, Purdn, Purdn, Brahmvaivarth Purdn, Bhdgvat Purdn, Vdyu Purdn, Nrsinh Purdn, Shiv Purdn. Mahdtmyam, Mdrkandeya- Purdn, Kdlikd Purdn, Vdlmiki Rdmdyan were referred for this study. ii) Texts on Iconography:- Apart from these texts various texts on iconography were referred and compared. These texts are Parashar Samhitd, Prapanchsdr Tantr of Sankaracarya, Ndrad Pancha Ratra, Rupmandan, Shilpratn, Dharmsindhu . Vaikhdnsdgam, Vishwakarma Vastusastram, Rudr Bhdshyam of Skand Dev, Kathd- Saritd-Sdgar, Vishnudharmottar Purdn, Brhat Samhitd of Vardh Mihir, Mdnasolldsa of King Someshwar, Dhydnam, Lalitdsahasrandm etc. iii) Regional primary sources:- They include the Konkanakhydn and the Encyclopedia Mundarica which gives the various origins and etymologies of deities and worships were also used as reference material. iv) Plays and compilations:- Texts like Raghuvamsha ofKdlidds, Natyasastra of sage Bhdrata. Saundaranand, and Buddhacharita written by Ashvaghosh or Kuttani Mata written by Damodargupta were used as reference material to study the cultural aspects of the period. v) Texts on Epigraphy: Primary sources dealing with epigraphy like Corpus hiscriptionum Indicarum, Epigraphica Indica, Indian Antiquary, The Journal of the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, Bharat Itihas Samshodhaka 's various volumes, Joumal of Bombay Historical Society, Quarteriy Journal of the Mythic Society etc were referred to study the social, religious and cultural features of the ancient society. vi) Travelogues and Government compilations.- H. A.R. Gibbs Ibn Baiuta Travels in Asia and Africa, and Samuel Lee's The Travels of Ibn Batuta Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Goa Gazetteer, Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Vol XV, Gazetteer of India, Himachal Pradesh are also referred to study the ancient Goa. vii) Portuguese Sources. The Boletim do Instituto Vasco Da Gama, No 49, Foral Salcette, of 1567, Foral Salcette, No 3071, Foral Bardes, No 7857 of 1648, Foral Ilhas, No 7594 of 1534 are Portuguese documents which give the religious conditions of Goa during the post-16'*' century.

VIII. Lacunas in the study 1) The ancient history of Goa has been studied by several scholars and researchers using various methodologies and techniques. But this study focuses more on icons as primary sources. Hence the study is entirely dependent on the existing sculptures in the region as many were destroyed by the Portuguese and many were immersed in waters as a part of the ritual while establishing a new one in its place. 2) Present study is entirely based on the surviving sculptures(even fragments included) 3) The political boundaries of the present Goa were not the same during the period of study they constantly changed as the rulers changed. Hence the study is an honest effort to compile all the primary archaeological sources in of the form of icons. Hence various icons of the same dynasties are also found in the neighboring states today which have been not included in the study due to it's vast expanse. 4) Since the major primary source used in this study are icons and sculptures many do not survive now as they have been immersed in the water by the temple authorities to install a new one. Hence such worships have been excluded from the study as the original is not available. IX. Review of literature A systematic documentation of epigraphs and inscriptions found in Goa was carried out for the first time Dr. Pandurang Sacaram Pissurlecar. He held the designation of Arquisvista do Cartorio do Govemo Geral do Estado da India an (Archivist in the Registry Office in the Government of Portuguese India). In addition to this he was also a member of the Commisao Permanente de Arqueologia (Archaeological Commission) which was established during the Portuguese period to carry out a survey of all the archaeological objects found in Goa His worsk on epigraphy have been published in series no 4 and series no 22 in the year 1932 and 1938 in a publication called 'O Oriente Portugues'. A Jesuit priest Rev Fr. Henry Heras also carried out extensive work of surveying and compiling various archaeological remains found in Goa and published his works in the Journal of the Bombay Branch of Historical Society in 1932. Later V.T.Gune, the Director of Goa Historical Archives, also in his works 'Ancient Shrines of Goa- 1979 published pictures of some few icons, sculptures and temples of Goa. Later in Goa Gazetteer of 1979 he published a section highlighting the ancient rulers, cultural remains and medieval history of Goa.

Rui Gomes Pereira in his works 'Hindu Temples and Deities'- 1977, compiled the entire temple records available in the Portuguese Archives taluka wise. Dr.V.R. Mitragotri in 1979 in his book 'Socio-Cultural History of Goa' highlighted the find spots of few sculptural remains which were acquired by the Goa State Archaeology along with the cultural history of Goa. Vinayak Shenvi Dhume in his two Marathi works Gomantak Punybhumi-l9Sl and Devbhumi Gomantak-\9S7 documented the history of a few major temples of Goa. B.D.Satoskar in his Marathi works which run in three volumes titled 'Gomantak Prakruti aani Sanskruti' made attempts to highlight the ancient history of Goa. Dr. Pratima Kamat in her works titled ' Tarini and Tar-Vif in 2008 and Tryst with Trade focused on the sculptural remains of Sattari taluka. Prajal Sakhardande has highlighted many sites, cultural remains and ancient history of Goa through his column titled 'History and Heritage of Goa'(29/05/1998 to ^/05/2000) on the local Daily 'Herald' and through 'Pages from the Past' (7/05/2000 to 26/01/2014) on the local daily Navhind Times. Dr. Pandurang Phaldesai in his thesis submitted to Goa University (14/04/2003) has made sketchy references to sculptures and icons found in Canacona Taluka X. Appreciation and criticisms A strong attempt is seen to reconstruct Goa's past by many researcher's and scholars. However except for Dr. V.T.Gune not many have concentrated much on sculptural remains or icons. Dr. Pandurang Pissurlekar and Fr. Henry Heras in the early 1930s did an excellent work in the field of Goan archaeology. The collection of inscriptions and deciphering them is a commendable effort seen undertaken by Dr. Pissurlekar. Moreover Fr. Henry Heras's excavations in many parts of Goa highlighted many hidden facets of Goa's ancient past. Similarly Vinayak Shenvi Dhume's work on Goan temples threw light on many Portuguese codes and laws which prohibited worshiping deities for the . While Rui Gomes Pereira exhaustive work on documenting the deities of Goa based on Portuguese records and provides an overdl view of the religious conditions prevailing in Goa prior to the advent of the Portuguese. Dr. Mitragotri too attempted documenting a few sculptures but the effort was not wide reached and remained restricted to overall identifications of the sculptures. Moreover there seems to be an absence of study of folk deities and worships in his work and icons of folk deities have been identified with Vaishnav deities. None of the previous researches or work has concentrated in keeping the sculptures or icons has the centre of focus of the study. The previous researches also skipped the ornamentation and other finer details of the sculptures found in Goa

XI. Hypothesis Goan icons scattered in different time, space and forms portray the changing cultural patterns of the land and its people. The style and features of icons of different times and period are directly proportional to the different schools of art patronized by the then ruling dynasties thus showing a changing socio-religious pattern of the people for more than a millennium. 1) Strong pattern of the folk deities existed in the study region which were worshipped by the tribes. The society excluded the worship of Purdnic deities. 2) Assimilation of Vedic and Purdnic rituals for folk deities and vice-versa. 3) Aniconic forms of Vishnu worship found in Goa. The 10 avtdrs are symbolic representations of evolution theory. 4) Cults like and were introduced cults. Vaishnavism was more dominant and its impacts are seen by and large even today. 5) Shaivism gave birth to a concept parallel to Gajlakshmi called Gaj-Gauri. 6) Folk deities were transformed to Vaishnav and Shaiv or other Puranic deities. New form of worships by way of influence appears to have changed the religious condition of the study region during this period. 7) Creation of Goa by Parshuram is a land reclamation technique of the aborigines 8) Worship of Mahishasurmardini became popular and its inducement into the aboriginal cult. 9) Sculptural art flourished more during the dynastic period and influenced the local art. 10) Development of iconography of folk deities took place in the absence of any reference text or material. 11) Semi divine folk entities and demi- had no sculptural representations. 12) Origin, evolution and concept of folk deities is a component to be examined. 13) Sculptural art provides a reflection of the society and helps to trace the social and religious conditions of the society during that period. 14) Classical art of sculpting diminished with the fall of dynasties and a local art sprung up. 15) All icons are based on the guidelines of the iconographic texts and Purdns. 16) The cuhure of the pre-Portuguese past was negligible and intangible.

XII. Understanding an icon The Encarta Dictionary mentions that the term icon is mid-16th century term which entered the English vocabulary via Latin from the Greek word 'eikon" which means 'likeness" or 'image'. It is symbol used to communicate or recognize. It could be a picture that is universally recognized to be representative of something. It is a religious work of art, most commonly a representation. In broad term the word icon is used in a wide number of contexts for an image, picture, or representation. Sometimes it is also a sign or symbol that stands for an object which is represents or is suggestive of an either concretely coined supernatural object. Icon can be also considered like an analogy which is was formed to illustrate a supernatural or a divine entity in the past. For a researcher of history the icon is like semoitics in languages which\h relates to speech and signs. In Sanskrit it is called Pratima, Vimb or Bimb, Murti, 'Bera or Vigrah while in Tamil it is called Padimam. The term Vigrah means special giving

10 special attention or adoration', while Bera or Murti connotes body or form. Actualh speaking it is an image which is intended for worship^. Pratima, Vimba or Bimba in Sanskrit refers to image or reflection. There is custom prevalent in the Shdntadurga temple at Kavle in Ponda to hold a mirror in the sun in afternoon so that the sun rays are reflected on the face of the deity in the Garhgrih^. A similar custom also exist in the Keri village of the Ponda taluka in which the sun rays are reflected on the Goddess Santeri 's face by holding mirror in the sun. But this act in Keri in Ponda taluka is performed annually during the Rath festival of Goddess Santeri'^. This emphasizes the true meaning of the word Bimba or Vimba. But the word Pratima is derived from the word Pratimei which means to imitate or copy'. Pratimei is used in Kaushik Sutr and Rigvecf. Vajsaneyi Samhitd and Atharv Ved furnishes the meaning of Pratima as creator, maker or framer^. In Tamil it is also called as Vikkirakam which means idol*. While the Sanskrit meaning for Murti is embodiment, manifestation , incarnation , personification according to the ^. While according to the Panchtantr it means beauty"'. From the above meanings it is quite obvious that an icon in Indian parlance was something beautiful, something representing holy and divine forms. In broader sense the term icon can be also used in place of the word symbol. A symbol which in some or the other way portrays the face or an overall sketch of a person who has to be remembered or even feared by the people. The icon also tends to identify the entity by its name. In the Indian context an icon was supposed to enable the people to readily recognize the divine entity which had some well-known significance or embodying certain qualities. It was like a thing, an image or depiction, that represented, connoted or denoted a vague concept. It was a like a connotation for a divine power which was of greater significance. An icon for the ancient Indians had a figurative meaning which was usually associated with religion but for the researchers it has strong implications on cultural, poHtical or economic scenario of the region. It is to be regarded as a reflected image of the shadow of the Supreme Being which is necessarily without any form or attributes'V The history of various civilizations tells us that culture has been a unifying force in the civilization. The cultural ethos or trends have indirectly emerged from the worships of totems which in turns were given a form in the later years. The ancient people have been highly influenced or inspired or supplemented by natural powers. The various forms of nature which were

11 unexplainable to the humans were given a form which lead to the development of icons.

XIII. Iconography and its importance Iconography is a set of recognized images. A set of symbols or images used in a particular field of activity, for example, music or the and recognized by people as having a particular meaning. Jitendranath Banerjea mentions that a special branch of knowledge or study which deals with these images is known as Iconography'^. In the words of Margaret Stutley Iconography means 'writing in images''^. In broad terms iconography is a science or technique of symbolic representation of divine images. It relates to depiction of religious images through various indigenous raw materials easily available in that particular region or area Main aspects of the human society are transferred from heavenly to earthly spheres. Divinity was not only indentified with male but also with female. This is a general postulate for all the religion but more developed in India in a characteristic way*''. To elucidate in the Indus valley civilization we have a lot of terracotta icons found during excavations. There are no traces of images, sculptures or icons made up of stone. However materials like jadeite. Steatite was used to make miniatures'^ A common subject in terracotta figures found in the Hadappan civilization is female. Similarly we also have Ling and ring stones representing the Yonis found in Mohenjo-Daro excavations'^. Statuettes of nude women, with elaborate head gears made of terracotta indicate the worship of Mother Goddess in Hadappa'^. In Hadappa archaeologists have unearthed head of male priest, a man wearing a head gear of horns and performing penance'*. All these point out to some kind of cult existing in this civilization. Hence Iconography allows us to trace the gradual evolution of the art of image making and the practice of worshipping these 19 images .

The Rgved does not mention any specific details of any icon for worship. Though words like Shumbh- to mean adorn or decorate is used in context of gods like Varun one cannot conclude that images existed in that period^". Images of gods were being made during the latest Vedic period i.e. 4"^ century BCE and by 6"^ century CE deities with many arms were created^'. Whereas Margaret Stutley puts across yet another view; she says that the Rgved contains the germ of future iconography in its

12 description of Vedic deities^^. But the MR. Majumdar mentions that the theory of and his Shakti has been foreshadowed in the Veds in the conjoint worship of Heaven and the Earth (dyava prthvyudf^. However one thing is very clear that Indians did not assign human forms to god by mere imagination but represented them in a sensible manner says T.A. Gopinath Rao^*. Rupmandan, a text on iconography written by Sutrdhar Mandan in the 6"* century CE mentions that iconography is a science which is within the sculpture^^ Yet another meaning of the word 'Iconography' could mean the subject matter or discipline related to, visual arts. Iconography involves the various conventions, signs and symbols which are mentioned in the ancient texts. It is the study and analysis of a subject of icons. Iconography ensures that a vague and absurd concept related celestial entities are brought more close to the people of that particular cuhure. It includes representation or a group of representations of such heavenly and godly bodies which were the people of a particular culture felt that they were very complex.

XIV. Aniconic to Iconic: However Jitendranath Banerjea mentions that even before the evolution of an image of a principal deity aniconic symbols mostly funerary in character existed in Buddhism'^''. But we forget the tribal gods and the local deities of the aboriginal inhabitants of India whenever we make such statements. Since we find historical dates of evolution of Buddhism we cannot ignore the local worships which have gone undocumented by many researchers and scholars. Aniconic symbols might have evolved from the tribal religion. Making of mud balls for worship, worshipping the Satti: the goddess which is believed to enter the house of the sixth day after the birth of a child are some of the aniconic forms of local worships. The Satti's aniconic worship in Goa includes a leaf of Kdsale plant. The Kasale leaf is ver>' huge resembling the size of an 's ear. The leaf is kept in courtyard of the house decorated with two eyes of flower petals. A nose ring is pierced below the eyes. The nose ring is an indication of female being worshipped'^^. Same is the case with today's Mahishasurmardini. D.D. Kosambi mentions a buffalo god by name of Mhasoba being worshipped in many parts of Maharashtra In many places just a round un carved stone forms an icon oiMhasoba.^. He is narrated to be killed by a goddess. Hence one can conclude that Mahishasurmardini concept may have

13 developed from a local anthropomorphic form. But in Assam the principal goddess is some who cannot be seen^*^. Same is the case with , the God of Creation. From the cosmological point of view he is the ball of fire from which universe develops' . Here also one can observe a transformation of aniconic form to iconic form. Thus we see a systematic development in personifying the deities who were considered to be celestial and were completely unknown, unseen and unidentified by anyone. Stella Kramrisch mentions that Indian symbolism was mainly premised upon a metonymical relationship, in which a part could stand for the whole^'. In Adhyay 42, verse 72 of Chitrsutr, gives a description of depicting moonlight by showing blooming blue lotuses supports Stella's statement"*^. Chitrsutr is a part of Vishnudharmottar Puran which is assigned to 6"'-7"' century CE^^. The gods were tried to be given a specific form, shape and size so that they were brought more close to the humans. Through iconography an attempt of unifying the people and gods was done. Iconography tried to bridge the gap between such vague concepts of supernatural bodies and the humans because most of these divine powers were given a human form. An icon, however, is not simply a holy picture; it does not portray a physical reality. In the Indian scenario a strong attempt of representing godly bodies based on a particular science which was coined by intellectuals or the learned people. In India it is the art and science of designing sculptures, icons or other architectural elements relating the sculpture. It also includes decoration and the ornamentation sculptures or icons based on their religious significance as described in sacred texts. In Ancient India a thorough theoretical and practical training was imparted to the student by an able experienced teacher who was a sculptor by profession. This is understood from the texts written especially on image-making. Through iconography the indistinct and the blurred theories of heavenly bodies were converted into concrete representations. The celestial entities were now represented in two or three dimensions. The degree to which images were used or permitted was also defined. The images were sculpted based on the functions of the deities like:- a) The deities were meant for fearing the people or conveying a message^*. b) Some were treated as sacred objects of veneration like female and male deities^'. c) Some simply were sculpted as ornaments for decorating the edifices^*'. Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions were iheMudraox gestures having specific meanings^^. Other features included the defining divine

14 qualities with attributes represented by Aasan and ritual tools such like the Trishul indicating , Vajr indicating , Chatr indicating a sign of royalty, Pan-patr indicating a Tamasik deity etc. The symbolic use of such attributes denoted the presence identification of the deity being worshipped. The details that must be present in the particular icon are usually contained in the Sanskrit verses that are specifically composed for this purpose. Under the influence of various ancient texts like \\\Q Matsy Puran, Brhat , Rupmandan etc such kind of art with indicators was developed. For purposes of worship or reflection, the icon of the deity is characterized by assigning him specific features. The main characteristic which helps us to identify the deity is the lakshan or attributes. The Lakshan is the primary source or the key feature of identification and mainly includes the weapons or the Ayudh, or any other object the deity holds in its hands. But in the eariy Hindu iconography additional pair of arms were introduced so that they could hold symbols for the purpose of differentiating the deities which could not be identified by any other means^^. The other distinguishing features include like poses or the Bhang. Then comes the Bhav or the mood. Many were indentified based on their animals they were associated with'^. The vehicles or the Vahans are also distinguishing marks of the deity's name. The secondary features like ornaments or the abhushan and alankar to some extent give the supporting characteristic to the deity. Mdnasdr gives a description of personal ornaments and crowns which are to be used for royal people'**'. All these features are in accordance with the attitudes with which the worship is intended. Iconography is thus meant to serve as a support to facilitate adequate visualization of the deity. The aim is to enable the devotee to go beyond the material icon and conjure up the abstract vision of the deity. However, the devotee does not regard the Icon as a mere artifact in stone or metal. It is for him a proper and effective representation of the deity, at any rate during the worship ritual. The deity at its ov*-n abstract level cannot be worshipped; and without worship, the devotee's mind cannot be prepared for communion with the deity which worship really is. The iconic form is the real concrete form assumed by the deity, for the sake of the devotee, either on its own or created by the image-maker or the Shilpi. An icon for worship can never be property made without the image-maker having a sound knowledge of the prevalent cultural trends and ethos of that region. He was also supposed to have a sound knowledge of human anatomy'*'. Hence we can conclude that a study of an icon is a

15 means of understanding the religious, philosophical, symbolical and mythological aspects of a religion'*^. Earlier, these godly theories which had esoteric meanings, and were accessible only to certain group of society was now being taken to a common man who was completely ignorant about texts like the Purans. During the later periods poets like Kalidas makes a reference of sculptures of women carved in high relief on posts, pillars and railing of the palace in his Raghuvamsh .The sculptural art in in its numerous was also govemed by sacred texts just like in the other parts of India These texts describe the ratio and proportion of the icon, which is called tdlman. It also in a way describes the mood of the central figure in a context. Deities like Kalbhairav a form of Shiva which is considered to be wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood. This shows that gods were also believed to possess magical powers who could change their forms and moods like magic"*^. The making of sculptures began during the Gupta period but form the T'- 2"** century CE gods with many hands were already being depicted on coins'*' During the second to first century BCE a Greek by name Heliodorus had erected a pillar in Vidisha in the honor of Vasudev . This shows the impact of composite that made the Greek convert himself to Bhagvatism*^. Although iconic depictions of, or concentrating on, a single figure are dominant and are more prominent incase of Shakti and Vishnu worships with regards to Goa. Both these aspects are depicted in more pictorial form in their respective sculptures. The sculptures of these two forms in Goa are more narrative and elaborate. Moreover the sculptures of Vishnu found in Goa are mostly in static poses. No sculpture of Vishnu is found in a dynamic pose. Conversely, in case of Shaivism which is also a very prominent sect in Goa do not have very intricate and detailed sculptures like found in the other parts of India In Goa the sect is prominent only through the worship form of Shivlings. Though other forms of Shiva like the Kaalbhairav and the Virbhadr have been discovered in many remote parts of Goa they are found worshipped only as affiliate deities or as guardian deities. Furthermore the sculptures found are in dynamic pose unlike the sculptures of Vishnu.

XV. Icons in various mediums:- Icons were found in Goa were allowed to sculpted from stone or even wood. Some were also to be cast in metal. In Goa, icons in three dimensions, and two dimension

16 are found. The icons found in Goa can be classified in two types based on the location of their worship:- a) Private worship, or worship at home. b) Public worship; or the worship in a temple. It is observed that the former worship is done because it is beneficiar>' for the welfare and well-being of an individual or a family. While the latter worship is carried out for the welfare of the community, village, town, city or mankind. Both the worships follow specific traditions, but the latter one is seen to be more institutionalized. The above two categories of worship require a special mention in this chapter as the mediums in which the sculptures are found also differ in the above two categories. To elucidate, most of the sculptures found worshipped in the temple are carved from stone and very few and specific ones from wood. While the sculptures worshipped in the private houses are made of metal, supposedly made metal by the lost wax method''^ a) Icons in two dimension- Paintings, embroidery or etching work included two dimensional icons. An ancient text called Chitrsutr gives a detailed description of how to paint three dimensional objects into two dimensional images. It comprises of Adhvays from 35 to 43 of Khand III of the Vishnudharmottar Puran^'^. Adhyaay 39 mentions the solutions to the problem of representing a three dimensional figure on a two dimensional surface^". Some of the icons in the later period like the 14"" CE embroidered on cloth. They can be termed as banner paintings like the Takka of Kankona taluka in Goa. This is discussed in chapter 3 in detail. The banner paintings called Ttanks are a common feature in Nepal, Tibet and Central Asia^V

Icons of different deities were painted to decorate the wooden elements used for both religious as well as decorative purpose in a temple. It included painting the wooden posts of the Tarangas, the Patts, Kirtimukhs etc. in this case natural dyes insoluble in water were used. Today just one family survives in Goa who carries out this tradition of painting wooden elements. They are commonly known the Chitdris family and are based in a village called Debani in Kunkali. Some themes from the Purdns painted on wood cease to exist in Goa today. In the le*-!?"" CE many deities were done in fresco work on the walls of the temples. This art too has decayed today as it could stand the

17 ravages of time. Now no traces of such work are available for a detailed. For painting the walls natural dyes perhaps which were soluble in water were used. These paintings included various scenes oiHindu mythology, deities and even war scenes in some cases. In the temple of Shri Parshuram in Paingini such paintings adomed the walls of the Sabhaamandap. But due to limited knowledge of conservation the walls had to be painted with the modem paints available today. It is very surprising to note that the fresco exposed was displaying a classical dancer in performing Mudraa. The style in which dancer was depicted represented the Shala-Bhanjikas in the 12 CE temple of Chennkeshav at Belur in Kamataka. An art of decorating the exterior and the interior walls of the temples existed in Goa This art was required a wall plastered with lime. A coat of red color called Urdmunj mixed with lime was applied on this wall. The icon required to be etched was then drawn on red coat. The unwanted part of the drawing was removed off. This art was called as Kaavi art. b) Icons in three dimensions. Icons also include sculptures. The Encarta Dictionary gives the origin of the term 'sculpture' . It says that it is 14th century term derived from the Latin word sculptura which has its etymological roots in another Latin word called 'sculpere' which means to carve or scratch. Creating free-standing, three-dimensional sculptures of holy figures was a excelled by the sculptors for many centuries. The today's Goa was controlled by many dynasties during the ancient and the medieval period. Most of these dynasties introduced their form or art and architecture in this region. It must be remembered that the historic Goa was not the same as the Goa of modem period. The political boundaries kept on changing during the rule of different kings even of the same dynasty.

These dynasties also brought in new forms of worships and also patronized certain cults and religions. Buddhism, Jainism along with Hinduism was a part and parcel of the Kadamb dynasties culture. The kings of Vijaynagar though mled for a very less period in Goa also allowed Jainism to flourish during their era. Although very few sculptures of Jainism and Buddhism are found in Goa the worship of the Jain deities in the Hindu temples of Goa by certain communities and sects is strong evidence which shows that this religion was also a prominent one in Goa Stone sculptures of various Hindu gods and goddess were carved out in a certain style mostly during the

18 Chalukyan and the Kadamb period. Very rare sculptures of the Badami Chalukyan styles are found in Goa. It is however very interesting to note that the sculptures dating to the Chalukyan period are mostly found in the taluka of Pedne. At the same time it is equally important to also note that just two sculptures purely of the Chalukyan style are found in the remote village of Loliem in south Goa. Other then Pedne and Kankona no other taluka shows traces of Chalukyan styled sculptures. However a sculpture of Mahishasurmardini in Ashtbhuj form was found in the Netravali of Sanguem taluka. Though it can be assigned to the same period it is not purely in the Chalukyan style. The Kadamb dynasty was yet another dynasty which laid the foundation of exquisite stone carved sculptures in Goa Since this dynasty accepted the over lordship of other south Indian dynasties its art and architectural styles also saw a great variations. The sculptural art patronized by this dynasty aimed in depicting the sculptures in a delicate style bedecked with lots of jewelry. The sculptors of this school also tried to carve these sculptures intricately. It stressed on detailing the sculptures more. The Kadamb art was so influencing and attractive that even the local artisans tried to imitate this art form in the various images which they carved out during the later period. However they were not successful in making exact replicas of the art form but they somehow managed to make good prototypes. The kings of Vijaynagars were also patrons of sculptural art. This is evident from the cit\ of which was supposed to be one of the best cities of that era However their school of art did not stress on showing intricacy and exquisiteness in the sculptures. Till now not a single stone sculpture of influence of Vijaynagar school of art could be identified in Goa It is also a fact that the art of patronized by these dynasties was refined. It aimed in bringing out the various details, features and aspects of the sculptures. Sculptural art of such caliber was developed by the Kadamb dynasty. Historians have classified the Kadamb dynasty into various branches or houses like, the Goa Kadambs, the Chittakul Kadambs etc though no such house name exists in their respective records. However any stone sculpture carved during this dynastys glorious period had the same standard and degree of accuracy in all the houses. The sculptures found in the ancient cities of Kadambs like Halsi, Degamve near Khanapur or even for that matter ancient Chandrapur in Goa speak of how the artisans tried to chisel out beautiful pieces of unique art form stone. Though there are very few sculptures in Kadamb style found in Chandar but this city has revealed that eariv

19 sculptural art of the Kadambs was quite different from the art of the later penod. The early stone sculptures of this dynasty did not show influences of the Hoysal and Eastern Chalukyan art. This fusion is found in the sculptures of the M^ century onwards. However throughout Goa one finds beautiful and exquisitely carved sculptures of different deities belonging to the \2^ century Kadamb art. In Ponda one finds sculptures of Mahishasurmardini, Mddhav, and Nardyan of this period. In Kankona taluka sculptures of Keshav, Betaall are found. Similarly in Bicholim sculptures of Chamundeshwari, Nardyan are some of the sculptures dating to the 12"' century and portray beautiful Kadamb influence require a special mention.The interesting feature of this 12^ century Kadamb art is the details and the intricac>' shown in the carvings of the sculptures. They aimed making the sculptures look extremely beautiful have by adorning them with heavy jewelry. They also depicted the deities in a very delicate form and avoided the displaying muscles on their body. Through delicateness also the fiercenessi n the deity was shown. Such a feature can be seen in the sculptures of Mahishasurmardini, Chamundeshwari, Befall etc. Not only their sculptures but also the temples were rare pieces of ancient art. Perhaps this is the reason why the historians have called this dynasty 'Master Builders"

20 RESEARCH ANALYSIS AND OBSERVATION

Through iconography an attempt of unifying the people and gods was done. Iconography tried to bridge the gap between such vague concepts of supernatural bodies and the humans because most of these divine powers were given a human form. In India it is the art and science of designing sculptures, icons or other architectural elements relating the sculpture. It also includes decoration and the ornamentation sculptures or icons based on their religious significance as described in sacred texts. In Ancient India a thorough theoretical and practical training was imparted to the student by an able experienced teacher who was a sculptor by profession. This is understood from the texts written especially on image-makmg.

Iconic worship in Goa like in other parts of India follows sectarian divisions and differences. The major divisions are Shaiv, Vaishnav and Shakti. While in Shaiv temples Shiva is worshipped in the form of an aniconic Ling in the sanctum, the processional images or the Utsav which are made of metallic are in human iconic form In Goa we do not come across many sculptures of folk deities falling in the period of study. The advent of dynasties greatly influenced the worship of deities in Goa classical art in sculpture came along with dynasties.

Irrespective of the religious sects followed in the temples all the icons which in worship were carA ed based on the accordance of the various texts. The iconometric prescriptions were strictly adhered to. The main icon was ritualistically installed and animated, for purposes of invoking and securing divine presence in it. However this was seen only in case of Purdnic deities and such installation rituals were rarely present in the case of folk deities. In case the installed was mutilated, due to deterioration caused because of daily worship a new icon was installed in its place. The deterioration was caused due to various reasons like faults or cracks in the stone of the sculpture or even due to the reactiosn caused by continuous bathing with water or sour liquids like curds, honey or over a long period of time.

21 Notes and references

' Personal communication with an officiating priest from Temple of Shri Kamatchiamman, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu on 6* November 2010. ^ Ibid. ^ Personal visit to Shri Shantadurga temple in Kavle in Ponda on 10 January 2011. * Ibid, 26* November 2006. ' Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary ^ Ibid. ' Ibid * http: //www. shabdkosh. com/trans late ^ Opcit. '^ Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary " Margaret Stutley, The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography, London, 1985, page viii. ^^ Jitendranath Banerjea, The Development of Hindu Iconography, 1956, New Delhi, page 1. '^Op.cit, page vii. ''^ Betty Heiman, Concept ofDeva in Hindu Thought, Joumal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Volume 17, 1949, page 22 '' A.L.Bhasham, A Wonder that was India., London, 1954, page 21. '* Susan Huntington, Art of Ancient India. New York 1985, page 17 '^ Opcit. '* Ibid, page 23 '^ Jitendranath Banerjea, The Development of Hindu Iconography. New Delhi, 1956,page 7 A. A. Macdonell, Ihe Development of Early Hindu Iconography. The Joumal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1917, page 602. 21 Ibid, ^^ Margaret Stutley, The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography. London, 1985, page vii ^ M.R. Majumdar, Earliest Devi Mahatmya Miniatures with special Reference to Shakti Worship in Gujarat, Joumal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, June-Dec 1938, page 118 TA. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography Volume l.part 1, Madras, 1914, page 4 ^' Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Delhi, 1996, page 7. ^* Jitendranath Banerjea, The Development of Hindu Iconography, New Delhi, 1956,page 2 ^^ Personal visit to KamlakarNaik's house in Mazali near Karwar for Satti on 17* August 2012. D.D.Kosambi, Myth and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture. Bombay, 1962, page 2 and 35 29 David Shulman, The Murderous Bride: Tamil Versions of the Myth of Devi and the buffalo demon. History of Religions, 1976, page 133

22 ^^ Rajani Mishra, Brahma Worship, Delhi, 1989, page 1 ^' Stella Kramrsich, The Representation of Nature in Buddhist Sculpture, Rupam, Oct 1921. page 5 " Parul Mukherjee, Chitrasutra, Delhi, 2001, page 213. '^ Ibid, page xxiii. '*'* Prasanna Kumar , Architecture ofManasara, Series 4, Delhi, 1956, page 10 ^^ Balram Srivastav, Rupmandan, Delhi, 1996, page 5. ^^ KL. Joshi, Agnimahapuranam. Delhi, 2005, page 103 ^^ Fredrick W. Bunce, , New Delhi, 2001, page 25. ^* A. A. Macdonell, The Development of Early Hindu Iconography, The Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1917, page 602. ^^ A.A. Macdonell, The Development of Early Hindu Iconography, The Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1916, page 127. *" Prasanna Kumar Acharya, Architecture ofManasara, Series 4, Delhi, 1956, pages 483-515 •*' Betty Heiman, Concept ofDeva in Hindu Thought, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Volume 17, 1949, page 47 *^ Margaret Stutley, The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography, London, 1985, page vii ''^ Raghavan V, Raghuvamsa ofKalidasa, Publishing House, Madras, 1973, page 245 '*'* Op.cit, page 37 "'Bose Phanidranath,/'r/«c/p/e5 of Indian Silpasatra, Lahore, 1926, page 50 ''^ Susan Huntington, Art of Ancient India, New York 1985, page 57 ''^ Jitendranath Banerjea, On Indian Images, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Volume 7, June-Dec, 1939, page 88 Sharada Srinivasan, The Art And Science Of Chela Bronzes, a lecture-cum dance demonstration by on Feb 6, 2007 At Royal Asiatic Society, 14 Stephenson Way London NWl 2HD, UK ''^ Parul Mukherjee, Chitrasutra, Delhi, 2001, page xxii 50 Ibid, page 78 '^ Jitendranath Banerjea, The Development of Hindu Iconography, New Delhi, 1956, page 2

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