Animal Genetic Resources, 2011, 48, 47–61. © Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2011 doi:10.1017/S2078633610001256

Farming and biodiversity of pigs in

K. Nidup1,2, D. Tshering3, S. Wangdi4, C. Gyeltshen5, T. Phuntsho5 and C. Moran1 1Centre for Advanced Technologies in Animal Genetics and Reproduction (REPROGEN), Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Australia; 2College of Natural Resources, Royal University of Bhutan, Lobesa, Bhutan; 3Department of , National Pig Breeding Centre, Ministry of Agriculture, , Bhutan; 4Department of Livestock, Regional Pig and Poultry Breeding Centre, Ministry of Agriculture, Lingmithang, Bhutan; 5Department of Livestock, Regional Pig and Poultry Breeding Centre, Ministry of Agriculture, , Bhutan

Summary Pigs have socio-economic and cultural importance to the livelihood of many Bhutanese rural communities. While there is evidence of increased religious disapproval of pig raising, the consumption of pork, which is mainly met from imports, is increasing every year. Pig development activities are mainly focused on introduction of exotic germplasm. There is an evidence of a slow but steady increase in the population of improved pigs in the country. On the other hand, indigenous pigs still comprise 68 percent of the total pig population but their numbers are rapidly declining. If this trend continues, indigenous pigs will become extinct within the next 10 years. Once lost, this important genetic resource is largely irreplaceable. Therefore, Government of Bhutan must make an effort to protect, promote and utilize indigenous pig resources in a sustainable manner. In addition to the current ex situ conservation programme based on cryopre- servation of semen, which needs strengthening, in situ conservation and a nucleus farm is required to combat the enormous decline of the population of indigenous pigs and to ensure a sustainable source of swine genetic resources in the country.

Keywords: Bhutan, biodiversity, conservation, exotic breeds, farming, indigenous pigs

Résumé Les porcs ont une importance socio-économique et culturelle pour les moyens d’existence de nombreuses communautés rurales du Bhoutan. Bien qu’il existe des preuves de la désapprobation croissante de la religion pour ce qui est de l’élevage des porcs, la con- sommation de leur viande, principalement satisfaite par l’importation, augmente chaque année. Les activités de mise en valeur des porcs sont surtout concentrées sur l’introduction de matériel génétique exotique. Certaines indications montrent un accroissement lent mais régulier de la population de porcs améliorés dans le pays. D’autre part, les porcs indigènes représentent encore 68 pour cent du total de la population porcine, mais ils sont en baisse rapide. Si cette tendance se poursuit, les porcs indigènes seront disparus d’ici dix ans. Une fois perdue, cette ressource génétique importante est en grande partie irremplaçable. Par conséquent, le Gouvernement du Bhoutan doit faire des efforts pour protéger, promouvoir et utiliser de façon durable les ressources des porcs indigènes. Pour lutter contre la baisse considérable de la population de porcs indigènes et pour assurer dans le pays une source durable de ressources génétiques porcines, il est nécessaire d’organiser, en plus du renforcement du programme en cours de conservation ex situ basé sur la cryoconservation du sperme, la conservation in situ et une exploitation de base.

Mots-clés: biodiversité, Bhoutan, conservation, élevage, porcs indigènes, races exotiques

Resumen Los cerdos tienen importancia socio-económica y cultural para el sustento de muchas comunidades rurales de Bután. Si bien existen evidencias de que ha aumentado la desaprobación religiosa de la cría de cerdos, el consumo de su carne, que es principalmente con- ocido por las importaciones, crece cada año. El desarrollo de actividades relacionadas con el cerdo se centra principalmente en la introducción de germoplasma exótico. Se ha constatado un aumento lento pero constante de la población de cerdos mejorados en el país. Por otra parte, los cerdos autóctonos siguen constituyendo el 68 percent de la población porcina total, pero su número está disminuyendo rápidamente. Si esta tendencia continúa, los cerdos pertenecientes a poblaciones locales se extinguirán en los próximos diez años. Una vez perdido, este importante recurso genético es en gran parte insustituible. Por lo tanto, el Gobierno de Bután debe hacer un esfuerzo para proteger, promover y utilizar los recursos porcinos autóctonos de manera sostenible. Además del actual programa de conservación ex situ, basado en la crioconservación de semen que es preciso reforzar la conservación in situ y el establecimiento de un núcleo de producción, necesario para combatir la enorme disminución de la población de cerdos autóctonos y para asegurar una fuente sostenible de recursos genéticos en la especie porcina en el país.

Palabras clave: biodiversidad, Bután, cerdos autóctonos, conservación, crianza, razas exóticas

Submitted 24 March 2010; accepted 14 December 2010

Correspondence to: K. Nidup, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Australia. email: [email protected]; [email protected]

47 48 K. Nidup et al.

Introduction pigs are reared by certain ethnic groups only (Rai, Limbu, Magar, Tamang, Sherpa, Tharu and Bhutan is a small kingdom situated in the Eastern part of Biswakarma). Unlike the Buddhist, there is little religious the Himalayan range between latitudes 26°45′ N and 28° disapproval of raising and slaughtering of pigs among 10′ N, and longitudes 88°45′ E and 92°10′ E. It is a land- Hindus. Irrespective of ethnicities, pig raising has been locked country bordered by (autonomous region of economically beneficial, particularly to the rural poor ) in the north, the Indian states of Bengal and and socially disadvantaged people (Timsina and Sherpa, in the south, Arunachal Pradesh in the east and 2005). Darjeeling and in the west. Bhutanese rear pigs for many purposes, including social, Bhutan has an area of 38 394 km2 (14 824 sq mi) with a cultural and economic reasons. Traditionally, pig owner- population of 634 982 (RGoB, 2009). It has 20 , ship and slaughtering conveyed status, wealth and informal which are broadly divided into four developmental regions power. In the early Bhutanese cashless society, pigs were a namely (Figure 1a): eastern region, east-central region, very important medium by which social significance was western region and west-central region. measured. Meals served with pork promoted group cohe- In addition to a rich flora and fauna that make Bhutan one sion and identity, and facilitated civic and private celebra- of the ten global biodiversity hotspots, the country is also tions. Even today, pork is one of the vital components of endowed with diverse domestic animal species including Bhutanese cuisines, be it during marriages, festivals or yaks, , horses, , , buffaloes, poultry and New Year celebrations. Penjor (2008) provides an account pigs. Domestic animals are found in almost all the six of the important roles of pigs during marriages in the lower agro-ecological zones ranging from the subtropical to the Kheng of the Zhemgang . In remote villages, people alpine region (Figure 1b). still carry pigs from one place to another either as a gift or in exchange for other commodities. Bhutanese pigs have been an important contributor to fi human welfare in the past, and may possess characteristics Pigs also serve as sacri cial animals, as votive offerings to that will be needed again to meet new or re-emerging local deities (Yul-Lha or Naep). Bonism and Shamanism needs. The loss of these genetic resources would be cata- (native religion of Tibet) rituals, which still prevail in fi strophic to the livelihood of many poor rural communities. many parts of Bhutan, require the sacri ce of pigs to the Therefore, it is urgent to draw up an inventory and under- local deities for bountiful crops, to reduce the risk of natu- stand the nation’s pool of swine resources for promotion ral calamities, to improve the health of an ailing person, and sustainable utilization as envisaged in Bhutan 2020 and for peace, happiness and prosperity of the community. vision (PCS, 1999). Such practices in the Bongo village of the and in the Trashi Tokha village of Wangdue district have been documented by Wangchuk (2005) and Dorji Objectives (2004), respectively. Animal sacrifice provides a good source of protein for those involved in the rituals, which To document the socio-economic and cultural importance in some cases involve distribution of meat immediately of pigs to the Bhutanese people, review current state of after the sacrifice. rural pig farming and its development initiatives, and assess the biodiversity and population trends of both Consumption of pork is well imbedded in Bhutanese gas- improved and indigenous pigs. This paper will provide tronomic tradition and continues to rise (DoL, 2007), baseline information for future studies. despite increasing prices per kg of pork. The current cost of a kg of pork sold with bones intact is about Nu. 100 (~US$2.00). The consumption of pork is increasing Importance of pigs in Bhutan every year (Figure 2) while domestic production remains Bhutan has both indigenous and imported exotic breeds of static. pigs. The former are also called native or local to dis- Over the last five years, pork importation has increased tinguish them from exotic breeds. The exotic breeds are significantly, more than threefold, in contrast to a negli- frequently crossed with indigenous animals to generate gible rise in domestic production. This averages Nu. composite breeds, commonly called “improved breeds” 73.48 million (US$1.63 m) per year (DoL, 2007) contri- that are considered an upgraded form of the indigenous buting significantly to the trade deficit of the national breed with a good blend of “superior quality” exotic germ- economy. plasm. To be consistent with the terminology used within the country, both exotic and composite breeds are hereafter referred to as “improved breeds”. Origin of indigenous pigs Pigs are found throughout Bhutan, despite the strong It is not recorded when domestic pigs were introduced to Buddhist sentiment against rearing and slaughtering of Bhutan or who introduced them nor is there archaeological pigs. The Southern Bhutanese, who are mainly Hindus, evidence. Linguistic evidence shows that there are not consist of multiple ethnicities with a caste system and many words for pig in Bhutan despite several dialects. Farming and biodiversity of pigs in Bhutan 49

Figure 1. (a) Twenty according to regions (Courtesy: Dorji, 2010a); (b) agro-ecological zones in Bhutan (MoA/ISNAR, 1992).

This suggests that pigs could have been introduced from boar (Sus scrofa) could be considered to share a common one particular region and spread slowly towards other genetic pool due to mating between village sows and wild parts of the country relatively recently. Timsina and boars. Feral pigs that are domestic pigs, which have Sherpa (2005) suggest that indigenous domestic and wild escaped captivity, have not been reported in Bhutan. 50 K. Nidup et al.

Figure 2. Trend in pork consumption. Source: Unpublished data from Department of Livestock (DoL, 2007).

A recent study of mitochondrial DNA sequences from 30 Exotic pigs and development programmes domestic and 3 wild pigs suggest three origins for Bhutanese pigs. (i) East Asia probably Tibet or China, Realizing the importance of pig farming in the livelihood (ii) Southeast Asia and (iii) East Indian wild boars of rural poor, the Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB) (Tanaka et al., 2008). The East Asian type was found to initiated development programmes to improve pig pro- be distributed widely in Bhutan, whereas the Southeast duction. Several exotic breeds of European origin have Asian types were found only in the district. The been introduced to the country since the early 1960s. native pigs in the southwest part of Bhutan were found The main objective was to generate lines of improved pig- to have experienced gene flow from East Indian wild lets or F1 (exotics vs local). The purebred progeny or F1 boars. Because the sample size used in the study were hoped to have better production than pureline indi- (Tanaka et al., 2008) was small, further investigation is genous stock. The overall goal of the programme was to required to provide more comprehensive information on improve nutritional status of the rural population, increase the origin of the indigenous pigs of Bhutan. income and alleviate poverty through increased meat and protein production. fi Rural pig farming in Bhutan The rst exotic breed, Wessex Saddleback, was introduced to Bhutan during the First Five-year Plan (1961–1965) and Pig farming in Bhutan is typically divided into two sys- reared in Samtse and Wangchutaba livestock breeding tems: the backyard pig farming seen in the villages and farm. Subsequently, Large White (Yorkshire) was intro- modern intensive farming seen in state operated farms. duced towards the end of the First Five-year Plan. This The village farming is normally characterized by small was followed by introduction of Landrace, which was numbers of pigs reared by the subsistence farmers, either imported from . The focus on the white breeds in a small confined pigsty constructed usually with locally aimed to exploit their relatively large litter size, higher available materials (stones, mud, wood, bamboo thatch) or growth rate and earlier sexual maturity than the indigenous pigs are tethered near the house or in a paddock. While pigs or most coloured exotic breeds. farmers are required to enclose their pigs to comply with The RGoB formulated another phase of the piggery develop- national health regulation, some still allow free-range ment programme in 1981. Through a (United Nations scavenging for various reasons ranging from scarcity of Development Programme) UNDP/FAO (Food and feeds to the ease of management. More than 13percent Agricultural Organization)-funded project, 44 Duroc Jersey of Bhutanese farmers rear pigs as free-range scavenging pigs were imported from the Philippines in 1981. With pigs (Timsina and Sherpa, 2005). Feeds consist of mainly further assistance, Bhutan imported 30 head of Large brewery wastes, kitchen wastes (leftover foods, vegetable Black from Australia in 1985, followed by 24 more Large peels), bran (maize, millet and rice), wild weeds, nettle White and Duroc Jersey from Bangkok, Thailand. These fl leaves, pumpkins, yams and taro. Oil cakes, our and high productive breeds of pigs were reared in the government maize grain supplements are used to fatten pigs. central farms at the National Pig Breeding Centre (NPBC), at The indigenous pigs are hardy, resistant to many diseases Serbithang, and the Regional Pig and Poultry Breeding and can adapt to harsh rural environment under low inputs Centre (RPPBC) at Lingmithang (Mongar) and Gelephu. (Timsina and Sherpa, 2005). Under scavenging, they have Various crosses were produced and the piglets were sold to better mothering ability and increased survival of litters per the farmers at a government subsidized rate of Ngultrum farrowing than exotics (Timsina and Sherpa, 2005). 672.00 (~US$15.00) for a piglet weaned at 35–42 days. Farming and biodiversity of pigs in Bhutan 51

While there were reports of difficulty in management of environment would reduce fertility and prevent mating. exotic piglets at the village level, the major problem was Most white pigs with skin diseases had low production the colour of the Large White and the Landrance pigs. and some died in severe cases. Consequently, white pigs Many white pigs suffered severe sunburn, with inflam- are unpopular among farmers in Bhutan. In practice, mation followed by scabbing and necrosis. The white white pigs should be given good feed, shade, plenty of parts of the body became reddened, oedematous and irrita- water and access to wallow. Figure 3a shows poor body ble, and the animals appeared to be in pain. The presence conditioning and skin problems with government supplied of reddening blistering and peeling of skin on the dorsal white pig of Landrace origin. Hybrids (Figure 3b) thrive surface and flanks is an indication of exposure to sunlight better than exotics whereas pure indigenous are the best and poor sanitation. In adults, exposure to such extreme suited under harsh rural environment. Considering these problems, the RGoB changed its approach by supplying coloured animals of the Large Black, Saddleback and Duroc breeds to the farmers. In 2000, a review was conducted on the status of this exotic pig germplasm in the country. It was found there were no proper records maintained on this pureline exotic germ- plasm in the country. Subsequently, coloured pureline breeds, namely Large Black, Saddleback and Duroc, were imported from the United Kingdom in 2003 with the assistance of FAO. Today, these pureline breeds (Figure 4) are carefully bred in the nucleus farm at Gelephu.

Biodiversity of pigs in Bhutan

At least four types of indigenous pigs (Dempha, Dromfak, Sofak and Jitu) have been reported in FAO’s Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) (FAO, 2010). However, caution must be taken as there are no evi- dences or adequate rational to this form of categorization. During the nationwide blood sampling of indigenous pigs for genetic study (Nidup et al., 2009, 2010), it was observed that Bhutanese indigenous pigs were generally non-descript. Their physical characteristics are described briefly based on distribution across four developmental regions in the country.

Eastern region pigs Eastern Bhutan constitutes six districts namely Mongar, , Tashigang, Pemagatshel, Samdrup Jhongkhar and Tashiyangtse (Figure 1). Most of the pigs found in Eastern Bhutan (Figure 5) have long dense hair, whereas some have sparse hair, medium-sized body, bristles along the dorsal line, medium snout, medium-sized prick ears and curly to straight tail. Some of the indigenous pigs in Tashiyangtse are found to have white forehead and coat around their shoulders (Figure 5b).

East-central region pigs The east-central region constitutes four districts, namely Sarpang, Zhemgang, and Bumthang (Figure 1). Figure 3. Body conditioning of three different breeds of pigs reared in similar Almost no pigs are present in Bumthang and very few housing condition in Rinchengang village. Government supplied white pig of Landrace origin (a); hybrid of Saddleback origin (b); and pure indigenous with pigs are found in Trongsa. Pigs from Bardo (Figure 6a) agouti coat (c). in the have medium-sized body, sparse 52 K. Nidup et al.

to medium hair density, medium-sized prick ears, straight looking smuggled pigs will be termed “Machay madhuri” snout, mature females have a sagging belly and most have in Bhutan. Machay madhuri are also becoming increas- a long straight tail. ingly popular in other parts of the country particularly in west, west-central and east-central regions. Machay mad- Most pigs in the (Figures 6c and d) are not huri have similar phenotypic characteristics to Pakhribas indigenous but illegally imported across the Bhutan- and Kalo Dharane Sunggur of Nepal (Nidup et al., unpub- Assam (India) border. These smuggled pigs are called lished). Machay madhuri with shorter snouts look similar “Machay Sunggur” after one of the tribes of the Indian to Pakhribas and the longer snout to that of Kalo state of Assam. Similarly, pigs found in Darla and Sampheling in the Chukha district are called “Madhuri”, which is another phenotypically similar pigs smuggled through Bhutan (India) border. For simplicity, these similar

Figure 4. Saddleback (a) and Duroc (b) and Large Black (c) in Gelephu Figure 5. Eastern region pigs: indigenous pigs in Ramjhar, Tashiyangtse (a, nucleus farm (Courtesy: Dorji, 2010b). b); and indigenous grower in Uzorong, Tashigang (c). Farming and biodiversity of pigs in Bhutan 53

Figure 6. East-central region pigs: (a)indigenous pigs found in Bardo, Zhemgang. Machay madhuri pigs found in Trong, Zhemgang (b), Sarpang (c) and Dekiling, Sarpang (d).

Dharane Sunggur. The most common characteristics of dorsal line, medium to slightly large ears, most with Machay madhuri are wrinkled and diamond-shaped face, prick ears but some with slightly droopy ear, a somewhat large floppy ears and firm body. cylindrical snout and long straight tail. The has diverse pigs. For instance, pigs from Lhamoizingkha (Figures 8f, g and h) have sparse Western region pigs hair, prominent prick ears and pointed head, whereas The western region constitutes five districts namely pigs from Drujegang (Figure 8e) are slightly smaller Chukha, Thimphu, Haa, Paro and Samtse (Figure 1). The with dense hair over their entire bodies. Some live piglets most common characteristics of pigs (Figure 7) in this from Drujegang are usually sold at a weekly open market region are straight hair ranging from sparse to dense, in Tsirang. For this reason, there are similarities between short to medium with some cylindrical-shaped snout and Drujegang and Tsirang pigs. most with short to medium-sized prick ears. There is not much difference between the pigs found in Characteristics of indigenous pigs Chukha, Haa and Paro districts. Paro and Haa pigs had fi slender body length. Machay madhuri pigs were also The of cial nationwide survey on the characterization of found in Chukha and Samtse districts. indigenous pigs (Timsina and Sherpa, 2005) concluded that there was only one type of indigenous pigs in Bhutan. It was based on the phenotypic similarities of indi- West-central region pigs genous pigs across the country. The phenotypic data that were merged to obtain a national average shows indigen- fi The ve districts in the west-central region are Gasa, ous pigs attain sexual maturity at nine months of age. Punakha, Wangdue, Dagana and Tsirang (Figure 1). The litter size at birth and weaning is 6.0 and 5.0, respect- There are virtually no indigenous pigs in Gasa, only ively, with 2.0 farrowing index. In general, males have a few head of exotic pigs supplied from the central longer snouts and ears than their female counterparts farm. Some differences between indigenous pigs in (Table 1). Rinchengang and Phagyul-Kazi in the Wangdue district were seen. Rinchengang pigs (Figures 8a and b) have The live weight of indigenous pigs was estimated based on bristles along the dorsal line, broad rectangular-shaped body length and heart girth measurements. The males are body with females having a slightly sagging belly, bigger and heavier than females. The live weight of indi- small-to-medium-sized prick ears, medium snout and genous pigs in various age groups is given in Table 2. dense hair. On the other hand, Phangyul-Kazi pigs However, caution should be taken with the above findings (Figures 8c and d) have longer bodies bristles along the because of the method used for compilation and analysis of 54 K. Nidup et al.

Figure 7. Pigs found in Western Bhutan. Pigs of Bongo (a, b, c, d) and Darla (e, f, g, h) both in the Chukha district; Dogar (i, j) and Naja (k) both in the ; and Katsho in the (j).

the data. In consistent geographical pattern of morphologi- On-station performance cal variation does not imply lack of variation. For instance, A breeding trial was conducted at NPBC (MoA, 1999) European sheep breeds are readily distinguishable pheno- using exotics boars and indigenous female lines typically but they do not possess that much genetic vari- (Table 3). The performance of indigenous sows (mated ation (Peter et al., 2007). On the other hand, sheep with exotic boars) was better than exotics in terms of aver- breeds in the Middle-East are all of the “generic type” phe- age litter size and piglets weaned per sow. The average notypically and not easy to tell apart, but they display daily weight gains of the piglets were more similar. much more genetic variation than European breeds (Peter However, piglet and maternal mortality was caused by a et al., 2007). Similarly, Bhutanese indigenous pigs may high incidence of dystocia since large exotic boars were retain high levels of genetic variation and potentially vari- mated with smaller indigenous sows. On the other hand, ation in productive ability regardless of the fact that there there was no piglet mortality seen with pureline indigenous is no obvious portioning into breeds. Therefore, a nation- (Table 3) whereas high percentage of piglet mortality (22 wide survey to record on-farm production and phenotypic percent, Table 3) was observed with pureline exotic characterization of indigenous pigs across the country breed. The trial suggests that the overall performance would be required once again. of indigenous pigs under good management (feeding, Farming and biodiversity of pigs in Bhutan 55

Figure 8. West-central pigs. Indigenous pigs found in Rinchengang (a, b) and Phayul-kazi in the Wangdue district; Drujegang (e) and Lhamoizingkha (f, g, h) in the Dagana district; crossbreds (i, j, k, l) found in various parts of west-central region. housing and sanitation) is reasonably comparable with the The western part of the country has the highest number exotic breeds. In spite of this, the RGoB did not make an of pigs followed by west-central and eastern regions attempt to improve indigenous pigs. Instead, it constantly (Table 4). Today, Chukha district has the highest overall pursued its policy of importation and introduction of exotic pig population whereas Gasa has recorded the least num- livestock into the country. ber of pigs (Figure 9). As expected, east-central region, particularly Bumthang and Trongsa districts, recorded the least number of pigs because of increasing Buddhist senti- Population of pigs in Bhutan ments against raising and slaughtering of pigs. Bumthang, which is the most religious centre, was the Overall population first district to prohibit pig farming. Trongsa, a historically The populations of exotic and composite breeds have been important district, which shares its border with Bumthang, merged as “improved breeds”. The overall pig population is influenced by the largest monk body in the country. recorded in 1986 was 87 987 and this reduced to 27 501 Similarly, pig farming is becoming increasingly unpopular in 2008. in the eastern region (Table 4) due to the influence of 56 K. Nidup et al.

Table 1. Body measurements of indigenous pigs according to age and sex groups.

<1 year female <1 year male 1–2 years female 1–2 years male

Measurements N Mean N Mean N Mean N Mean

Ear length (cm) 13 7.31 ± 0.75 12 7.63 ± 0.55 17 9.18 ± 0.49 10 9.55 ± 0.73 No. of teats 13 10.31 ± 0.21 17 9.53 ± 0.21 Tail length (cm) 13 14.23 ± 1.73 12 17.58 ± 1.20 17 20.29 ± 1.43 10 17.7 ± 1.92 Body height (cm) 13 60.69 ± 3.13 12 64.42 ± 3.64 17 74.35 ± 5.38 10 86.9 ± 6.53 Heart girth (cm) 13 52.46 ± 2.93 12 56.67 ± 3.27 17 72.06 ± 4.51 10 84.7 ± 7.93 Shoulder height (cm) 13 39.92 ± 3.88 12 37.5 ± 2.29 17 49.88 ± 1.84 10 51.4 ± 3.25 Face length (cm) 13 19.31 ± 0.91 12 20.17 ± 0.94 17 24.97 ± 1.05 10 25.1 ± 1.34 Measurements >2-year female > 2-year male Ear length (cm) 8 9.5 ± 0.46 3 12.33 ± 1.20 No. of teats 8 10 ± 0.0 Tail length (cm) 8 19.75 ± 1.06 3 26.33 ± 2.19 Body height (cm) 8 84.75 ± 2.58 3 107.33 ± 6.69 Heart girth (cm) 8 82.25 ± 2.09 3 95.67 ± 9.94 Shoulder height (cm) 8 51.63 ± 4.93 3 62.67 ± 5.21 Face length (cm) 8 26 ± 1.74 3 28.67 ± 2.19

Source: Generated from the original data (national average) obtained from Timsina and Sherpa (2005).

religious communities. However, there is no sign of Records from the three government breeding farms indi- reduction of pork consumption in these regions. cate distribution of approximately 20 000 improved piglets Looking at the national trend, the pig population in the in the last six years alone (Table 5). country declined sharply from 1986 to 1995 (Figure 10) Today, Chukha has the highest number of improved pigs with slight increase between 1993 and 1996. After 1996, followed by Mongar, Thimpu, Wangdue and Sarpang the population declined steadily but seems to have pla- (Figure 13). The high record of pig population in teaued since 2006. Mongar, Sarpang and Thimphu is due to the presence of The possible reasons for this decrease in population are government farms where exotic or improved breeds are increased influence of religion on animal slaughter and reared. growing social stigma against pig farming. Other reasons Despite of the intensity of introduction of exotic breeds include shortage of feeds and increased purchasing since 1964, the current number of improved pigs in power of the people coupled with availability of freshly Bhutan is relatively low but increasing steadily. There imported pork. While overall pig population is decreasing, are several factors to this slow pace of growth. First, the population of improved breeds is slowly increasing because of the prolific growth rate of exotic pigs, the gov- (Figure 11). ernment supplied piglets were often fattened and slaugh- tered instead of being used for crossbreeding. Exotic breeds can attain market weight of 100 kg in less than a Increasing improved pig population year. This fetches up to Nu. 10 000 (=~US$220.00), In spite of a declining overall pig population in the which is more than average annual rural income (Nu. country, improved breeds of pigs are slowly increasing 7 488 = ~US$166.40) of the Bhutanese farmers. Second, in numbers (Figures 11 and 12). Today, improved breeds increasing incidence of “dystocia” or farrowing difficulty constitute about 38percent of the total pig population has been observed when crossbreeding exotic boars with with 5 383 males and 5 159 females when compared indigenous sows and gilts leading to high piglet and with a total of 2 055 heads in 1986. There was gradual maternal mortality. Finally, exotic breeds require good increase in the population from 1986 to 1992 which picked housing, sanitation and relatively good feed, and are up between 1992 and 2008 (Figure 12). more vulnerable to diseases when compared with local pigs. The mortality rate of exotic breeds is higher than Table 2. Live weight of indigenous pigs according to age and sex. indigenous pigs. In spite of these bottlenecks and slow population growth, the increase in numbers of improved Age group (years) Sex N Mean pigs is seen as a threat to the survival of indigenous pigs. <1 Female 13 12.64 ± 2.05 <1 Male 13 14.40 ± 2.37 1–2 Female 17 30.38 ± 4.99 1–2 Male 10 51.10 ± 11.20 Alarming loss of indigenous pig population >2 Female 8 40.07 ± 2.72 The status of indigenous pigs is alarming. More than >2 Male 3 71.80 ± 17.00 85 932 indigenous pigs were recorded in 1985 and this Calculated based on body length and heart girth measurement (Table 1). reduced to 16 959 in 2008 comprising 9 863 males and Farming and biodiversity of pigs in Bhutan 57

Table 3. Performance evaluation of indigenous sows (mated with various exotic boars), pureline indigenous and exotic breeds at NPBC, Serbithang (NPBC, unpublished data)

Parameters DU ♂ X LB ♂ X LW ♂ X SB ♂ X Native ♂ X Exotic ♂ X native ♀ native ♀ native ♀ native ♀ native ♀ exotic ♀

No. of sow farrowed 23.00 4.00 8.00 11.00 1.00 5 Average litter size at birth 6.87 7.75 8.25 9.00 8.00 7.6 Average birth weight (kg) 0.93 1.09 1.03 0.98 0.70 1.06 Average piglets weaned 6.35 6.75 7.38 8.18 8.00 6.07 Piglet mortality (%) 7.57 12.90 10.55 9.11 0.00 20.13 Average weaning age (days) 54.94 45.75 40.50 46.90 45.00 42 Average weaning weight (kg) 6.53 7.03 6.52 6.48 5.00 7.06 Average daily weight gain (kg) 0.10 0.13 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.14

Note: DU = Duroc; LB = Large Black; LW = Large White; SB = Saddleback.

Table 4. 2008 Pig populations according to the regions.

Regions Indigenous Improved Total

Male Female Male Female

Eastern 1 873 1 746 1 414 1 506 6 539 East-central 919 648 633 900 3 100 Western 4 519 2 540 2 375 1 689 11 123 West-central 2 552 2 162 961 1 064 6 739 Overall Pig Population 27 501

Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2009).

7 096 females (Figures 14 and 16); a fivefold loss in the There were similar observations from the farmers in last two decades alone (Figure 14). the field. In a mini survey (n = 55) conducted by Nidup (unpublished) in Haa, Wangdue, Samtse and Tashiyangtse districts, more than 56 percent of the farmers felt that the population of indigenous pigs is decreasing.

Today, of 20 districts in Bhutan, only 7 have equivalent to or more than 1 000 indigenous pigs. Chukha district has the highest number of indigenous pigs followed by Samtse, Dagana, Tsirang, Wangdue and Mongar. All other districts have less than 1 000 animals (Figure 15). Indigenous pigs in the are completely extinct.

There are more males than female (Figure 16) in almost all the districts in Bhutan because male pigs (Pho pha) are usually used as sacrificial animals. In addition, most males are castrated, fattened and slaughtered for various purposes. Since there is limited information on the number of breeding males, it is difficult to determine the risk status of indigenous pigs in Bhutan. The rapid decline of indigenous pigs coupled with steady increase in the number of exotic pigs (Figures 11, 12 and 14) is a clear evidence of marginalization of indigen- ous population by the exotics. Such widespread practice that threatens the indigenous populations, particularly the pigs, is also evident in Sri Lanka and Nepal (Nidup and Moran, 2010, Subalini et al., 2010). Considering the cur- rent population trend (Figure 14), indigenous pigs in Figure 9. Current population of pigs across all 20 districts. Bhutan are likely to become extinct within the next dec- Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2009). ade, unless a serious effort is made in conservation, 58 K. Nidup et al.

Figure 10. Pig population trend in Bhutan. Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2007, 2008a, 2008b, 2009).

trade deficit for the country. Government initiatives to improve pig farming are mainly focused on introduction of exotic breeds to crossbreed with indigenous pigs. Despite several bottlenecks and slow pace of population growth rate of exotic pigs, their presence in the country is now a threat to the survival of indigenous pigs. This is a clear evidence of growing marginalization of the indigen- ous pigs mainly driven by the introduction of exotic breeds. In addition to this, religious disapproval of pig breeding and slaughter, increasing purchasing power of the people and readily available imported pork are factors Figure 11. Population trend of indigenous and improved pig breeds. accelerating the reduction in the population of indigenous Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2007, 2008a). pigs in the country. Bhutan has lost more than 60 486 heads of pigs since 1986. promotion and sustainable utilization of these important Bhutan can draw a lesson from a bird flu outbreak in the genetic resources. bordering Indian states, during which import of poultry and related products from India and other countries were banned (Nidup and Tshering, 2007). The cost of Conclusion and recommendation poultry-related products increased dramatically due to lim- ited production within the country. As a result, many Pigs have socio-economic and cultural importance to many people including middle-income earning could not afford Bhutanese people, particularly the rural poor communities. to buy eggs (Nidup, 2008), let alone meat which Domestic pork production has remained constant, whereas were virtually unobtainable. Similarly, a ban on live pigs imports have increased several folds contributing to a large and pork imports because of swine flu or other related

Figure 12. Increasing trend of improved breeds of pigs in Bhutan. Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2007, 2008a). Farming and biodiversity of pigs in Bhutan 59

Table 5. Record of piglets supply from government breeding farms (unpublished data)

Year 1NPPBC Thimphu 2RPPB Lingmithang 2RPPBC Gelephu

2003–2004 1 465 Not available 662 2004–2005 1 446 30 670 2005–2006 1 032 112 696 2006–2007 1 089 6 350 848 2007–2008 984 623 796 2008–2009 1 038 1 070 1 063 Total 7 054 8 185 4 735 Overall total piglets supplied 19 974

1National Pig Breeding Centre. 2Regional Pig and Poultry Breeding Centre.

Figure 13. Distribution of improved pigs across 20 districts in the country. Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2009). outbreak of diseases in the neighbouring countries, and promoted and utilized in a sustainable manner. They coupled with already depleted indigenous pig genetic have been genotyped using FAO and International resources, would endanger the food security of the Society for Animal Genetics recommended microsatellite country. Therefore, better understanding of the diversity markers (Nidup et al., 2009, 2010) and their mitochondrial of indigenous pig resources, their value and the environ- DNA sequences are currently being analysed. These will ment in which they are reared is crucial so that government provide baseline for both in situ and ex situ conservation. and other stakeholders will be able to fully appreciate this The in situ conservation includes protected areas or conser- biodiversity and make strategic decision for its conserva- vation farms, and payment of other support (e.g. subsidy) tion and sustainable use. for those who keep rare breeds within their production environment. Cryopreservation or ex situ conservation of In an effort to implement the Global Plan of Action (FAO, genetic material can provide a valuable complement to 2007a, 2007b), indigenous pigs should be protected, in situ approaches.

Efforts should be made to coordinate conservation activi- ties, such as the participation of local communities, gov- ernment institutions and NGOs. For instance, in situ conservation through community-based approach can be one of the viable options. Such strategy has been proven successful in maintaining indigenous Pelong pigs and Creole breed in rural Mexico (Pattison, 2002; Pattison et al., 2007). The National Biodiversity Centre (NBC) of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) has national mandate on the conservation of biological resources in the country. They should work together with the Department of Livestock (DoL), MoA, to establish conservation and Figure 14. Population trend of indigenous pigs of Bhutan. nucleus farm so as to combat the dramatic decline of popu- Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2009). lation of indigenous pigs in the country. The current ex situ 60 K. Nidup et al.

Figure 15. Distribution of indigenous pigs in 20 districts of Bhutan. Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2009).

Figure 16. Proportion of male and female indigenous pigs across 20 districts of Bhutan. Source: Unpublished data from DoL (2009).

conservation or cryopreservation facility at NBC needs to Finally, the role of local and indigenous communities and be strengthened with appropriate facilities including farmers as custodians of much of the country’s agricultural human resources. In addition, the Department of biodiversity should be cherished and strengthened further. Livestock should start the recording number of breeding It must be noted that preservation of AnGR is linked with males and females in the Annual Livestock Census record the promotion of historical, economical, social and cultural so that risk status of indigenous pigs could be easily importance, and they are important components of determined. Bhutan’s development philosophy of Gross National Happiness. On the other hand, the livestock research institution should make an attempt to develop a synthetic breed with better litter size, growth rate, resistance to diseases and ability to cope with the harsh rural environment. While the Acknowledgements Pakhribas breed in Nepal (Nidup et al., unpublished) is a good example, synthetic breeds containing a reasonable We thank the Department of Livestock, Ministry of level of indigenous genes could provide viable source of Agriculture, Royal Government of Bhutan, for providing parent stocks for meeting the consumption requirements valuable information on the importation of exotic pig of Bhutan, although this would do little to conserve breeds into the country. We also thank livestock staff biodiversity. members of Haa, Tashiyangtse and Samtse districts, and Farming and biodiversity of pigs in Bhutan 61

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