Chapter I; INTRODUCTION TO ICONOGRAPHY I. Problem statement and the purpose of the study a) Goa's cultural scenario is undergoing a tremendous change in the modem age. Goa since the ages has been a rich repository of rare antiquities and artifacts. Though archaeological evidences of megalithic culture have been unearthed in few villages its historic period can extend up to 4"" century CE. Goa constantly exchanged hands with many dynasties which brought in their own cults, worships and traditions which were rooted in this soil in the form of sculptures, icons and other archaeological remains. Its political boundaries also underwent constant changes and shifted with the reign of every king or dynasty depending on his or its ability to rvle. Such icons always provide clues to reconstruct the religio-cultural past of Goa as they are the most vital evidences of archaeology. b) History of Goa has been studied by using different methodologies and has been mapped out using different yardsticks. The present research will focus more on icons and sculptures to reconstruct Goa's past thus giving it a new outlook. Icons have historical outlook and importance. Hence it reflects the contemporary socio-culture and religion of a region. Icons are product of human creation and are indicators of development of art. c) With modernity creeping in every aspect of life; our age old traditions, lifestyles are undergoing a drastic change. In the garb of renovation old temple edifices, stone sculptures are being replaced with new ones thus, destroying valuable archaeological sources of the past. Ancient stone inscriptions go uncared for due to lack of awareness of their importance. d) The iconoclastic laws of the Portuguese many deities flee from the region to neighboring areas and many sculptures of the deities were destroyed as a result of which there has been a change in the religious setting of Goa' ancient past from the 16 century i.e. from the arrival of the Portuguese. e) A general notion that this region being highly influenced by the 16"* century Portuguese culture will be critically analyzed and reviewed. Hence this study will be an attempt made by the researcher to document and record the various archaeological sources in the form of icons before they are lost forever. This study will also try and 1 investigate the reasons of evolution of various cults, induced worships and role played by an icon of worship in a society. II. Territory extent or geographical setting of the area under study:- Goa today; is a state of India has a territory admeasuring 3702 sq. km. It is bounded by the state of Maharashtra on the north and on the south and south east by the state of Kamataka. The Western Ghats on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west Goa's political boundaries kept changing with its history, it lies between 14" 44' 30" and 14" 53'30" north latitude and 73''45' and 74''26' east longitude. Most of the landscape is covered by paddy fields. It is basically divided into three parts geographically.- a) Coast line on the western side. b) Plateau:- covered with laterite c) Western ghats The Khajan lands are cultivable land stretches which are formed by bunding the rivers and streams in a traditional manner. There exists a well designed ancient sluice gate system called the Manas which prevents the saline water from entering the fields. With navigable saline rivers like Mhadayi, Mandovi and Zuari Goa's landscape is enriched by green virgin flora and fauna Modem Goa is divided into two districts viz. North Goa and the South Goa It comprises of twelve districts viz Pemem, Bardez, Tiswadi, Mormugoa, Salcette, Ponda, Dharbandoda, Bicholim, Sattari, Quepem, Sanguem and Canacona The talukas of Pemem, Bardez, Tiswadi, Mormugoa, Salcette and Canacona enjoy a coastline running from its one side which does not exist for talukas of Ponda, Dharbandoda, Bicholim, Sattari, Quepem, and Sanguem. III. Goa; as one cultural unit for study The present Goa is a result of Portuguese acquired territories. The acquisitions of territories to the 'Portuguese Goa' went on late as IS"* century. However the scenario of the political boundaries of ancient Goa kept changing. Historically speaking Goa came under the Bhoj dynasty from the 4* century epigraphical records mention the name oiDevraj to be ruling over Chandraur which is identified with today's Chandor in Salcette taluka Names of around three more are found to kings precede him. Fragmentary epigraphical record mentioning a King Chandravarman ruling from Shivapur of the Konkan Maury family was found in Bicholim. The Chalukys of Badami also held Goa under their sway. They ruled from Revtidvip which is identified with Redi near Sawantwadi. Records of kings like Pulakeshi II and Kirtivarman I mentioning the details of their rule over this region are available. The South Konkan Shilahars also held this region under their sway for some time and last chief Mdmmuri having being killed by the founder of the Goa Kadamb dynasty is available through folklore in Chandor. The Goa Kadamb branch was founded by King Shasthdev I whose inscriptional records date to 960 CE. Their rule extended from Banvasi in Uttar Kannad district of Kamataka uptill Khanapur near Belgaum. The last king of this lineage ended his rule by 1300 CE. Goa remained in the hands of local chieftains like Bhimbhupdl, Ndgvarm, Vimn Mantri are found in the epigraphs of post Kadamb period until it was taken over by King Harihar II under his able minister Madhav Mantri. It remained with the Vijaynagar kings like Devrdi I and Devrdi II till it was attacked by the Bahdmani sultans. Further it exchanged hands with the Adilshdh of Bijapur and in 1510 CE some part of Goa was conquered by the Portuguese. The region is also inhabited by the tribes locally called as the Kulmi. They are found in almost all the talukas of Goa but are known under different names due factors like interference of the Portuguese in their original religion. In talukas of Canacona, Sanguem they are called as Kulmi whereas in Quepem, Salcette, Mormugoa one finds this community converted to Christainity. Here they are addressed as Kunbi or even Gdwde. While in Tiswadi they are called as Nav-Hindu Gawde or the Neo Hindu Gdwde as they were brought back to the Hindu fold by various Hindu seers after their conversion to Christainity. In Ponda too they are known as Gdwde. IV. Selection of the period chosen for the study. The period chosen provides enough and more evidences and archaeological sources which show that various dynasties ruled over this region of Goa These dynasties were well known for their sculptural. Obviously the influence of their religio-cultural trends must have had influenced the study region. The following factors are to be considered important for choosing the period of study:- a) Goa's religio-cultural condition appears to have been quite different prior to 4*^ century CE as archaeological sources of the megalithic period found in Goa point out to a different kind of society with following a complete different religious ethos. b) Each dynasty patronized various deities. These deities and their place in the society can be observed in this period. Different inscriptions and charters issued by the kings speak about the various worships introduced by these dynasties. c) Due to this one can study a pattern of worships and the transformation of folk deities into new enttttes can be observed in this period. d) The Portuguese Inquisition in the 16* century threw away forcibly; many deities out of the Portuguese acquired territories. Moreover in case of some deities which faced the wrath of the Inquisition were forced to vanish from Goa as a resuh of which their worship ceases to exist today. V. Sculptures as a source of micro level studies for tracing the religio-cultural pattern. a) Micro level studies of the religo-cultural past of Goa with the sculptures as the primary source has almost been neglected. Such archaeological sources allow us to critically examine the origin, growth and the development of a Goan society. Thus facilitating the minute recording of the changing cultural trends which help us to construct a social pattem of the ancient society. b) Sculptures of archaeological importance are found in almost all the talukas of Goa. But their concentration is more in the New Conquests (territories which came under the Portuguese after the abolishment of Inquisition) as the policy of religious persecution of the Portuguese had died out. c) Sculptures portray the society of the yester years. They are a mirror to the various aspects of the society. One can not only trace the cults and the various worships and cults prevalent during that time by the help of sculptures but also draw an outline of the various features of the social customs, traditions and trends in dresses, ornaments etc. d) Sculptures have proved to be an important source of dating an antiquity of a region in archaeology. They are very good indicators of history in the absence of written evidences like epigraphs or inscriptions. e) An attempt to sketch an outline of Goa's religio-cultural past with the help of sculptures through this study vsall map out the changes and modifications in various areas like religion, society, worships, cults etc. VI. Methodologs- 1) Archaeological sources: a) The primary source for this study are the sculptures which have been found in almost every village of Goa. Some are under worship and are housed in temples while some are scattered in forest, wild life sanctuaries etc. Epigraphs, stone inscriptions available were surveyed and they were retrace their location today was done.