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Cognitive Reorganization and Protective Mechanisms in Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period

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Cognitive Reorganization and Protective Mechanisms in Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period COGNITION IN PREGNANCY AND THE POSTPARTUM PERIOD COGNITIVE REORGANIZATION AND PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS IN PREGNANCY AND THE POSTPARTUM PERIOD By MARLA V. ANDERSON, B.A. A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy McMaster University © Copyright by Marla V. Anderson, September 2011 i McMaster University DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (2011) Hamilton, Ontario (Psychology, Neuroscience, & Behaviour) TITLE: Cognitive reorganization and protective mechanisms in pregnancy and the postpartum period AUTHOR: Marla V. Anderson, B.A. (Simon Fraser University) SUPERVISOR: Professor M.D.Rutherford NUMBER OF PAGES: xi, 223 ii Abstract In 2001 Brett and Baxendale reviewed cognitive change in pregnancy and concluded that although “…much has been written in an impressionistic way….at the beginning of the twenty first century considerable gaps in our knowledge remain” (pp. 339). Ten years later a clear picture describing cognitive change in women has still failed to emerge. Recent work investigating pregnancy-induced cognition in women continues to focus on memory deficits, in stark contrast to the cognitive advantage and neural plasticity described in the nonhuman (rat) literature. The following thesis reviews the current literature investigating pregnancy-induced cognitive change, and then reports three empirical studies investigating cognition in pregnant and postpartum women. I hypothesized that, given the high stakes associated with pregnancy and the postpartum period, adaptive mechanisms designed to keep the mother safe exist in the cognitive domain, in much the same way that Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy is now believed to buffer the mother and fetus from harm. The results of an updated meta-analysis and a longitudinal study comparing cognitive performance in pregnant and non-pregnant women suggest that there are cognitive costs associated with becoming a mother, in both pregnancy and the postpartum period. Recent research suggests that pregnant women possess an advantage in processing social stimuli: I report that pregnant women show facilitated recognition of faces. Finally, I examined nesting, and developed a questionnaire that tracked women through pregnancy and into the postpartum period, comparing non-pregnant women at similar time points. I report that nesting occurs in women, peaking in the third trimester, and involves space preparation and social iii withdrawal. Reproductive state affects cognition in ways that are distinct, and perhaps specialized, including a deficit in some areas (mathematical reasoning, processing speed), and a cognitive advantage in others (face recognition), some of which may serve a protective function. iv Preface This thesis comprises four manuscript chapters produced in collaboration with my supervisor, Dr. M.D. Rutherford. I was directly responsible for the experimental design, and the collection, analysis, and interpretation of all the data for all the experiments reported, and I was also directly responsible for the ideas put forth in the review chapter. Chapter 2 is a manuscript that has been submitted for publication to the journal Evolutionary Psychology. Chapter 3 is a manuscript that has been submitted for publication to Intelligence. Chapter 4 is a manuscript that was published in the journal Evolutionary Psychology. Chapter 5 is a manuscript that has been invited for revision for publication in the journal Evolution and human behavior. I was responsible for the preparation of all 4 manuscripts. v Acknowledgments Thank you to all the women who participated in my research over the years. The time and energy commitment required was intensive, and I am so grateful to you for being so generous and making this research possible. Heartfelt appreciation goes to Dr. Mel Rutherford, who has provided invaluable support and feedback. Mel, you are fantastic! Thank you for being such a wonderful mentor, for being so available with advice and feedback, and for always providing support and encouragement when it was needed most. Gratitude also goes to Melanie Parish, who is so welcoming, and such an amazing chef! Melanie and Mel shared their home and delicious meals on a number of occasions (including bringing a basket of goodies to the hospital when my daughter was born!) and made Hamilton feel like home. Thank you to the PhD students in the Rutherford lab: Paul, Jenna, Jenn, Vivien, and Marcus. You are amazing scientists and thinkers. I appreciate all your help over the years, especially your candid insights into research design, and your knowledge of statistics! I was fortunate to have an exceptional committee to help guide me throughout my PhD career. Sigal Balshine was always incredibly considerate and encouraging and offered some much needed pep talks at critical times; thank you Sigal! Sigal’s feedback inspired new ways of thinking about the questions at hand and brought my work to new level. Martin Daly agreed to become a part of my PhD committee late in my graduate career, and he agreed despite the fact that he would be retiring soon. Martin continued to give me extraordinarily constructive and critical feedback once he was retired. Thank you, Martin, for the attention that you paid to this work, and the amazing feedback you offered. Thanks to Sigal and Martin, the quality of work presented here is unrecognizable from the original manuscripts. Thank you to my husband Adam for moving to Hamilton with me, endlessly editing manuscripts, wrestling with matlab, figuring out formatting nightmares, providing support and a critical ear, and knowing how to describe my research better than I do. You would have made a great evolutionary psychologist. Thank you to my mom and dad for instilling a love of learning. Special thanks goes to Margo Wilson. I was fortunate to know her. vi Table of Contents Title Page…………………………………………………………………..………...….....i Descriptive Note…………………………………………………………….…………….ii Abstract…...…………………………………………………………………………...….iii Preface.………………………………………………………………………………….....v Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………..vi Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………...vii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………….ix List of Tables………………………………………………..................................………..x Chapter 1 Introduction…………………………………………………..……………1 Chapter 2 Cognitive reorganization during pregnancy and the postpartum period: an evolutionary perspective………………………………….…..11 2.1 Preamble……………………………………………………………….....11 2.2 Abstract………………………………………………………………..…14 2.3 Introduction………………………………………………………………15 2.4 A review of the research since Henry & Rendell (2007): a revised meta-analysis……………………………………………………………..17 2.5 Methods…………………………………………………………………..18 2.6 Results…………………………………………………………………....20 2.7 Discussion: revised meta-analysis……………………………………….24 2.8 Cognitive reorganization as the result of reproductive state……………..31 2.9 Protective mechanisms in pregnancy…………………………………….34 2.10 General Discussion………………………………………………………39 2.11 References………………………………………………………………..43 2.12 Tables…………………………………………………………………….52 2.13 Appendices.................................................................................................56 Chapter 3 Women show specific cognitive deficits across pregnancy, and general cognitive decline postpartum……............…………………………….....62 3.1 Preamble…………………………………………………………………62 3.2 Abstract………………………………………………………………..…66 3.3 Introduction………………………………………………………………67 3.4 Methods…………………………………………………………………..73 3.5 Results……………………………………………………………………78 3.6 Discussion………………………………………………………………..86 3.7 References……………………………………………………………......97 3.8 Tables & Figures………………………………………………………..101 Chapter 4 Recognition of novel faces after single exposure is enhanced during pregnancy……………………………………………....................…….112 vii 4.1 Preamble………………………………………………………………..112 4.2 Abstract…………………………………………………………………116 4.3 Introduction……………………………………………………………..117 4.4 Materials and Methods………………………………………………….122 4.5 Results…………………………………………………………………..126 4.6 Discussion………………………………………………………………128 4.7 References………………………………………………………………133 4.8 Tables & Figures………………………………………………………..141 Chapter 5 Evidence of a nesting psychology during human pregnancy………...…147 5.1 Preamble………………………………………………………………..147 5.2 Abstract…………………………………………………………………150 5.3 Introduction…………………………………………………………… 151 5.4 Methods…………………………………………………………………159 5.5 Results…………………………………………………………………..169 5.6 Discussion………………………………………………………………173 5.7 References………………………………………………………………180 5.8 Tables & Figures………………………………………………………..186 5.9 Appendices……………………………………………………………...201 Chapter 6 General discussion……………………………………………………...207 References………………………………………………………………………………217 s viii List of Figures 3.1 FSIQ over time………………………………………………………………….106 3.2 VIQ over time…………………………………………………………………..107 3.3 PIQ over time…………………………………………………………………...108 3.4 Pre-conception to postpartum (or non-pregnant equivalent) performance on FSIQ and PIQ…………………………………………………………………..109 3.5 Processing speed over time (Digit Symbol-Coding)…………………………..110 3.6 Perceived energy over time……………………………………………………..111 4.1 Recognition accuracy of male and female faces by pregnant and non- pregnant women………………………………………………………………..145 4.2 White participants’ performance on white targets……………………………..146 5.1 Nesting across pregnancy and into the postpartum period…………………..…197 5.2 Space preparation across pregnancy and into the postpartum period………..…198 5.3 Social withdrawal across pregnancy and into the postpartum period……….…199 5.4
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