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'II- I. 0_ ~; Ilill~~ 111112~ International Conference 36 1IIIIl2 on .0 1.1 111111.8 Doctoral-Level Education II 111111.25 111111.4 11111,·6 ln Criminal Justice and Criminology

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE LAW ENFORCEMENT ASSISTANCE ADMINISTRATION UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND NATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE REfERENCE SERVICE Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences WASHINGTON, D.C. 20531 Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology College Park, Maryland 20742 6/9/77 Date film,.ed,

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International Conference on Doctoral-Level. Education 10 Criminal Justice and Criminology

+ PROCEEDINGS .!-

The Conference was convened by THE INSTITUTE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND COLLEGE PARK, MARYLAND July 7-10, 1976

M~··C.

Project Director - Peter P. Lejins r Project Coordinator" Mary Jane Wood '>i; ...{I.L

The Conference was supported by Grant Number 74-CD-99- 0002 awarded by the Law Enforcement Assistance Adminis­ tration. Points of view or opinions stated in the Proceedings are those of the participants and do not necessarily repre­ sent the official positions or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice, nor of the Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology.

September 1976 PREFACE

This publication comprises the Proceedings of the ob'servers also attended, among them the Chief of International Conference on Doctoral-Level Educa­ the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Section tion in Criminal Justice and Criminology, convened of the United Nations. by the Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology The philosophies and policies in criminal justice of the University of Maryland in July of 1976. education as well as curricula and programs in vari­ The Conference was funded under the Institute's ous parts of the world were described and discussed National Criminal Justice Educational Development by the participants, pointing out the advantages and Consortium grant awarded the University of Mary­ disadvantages of the various systems. A host of key land by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administra­ issues related to doctoral education in this area were tion of the United States Department of Justice in brought up. After four days of deliberations the par­ 1973. The purpose of the Consortium grant was the ticipants agreed on a summary reflecting the major development or strengthening of doctoral-level pro­ points brought out during the Conference. It is grams in criminal justice in the United States in hoped that these Proceedings will serve as a vehicle order to prepare planners, evaluators, researchers for disseminating the ideas, problems and wide and teachers for the field. The seven universities variety of practical solutions brought to light in the had three years for the implementation of this ob­ discussions. jective. In the Fall of 1975 a Conference on Key The Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology Issues in Criminal Justice Doctoral Education was wishes to acknowledge its indebtedness to the Law convened by the University of Omaha, Nebraska, Enforcement Assistance Administration, especially one of the Consortium universities. This Conference to its Administrator, for making this Conference POS­ brought together criminal justice educators from sible. Appreciation is also due the Administration throughout the United States. Thereafter, it was felt of the University of Maryland, which gave enthusias­ that at the end of the Consortium project an inter­ tic support to this undertaking. Special recognition national conference, bringing together the best is due the Conference Coordinator and the entire thinking and experience on the subject on a world­ staff of the Institute, as well as the faculty and stu­ wide scope would be an appropriate further step. dents who shared in the burden of preparing and The Conference was attended by 28 criminal carrying out this event. The main credit, however, justice educators from 15 countries: twelve from the belongs to the participants, one and all, who gave United States and sixteen of their counterparts from unstintingly of themselves, their time and their en­ abroad. In addition to the United States, countries ergy to the animated discussions of the Conference. represented were Belgium, Canada, France, the Fed­ eral Republic of Germany, Israel, Italy, the Ivory Coast, Japan, lebanon, Mexico, Nigeria, Sweden, Peter P. Lejins the United Kingdom, and Venezuela. A number of Director

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Doctoral·Level Education in Criminology in Italy Giacomo Canepa ...... 37 Doctoral·Level Police Education in Criminology in Italy. PREFACE iii Franco Ferracuti ...... 41 Doctoral·Level Education in Criminal Justice and Criminology OPENING SESSION in Venezuela Opening Statement Francisco Canestri ...... 43 Peter P. Lejins, Director Specialized Penal and Criminological Education in Mexico Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology Gustavo Malo Camacho ...... University of Maryland ...... 1 48 Research and Education on the Doctoral·Level in Criminology in Israel Welcoming Remarks S. Giora Shoham ...... Robert L. Gluckstern, Chancellor 50 I University of Maryland, College Park ...... 1 Doctoral·Level Education in Criminal Justice and Criminology in Japan ! Ryuichi Hirano ...... Welcoming Remarks 52 Stanley J. Drazek, Chancellor Criminology, Justice and Society. The Role of Science The University College in Social Policy: A Canadian Example University of Maryland ...... 1 Denis Szabo ...... 54 I Remarks MID·POINT SUMMARY OF THE CONFERENCE Richard W. Velde, Administrator Law Enforcement Assistance Administration ...... 2 Mustafa EI Augi ...... 58 Remarks SUMMARIES OF THE PRESENTATIONS BY UNITED STATES PARTICIPANTS Michael J. Pelczar, Vice· President for Graduate Studies and Research University of Mal"'jland ...... 3 Donald H. Riddle ...... 60 Eugene H. Czajkoski ...... Remarks 60 Nancy A. Anderson, Assistant Provost Donald Newman ...... 61 I J Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences Don Gottfredson ...... 62 University of Maryland .. , ...... 3 I Richard Myren ...... 62 \ Remarks Merlyn Moore ...... I J. Price Foster, Director 62 Office of Education and Training Norman Rosenblatt ...... 63 Law Enforcement Assistance Administration ...... 4 James W. Fox ...... " ...... 64 Peter P. Lejins ...... 64 PURPOSE AND BACKGROUND OF THE CONFERENCE Peter P. Lejins ...... 6 CONFERENCE SUMMARY Peter P. Lejins ...... 66 PRESENTATION OF PAPERS BY FOREIGN PARTICIPANTS Doctoral-Level Education in Criminal Justice and Criminology: APPENDIX I Paper presented by F.H. McClintock, "Post·GraLluate Teaching: A Report on the Present Situation in the Nordic Countries of Europe Research Degrees in Criminology," National Conference on Research and Teaching in Criminology, Cambridge, June, 1966 ...... 70 Alvar Nelson ...... 11 Doctoral-Level Education in Criminal Justice and Criminology APPENDIX II Paper presented by F.H. McClintock, "The Experience of in the United Kingdom Criminology," Seminar on Research in Social Sciences Frederick H. McClintock ...... 14 and the Law, Social Science Research Council of the Doctoral-Level Education in Criminology: Leuven, Belgium United Kingdom, Northhamptonshire, February 21-22, 1975 74 Lode Van Out rive ...... 16 APPENDIX III - Addendum to the paper of Josef M. Haussling (in German) ...... 80 Doctoral·Level Education in Criminal Justice and Criminology in the Federa~ Republic of Germany APPENDIX IV - Addedum to the paper of Jacques Leaute (in French) ...... 81 Hans J. Kerner ...... 18 Doctoral-Level Education in Criminal Justice and Criminology: APPENDIX V First Addendum to the paper of Giacomo Canepa ...... 84 An Interdisciplinary Model for Training in Criminal Justice in the Federal Republic of Germany APPENDIX VI Second Addendum to the paper of Giacomo Canepa (in Italian) ...... 86 Josef M. Haussling ...... 22 APPENDIX VII - Addendum to the paper of Franchco Canestri ...... 88 Doctoral-Level Education in Criminal Justice and Criminology in France Jacques Leaute ...... 25 APPENDIX Viii - Addendum to the paper of Gustavo Malo Camacho ...... 92 Doctoral·Level Education in Criminal Justice Administ.ration in Lebanon APPENDIX IX List of Conference Participants ...... 95 Mustafa EI Augi ...... 27 Doctoral-Level Education in the Ivory Coast APPENDIX X Conference Program ...... 97 Marcel Ette Bogui ...... ,...... 31 Doctoral·Level Education for Criminal Justice Personnel in NigeriC! ,\ A.A. Adeyemi ...... 34 'I I' iv v :1 II OPENING SESSION

OPENING STATEMENT WELCOMING REMARKS Dr. Peter P. Lejins Dr. Stanley J. Drazek, Chancellor The University College I declare the Conference on Doctoral-Level Edu­ University of Maryland cation in Criminal Justice and Criminology open. It is a pleasure to welcome all of you on behalf of the Thank you very much. Dr. Lejins, Administrator Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology, and Vel de, Chancellor Gluckstern, Ladies and Gentle­ I am very happy that Dr. Gluckstern, Chancellor of men: It is indeed a pleasure for me to welcome the College Park campus of the University of Mary­ the participants and observers attending this Inter­ land, found it possible to come this morning to greet national Conference on Doctoral-Level Education in us. Dr. Gluckstern is a physicist, and thus, in the Criminal Justice and Criminology. It has been my very beginning of the Conference on doctoral degree pleasure to work with your host, Dr. Lejins, for programs, we will have the refreshing impact of a almost three decades. The years roll by very rapidly. representative of the physical sciences. Our University of Maryland University College, as Dr. Lejins pointed out, is the Adult ContinUing Edu· cation arm for the University, and it offers courses throughout the State of Maryland and also in eight­ WELCOMING REMARKS teen foreign countries. In making a quick check of Dr_ Robert L. Gluckstern, Chancellor tbp. \'Oster, I notice we have eight participants, or The University of Maryland, College Park guests from foreign countries where we conduct ,< overseas programs. Our College offers a variety of Thank you, Dr. Lejins. Mr. Velde, Chancellcl courses, including courses for law enforcement and Drazek, guests to the Conference: I am very harWY correctional personnel. Dr. Lejins and his associ­ to welcome you to this Conference, which I u~:"r­ ates, his staff, aid us in staffing these courses. stand is for the exploration of doctoral-level e9uca· We at the University College have worked very tion in criminal justice and criminology and fpjr the closely and cooperatively with Dr. Lejins and the In­ contributions you can make toward helping 1j6 train stitute. In fact, before the Institute was founded, the people who will be doing planning, rf:;,earch, he and I went to West Coast institutions to see how evaluation, and teaching in the field of cr~lm.inal jus· they were progressing and, after bringing in con­ tice and criminology. As Dr. Lejins knows I have a sultants and having a number of conferences here, special tie to criminal justice and crimh,ology be· we finally had a pattern, a design, for the Institute. cause that is my wife's professional fie;id. She is The Board of Regents approved the program as it presently very involved in this field, so 1have been was designed, and the Institute became a reality. foilowing the activities with a great deal of interest. Since that time, under Dr. Lejin's leadership, I hope you enjoy the Conference and ~hat you suc· many outstanding programs, workshops, seminars, ceed in adding your contributions to those which institutes of various kinds, credited and non· are needed to have significant progre$ in this lield. credited, have been sponsored cooperatively by his Thank you. I Institute and by University College. I We hope that your stay in this Center will be J Dr. Lejins: I pleasant and the educational exchange productive. I am pleased to join Dr. Gluckstern in welcoming Thank you, Chancellor Gluckstern/. Today, we are you to the University of Maryland. Thank you. very happy also to have with us CjanCellOr Drazek, who is Chancellor of another unit Jf the University Dr. Lejins: of Maryland, the University Colleg€, and since all of us are guests of the University Co!lege here (this is Thank you, Dr. Drazek. And now I will introduce the University College Building, t~.[e Center of Adult to you a person for whom the correct introduction Education) it is very nice that he has found it pos· is to say that he does not even need an introduction: sible to come to say a few words to us. Dr. Drazek that is, the Honorable Richard W. Velde, who is the is an educator, among others, c Iso in the area of Administrator of the Law Enforcement Assistance criminal justice. The University, iln its vast extension Administration of the Department of Justice. Mr. program, teaches in-service perl:onnel in the field. Velde has been associated with LEAA from its very Later on, when we discuss the s/:ructure of the pro­ beginnings, and, as far as I am concerned, in spite gram, you will probably have a I;hance to hear how of the fact that there have been other Administrators this program is run, constituted, and organized. Our before him, he has been the backbone, the continu­ Institute closely cooperates in l:his enterprise. Dr. ing link, and the source of energy in back of most Drazek has always been very generous in his sup· of the things which LEAA has done. For us here on port for our particular program "/3nd was very helpful the campus who have known him, and for the repre· when we were establishing the; Institute; for some­ sentatives of the Consortium universities, it is es­ what selfish reasons, if I may say so, because the pecially pleasing that he has found time from his University College, in accordance with the existing incredibly busy schedule, regulating the distribution University standards, teJches· only those courses of vast amounts of money for improving the criminal which are taught on the campl;Js. As long as there justice system in this country, to come this morning was no Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminol· to be with us. I would like to express our personal ogy, criminal justice courses could not be taught in thanks to LEAA for his appearance and for tile help extension. Dr. Drazek, it is a special pleasure for which our university and the other Consortium uni· me to invite you to say a few words. versities have received through him from LEAA. 1 '.------______1______

REMARKS with individuals and sixty thousand households cation increasing every day. This means, of course, education in criminal justice and criminology. The every six months. This is just one sample of the much greater emphasis on the graduate program, National Research Council, which is an agency OT Mr. Richard W. Velde, Administrator kind of statistical programs which are being built. not only to train researchers and teachers, but to the National Academy of Sciences, is very much con­ The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Detailed surveys of organization employment and train managers and evaluators and planners. This cerned with manpower studies, particularly at the expenditures, Offender Based Transaction Statistics is where the needs of the needs are. LEAA has been doctoral-level. One of the albatrosses around grad­ Thank you Dr. Lejins and good morning ladies - an extremely sophisticated set up - are other pleased to provide the funding support: I wish I uate education's neck at the present time is the so­ and gentlemen. I am honored to be able to partici· examples. We are now in the third year of the pub­ could say the leadership and the know-how in the called phenomenon of Ph.D. surplus. It seems to pate and LEAA is pleased to be able to support this lication of a sourcebook on criminal justice statis· encouragement and development of the Educational me that here is a field which has tremendous oppor­ Conference. Like so many things which have been tics and so on. But these developments would not Consortium. We have been content to sit on the tunities for the development of the young talent that happening in the last week or two, we have here have been possible without the conceptual work and sidelines, literally, and watch, again f refer to the comes throughout system of higher education. I was another gathering of founding fathers, this time in the theoretical frameworl~s which have been devel­ founding fathers such as the gentleman on my right impressed by Administrator Velde's remarl< about criminal justice education, not only in the United oped at the educational institutions throughout the and others around this table, to see the trial and the need for talented persons in research and teach­ States, but around the world, and it is an extremely country and on whom we rely most heavily for their error, the experimentation, the development of suc­ ing in what we might call a practitioner area. This important event for us. We have been in business development. cessful programs. I wish I could say that all of our is one kind of relation that the graduate profession now for a decade, keeping track of, and in some So in the field of operatiuns in criminal justice, seven regional institutions had completed all of their is pushing toward, the development of additional op­ cases attempting to encourage, new developments again we find increasir.g complexity, increasing objectives: some have exceeded and some have tions at tile level of the doctorate. Research has and progress in the field of criminal justice in the sophistication in dealing with our criminal justice come close_ I think that is perhaps really, in a been traditionally a concept of doctoral education. United States. And, we have seen a lot happen. One problems. You look at any dimension, any aspect microcosm, the story of the LEAA program. We have Teaching, of course, IS another significant part. But of the most exciting and encouraging developments of criminal justice activity, whether it be juvenile had our successes. We have had our failures. Hope­ the practitioner aspect has not been emphasized in of all is the establishment and the flourishing of delinquency prevention, or community based correc· fully this Conference again will teach us to gain the all fields as much as it might be in order to utilize criminal justice education in the United States. I tions, or virtually any activity in between and you values of this experience, learn from our strengths the talents that are developed in the various disci­ have a few observations about that, but let me find increasing sophistication in their management, and our weaknesses, our successes and our failures. plines, and from what I have heard already and from briefly recount, from our perspective. what is hap­ in their operations, in their treatment modalities and We also look on this as a unique opportunity not previous exposure to this field, it seems to me that pening in criminal justice today and attempt to sO!Ji1istication of personnel dealing with them and only to take stock of and assess the developments the area of the practitioner is a very significant part identify some of the implications for criminal justice. so on. I could cite virtually innumerable examples of criminal justice education in the United States, of the entire operation. I am very much impressed First of all, I guess I do not need to tell you that of the kinds of programs which are being estab­ but to [earn from those who have been working in with tile fact that you were able to bring together crime is still with us, in fact, in many ways, it is lished today: family crisis intervention techniques this field internationally. In many respects, the field persons, not only from the other institutions of the flourishing. We have more of it, in more forms and for the police, new forms of treatment of offenders, of criminal justice education in the United States is United States, but from around the world, to bring more dimensions than ever before. And I guess that either in the institutional setting or in the commu­ still in its infancy. Through the development of the thoughts to a common pool in terms of how the is some kind of cfaim. I am not sure where it leads nity setting, new techniques in sentencing and in exchange programs, exchange of information and program might best evolve. I think this is, in itself, us, but what we are facing is an increasing problem parole and probation and so on. Today, criminal experience, we can certainly learr from the experi­ a very significant step in the development of a new with increasing complexity and dimensions. I think justice system operations require more and more ence of those also represented here today. doctoral-level program. I am delighted to be present. the same can be said about criminal justice in the sophisticated educational foundations. I hope that this Conference, at least from LEAA's I hope to sit in on several of your sessions, and United States. It is increasing in its complexity and In management we have seen a revolution in perspective, will be productive, not only to assess I am sure that you will have a very successful and its dimensions. Today tllere are one million persons criminal justice managerial techniques and activi­ where we are and where we are going, but to lay productive meeting. Thank you very much. working in the criminal justice system in 46,000 ties, the introduction of automation, of management the foundation for the future of criminal justice edu· criminal justice agencies. Currently these agencies information systems, of resource allocation, unheard cation in this country and to build the bridges of a Dr. Lejil1s: are expending 15 billion dollars a year attempting to of even five years ago in criminal justice, now wide­ cooperative program with educators around the deal I'lith the 10 million persons who become ac­ spread, very commonplace, and, again, increasingly world. That's what LEAA expects and hopes to Thank you Dr. Pelczar. Next I would like to recog­ quainted with criminal justice in one way or an?th~~. sophisticated in their application. achieve from this Conference. We look forward to nize another representative of the University of Maryland who is here to welcome us, and that is We see the development of a number of very sIgnIfI­ Perhaps most important, however, are the contri­ working with you and sharing the experiences with Dr. Nancy Anderson, on my right, who is the Assist­ cant trends which impact on the system and on butions made by education in the field of criminal you during this Conference. And, thanks again for ant Provost of the Division of Behavioral and Social those who provide the educational resources for it. justice research and evaluation. In fact, criminal allowing us to be here. First, the development of a new profession, crimi­ justice has pioneered in the development of evalua­ Sciences. We are in a state of change in the leader· Dr. Lejins: nal justice planning, was unheard of a decade ago. tion methodology in the social sciences. I think that ship of the Division of Behavioral and Social Sci­ While we had many individuals who had some exper· can be said rather safely without fear of contradic­ Thank you Mr. Velde. I am sure that nobody ences. I am saying this primarily for the benefit of tise in the discipline of planning and while we had tion. We have had an almost unique set of financial could give in as few minutes as concise a descrip­ those who have taken part in other conferences many individuals who knew something about crimi­ cll1d educational resources to bring to bear on the tion of LEAA's goals, accomplishments and also, as which we have had here in recent years and who nal justice, very seldom, if ever, did you find the two very difficult questions as to whether or not the Mr. Velde always points out, its failures. We will were welcomed by Dr. Mary Berry, our former Pro­ skills together in the same person. Now we have criminal justice programs worl<, succeed, fail, or certainly try to see to it that this Conference is a vost. Dr. Berry was recently appointed Chancellor courses in graduate education in criminal justiCE) whatever. We have learned a lot through the school success. I should say, Mr. Velde, that all of our of the University of Colorado at Boulder. The Act­ planning; we have planning agencies in every state of hard knocks. We have seen a lot of phonies, a lot foreign and American participants are here, so all ing Provost, Dr. Dudley Dillard, could not be here and in many regional and local settings throughout of shysters, and a lot of charlatans in the business goes well at this point in the Conference. this morning but will probably be seeing you in some the country; and, we have increasing sophistication of evaluation. But I think that now we can say our I would like to step aside for a moment from the other connections. Dr. Anderson is here to repre­ in tile methodology of criminal justice planning. know-how, our techniques, our methodology have agenda which you have before you and recognize sent him. Dr. Anderson, would you like to say a few Dr. Michael Pelczar, Vice-President of the University words? Closely related to the development of planning, progressed to the point where there is, in fact, a for Graduate Studies and Research. Dr. Pelczar was we have an emerging and burgeoning field of crimi­ new discipline, a new profession of evaluation in not sure whether he could make this meeting and, nal justice statistics. The Federal Criminal Justice criminal justice and it has been a leader in the social thus he is penalized for that by not even having a Statistics Program supported by LEAA is now the sciences. Of course, research programs in criminal REMARKS place card; but he found that he could come, and fourth largest federal statistical program in the justice are very small and very modest by compari­ Dr. Nancy A. Anderson it is certainly very gratifying to have him with us. entire government, following only behind our agri­ son to the national investments in space, in defense, Dr. Pelczar. Assistant Provost cultural, our labor and our educational manpower in the environment and energy, but, nevertheless, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences statistical programs. We are currently spending there is a major and increasing program of research. University of Maryland about thirty million dollars a year in developing long We rely almost exclusively on our institutions of REMARKS term statistical series such as our victimization sur­ higher education and on the criminal justice grad­ Dr. Michael J. Pelczar In addition to the welcomes that have been ex­ uate programs to support, encourage and develop pressed so far, I would like tc express ours from the vey, an attempt to measure the amount of crime Vice-President for Graduate Studies and Research actually occurring as opposed to that reported to the this activity. Division. Dr. Lejins' program is truly one of the University of Maryland police. It is the largest single field survey in public In essence, from our perspective, we see the interdisciplinary programs of our Division, both at opinion of any kind, anywhere, currently involving needs of criminal justice education mushrooming; I am delighted to be here, and I welcome you the doctoral-level and at the undergraduate-level. I about one hundred and thirty thousand interviews and we see the requirements for better quality edu- wholeheartedly to this Conference on doctoral-level am sure that I will be seeing some of you through- 2 3 out the week. I will extend my individual greetings the challenge of a meaningful partnership between um, LEAA's role to date in trying to work with higher This Conference in which we are involved in the then. We hope that you have a good educational the criminal justice community ar,d the academic education. next three days represents a most significdnt con­ experience as well as a pleasant visit to College community. This is one of the very few fields that LEAA, through the Educational Development Con­ tribution to this field. We all know that it's an his­ Park. has found its way into higher education primarily as sortium Program, has attempted to assist the aca­ toriC event. The Consortium schools will publish a a function of the response to pressure from the demic community in an effort to respond to the needs five or six volume final report sometime later this Dr. Lejins: practitioner world. As you know, higher education for doctoral education in criminal justice. Three years fall. One part of that report will be a volume of key tends to do its own thing, without being particularly ago, LEAA provided funds for the establishment of issues in criminal justice. This conference will be Thank you, Dr. Anderson. I also see Dr. Rosen responsive or concerned about the field of practice. the National Educational Consortium in Criminal a companion to an earlier conference held in in the audience, who is an Assistant Provost of the Since 1968 the number of institutions offering Justice. This Consortium consists of seven univer­ Omaha, Nebraska last October, on the same issues. Division. crime related degree programs has more than sities in various parts of the United States. The I realize that we have an opportunity here to make The person perhaps most directly involved in the tripled. The result of this has been an increasing schools involved are: Arizona State University, East­ some tremendous strides toward increasing the sys­ affairs of the Consortium is the Director of the Office and overwhelming need for additional qualified fac­ ern Kentucky University, Michigan State University, tematic contributions and the vital knowledge in this of Education and Training of LEAA, Dr. Price Foster. ulty to serve in these programs. Recent data that Northeastern University, Portland State University, field. I am looking forward to meeting with vou and Dr. Foster came to the central office of LEAA in I can point out to you now shows the tremendous the University of Nebraska at Omaha, and the Uni­ talking with you in the next three days. . Washington not so long ago, in the course of the magnitude of the problem. In 1973 in this country versity of Maryland here at College Park. The two last year. Ever since he appeared on the scene as there were 839 programs at all degree levels in the basic objectives of this program are: first, to develop Dr. Lejins: the person directly responsible for educational pro· United States. Of this number, 511 (60.9%) were and strengthen doctoral degree programs in crime grams, and those of the Consortium, I think all of two year schools. Anothf'r 239 (28.5%) were Bac­ related studies and second, to build a framework of Thank you, Dr. Foster. I would now like to intro­ us at the Consortium have enjoyed an era of oppor­ calaureate programs; 74 (8.8%) were Master's pro· cooperation and to expand the exchange of knowl­ duce a person at the head table who is going to be tunity for further development under extremely co­ grams; while 15, only 1.8%, were reported to have edge among affiliated institutions. This Conference acting as vice-chairman of the Conference, a very operative and, I would say, benevolent, leadership. Ph.D. programs of one type or another. These 15 is part of that second objective. able man to have. He is Dean Norman Rosenblatt of Northeastern University, who also happens to be, I do not Imow of any case when I approached Price programs at the doctoral-level reported a total of During the three years of this program, we have, Foster with a request that would not receive the nine graduates. That would be a manpower pool, in by the way, the vice-chairman of the Board of Direc­ as Mr. Velde has said, had some smashing suc­ tors of the Consortium. most serious, most friendly, and most supportive terms of people in the field, of nine graduate to cesses, and some that were not so successful in a consideration. serve almost a thousand schools. One result of this way. The objective was to develop programs and put I would like to recognize some additional people low productivity of graduates to meet faculty needs them in place. Two of the seven schools in this Con­ here in the audience. First of all, Professor Gerhard has been a tendency to employ persons who do not sortium have taken good doctoral programs and Mueller, who is the Chief of the Section on Crime REMARKS have academic credentials appropriate tn the field turned them into great ones, Two schools have Prevention and the Treatment of Offenders of the United Nations. His duties require him to be almost Dr. J. Price Foster, Director or academic credentials that are on a par with other begun new programs. Two other schools are ex­ social and behavioral sciences. The crisis of quali­ pected to implement programs in the next academic constantly on the go and he just arrived in time for Office of Education and Training this meeting. Two weeks ago in New York he con­ Law Enforcement Assistance Administration fied faculty is related to a serious concern about the year. Since the creation of the Consortium, the quality of teaching and the quality of research being member universities have begun a very intensive ducted a United Nations meeting of the Committee on Crime Prevention and Control. Mr. Velde, from Dr. Lejins, it is a true pleasure to be here today conducted by faculty in crime related programs. program of research directed toward basic objec· The resu It of a II of this haS been that the ac;a­ tives. One of these, to evaluate the need for grad­ whom you just heard, represents the United States and to have an opportunity to say a few words to on that Committee and took a very active part in the a conference of this magnitude. This Conference demic credibility of crime related stucies in higher uate lavel education in crime· related studies, is a education has, therefore, been a paliicular problem manpower study. It focuses on the identification of meetings. Just as Chancellor Gluckstern pointed marks a truly historic event in the field of education out this morning that his wife has professional inter­ in criminal justice. What happens in the next three to this field as higher t'1ucation seeks to resp':Jnd needs in the field, rather than going off in our own to the needs of criminal 'ustice. way and being in the same shape as some of the est in criminology, I should point out that we are days here will undoubtedly be a part of the historical very happy to have with us also Professor Mueller's record that will contribute mightily to the direction, The issue of providin::; '1 sufficient number of doc­ other social and behavioral sciences, for example toral degree programs and a sufficient number of history and political science. Secondly, the Con­ wife, Dr. Freda Adler, an expert in female criminali­ the focus and the structure of the field of crime· ty. I would also like to mention the presence of related studies for some years to come. I would graduates at this degree level represents only one sortium experience has a research objective of eval­ dimension of the problem, h.,)wever, to which higher uating the need and effectiVeness for a continuing Richard Wertz, the Executive Director of our Mary­ like to take just a few minutes to talk about some land SPA, the Maryland Commission on Law En­ concerns which we have at LEAA, some remarks education is responsive. We are talking here about criminal justice consortium of this type. Thirdly, one dimension of a development which Mr. Velde and this Conference is focused primarily on the third forcement and the Administration of Justice, who about the field in general, and to try to give my feel­ recently completed his second term as chairman of mentioned, the phenomena of planning. Higher edu­ issue, is to investigate the key issues in crime­ ings about what I would like to see happen at this the Conference of Directors of State Planning Agen­ cation has a tendency to produce graduates for the related doctoral-level education. In pursuing these Conference. cies. I am pleased that he also found the time to sake of having graduates. We are talking now, in degree development and research objectives, mem­ For the past fifteen years, crime-related studies come to this meeting and I hope that he will be able the field, about manpower planning and the number bers of the Consortium have worker! '/ery closely with in the United States have experienced a phenomenal to attend more than this session of the Conference. growth. The growth has been most apparent in of graduates that is responsive to the needs of the other profc~$icnal organizations which have an in­ terms of the number of institutions at the two·year field, other than graduates because the school wants terest in crime· related graduate education. The I would also like to recognize the presence of level. The number of Baccalaureate degrees that to produce graduates. Academy of Sciences in Criminal .Justice is an ex­ Chancellor Riddle, who is best known to us as the have cropped up in the last fifteen years is unprece­ Another dimension of the problem, other than the ample. Among the results of such collaboration is dynamic leader of John Jay College in New York, dented and, of course, the graduate programs have number of schools and the number of doctoral can­ a rapid progress toward the development of guide­ who tool{ over the College after it ceased to be a also been growing .. didates and graduates, discloses concerns about lines for accreditation of crime· related degree pro­ police training academy and became a regular aca­ There are many reasons for this phenomenal policies and organizational patterns most appropri­ grams in this field, and, recently, the establishment demic institution. Through the first years of the growth in the number of programs. Two of these ate to the development of these programs in your of the American Association of Doctoral Programs educational explosion in the United States, espe­ reasons are: first: that there have been tremendous agenda, I noticed that several of these issues are in Criminal Justice and Criminology. cially in the area of police, that College and Dr. Rid­ dle were the leaders in the field. As all of us know pressures from practitioners in the field for hi5~er identified for discussion. Looking at all of these This Association, which began its history in Dallas education to respond to their needs and to upgrade topics, it is quickly easy to see, difficult to escape, last March, also is composed of seven universities; he has now assumed the position of Chancellor of the their personnel. Another related reason for the rapid the fact that many basic issues in this field have three of these, the University of Maryland, North­ University of Illinois, Chicago Circle. We are pleased emergence of these educational programs has been yet to be resolved. Perhaps one of the most basic eastern University, and Michigan State University, to have him with us. the increasing need for responsible research as to issues is that there is sti II a question remaining as are also part of the Consortium, we are proud to say. As two final points, I would like to say: First, a the nature of criminal justice, and how education to whether or not there is really a need for doctoral The other members are: Florida State University, R~~olutions Committee has b:en selected to present should respond appropriate to this kind of increased programs in criminal justice/criminology. Some evi­ Sam Houston University, the State University of New a se~ of draft resolutions for the Conference partici· demand for research resources. dence suggests that perhaps other social and be­ York at Albany, and Rutgers University. As a kind pants' consideration at the conclusion of the Pro­ Those responsible for doctoral-level education in havioral science graduates would do as well. I look of a side note, we are pleased to say that Dr. Peter ceedings. All of those approached have consented criminology and criminal justice, the people in this forward to hearing what we have to say about that Lejins, who needs no introduction here, has been to do so. room primarily, I feel, and I am sure that you share in the next few days. elected the first President of the American Associa­ Second, according to our agenda, I am to make that feeling, have a trE'n1endous responsibility with Before letting you get into your Conference, let me tion of Doctoral Programs in Criminal Justice and a statement on the background and the purpose of regard to both dimensionJ of the problem. This is just take a minute or two to talk about the Consort;- Criminology. this Conference. i will do'so now. 4 5

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PURPOSE AND BACKGROUND OF THE CONFERENCE education for the field of criminal justice. With the there should be a special integrated academic dis­ help of the offices of the Consortium Coordinator, cipline of study and research that encompasses all Peter P. Lejins~' the need for doctoral-level personnel in the field of matters related to the problem of crime. The alter­ criminal justice was explored through a nation-wide native obviously would be to have the action per­ survey. The content and organizational structure sonnel dealing with the crime problem educated in TERMINOLOGICAL NOTE institutions, their structure, administration, manage­ of the doctoral programs were continuously and ex­ other disciplines and come to the action programs ment, etc., while the term criminology historically tensively discussed. One of the major events in the in crime control from a variety of different back­ The purpose of this Conference, as stated in its refers to the study of the causes of crime and the Consortium's history was a three-day conference on grounds. title, is to discuss doctoral-level education in the doctoral-level education held in October of 1975 on ways of removing these causes by means of preven­ The 19th century saw the emergence of a rational area of criminal justice and criminology. The title tion or correction. Thus the combined expression, the campus of one of the Consortium universities - contains two concepts: the doctoral degree and the the University of Nebraska at Omaha. To this con­ approach to human society, based on the study of "criminal justice and criminology" is often used to that society, which is supposed to provide the nec­ field of criminal justice and criminology. Before denote the entire area of operations and study. The ference the Directors of other than Consortium proceeding any further, and especially for the bene­ doctoral-level programs were also invited. Very sub­ essary knowledge for conducting the affairs of the title of the Institute which hosts this conference, society in terms of rational end-means schemes and fit of our foreign colleagues, it should be helpful to as everybody probably noticed, is the Institute of stantial papers on many aspects of graduate educa­ comment briefly on the meaning of these concepts tion in criminal justice were presented. In addition thus enable the society to eliminate the undesirable Criminal Justice and Criminology. The recently and to achieve desirable effects. This rational ap­ as they are used in the United States and in the established American Association of Doctoral Pro­ to the seven developed or substantially improved planning of this Conference. graduate programs in criminal justice, the Consor­ proach produced a number of empirical or positive grams in Criminal Justice and Criminology also social science disciplines such as psychology, an­ In the United States the doctoral degree is the decided to use both terms in its designation. In tium hopes to make an important contribution by highest academic degree that can be earned in the the publication of a number of reports on its various thropology, sociology, modern economics, modem planning this international conference, it was felt political science, etc. These disciplines gradually course of study at a university. In a very general that for the benefit of our foreign colleagues, the experiences, findings and recommendations. way, and omitting many important details, one can established themselves as academic units within the combined title would be more meaningful. After three years of this intensive activity within university curricula and gradually produced iarge say that the doctoral degrees in this country fall into the setting of the traditions and standards of Amer­ two major categories: the Doctor of Philosophy, contingents of graduates identifying themselves with ican higher education and against the background these individual disciplines. Some of these disci­ usua!ly referred to as the Ph.D., and the profes­ of this country's criminal justice system, the next sional doctoral degrees. The Ph.D. is often de­ THE NATIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE plines, e.g., sociology and psychology, are quite EDUCATIONAL CONSORTIUM not only logical but also most promising step ap­ broad in scope and provide the educational back­ scribed as a research degree. It is usually granted peared to be to broaden the base and compare cur­ by the Graduate School of a university in an aca­ ground for a variety of professions and occupations. The immediate background of this Conference is rent developments in the United States with what With time most of these diciplines developed speci­ demic discipline which has a graduate program. The the development and strengthening of doctoral pro­ other countries are doing in higher education in Ph.D. presupposes a broad theoretical background alizations; e.g., psychology is nowadays divided into grams in criminal justice by seven universities se­ criminal justice. The University of Maryland had experimental psychology, clinical psychology, social in the area of study, competence in research meth· lected three years ago for the purpose of fO(-.ling a in its Consortium grant a certain sum earmarked as psychology, etc. odology, and a Ph.D. dissertation which is supposed consortium in order to prepare planners, evaluators, an "international component". It was decided to to be a contribution to knowledge in the field. Ex­ researchers and teachers for the field of criminal use this fund to convene this Conference to bring After a number of basic social science disciplines amples of professional doctoral degrees are the justice. The Law Enforcement Assistance Adminis­ together the criminal justice educators from the became entrenched in the structure of the univer­ Doctor of Medicine, M.D., Doctor of Education, tration of the United States Department of Justice United States with their counterparts from other sities they produced a large number of graduates Ed.D., etc. These professional doctoral degrees are funded each of these universities for the above pur­ countries in order to acquaint each other with extant with a vested interest in enhancing their prestige, supposed to prepare for the practice of a specific pose in the amount of approximately $650,000 for educational programs, discuss the needs for person­ their position within the social power structure of profession. Very often a university may offer both three years, providing additional funds for gradoate nel with advanced academic degrees and share their the society, and the scope of functions to be per­ a Ph.D. and a professional doctoral degree in the fellowships, internships, some financial support for views on policies for further development. The fact formed by them, assuring jobs and incomes. As same area of study, the first one usually intended graduate students, etc. In addition, funds for a Con­ that there is a great variety in organizational pat­ more and more specific areas of hUman activity and for the person who plans to devote him/herself to sortium Coordinator's office were provided for the terns for doctoral-level education throughout the social problems began to· be approached in terms research and teaching, and the other, for persons purposes of maintaining liaison between the Con­ world provides assurance that such a get-together of rational action, the need for specialized education who plan to devote themselves to professional prac­ sortium members and facilitating joint projects, fac­ is bound to stimUlate new ideas and provide broader and specialized personnel in these additional areas tice. Thus, e.g., one can obtain a degree of Doctor ulty exchange etc. The seven universities involved perspectives. became apparent. Yet the already established dis­ of Medicine or a Ph.D. in Medicine. are: Arizona State University, Eastern Kentucky Uni­ ciplines were loath to yield the pursuit of palis of When we talk in the context of this Conference versity, Michigan State University, Northeastern the body of knowledge so far under their direction and parts of the occupational opportunities to the about doctoral education in the area of criminal jus­ University, Portland State University, University of HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE tice and criminology, we are talking about the high­ Maryland, and University of Nebraska at Omaha. newcomers. Thus the major problem of contempo­ DEVELOPMENT OF A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE rary higher education arose: the conflict of interest est academic degree, either of a Ph.D. type or a The three years of ConsOliium activities are OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY between the traditional and well-established aca­ professional degree, earned in the course of study almost over now and all seven universities involved AND A SUPPORTIVE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM at a university in a subject matter which deals with have worked hard on the development and strength­ demic disciplines and study and research in "inter­ some aspect of criminal behavior, its prevention or ening of their graduate programs. Curricula were We live in a world of many occupations and pro­ disciplinary problems" which do not fit into the control. carefully planned and revised, the faculties have fessions, most of which have their own educational frame of reference of a single discipline and grad­ The second part of the title speaks of criminal been substantially enlarged; research, which is so requirements and systems. There are physicians, ually develop a body of specialized knowledge and justice and criminology. The term criminal justice essential for doctoral-level education, has been sup­ lawyers, engineers, physicists, chemists, architects, experience which potentially is more important than came into use in the United States roughly ten years ported and developed; and capable students were botanists, zoologists, sociologists, psychologists, the more general background provided by one single traditional department. There are innumerable ex­ ago to denote any aspect of educational a~d opera­ carefully selected. The universities have done this bricklayers, carpenters, plumbers, and so on, almost tional activities related to the problem of crime. The not singlehandedly but in intensive conSUltation with ad infinitum. Each one of these professional and amples of the situation just described in the uni­ term presently used in the United States is simply each other. One of the means for these contacts occupational groups is in need of some preparatory versities today, all of which can be characteriZed as "criminal justice", without reference to criminology, was the nineteen Board of Directors meetings of the education or training. Those professions which are a conflict of interest between the basic social sci­ since criminology is supposed to be included under Consortium held so far. Experts from other than based on large accumulations of knowledge and ex­ ence disciplines and the interdisciplinary nature of this ali-encompassing label. The two terms are Consortium universities and from the entire field of perience and need a broad educational background most acute contemporary social problems, for the used in the title of this Conference, however, be­ criminal justice were frequently invited to the Con­ and a considerable amount of gradual and progres­ handling of which one should be preparing, it seems, cause of the historically somewhat different over­ sortium Board meetings to broaden the perspectives sive training, have specific scientific disciplines to specialized experts. Some such examples are the tones of the two designations. Criminal justice con­ on the topics discussed. Thus these Consortium back them up, such as physics, mathematics, eco­ current quest for the study of urban problems; in veys more the impression of the agencies of c.rime Board meetings became a unique series of nation­ nomics, political science, etc. This usually pre­ the United States the quest for Afro-American control, the police, courts, penal and correctional wide seminars on graduate and especially doctoral supposes study at a university in the appropriate studies; and, of course, the quest for stUdies in the academic discipline, with ensuing further speciali­ area of crime and its control. zations. Perhaps the first issue Which the planners Although this is somewhat repetitive of what has ~Di;;ct~r, I-~~titute of Criminal Justice nnd Criminology, Professor of Sociology, University of Maryland, College Park, Mary­ of doctoral-level education in criminal justice must just been stated, for the purpose of reinforcing the land, U.S.A. concern themselves with is the question whether point, I would like to quote from Hlntroductory Re- 6 7 .... -

marks" which I wrote some five years ago for the in the organizational structure of the universities, The policy directed toward the development of tions. On the other hand, there are many cases in monograph prepared by Franco Ferracuti for the it was given an unfriendly greeting by the other, such an academic discipline and profession versus which the process of obtaining the Doctor's degree United Nations Social Defence Research Institute already established, social sciences. They were alf the handling of the problem by visiting researchers takes ten years or more after graduation from col­ on Coordination of Interdisciplinary Research in willing to admit the need for the empirical study of and professors of other disciplines is the real topic lege; because the dissertation research required a Criminology. crime, but all wanted to take the task on themselves, before this Conference. In spite of the seeming longer time, or the person had to support him- or "The paper deals with the conflicting ten­ even if it was only one of the aspects of the total cogency of the above hypothetical perspective on herself by working, which interfered with the prog­ dencies of the discipline-oriented and problem of criminality. The sociologists wanted to the topic, I am the first one to recognize the main ress of the studies. It should be noted that in some problem-oriented approaches in contempo­ study it from the point of view of sociology in the arguments pro and contra. The participants of the programs the obtaining of the Master's degree prior rary social science, as this applies to the department of sociology; the psychologists would Conference should carefully discuss and evalLlate to the Doctor's degree is not required, and the stu­ field of criminology. One could readily not relinquish their basic identification with psychol­ these. The possibility of compromise solutions dent may proceed with the Ph.D. program immedi­ argue that the conflict ought not to be ogy and insisted on dealing with the problem of should also not be excluded. ately after having obtained the Bachelor's degree. there; that from the point of view of the crime to the extent of their competence as psychol­ This does not mean, however, that the time interval scientific method the problem is relatively ogists; the same applies to psychiatry, economics, between the Bachelor's and the Doctor's degree is superficial and should lend itself to a rela­ etc. In some cases the older social sciences were THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM therefore necessarily shorter. willing to recognize the new field to the extent of tively simple solution. The situation is IN THE UNITED STATES The doctoral degrees of a professional nature different, however, when it is seen from offering some courses in it (e.g., sociology in the (not Ph.D. degrees) by and 18rge are obtained in a the point of view of the living community United States), but in many cases the social science For the benefit of the foreign participants in this manner similar to what has been described above. of social scientists, especially as there are departments insisted that the generic study of Conference, a very brief schematic description of To use an example from the area of criminology, grouped about institutions of higher learn­ human behavior was sufficient preparation for both the educational system of the United States might the School of Criminology of the University of Cali­ ing. On one side, we see the building practical and scientific work on the problem of be appropriate here. fornia, Berkeley, offered a regular Bachelor's degree of rigidly compartmentalized disciplinary crime. An excellent example is the policies of the There is an elementary school, which is usually in Crirninology, a Master's degree in Criminology, empires, which - on the content side - Council on Social Work Education, implemented in started at the age of six and comprises 8 years. It and finally a Doctorate in Criminology. The Schools are developed as beautiful structures rest­ the majority of schools of social work, with only a is followed by four years in a high school. These of social work offer a Master's degree of social work ing on the selection of a few basic prem­ few exceptions. This policy was to stake the claim twelve years often are apportioned differently. One (MSW) after two years of post-baccalaureate study, ises and adhering to very specific empiri­ on staffing professional positions in the field of cor­ of the patterns is six years of elementary school, and a doctor of social work (DSW) after a number cal methodologies, and which - on the rections, while at the same time insisting on offering three years of junior high school, and three years of of additional years, usually about three. no specialized instruction in criminology or correc­ human side - consist of personnel pro­ senior high school. Whatever the distribution, the For the foreign observer it should be especially duced by rigidly circumscribed educa­ tions in the schools of social work; presumably only sum total in most cases is 12 years. generic training in all types of social work is needed. stressed that in the United States the graduate pro­ tional systems, unified in professional The high school is followed by four years of col­ fessional schools such as law schools, medical associations and watchful above all over The result of all of these developments was that lege or university, at the end of which the student schools, schools of social work, etc., are entered the prerogatives and advantages of the until very recently the field of criminology was dis­ receives the Bachelor's degree. Thus, by and large, only after the student has obtained the Bachelor's profession; on the other - the quest of sected into many parts, handled by other social and the Bachelor's degree is obtained after 16 years of degree. Thus graduation from a law school in the the general public for answers and action behavioral disciplines which "colonized" criminol­ study. United States usually means eight years of univer­ on the pressing problems confronting it, ogy for employment opportunities and occasional The foreign observer should also be made aware sity study or at least seven years in some of the which problems do not fit in their entirety research projects, but left the field divided, without of the existence of the AA degree - Associate of telescoped programs. On the other hand, a United into the scope of a single scientific disci­ effective leadership in the development of theory Arts degree - in this country. This degree is States participant should be made aware of the fact pline, obviously cannot be solved in terms for the total phenomenon of crime and the use of granted after two years of college-level study, very that the continental European, South American and of the interpretational models of any this theory as an underpinning for the action pro­ often by the so-called junior colleges. This degree many other educational systems developed under single discipline and clearly demand a grams of the operational agencies of crime control. sometimes functions as a terminal degree, but very the continental European influence have their fac­ broader, multidisciplinary approach." * I have often cited the fact that while American often the students who receivl9 the AA degree then ulties of medicine or faculties of law entered by The discipline of criminology and the subsequent departments of sociology housed the discipline of enter a four year w,li;'ersity or college and receive the students immediately upon graduation from high quest for the academic field of criminal justice de­ criminology for more than half a century, wrote a Bachelor's degr(!e after two more years of study. school. veloped much later than some of the other aca­ textbooks, conducted research and taught innum­ Studies beyond the Bachelor's degree are desig­ It is felt that this amount of information about demic disciplines of social and behavicral science. erable students, they never established a real link nated as graduate study, and the students as the educational system of the United States, One might speculate about the reasons for this. with the operational agencies. Having intimate graduate students. The first graduate or advanced although very limited, is indispensable at least as a Perhaps the fact that the crime control system for knowledge of the functioning of the American Cor­ degree is the Master's degree, which is most -Fre­ starting point for the discussions of this Conference. centuries or perhaps even thousands of years was rectional Association, I can testify to the continued quently differentiated as Master of Arts (MA) and "In discussing preparation of personnel for the based on the punitive sanctions of a criminal-law disappointment of its members at the almost total Master of Science (MS) degrees, although many criminal justice field in the United States in the last system, the doctrine of freedom of the will, freedom absence of any academic sociologists specializing variations exist. Generally the MA degree is granted decade, it is important to distinguish between edu­ on the part of the offender to make the right or in criminology at the Annual Congresses of Correc­ to students in the humanities and social sciences, cation and training. While this distinction has wrong move with regard to criminal-law norms, tion, Sociologists, like the members of other social while the MS degree is more typical for the physical always existed, it became more important with the made it more difficult to approach the whole field science disciplines, remained primarily sociologists sciences, e.g., chemistry, engineering, etc., and the expansion of resources for the preparation of crimi­ of criminal behavi0r from the point of view of causes and identified themselves with the American Socio­ life sciences (zoology, botany etc.). The time re­ nal justice personnel. 'Education' refers to prepara­ and a means-ends scheme of rational modern social logical Association and its annual meetings. quired for obtaining a Master's degree is sometimes tion of a general nature in an educational institution; science. This is, of course, just a hypothesis, but All of the above discussion seems to indicate that officially one year, sometimes two years, and in prac­ even in the case of professional or specialized edu­ there might be something to it. Anyhow, the first the interdisciplinary field of criminal justice and tice is usually at least two years. Thus when one cation, it means general preparation for a particular clear statement regarding the need for a special criminology needs its own integrated academic pro­ meets a person with a Master's degree, one can type of occupation or profession. Intermediate be­ scientific discipline to study crime - criminology gram in order to advance research, education, and generally assume that this person has had 18 years tween general and specialized education is adaptive - did not come until just about 100 years ago. preparation of personnel for its own needs. What of education. education, an additional educational program for a Regardless of what one thinks of some of the other are needed are properly educated members of a The doctoral degree, especially the Ph.D., usually generally educated person who plans to prepare theories of Lombroso, he must be given credit for profession who have a life-long identification and a requires at least three years beyond the Master's him/herself for a more specialized field, e.g., a having issued the call for the study of the causes stake in the development of crime prevention and degree, inclusive of the doctoral dissertation. Thus psychologist who, after completing his psychological of crime - criminology - as an organized and control. Only such proofessionals would have a sense when one meets the holder of a Ph.D. degree in the education, engages in some study of criminology in specialized s:ientific discipline. of responsibility and a vested interest, if you will, in United States, one should assume that one is deal­ order to prepare him/herself for work in a correc­ When criminology appeared on the academic satisfying the needs of the society with regard to the ing with a person who has spent 21 years in the tional institution. 'Training', on the other hand, scene and attempted to establish a niche for itself crime problem. educational process and is at least 27 years old. refers to preparation for a specific job or specific There are, of course, exceptions, and one occa­ position after a person has become an employee of sionally meet a child prodigy who has obtained a a particular agency, institution, or system. Training "'UNSDRI, Rome 1971, S.P. No.1, pp. 9-10. doctoral degree much faster. But these are excep- can be taken before entry on the job, in which case 8 9

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it is referred to as preservice training, or it can be grams on the university level in the field of criminal DOCTORAL·LEVEL EDUCATION IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY taken while on the job, in which case it is called justice and criminology, which became apparent inservice training." * before the federal monies were made available, re­ A report on the present situation in the .Nordic countries of Europe ceived the additional stimulus of federal financial (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) support beginning with 1968. This resulted in an THE RECENT 'EXPLOSION' OF almost incredible increase in the number of univer­ by CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION sity programs at all degree levels. The best known IN THE UNITED STATES and tradition-bound universities did not hesitate to Alvar Nelson* introduce such programs at much greater speed The American educator should be and probably than is usual for the academic community, and is aware and our foreign colleagues should be made many younger and more applied program institu· aware of the fact that this discussion of criminal tions actually made the studies of law enforcement 1. THE POSITION OF CRIMINAL SCIENCE countries and many young r"'5earch workers and justice education takes place at a time of unprece­ and criminology a major component of their cur­ IN THE NORDIC COUNTRIES junior university teachers WE. :, "lbroad in order to dented rapid expansion of such education in the ricula. The following table, reproduced from the learn what was not taught at home. They had It is a tradition in the Nordic countries that varied academic backgrounds from the faculties of United States. This is why the dramatic term "ex­ International Association of Chief of Police 1975-76 the professors of Criminal Law take active part plosion" is used in the title of this section. Prior Directory gives a picture of this development. Law, Medicine and Social Sciences. Their personal in legislative work. Their knowledge of the legal interests and the topics in vogue at the universities to 1960, degree-granting programs in criminology doctrine, of the administration of criminal justice or in police science on the university level were they visited gave a diversity that enabled Criminol· ..... 1/) by the courts and the administrative agencies and ogy to develop in different directions in the Nordic practically non-existent, the one exception being the Q) Q) OC their contact with the international debate on .... Q) I/) ..... l...2 universities. California School of Criminology at Berkeley, which ro ro Q) ...... l.. l.. criminal policy have given them a strong position was in operation since 1935. There were, of course, '(3 roro .....Q) 0 .a::l Criminology is now introduced as a subject at 0 ue I/) ..... E:;; in the parliamentary commissions and expert com­ a number of curricula in criminology and in police I/) u::l ro u ::l(/) many Nordic universities and research institutes (/) c mittees on criminal law reform. No doubt that the science which functioned as "specializations" lead­ Directory « &l~ ~ 0 zE have been established at a few of them. This de­ -"- ~-- ~ --~-- --.--"----.... ~ . "-_ ..- -- .. .. quality of the legislative work has improved by their velopment started already in 1944 when a lecture­ ing to a degree in the basic social science discipline 39 14 4 184 1966·1967 156 technical advice. They have however - while act­ ship at Copenhagen University was given to Karl O. (e.g., sociology or political science). When national ing as expert advisors - to some extent without concern about the crime problem in the United 1968-1969 199 44 13 5 234 Christiansen, later transformed to a chair. Crimi­ 1970-1971 257 55 21 7 292 any political mandate directed the criminal policy nology is now taught at the Law faculties and within States reached its peak in a rapid crescendo by and in fact made political decisions. I am willing to 1965, popular clamor for strengthening the criminal 1972·1973 505 211 41 9 515 the Social Science faculties, sometimes as a part give them full credit for their expert job. Legisla­ of Sociology. justice system was accompanied by realization of the 1974·1975 729 376 121 19 664 tion, doctrine and legal usage form a unity and a need for the study of the problem and for the produc­ guaranty for stability and safeguards of the rights In the last decade more interest has been spent tion of qualified - that is, educated - personnel. on Criminal Policy as a part of social control. These It should be noted that the above statistics, as of the individual is given. At the same time the After the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and risks for stagnation have become evident particu­ aspects have been focused in Finland more than in Safe Streets Act in 1968, which established the Law indicative as they are, probably do not reflect the the other countries. Finland has also given special full expansion of the educational opportunities for larly in the field of definitions of crime and of Enforcement Assistance Administration within the specific crimes. attention to crime control from economic aspects. U.S. Department of Justice, unprecedented fnds, the field of criminal justice and criminology, because A new project in Sweden has started in collabora­ reaching in a few years 900 million dollars a year, they list only the programs offering degrees in In periods, there has been a gap between the tion between Economics and Law including an eco­ were made available to strengthen the system. A criminal justice, while many institutions intensified chairs in Criminal Law and other chairs within the nomic decision-making view of criminal behavior. substantial portion of these funds was appropriated their offerings in this field without necessarily es· law faculties, notably in Constitutional Law and Ad­ While punitive and correctional measures have been for research purposes in all phases of the criminal tablishing a formal degree. ministrative Law. Moreover, in Sweden Criminal carefully studied in all the Nordic countries less at­ justice system, and very considerable amounts were It is hoped that this statement of the purpose Procedure is separated from Criminal Law and tention has been given to studies concentrated on assigned for direct support of educational programs and background of the Conference will be of some taught under the chair of (Civil and Criminal) Pro­ the role of the police, prosecution and courts due to and especially financial aid to students. Thus the help especially to our colleagues from abroad in cedure. Thus the concentration of the work to the already mentioned fact that these topics partly strong trend toward development of educational pro- setting the scene for our discussions. Criminal Law has lead to isolation, and important lie under other parts of the legal education. parts of the Criminal Justice system have been ignored. The interaction between criminal and social legislation has mainly been studied outside the 2. REGULATIONS CONCERNING DOCTOR'S Criminal Law. Prosecution remission and summary DEGREES IN THE UNIVERSITIES imposition of fines by the police or the prosecutor Traditionally the doctor's degree was awarded by are topics in the outskirts of Procedure. Police work the faculty (in Norway by the academic collegium) is mostly ignored. and the whole faculty took responsibility for the The system of sanctions has been gradually trans­ judging of the dissertation presented to the public formed since the early part of the 19th century and and publicly defended. When dissertations were the professors of Criminal law have taken an active presented in Criminal Justice andCriniinology they part in these reforms. "(heir contacts with the devel­ were generally accepted in the faculty where the opments in central and southern Europe and Great author had carried out his graduate studies. Thus Britain enabled them efficiently to support the de­ the efforts of the author could lead him to a doctor's mand for reforms raised by prison administrators, degree in Law if he was a lawyer, in Medicine if this educators and politicians. In fact their contribution was his original field of studies and Social Sciences to the reforms mainly consisted in reshaping ideol­ if he had studied e.g., Sociology or Economics. ogy to legislation. In the committee work an in­ There are however exceptions. creasing demand for empirical data to support the Once within the realm of a faculty the disserta­ proposals lead the committees to initiate rather tion could pass over the boundaries of several chairs crude investigations and to collect statistical ma­ and even include material from fields outside the terial. Thus elements of criminology were added to faculty. In Denmark and Norway the real control of Criminal Law and Criminal PolicY. the work was carried out long before the public act After the end of the second world war a wider by a board !t!c!uding the specialists on the subject interest in Criminology was found in the Nordic within or partly outside the faculty. This board re-

"Quoted, slightly adapted, from P. Lejins, Criminal Justice in the United States 1970·1975, An Overview, The American Cor­ rectional Association, 1976, pp. 32·33. *Regius Professor of Criminal Law, Faculty of Law, University of Uppsala, Sweden. 10 11 ported to the faculty who granted permission to the Uppsala: All the research institutes have a staff composed 3-6 years of full-time education. The post-graduate author to defend his book. Such control is still in Ola Nyquist. Juvenile Justice. In English. Uppsala of mainly younger assistants trained in many differ­ studies are scheduled to last 4 years, but most of practice and the quality of the dissertation is high. 1960302 p. (Dr.Jur.) ent academic subjects. The Helsinki institute is ori­ the students spend even more time before they Mostly they qualify the author for a chair if one is ented towards political and social sciences. The John Takman. The Gypsies in Sweden. In English. reach the doctorate. On the doctoral-level the main vacant. Uddevalla 1976. 173 p. (Med.Dr.) staffs are also involved in teaching Criminal Law, parts of the teaching is transformed into pure indi­ Nowadays the sovereignty of the faculty is abol­ Criminal Policy and Criminology and working on one vidual guidance. Already the small number of re­ ished and the judgment is passed by a smaller group It should be added that the examination for of their own research projects, e.g., Greve in Copen­ search students in the field of Criminal Justice and of persons, in Sweden by the responsible professor Iicentiatus juris to some extent is equivalent to an hagen, Aromaa in Helsinki, Hauge in Oslo and Criminology indicates that education on the doctoral­ and a few other academic teachers. The judgment, American doctor's degree and that this degree has LenkE; in Stockholm. Members of the institutes take level cannot be given in groups unless we give passed or not passed, is given after the public act been given to several persons in Denmark and one an active part in legislative work, besides that access to qualified persons outsioe the universities, and all the previous control lies on the professor or two in Sweden for works in Criminal Justice and already mentioned, especially Tornudd in Helsinki. e.g., doctors, attorneys, civil servants and people in during the postgraduate work. At the same time Criminology. Similar ~rends are also found in Fin­ Research in Criminology is not exclusively going private employment. the period of postgraduate research is cut down to land and Norway. on in the institutes now mentioned. The sociological The Nordic Council for Criminology and other four years and the quality of the work, and not only departments in the different universities are very organizations, e.g., state foundations and adminis­ the quantity, seems to have gone down even in the active in Criminal Science, so, e.g., Wolf in Copen­ trative units, try to fill the gap by holding confer­ Law facu Ities. An accepted dissertation in Sweden 3. EDUCATION IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE hagen, Bondeson in Lund, Mathiesen in Oslo and ences and seminars where researchers in the field does not even automatically give access to a lecture­ AND CRIMINOLOGY Persson in Stockholm. Forensic psychiatry has a of Criminal Justice and Criminology come together ship. long tradition in the Nordic countries and is carried and often meet judges, administrators, medical ex­ Teaching in Criminal Justice and Criminology out in the clinics, e.g., by Westling in Helsinki and perts and politicians. Such meetings on a national Dissertations in the field of Criminal Justice and takes place both on the graduate and the postgrad­ Tornqvist in Uppsala. Some of the national correc­ Criminology are rare in the Nordic countries, num­ or Nordic basis have proved themselves useful as a uate level in the faculties of Law and Sciences. tional administrations carry out their own research basis tor promotion of mutual understanding, better bering in the last quarter of a century around 30 in projects, e.g., in Sweden headed by Bishop. The all universities together. Let me without prejudice In Denmark Hurwitz-Christiansen, Criminology I- knowledge of ongoing projects and a wider perspec­ 1I'(in Danish) Copenhagen 1968-71 is the standard Swedish ministery of Justice has its own Council for mention a few of them: tive on criminal science. hand-book. crime prevention which has its own research staff Being small countries with a total population of Aarhus: In Finland Anttila-Tornudd, Criminology in the and also sponsors projects run by other researchers. Reports by parliamentary Commissions and expert only 21 million inhabitants we feel that we cannot Verner Goldschmidt: Legal Behavior. In Danish, no Perspective of Criminal Policy (in Finnish and at the moment establish doctoral education in Crimi­ summary. Copenhagen 1957 228+203 p. (Dr. Swedish) Helsinki 1973 is the text-book. committees often include scientific appendices pre­ pared by experts in Criminal Justice and Criminol­ nal Justice and Criminology even on a Nordic basis. jr.) Norway has a variety of publications in the field. ogy. Many of these experts work in or in contact Moreo:,er do we accept the present possibilities of awarding doctor degrees in different faculties in Copenhagen: Sweden is still lacking a text- or hand-book but with the institutes mentioned above, others are em­ Elwin-Heckscher-Nelson, The First Stone (in Swedish) ployed in the state administration, e.g., the statis­ the universities believing that the degrees given Karl O. Christiansen. Criminal Collaboration with 4 ed. 1975 is widely used. correspond well to the academic background and the Germans. In Danish, summary in English. ticians. Graduate stUdents often produce the back­ ground material, sometimes as a part of their research work of the candidates? We would, how­ Copenhagen 1955 348+60 p. (Dr.Jur.) In Sweden Criminology is only taught in Stock­ ever, be pleased to have such education established holm on the graduate level and Stockholm is the examination papers. Hans Gammeltoft-Hansen. Detention Before Trial. abroad with the possibility for us to send promising In Danish, summary in English. Copenhagen only place where· you can reach the doctorate in students there for doctoral educ;:Jtion, not only for Criminology either in the faculty of Law or the 1976. 513 p. (Dr.Jur.) 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS a broad educational programme in Criminal Justice faculty of Sciences. but especially for methodological training and par­ Helsinki: Seminars on Criminal Policy are held regularly The traditional educational system in the Nordic ticipating in research. This may in the long run Paavo Uusitalo: Prison Colonies. In Finnish. Hel­ in Uppsala. universities is based on the fact that the school encourage us to take up such an educational pro­ sinki 1958. (PoI.Dr.) The regulations for research work for the doc­ education covers also what in America is generally gram on a Nordic or national basis. I trust that our Raimo Lahti, Prosecution Remission. In Finnish. torate in Finland and Sweden assume that regular taught during the first academic year. Our freshmen students on their return from abroad will be the first Helsinki 1975. (Dr.Jur.) teaching should be given at the doctoral-level. are in general 19 years old when they enter the to promote such a development like our young Already due to the very small number of students university and the studies for the first degree take criminologists did a generation ago. Lund: this cannot be practised. The teaching staff takes Goran Skogh: Criminal Law and Economy. In Swed­ active part in the seminars and individual advice ish. Summary in English 138 p. (Fil. Dr.) is given to a varying extent. Many of the research Ulla Bondeson: The Inmate in the Prison Society. In students are collaborating in the projects of the Swedish, summary in English. 632 p. (FiI.Dr.) research institutes or the legislative bodies. Inde­ pendent research projects are sponsored mainly by Oslo: the State research foundations. Vilhelm Aubert. On the Social Function of Punish­ ,ment. In Norwegian. Oslo 1954 (Dr. Phil.) Anders Bratholm. Arrest and Detention Before Trial. 4. RESEARCH IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE In Norwegian, summary in English. Oslo 1957 AND CRIMINOLOGY 412 p. (Dr.Jur) The rapid development of Criminology in the Thomas Mathiesen: The Defences of the Weak. In fifties lead to the establishment of institutes of English. London 1965 (Dr.Phil.) Criminology in Aarhus, Copenhagen, Helsinki, Oslo Kare Bodal: 1. The Training School and the Results and Stockholm. The Aarhus Institute had small re­ of Treatment. Oslo 1965. 2. From Training sources and faded after the successful start of the School to Youth Prison - Clients and Results. Institute in Copenhagen, where Christiansen tool{ Oslo 1969. In Norwegian. (Dr.Phil.) care of Criminology and Waaben of Criminal Law and Criminal Policy. The Helsinki Institute merged Stockholm: into the State Research Institute for Legal Policy, Knut Sveri. Criminality and Age. In Norwegian, still with Anttila as director. The Oslo Institute had summary in English. Stockholm 1960 242 p. a rapid development under Andenaes, and Christie (Dr.Jur.) and Bratholm have now taken over after Andenaes. Gustav Jonsson. Delinquent Boys, Their Parents and The growth of the Stockholm Institute, headed by Grandparents. Copenhagen 1967 (Med.Dr.) Sveri, has been slow. 12 13 ------~~~~~~-

DOCTORAL-LEVEL EDUCATION IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY criminologist could be more properly defined as one Criminological Developments IN THE UNITED KINGDOM of question raising rather than of question solving. (Post·graduate level) The real issue seems to me to be whether we can in Law Faculties by at the doctoral-level educate a person to be both a professional and an academic. In my Madrid paper The following universities have Law Faculties in­ F. H. McClintock* in 1970, I put it in the following way: terested in criminal justice and criminology. "Criminologists in Great Eritain are being 1) Cambridge - Institute of Criminology consulted about projected changes in the I have been asked to speak for some ten to fifteen jective identity and criminal justice as being a social criminal law and penal administration. 2) Edinburgh - School of Criminology and Foren­ minutes on the doctoral-level education in Criminal control system to be perfected or at least to be made This, in itself, may be regarded as a sic Studies (Criminology Department associ­ Justice and Criminology in the United Kingdom. It more effective in relation to unquestioned goals, to healthy development and II recognition of ated with the Sociolegal Studies Department) seems to be to be very difficult to deal in any sys­ a recognition o~ the problematic nClture of the phe­ the practical relevance of! modern crimi­ 3) Sheffield - Center of Criminology (Criminol­ tematic way with a subject so complex within such nomenon of crime, and the problematic assumptions nology; but there is also 'I:he danger that ogy and Sociolegal Studies) a short span of time. I think we have already found that sustain and support the containment of the in so far as the criminOIO\gist undertakes 2) Edinburgh - School of Criminology and the role of a technologist in the social that one cannot deal with doctoral-level education criminal justice system. In the United Kingdom, Forensic Studies (Criminology Department as­ without considering its role in relation to the higher the consensus between the academic community sphere he may neglect his more funda­ sociated with the Sociolegal Studies Depart­ educational system of the particular country and and the policy-makers and the senior administrators mental role of being an i tdependent and ment) without considering the levels of conceptualization that prevailed in the field of crime and criminal jus­ informed critic of the bas c issues of the of questions of crime and criminal justice issues in tice through to the 1960's was breached, if not social and penal processes in contempo­ 5) Oxford - Penal Research Unit, Sociolegal each country. Certainly there was one experiment shattered, by the new criminologists, the critical or rary society ... above a I the academic Center ten years ago when in July 1966 the National Con­ radical criminologists, the symbolic interactionists, criminologists will need tc consider what 6) Lond,on - Law, Sociology, Psychiatry. Social ference of Research and Teaching in Criminology at . during that decade. This has emphasized the politi­ they think their role shoulcl be. It may be Studies (Veele taught a course in Criminology Cambridge devoted a major part of the Conference cal content of much of the content and many of that criminologists can as!iist in bringing at the post-graduate level). Sociology of devi­ to an examination of the development of and current the assumptions underlying academic programs in about more effective contnl and yet also ance and social control taught at both under. issues in teaching criminology in the United King­ criminology; as well as leading to a questioning of remain independent critic~i of the social graduate and post-graduate levels dom, and at which I gave a paper on postgraduate the very existence of criminology and criminal jus­ and penal system but clearly these two and doctoral education in criminology (Appendix I). tice as separate academic SUbjects. roles are inevitably to somE' extent in con­ Three universities have Ol-;e-year interdisciplinary courses in the Faculty of Law. On reading that paper last night, I find that in the Last Spring our Social Science Research Council, flict and they are difficult 10 fulfill by the United Kingdom many of the issues raised then which has a considerable influence on postgraduate same individual." ~~ 1) Cambridge University - One year inter­ remain valid today, even though there has been teaching and research in the United Kingdom, held Although this problem has lot been solved, I disciplinary course, average 20 students, with considerable expansion in higher education in a conference on the future of post-graduate work in would suggest, at least for th,~ time being, that 4 or 5 Ph.Do's in Criminological subjects. criminology in the intervening years. Sociolegal Studies, and, in a paper, "The Experience because" of the powerfu I position ::>f the agents of the 2) Sheffield University - one year taught· 1) The issue between the academic versus of Criminology" (Appendix II), I argued that state in relation to crime prevelltion, criminal jus­ courses (criminology and penology) with 20 the practical usefulness of the subject. criminology and criminal justice were basically tice, and crime control, it carl be claimed that stUdents on the average and 5 or 6 Ph.D.'s in sociolegal subjects, and that there were many dis­ criminology has a special position in relation to both 2) The need for provision of top and middle criminological subjects. advantages from regarding them as fundamentally sociological and legal studies at the post-graduate 3) Edinburgh University - one year taught management range administrators and interdisciplinary in character. I suggest that the fu­ level. professionals on the one side and the courses on sociolegal basis with 10 students ture of criminological and criminal justice studies The United Kingdom consists of some 55 million on the average: 8-10 Ph.D_, M. Phil. or LL.M. need for proven critical scholarly research from the academic perspective is in broadening workers and teachers on the other side. people and has three criminal justice systems in criminal justice and criminological subjects. them out and along into the wider context of soci­ (England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ire­ 3) The nature of research experience at the ology and of legal sociology. This is not, however, to Expansion in government support is increasing land),which are autonomous in a:lministration ex­ in relation to two year courses. Personnel for the doctoral-level - master/craft apprentice suggest that such a viewpoint is widely held by many cept for the role of the Privy Council and appeals crim!n~1 justice area tend to have a further year of approval or education in research through of my colleagues in the United Kingdom, but it does to .,the House of Lords. involvement in project or field research. indicate an alea of uncertainty and concern which sp~clallzed professional training in Police Colleges, The l.Jniversity in the United King:lom has a three Pnson Staff Colleges, and Social Service in-service 4) The national requirement for academic may eventually influence the development of post· or four year degree, an intermediat9 higher degree courses for probation and parole personnel. leaders and research workers in criminol­ graduate work in these subjects in the United King. for. one or two years, and a three year Ph.D. (D. ogy and criminal justice and the need for dom. . ~erhaps the future will be to develop our criminal The other main issue which has lead, in the PhiL). There is no Ph.D. as such 'n Criminology, Justice post-graduate stUdies on a broader basis different ldnds of professionals to have but rather in Law, Social Science/F sychology Ad. higher education in criminology and United Kingdom, to a fundamental reconsideration which includes consideration of prevention pro­ ministration, etc. Senior higher doc'orates (M.D./ criminal justice subjects. of our teaching at the post-graduate and doctoral­ grammes in relation to social justice issues and not level is that of methodology - the questioning of LL.D.jD.Sc. (Social Sciences)) are no: honorary de­ just confining such consideration to the criminal These issues remain largely unsolved and still the nature of social sciences, the methods of know­ grees, but assessments of scholarsh; AI. justice system. currently discussed in the United Kingdom, which ing and understanding social reality which have then leads on to the detailed discussions of course obviously profoundly effected our approach to re­ designs and content, as well as the issues of faculty search and teaching at the post-graduate level. We or interfaculty responsibility for such courses (law, can no longer restrict methodology to the provision \ social science, medicine) and the content and stand­ of various skills and statistical techniques for re­ \ ards of attainment of primary degree courses as \ essential or desirable for students wishing to spe­ search which used to be termed tools of the social cialize in the criminology/criminal justice area of sciences, but need to deal in our courses with philo­ higher education. sophical and epistemological questions. In such But, in the United Kingdom as elsewhere, the courses, the nature of knowing has replaced the Chi doctoral-level of education in criminal justice and square as the focus of concern. Again in the United criminology has been profoundly effected by the Kingdom, these issues have by no means been re­ shift from thB acceptance of crime as being an ob- solved, and some will argue that the function of the

"'Director, School of Criminology and Forensic Science, Faculty of Law, Old College, Edinburgh University. Edinburgh, *"Crime Problems in Great Britain Today" by N. H. Avison and F. H. McClintock in Proceedings of VI International Con. Scotland, United I

______=_..1 _ DOCTORAL-LEVEL EDUCATION IN CRIMINOLOGY: LEUVEN, BELGIUM ability to communicate, both verbally and in writing. ception of criminology. It should be a more realistic Selection must be more realistic and more intensive. education rather than pure academic education and by Belgian politicians and public and private man· prof~ssionalization. agement do not appreciate the doctoral degree, nor Lode Van Outrive* This realistic education should mean only that we do they value university graduate degrees (I refer have specific entrees to the whole problem of our here to the enormous academic unemployment we actual and future society. We should not limit our have at this moment; criminologists, sociologists, horizon to the criminal justice system. We could Neither in Leuven nor in Belgium or the Nether­ doing the research for which they are contracted. psychologists, even pedagogists in all of the enclose ourselves in our jails, in our courts, in our lands do we have true doctoral-level teaching or (It has become a normal situation that a contractual branches of the human sciences, are unemployed.) police systems forever. Most of al/, we have to education in criminology. To become a doctor in research project should result in a doctoral thesis). For me, this unemployment is an indicator that cooperate to change these systems. criminology, formally, you need: there is no interest in nor value of university grad­ There are two important consequences of this uate degrees. We should not, however, beg them to It means that we must consider all methods and - a degree of "licence in criminology"** ob· situation: appreciate the doctoral degree. all implications of control in society and consider tained with at least a "distinguished"; 1. Institute research planning must take into ac· the dialectic tensions between them and the com­ - a "promotor" - a professor who accepts the We should avoid increasing the length of study in munity or individual organization and development. count the individual doctoral research inten­ criminology. We do not want to add one or two years student as his promovendus and who agrees tions. We should always have in mind the dialectic between with the student's plan of study or research; to the 2 or 4 years we have now. It would be better the two possibilities - to control (in) the society 2. T~1e teaching assistants in actuality do not de· to concentrate our efforts on the development of or to (re)·construct the society. - a decision, or "fiat", from the faculty·council, recycling sessions open to ex-stUdents and person­ who must accept the promotor and the project. vote all their time to education, so that the actual staff supply is less than formally stated. nel of the criminal justice system or implicated in We must be aware of the history and function of During the next five years no one else is the system. These persons should have the oppor­ criminology as it evolved to the present and be ready allowed to study the same subject; (So a staffing ratio of 1/14 for education does not give a real image of the situation.) tunity in these recycling sessions to meet other to reconsider the name or the term criminology. - later on, an agreement of the faculty-council to scholars, professionals, officials and people other Perhaps we can think in terms of a "justice system" hold a public defense of the doctoral·thesis; As a result, the guidance of the promoter can be than criminologists, and to have collective open ex­ rather than a criminal justice system. the faculty council selects a jury of 3 or 4 lec­ intensive when he is actually present on his univer· change. This is education just as much as standard sity job or when the doctoral research fits into We must remain, or become, really interdiscipli· turers together with the promotor who judge post·graduate degree programs are. nary and fight against all piecemeal engineering and the doctoral-thesis and notify the promotor the professor's and/or the department's planning. Otherwise, most of the promovendi are left to their It is said that to develop doctoral·level education artificial splitting up of the human sciences. To my whether or not the candidate is able to defend mind, criminology is a good place to develop all his thesis in public; own inspiration. The amount of time to finish a requires a complete professionalization of criminol­ ogy. Is it really necessary and indicated to continue kinds of interdisciplinary encounters. - a public review with a presentation by the doctor's thesis depends on the willingness and effort of the promovendus to work hard. to focus his ef­ this professionalization on a doctoral level? In my What I have described for graduate education promovendus, a debate with the jury, and also mind, even at tile graduate level, we must from to­ a period of time for the public to ask questions. forts, and to concentrate on his doctoral research. would be even more true for post-graduate initia­ It depends also on his occupation with and devotion day on be more critical of the development and con- tives. - the public proclamation that the candidate is to education and his participation in other research awarded his doctorate, if the jury is satisfied programs. Of importance also is the degree of re­ with the public defense. spect of the professor-promoter for the doctoral What happens in reality? There is indeed no real needs of his pupil. education program. The candidate should, of course, Usually, a doctoral thesis is finished after 4-6 study on his own as much as he needs for his doc· years. Once the manuscript is finished and ap· toral degree. His promotor can advise him but does proved by the promoter, he identifies himself with not always do so. With very few exceptions only the doctoral product and defends his cand.idate university·assistants (professors), researchers, and, against the other lecturers. There is almost always most of all, those young people who think they will a "non·official" pre-defense. All of the people in·, stay on in a university job, prepare for a doctoral volved sit down together and discuss the thesis. • _,'I degree. Even many university assistants or re­ Very often this discussion comes a little late because searchers, who are not sure that they will be able the jury is constituted too late in the process. After to stay on at the university, do not finish their doc· that, the doctorandus takes account of the remarks toral degree. Of course, there are a few exceptions: very motivated people, some high officials. Other (or not), adapts his manuscript, bargains with the students, in general, do not see the utility in having lecturers, and so on. a doctoral degree. They do not need it to get job The public session of defense is pure window­ promotions or to have a higher· level job, etc. dressing, a little exhibitionistic, a theatre·session, a So, the doctoral thesis is primarily a research kind of ritual and folkloristic game. project, isolated or part of a broader institute-wide Should we develop doctoral-level educational pro­ research pian. Whether or not it is a part of a grams in the sense of having more doctors? In my broader research plan depends on the research mind rather not. And here I will speak specifically functio(1 that the department has developed. Most to the Belgian situation. I should not speak for the of thE' time, however, the promovendus will per· Netherlands. sonal;y pay at least a part of the research expenses. At t;1e same time. of course, some types of research Academically prepared people are an integral part ar'J quite impossible for a doctoral thesis. of the university staff, but we need, of course, other In recent years, a teaching assistant may spend types of people in our universities. e.g., practitioners at least half of his labor time on his doctoral re­ who never had the opportunity to ar.:hieve a doc­ search. This so-called "own doctoral labor time" is toral degree who would be on short-term contracts. bargained for with the unions. It is considered Whatever criteria of selection are used, however, all normal that they complete their doctoral thesis of the university staff must prove they have the

"Professor, Kat\1OJicke Universiteit to Leuven, voor Criminologie, S. Gelde,naakse West, Leuven, Belgium. uA student gets a degree of "licence" at about the age of 22 or 23 after 4 years of education or after 2 years if he already has another degree (in law, sociology. psychology, etc.) 16 17

ri DOCTORAL-LEVEL EDUCATION IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY dents applied for the doctorate. One cannot begin planning and criminology. Some of the best trainees IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY writing the dissertation unless one has terminated might enter universities in order to receiVe addi­ the first 4 or 5 years of university education suc­ tion~1 education on the post-graduate level. cessfully (particular standards are required by dis­ by sertation regulations set up by faculty boards and Social workers did not receive any university edu­ approved by the Ministry of Education). cation up to the sixties. All education was offered Hans J. Kerner* by so-called Fachlochschulen (Professional High However, in all but a few cases the whole affair Schools). Now we do have the discipline of social­ of becoming a doctor could be handled as a question pedagogics at the universities. A few of them offer of personal acquaintanceship and agreement be­ spe?ialized courses in criminal justice, mainly reo INTRODUCTION criminal justice programs. Besides, the American tween a single professor and a single applicant. way of rather pragmatic planning in order to meet ferrlng to matters of probation, parole, and "Jugend­ I probably should begin with stating that there They fix the theme, agree upon the work to be done gerichtshilfe" (Juvenile Court Assistance work). societal demands has not been adopted to a relevant and the quality to be reached, and only in the final isn't any elaborate doctoral-level educational pro­ degree by either universities or agencies. There are some post-graduate programs but no sys­ gram in criminal justice and criminology within the stage, after the applicant's delivering his disserta­ tematic educational program on the doctoral level. University system of Western Germany. During the One could conclude therefore: TIle German sys­ tion, do other faculty members become officially in­ Prison authorities were and are separated frcm last few years, however, we have experienced sev­ tem of criminal justice is at most a "non-system" volved. The details will, I think, be of no interest the universities. It was very uncommon that anyone eral new developments in post-graduate education when regarded in terms of interrelated policies of to the participants of this conference. In accord­ of the directors, administrators or wardens had, or which are to be promoted and implemented in the organizations and of the exchange of knowledge and ance with this rather individualistic approach, the later earned, a particular academic degree related near future. Therefore it might be worthwhile to experience between practitioners engaged in the list of dissertations actually delivered reflects a to criminology. Directors had ta be lawyers, and d8scribe the most relevant topics here. various parts. Consequently, we cannot provide our colorful picture of various preferences and idiosyn­ "doctors" had to be physicians or psychiatrists, interested students with integrated criminal justice crasies. Nevertheless, a few universities like Ham­ It is impossible to get a valid impression of what qualified in terms of the traditional disciplines. The and criminology education pertaining to all facets of burg and Frankfurt introduced near-programs for a agencies changed slightly their hiring policy since is going on in Germany without at least being in­ that very complex field of human behavior and couple of years as one applicant after another was formed on some structural issues of the educational 1970 in that the first full time psychologists and ·formal social control. Since the system exists only sent out to a different agency which must be ex­ sociologists were admitted for in-service. Most other and the training areas regarding criminal justice and in the heads of theoreticians it will take much en­ plored. By this method we received fruitful informa­ criminology. Germany should be considered as very structures remained uncharcied. As opposed to the deavor to get it working in reality. tion about most segments of the German criminal police, prison practitioners do not even have pro­ much a decentralized state. Within the Federal Re­ justice "system." p1lblic, such matters as education, law enforcement, fessional training instead of university education. The quality of the average dissertation dealing police and cou rt personnel recruiting and training, TRADITIONAL CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION There are only refresher courses for the lower and corrections and aftercare belong almost totally to with criminal justice and criminology issues rose the middle ranks of personnel which are said to deal the so-called "Lander", tile single States of the The German situation in general parallels most distinctly in the seventies as compared with the more with how to manage morning sport than with Republic. That is to say the Lander have the com­ of the other Western European countries. Upper sixties. One reason for this might be the decreasing topics in criminal justice and criminology. number of applicants aiming at the doctoral degree petence to organize the field, to hire the relevant level criminal justice education is scarcely offered By far the worst situation is to be seen in the primarily to strengthen their reputation and promote civil servants or officers a.s.f., to pass organizational at any university since this matter will normally be fields of planning, researching and evaluating their careers. But in my opinion one should stress and behavioral regulations. But the Lander do not considered as a problem of training within the insti­ criminal justice programs within and outside the another point: the establishment of clearly defined have full competence to pass basic laws. Penal law, tutions after the students receive their first univer­ agencies. Neither universities nor state authorities criminological chairs at the universities which en­ criminal procedural law, traffic law, etc., are mostly sity degree. However, educational issues in criminal devoted much attention to these problems until at the disposition of the Federal Government and law, procedural law, and regulations of police con­ abled scholars to do (and to demand) research instead of mere armchair paperwork. now. We obviously do need planners, researchers, Parliament. The same is true for laws pertaining to duct, as well as in laws pertaining to other kinds of and evaluators but those fGW we actually have are hiring standards, career lines, and professional pre­ deviant behavior (e.g., prostitution, alcoholism, men­ Sociology, psychology, social work and peda­ often from disciplines which do not provide them requisites for civil servants, attorneys, prosecutors, tal illness) are traditionally taught to law students gogics students neither had the opportunity, nor on a regular basis with the particular criminological and judges. Police laws, educational laws, health in a substantive manner since, unlike American law liked it to a degree worth mentioning, to enter post­ information needed and, on the other hand, those laws (even mental health) could be enacted by the schools, German law facilities aim at producing dog­ graduate educational programs in criminal justice people educated in criminal justice matters normally Lander provided there has been some consu Itation matically equipped "jurists" rather than practically and criminology. Nevertheless since more and more do not receive courses;n planning and evaluation. with the federal authorities beforehand. The details oriented "lawyers", (i.e., attorney whose primary regulations are now allowing those students to A few exceptions are breaking the rule: people are quite complicated. For the purpose of this pre­ interest would lie in civil law, business law, etc.). choose one of these topics (especially criminology) trained at criminology institutes after earning a law sentation it might be SUfficient to say that ou r fed· Criminology so far has been a kind of hobby which as an integral part of their diploma-examination, and/or sociology degree who then enter agencies eral authorities have most of the legislative power some professors offer by way of seminars or addi­ the situation is beginning to change remarkably. as advisors or as staff members. tional courses. Particularly interested criminal law whereas state authorities have most of the executive Police personnel education and training occurred students might enroll in such courses hoping to in­ power. This division of competences seems to be up to now totally outside of the universities. No very helpful in terms of counterbalancing social and troduce some topics during the first examination. policeman could ever earn an academic degree NEW DEVELOPMENTS political influences and hindering misuse of the The 4·5 years of university education are followed unless he had performed one kind of traditional State's machinery, but, by the same token, it surely formerly by 3% years, now about 2 years, of in­ higher education before, e.g., in law, sociology or I'd liI{e to repeat: We do not have yet a separate forms a strong inhibitor against the transformation service education, called "Referendariat." Students forensic science. Only a few people got a doctoral and elaborate criminal justice and criminology pro­ of good new ideas and plans into practical pro­ ("Referendare") have some limited possibility of degree in criminal justice or criminology by re­ gram on the doctoral level in Western Germany. The grams. There are always too many agencies and strengthening criminal justice topics. They could entering the university and writing a particular dis­ changes dealt with in the following text will, at least people whose different interests hardly fit into one apply for jobs within the police, the prison system, sertation following the standards of the old disci­ as I can see, gain considerable influence on the unique proposition. or the juvenile correctional area, but only for a few plines. Nevertheless, federal and state governments authorities in direction of installing such programs. Needless to say, within tl1e Lander the different months. No one would get the permission to spe­ have improved professionalization during the last Post-graduate education is still basically a rather parts of the Criminal Justice field are controlled by cialize from the beginning and to pursue this up to few years. The most important event in this "individualistic" operation following the diploma or Staatexamen degree. Nevertheless, promising struc­ different ministries. Although minor problems the second state examination since the official and regard might be the establishment of the Polizei­ legally sanctioned training/educational philosophy tural reorganization of the whole field of high level might be solved quickly one should not think of Fuerhrungsakademie (Police Executive Training was that of having a "generalist" experienced in Academy near Hiltrup in Westphalia). All police offi­ education has been inaugurated. getting major programs through before mastering various fields of administering the law or, in other cers aiming at executive positions (be it within a a lot of fences and, by doing so, wasting time and 1. The first stage of development was the introduc­ words, versatile enough to fulfill various agency c.ity police department, a state bureau of investiga­ tion of the so-called Wahlfac/1gruppen (selective or energy. defined purposes. tion or our Federal Bureau of Investigation) must optional intensification programs) into the legal edu­ These are, of course, only selected causes for the It was (and it is still at some places) during that pass a rigorous program within this Training Acad­ cation curricula. Effective since the beginning of the comparatively slow development of imaginative new stage of "Referendariat" that qualified graduate stu- ~my lasting up to more than one year and pertain­ se~/enties, students are offered some kind of spe­ Ing to various issues like police law, criminalistics cialization. After completing four semesters of basic and evidence, and also to management, resource legal education they have to decide what optional *Professor of Criminology, University of Bielefeld, Federal Republic of Germany. allocation, cost-benefit calculations, criminal justice program of a total of eight they would like to choose. 18 19

h There is not always free choice in that some univer­ Foundation and aimed at basic structures of so­ stages near institutions or within agencies - (partly sities cannot afford the whole range of options. cialization and communication in normal life devel­ German Lander for the first time created a whole normal jobs which are paid for, partly training new faculty with a balanced number of social science However, students might earn credits particularly opment as compared to spoiled careers of those courses) - and of university education after inter­ counted for in the first state examination. Most of labelled sick or deviant. We just received the first and .legal scholars which will have to concentrate mediate examination regularly from the third year nearly totally on the field of law and society. The the Lander of the Federal Republic agreed to create dissertations from those dealing with school sys­ on, (3) a rather strong and professionally oriented as "optional program four" one that comb!nes tems, teacher's actions and preoccupations, and specialization during the last two and a half years. model is call "Delinquenzprophylaxe, Straffaellingen­ criminology, juvenile penal matters, and corrections personality-forming of juvenile delinquents ("reac- Since the second intermediate examination will be paedogogik, Rehabilitation" (Delinquency Preven­ with special regard to prison systems. Some of t~e tion type", conceptualization of the significant counted as equal to the traditional first state exami­ tion, Delinquency Padagogics, Rehabilitation). Al­ Lander added forensic psychology and/or ,forensIc "world" etc.). nation, students are eligible for doctoral education though it is still at the initial stages, doctoral-level psychiatry and/or juvenile welfare regulc:.tlOns. In programs in the course of two and a half years. education is planned. The faculty is further con­ any case, students are supposed to get some e)<'­ 3. The third stage of development was reached when our federal and state governments and parlia­ Those programs are only drafted in a rather rough sidering, so far as I am informed, establishing a pertise in related criminal justice matters like foren­ ments met together (if not to say scuffled together) manner at the moment. None of the universities en­ post-graduate program for students coming from sic medicine, probation and parole, law of contr~­ in order to change the so-called Judges Law gaged will reach the critical point before 1978 or other universities after earning a degree in sociol­ ventions administrative adjudication, etc., until 1979. ogy, psychology pedagogics and law, and whO are their fir~t examination. The precise determination (Deutsches Richtergesetz) which is the basic regula­ is dependent upon what the university can provide. tion for all jurists intending to become either judges 4. The last stage of development so far is repre­ eager to obtain better job preparation. The details or prosecutors, attorneys and higher executives are to be found in Professor Haussling's presenta­ In Trebinger, for instance, the program begins sented by the Gesamthoschule Wuppertal (located, within the public service. They introduced a new at Bielefeld, in Northrhine-Westphalia). The Wup­ tion. A somewhat similar Tuebingen Model of with a course in juvenile penal law and its adminis­ section 5A by which the Lander were entitled tration and a lecture dealing with corrections, sanc­ pertal Model of education and training in criminal doctoral-level education has been planned but could to develop experimental models of so-called justice is very remarkable in that one of the not be realized as yet due to financial reasons. tioning systems, history, structure and functions of "Einphasige Juristenansbildung" (one-phased legal prison. The following semester is devoted to intro­ education). This term means that the traditional ductory criminology (lecture plus working woups). approach of breeding all kinds of lawyers by way The following two or three semesters are aimed at 'Of generalized education first (university) and evenly deepening tlleoretical knowledge on the one hand, generalized training second (practical stages) with REFERENCES and ge~ting students familiar wi!h researc.h met~~d­ two sharply distinct state examinations might be ology on the other hand. Practical, exerCises, V.I~ltS replaced by a unified system. The main tools of that to institutions, preparing small projects and wntll1g system can be described as (1) combining theory Berkhauer, Friedrich (1975), La situation de la criminologie dans I'enseignement universitaire de la Repub­ theoretical papers are interchanging components. lique Federale d'Aliemagne. In Revue Internationale de Criminologie et de Police Technique, Vol. XXVIII, and practice and (2) integrating as far as possible No.3 (Juillet-Septembre) pp. 281-287. During the final months the concept of "cri~inology legal education with social science education. The as an applied science" is stressed to a considerable experiment's duration is limited: In 1982 our gov­ degree. Students obtain "living cases" stemming ernments have to decide whether to proceed further Brahm, Wilfried (1974), Gegenwaertige Tendenzen in der Reform der Juristenausbildung. in: Deutsche from the judiciary and have to work out small but in the traditional way or to change the German legal Richterzeitung, Vol. 52, pp. 273-278. precise criminclogical opinions. education system as a whole by adopting the regula· After being examined, students may enter "near­ tions set down in the present section 5A. Bussmann, W.H. (ed.) (1972) Wahlfachgruppen, JA-Sonderheft, Vol. II, Berlin: Schweitzer. programs" in criminal justice and criminology offered by a small number of universities. Such Seven universities applied for the experiment and succeeded in bargaining with parliaments and state Goeppinger, Hans (1974), Moeglichkeiten und Grenzen Kriminologischer Ausbildung der Juristen. In: near-programs are characterized as temporary at­ Festschrift fuer Karl Peters, Tuebingen: Mohr, pp. 519-538. tempts in combining tile research interests of pro­ governments regarding curriculum regulations, addi­ fessors or institutes with dissertational interests of tional chairs, more clerical people, qualified aca­ demic staff and material requirements. (Some other Jung, Heike (ed.) (1975), Faelle zum Wahlfach Kriminologie, Jugendstrafrecht, Strafrollzug. Muenchen: C.H. graduate students in order to overcome unsatisfy­ Beck. ing conditions. Once a broad and compl~x re~~arch universities applied also but failed in getting their program is prepared and pretested It IS divided, plans approved.) Kaiser, Guenter (1975), Stand und Entwick-Iung der Kriminologischen Forchung in Deutschland. Berlin, as far as possible, into SUb-sections meaningful The universities of Augsburg (Bavaria), Bielefeld New York: De Gruyter. enough to guarantee both rel.eyant ~ontrib~tions to (Northrhine-Westphalia), Konstanz (Baden-Wurttem­ the complex theme and qualified diSSertations. berg) and Trier (Rhineland-Pfalz) are following the Actually we do have programs of this kind with so-called "Southern German Model". That is to say Kerner, Hans-J. (1972), The Relationship between Scientific Research and Teaching in Criminology. In: Crimi­ they begin with legal education. Social science edu­ nological Research Trends in Western Germany, ed. by Guenther Kaiser and Thomas Wuertenberger, Ber­ the first students coming out of the new optional lin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer, pp. 35-55. intensification educi.1tion. I'd like to mention some cation is to be added, rather than integrated, for of them only briefly: Police Efficiency; Prison Struc­ the slightly advanced students. Full integration and ture and Subcultural Effects; Prosecutor's Discre­ specialization is mainly restricted to the last few Rinken, Alfred, et. al. (1973), Der neue Jurist. Materialien zur reformierten Juristen ansbildung in Breman. tion; Criminal Trials and Sentencing Patterns. semesters preceding the final examination. Darmstadt, Weuwied: Luchterhand. The universities of Breman (State), Hamburg 2. The second stage of development was the slight Wolff, Joerg (1972), Der Standort der Kriminologie in der Juristenansbildung. In: Goltdammers Archiv duer or, in one case, complete reorganization of the cur­ (State) and Hannover (Lower Saxonia) developed Strafrecht 72, pp. 257-271. ricula of some of our social science faculties. The the so-called "Northern German Model". This is faculty of sociology at Bielefeld (the )'irst and characterized by beginning with social science edu­ hitherto unique purely sociological facility we have) cation, then turning to sociolegal and 'dogmatical clivided their education and research schedule into legal issues, and finishing with specialized courses three distinctly separate "focal concerns", one of referring to one field of law and society. One of them being social problems and social work with those fields is called "Deviance and Social Control". particular reference to criminal justice and criminol­ It encompasses, as the Hamburg papers (taken as ogy. This division pertains also to doctoral educa­ an example) show, all those matters traditionally tion and, in fact, they have already produced several dealt with under headings like Penal Law, Procedure, highly interesting programs (e.g., police practices in Corrections, Criminology, Probation or Sentencing, getting evidence, institution-client interactions in the but now brought into a new order and integrated in field of handling deviance). The Hamburg faculty a modern frame of sociolegal thinking. of social science performed an action research Besides these differences the models share as project at a state prison (organizational and func­ common features (1) the appointment of social tional analysis). Nuernberg is actively involved science scholars as full time professors within a law in a large program funded by the German Research faculty, (2) the continuing interchange of practical 20 21

b ~--~~------~------.------DOCTORAL-LEVEL EDUCATION IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY the field.s of crime prevention, delinquency i.e., image of the· unity of these inter­ pedagogiCs, social therapy, rehabilitation and disciplinary components. An Inter-disciplinary Model for Training in Criminal Justice. Guidelines for an "integrated course" in social resocialization. The variotJs disciplines con­ The recognition of these three criteria and science, with emphasis on crime prevention (Delinquenzprophylaxe) - delinquency pedagogics (Straffallingen­ tributing to their training - law, social psy­ chology including social psychiatry, social their ~ealization in the "training model" is padagogik) - rehabilitation/social therapy (Rehabilitation/Sozialtherapie). [1] ~ss~~tlal to prevent a mere collection of the pedagogics, delinquency pedagogic~, sociol­ ogy, the sociology of abnormal behavior - to indiVidual sciences and a hit-and-miss sum­ by marization on the part of the student. It is provide the basic facts of crime research as absolutely essential for him to realize that an integrated part of the relevant science Josef M. Haussling* scientifically based perceptions of abnormal which are necessary basics for the whole range of delinquency. ~ehavior i~ the form of criminality and de­ linquency IS the means to an end, i.e., to gain 1. a) The integrated course in "social sciences" at a doctorate only after successfully passing The practical training of the students in valuable facts for practical treatment of the University of Wuppertal (Gesamthoch­ the "diploma" (degree examination). this course should enable them: criminals and delinquents as well as for fur­ schule) represents an interdisciplinary educa­ - to play an effective part in planning and ther scientific research. d) The legal structure of the Federal Republic is tion model in which the following sciences organizing social institutions and projects b) The above-mentioned social sciences either cooperate: law and crimInology, soc:al educa­ decisive for the arrangement of this "inte­ for the treatment of delinquents and all individually or closely interrelated, be grated course in social sciences" insofar as: ~ust tion and criminological educatkln, sociology, behavioral disturbances, used for the scientific and comprehensive sociology of deviant behavior, social psychol­ (1) criminality is related to the laws govern- - to advise social institutions with regard to preparation of the model in order to: ogy and social psychiatry and, as additional ing evidence and penal law and that penal possibilities of improvement and to initiate (1) gain comprehensive knowledge of crimi­ courses, any socially relevant science matters and criminological treatment must keep and carry out such improvements, nality; i.e., a scientifically oriented society taught at the University. this interaction in mind. - to cooperate in further education for social must be aware of this factor in a scien­ workers, b) This course of study takes four years, leading (2) juvenile delinquency is treated under an­ tific manner in order to gain insight into to a degree (diploma in social sciences) in - to advise educators and therapy workers in the causes for and the consequences of other law - the Juvenile Delinquency criminality. one of three special fields, that is, in the area Penal Code (JGG) - and regarded as social institution projects and ambulant in­ of crime prevention, probation work educa­ deviant behavior of juveniles. There is stitutions and to help them in practice, (2) to carry out treatment of offenders from tion, and rehabilitation. These three speciali­ also the Juvenile Welfare Law (JWG) , a - to give practical help and support to clients a scientifically responsible basis of infor­ zations can be selected only after completion uniform law governing the whole range of of social institutions, to promote their per­ mation. of a basic course of study lasting two years behavior of juveniles - normal as well sonal, social and professional development, i.e., Social sciences give the specific basis and an intermediate examination. This basic as abnormal - being discussed, and the - and finally, to help in developing and for humane treatment in this area. program comprises general social sciences in Juvenile Aid Law, which as a uniform executing research projects. (3) to make control of criminality and delin­ order to demonstrate the whole range of hu­ Juvenile Law would open up new and f) The structure of the course - basic and main quency effective; i.e., to create a protec­ man behavior and to teach methodological decisive possibilities for the inter­ tive function for society based on scien­ and scientific-theoretical foundations for the disciplinary training model in the course. studies - is designed to achieve this objec­ tific knowledge. scientific direction of the whole course of tive. Above all, basic knowledge of statistics, studies. The present legal position sets limits for "science theory" and "theory of social All positions covered by (1), (2), and (3) the treatment of 'abnorma! behavior from a sciences" in the basic course is required. In rryust be developed within the legal guarantees c) Two practical courses are required for the social-scientific, criminologic81 point of view, the main course there are three alternative since only they can maintain socially relevant basic course and the main course. The "in­ . i.e., the behavioral patterns drawn up by the choices: freedom of the individual and society as a formation practice" provides initial informa­ law do not conform to the socia-scientific con­ whole; only then will it be possible for social tion about a certain area for the treatment of cerns on the whole discussion on behavior. (1) delinquency prevention, delinquency ped­ sciences probing into human behavior to be individual or social misbehavior. It is organ­ On the other hand, it prescribes the profes­ agogics, rehabilitation/social therapy, a genuine aid to mankind. ized in such a way that the student has an sional activities of the graduate trained in (2) the legal element, state measures in dis­ .~ opportunity to familiarize him/herself with this course, so that they can only worl< in cer­ turbed social behavior, the element of c) The decisive question is: where do the social sciences find their integration, where do they the institutions, the authorities, range of edu­ tain institutions; thus, thei r futu re activities, "professional analysis", and find their unity of action in the training model? cation, etc. of the "case", according to their tied to certain authorities and institutions, (3) an additional required subject which en­ structure and function, and his report, which riches the study of social sciences with The outlined syllabus has given emphasis to are a firm component of the "integrated the following sciences: he has to present after this "information course in social sciences". Naturally, the relevant scientific aspects. practice" is then prepared. During the main question of "social control" touches on this For detailed description of the program for prevention-th'a sociology of abnormal course the student has to complete his "re­ professional aspect. see Appendix III (reproduced in Ger.man) behavior search practice". This teaches him to apply The description of the curriculum presents for .delinquency pedagogics-social peda­ scientific pedagogic and therapeutic knowl­ e) The aspects mentioned, therefore, determine detailed contents and function, so that the gogics edge to his "cases" and is concluded with a the following "objective of study" for the stu­ dents trained in the "integrated course in student gains a factual insight into the com­ for rehabilitation / social therapy-social comprehensive "experience report". Further­ position of the course. more, this "research practice" helps to social sciences": psychology/social psychiatry. analyze his future field of activity, thus keep­ The aim of this course is the training of 2. a) Any inter-disciplinary training model for all However, the leading function of the above ing the practice-related, scientifically oriented social scientists for practical work in society. professions within the field of criminal justice named social sciences will be integrated with main course in touch with his chosen profes­ The qualifications they obtain during their must be oriented according to three criteria: other social sciences playing a part, so that sion. course should enable them to constantly test in the interaction of analytical sciences and (1) Behavior structure and criminality in behavioral sciences every item of knowledge The report from his "research practice" and improve scientific theories, bearing in ... "jI· may also serve as the foundation for his mind their practical relevance and the possi­ society as a whole. will serve as basis for decision making. It thesis: this is a first experience of research bility of developing their work with their The model aims to provide this knowl­ means that the knowledge of facts in the field on one of the behavioral problems and part clientele as well as keeping up with the neces­ edge. of behavioral disturbance does not have any of his degree examination. He is allowed to sary research. This applies particularly to . (2) Function of graduates in studying, con­ purpose in itself; it must serve as the basis enter upon this kind of research leading to research-orientated, but practical ability in trolling, and treating criminality. for action. i.e., research into future range of profes­ The interaction of such behavioral sciences sional activities as part of the "model". as social psychology and social therapy and [1] The Syllabus of the University of Wuppertal, the Federal Republic of Germany, approved for the Winter Semester 1973 (3) Integration of the sciences supporting the ] by the Ministry for Science and Research. such social sciences as sociology can lead to training model into a relevant context of fruitful cooperation in crime research 8ild ·''···1 , ·Professor, Gesamthochschule, 5600 Wuppertal, Federal Republic of Germany. knowledge and action. practice. " . '. J 22 23 d ----~--.. ------.------However, we must realize that even a social homogeneity by using the interaction between DOCTORAL·LEVEL EDUCATION IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE science cannot effectuate the uniformity, the various disciplines involved; it does not which is the nature of man, no matter how want to create it by artificial means. The AND CRIMINOLOGY IN FRANCE disturbed it shows itself in behavioral con­ graduate from this interdisciplinary "course by flicts. This uniformity (homogeneity) is the in social sciences" is intended to see himself actual integrating cement for the social sci­ as such a discoverer of disturbed man in our ences and is present in the individual con· Jacques Leaute* cerned, and his social environment. This society, no matter whether he works in re­ "course model" aims at discovering this search or in the practical field. 1. The first dominant trait of the French Doctoral­ - D.E.A. de Criminologie et Penologie (Bordeaux Level Education system in Criminal Justice and et Pau) Criminology is its recent change. The whole of the - D.E.A. de Science Criminelle (Montpellier) doctoral-level system has been changed during the last year throughout all of the State Universities of - Two D.E.A at the University of Paris [2] France.[l] A new structure has been established by *D.E.A. de Criminologie, Penologie et Re· the Ministry of Education, compulsory for all sorts adaptation socia Ie of Doctoral·Level Studies, whatever the field may be: *D.E.A. de theorie et pratique de droit penal science, literature, law, etc .... (Arrete ministeriel et de politique criminelle du 16 Avril 1974: J.O. du 4 mars 1976, relatif au Not all of the French State Universities deliver Doctorat d'Etat). The candidates to the Doctorat such D.E.A.'s. On the contrary, this happens only d'Etat must present to a jury either a dissertation in the main universities with an important Law De· or a set of works and researches. They cannot be partment (those mentioned above, plus Toulouse, allowed to apply for such a presentation without Nancy-Strasbourg, Rennes). In other universities having degrees of the doctoral·level. The article of Criminal Law and/or Criminology may be part of the arrete ministeriel specifies " ... in the fields another D.E.A., such as Civil l.aw in Law Depart­ of law, political science, economics, and business ments, or Psychology or Sociology Science Depart­ studies . . ." candidates have to justify that they ments. have a diploma of higher studies (diplome d'etudes approfondies, D.E.A.) or a professional degree called 3. Despite this diversity, some common trends can be observed. a diploma of highlY specialized studies (diplome d'etudes superieurs specialisees, D.E.S.S.) or de­ . The. structure of the D.E.~_ has always been di· grees or titles acknowledged as equivalent under vlded Into two parts according to state regulation. certain conditions specified in the above mentioned There must be, on the one hand, a group of theoreti­ article. (See section 4 of the same article.) cal courses (cours theoriques) and seminars which It is through a diploma of higher studies (D.E.A.) are required for all students of the same D.E.A., and in Criminal Law and/or Criminology that Doctoral­ on the other hand there must be optional seminars. Level Education in Criminal Justice and Criminology Every student has to take two "cours theoriques" and required seminars and must choose three of the is given by the French State Universities. Many stu· optional seminars. dents limit their curriculum to the D.E.A. They do not write a dissertation afterwards and they do not A second similarity is to be found in the systems apply for a Ph.D. in Law (Criminal Law and Crimi­ of examinations, the same (with some slight differ­

nology). enc~s in proportion) A combin.ation of year long seminar control (controle contlnu) and final exams 2. The second trait of the French system is the (examens de fin d'annee). autonomy of the State Universities in the planning of their D.E.A. According to the University Act of The most important similarity lies in the programs 1968 (Ioi no 68-978 du 12 novembre 1968, d'orien­ of courses and seminars. With the exception of tation de I'enseignement superieur) passed after the Paris, there is a combination of Criminal Law and May and June 1968 crisis, universities have a right Criminology in the programs, as can be seen in the to establish, at their discretion, the programs of Appendix to the present report (Appendix IV in their course, under certain general conditions estab­ French). This combination is not the applicatio~ of lished by the Ministry of Education. This has lead ~he concep! of a crimin~1 justice system encompass­ to a variety of D.E.A.'s in our fields. Here are some Ing the police, prosecutIOn, courts, and punitive and examples of D.E.A.'s: correction measures as a whole. It is lacking in syn­ thesis, called "Politique Criminelle" in France. It is - D.E.A. de Droit penale et Science Criminelles more a juxtaposition of topics, which is deemed (Lyon) necessary to be studied by both theoreticians and - D.E.A. de Sciences Criminelles at Criminolo­ practitioners. But, in this juxtaposition of topics, .gique (Grenoble) the universities consider that a certain combination of Criminal Law and Criminology has to be made. - D.E.A. de Sciences Criminelles (Lille) Paris is different. The larger development of these - D.E.A. de Science Penale et Criminologique two fields (Criminal Law, Criminology) has led to a (Aix·en-Provence) specialization of the two D.E.A.'s. In this specializa·

*Directeur, L'lnstitut de Crimlnologie, L'Universite de Paris II, Paris, France. [1], Sta~e: Universities are the only ones allowed to give Ph.D. diplomas. There are very few private universities. The Paris Universities (formerly Sorbonne) are State Universities. [2] Unniversite de Droit, d'Economle et de Science Sociales de Paris, formerly Faculte de Droit de Paris. The Institute of Criminology of Paris is part of this University. ------24 25 tion, the synthetical concept has prevailed, and each oriented students, the other for the more sociologi­ DOCTORAL LEVEL EDUCATION IN CHIMINAL JUSTICE ADMINISTRATION D.E.A. includes an overall study of comparative cally oriented ones. A selection of candidates takes IN LEE:ANON criminal policy (Politique Criminelle Comparee) as place. No more than 50 students can be accepted can be seen in the Appendix to the present report. in each of the D.E.A.'s. One of the D.E.A.'s is proposed for the more legally by M. EI Augi*

Higher education in Criminal Justice administra­ Private law includes the study of a variety of tion is closely connected to the judicial system and legal subjects like civil law (contracts), criminal law the basic legal education in any given country. and procedure, commercial law, real estate law, etc. Hence a brief review of both systems will help locate Public law is concerned with Government, Inter­ it within the system by featuring its peculiarities. national law, Political systems, Treaties. Economics encompasses the whole field of theory and practice THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM in national and international economy, the monetary system, budgets, corporations. In Lebanon, there are three levels of jurisdictions: the first instance court corresponding to the District The successful completion of two out of the three Court system in the USA, the Appellate court and above mentioned branches entitle the student to the Supreme Court. Criminal cases are prosecuted apply for the preparation of a thesis whose success­ by a public prosecutor and investigated by an ful presentation and discussion confers on him the investigating judge. Ph.D. degree, a key diploma for academic careers. Judges are appointed by the Government on ttle Actually, the French University in Beirut is con­ advice of the Supreme Council of the Magistracy, templating the reformation of the doctoral stUdies a body of high ranking judges whose attributions sponsored by its Faculty of Law following the track are the internal administration and supervision of of the French Universities. It contemplates three the Judiciary. Generally the newly appointed judges different orientations in the doctoral stUdies leading take office as district judges, as assistants to the to: a specialized doctorate for professionals in the public prosecutor or as investigating judges. field of their activity, a doctorate of research and, a third one, the longest to be covered, for academic Eligibility is subordinated to graduation in Law, careers. a university degree known as "License in Law" which is roughly equivalent to an M.A. in Law. This It does not belong to us, in this paper, to evaluate degree is obtained after the completion of four those trends and options which seem to be critical years in Law at the University. Admission to the in soml') of their content. However, we could make University requires a successful termination of the specific observations if the seminar's proceedings secondary studies by obtaining a college degree, permit an evaluative approach of the legal education namely the Baccalaureate. at the Doctoral level. To qualify fer judgeship the candidate must take DOCTORATE AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE a pre-selection test, both in academic knowledge and personal merits. Once admitted he must follow Criminal justice is considered here in its two a three-year training term, after which he becomes main components: The Judge and the Lawyer. Un­ entitled to hold an office. Details are to come later fortunately, the Doctorate diploma gives no special in this paper. advantage to either. Both should avail themselves as polyvalent if they want to overcome the intricacies THE LEGAL EDUCATION SYSTEM of their career. As a matter of fact, some specialize in given field whether by selecting their cases, if Legal studies, as it has been said earlier, require a college degree, the Baccalaureate. Graduation they are lawyers, or by showing reluctance to sit goes over four stages, each one comprising a series on other courts, if they are judges. However, this of subject-matters to be dealt with during an aca­ is not a general rule. Both lawyers and judges demic year. Among others are criminal law, criminal sometimes comply with requirements they cannot procedure and criminology which are taught in the waive. third and fourth year respectively. To qualify for judgeship, a candidate holding a After graduation, the student could choose his Ph.D. in Law is exempted from the compulsory way in professional life either by joining the Bar selective test that other applicants have to take. It Association, by applying for Counselship in private results that, while Ph.D. holders benefit from an enterprise or by devoting himself to the magistracy. evident advantage in applying to the judicial career, Students who are willing to deepen their legal the real impact of higher education on criminal jus­ knowledge, who look for an academic career as law tice administration would be rather dependent on professors, should follow doctorate-level studies extending over a three-year period. They should the efficiency and interest brought by the judge to choose two out of three curricula providing studies his office. Correlatively a judge, with a Ph.D. degree in private law, public law and economics. Gen­ in Criminal Law, would have pciority in choosing or erally private and public law are the jurist's best holding an office related to his field of interest. choice while economics and public law are of the However, this priority is sometime neglected when economists' and diplomats' realm. important causes dictate changes in attributions.

*Justice, Supreme Court; Professor, Lebanese University, Palace of Justice, Beirut, Lebanon. 26 27

, , biz CRIMINOLOGY AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES­ search and theory, the study of the bio-psycho­ sought for the President's appointee in the Judiciary excluded as it serves as a theoretical background. AN AUXILIARY TO LEGAL EDUCATION sociological factors of criminal behavior, etc. (Supreme Court) before a Senate Commission. if It includes documentation, analysis of previous At the M.A. level the courses focus on the social the candidate is cleared he has to take a selective writings, commenting on issues and legal opinions. Legal studies are not sufficient by. the:nselve~ to examination on general culture, civil and criminal reaction against the criminal - past and pre~ent.­ The resulting paper is orally presented before a provide an adequate academIc formatIon In the fIeld law, foreign languages (English or French). An oral the role of the police, the courts, the penal InstItu­ jury' composed of t/.1e professor who supervised the of Criminal Justice administration. They should be presentation or discussion of a legal theme helps supported and even penetrated by criminology and tions and correctional practices, in a word, the wh?le research, the President of the Institute, and the criminal justice administration. The teaching assess his knowledge and self-confidence. behavioral sciences. A realistic approach to the judge t~ whom thrJ trainee is attached. criminal problem could not be made only from the stresses the public's responsibility in prevention and rehabilitation, the role of the private organizations Status of the Recruits legal point of view since 'pr~ven~ion. and treatment Examinations are the main goals of criminal JustIce. One must and welfare institutions and the role of the UnIver­ sity in expanding knowledge and professional train­ Once recruited, the candidate becomes a trainee know more about criminal behavior and the implica­ judge. He participates in the court hearings, de­ Written examinations will sanction the trainee's tions of the social, economic and cultural factors on ing for coping with the crime problem. - no, less attention is paid to the role of the liberations and sentencing. Research on specific study and qualify him for appointment either as the criminal's personality. InternatlO~al organizations in promoting action for the preventIon legal issues are assigned to him by the sitting judge assistant to the public prosecutor, as investigating Special attention has been p~id s!nc,e 1958 to and the treatment of offenders. who uses them in the motivation of his sentences. judge or as a judge sitting in the district court or After an initial period, the length of which depends presiding over the county court. Criminology as a matter of teaching WIthin the legal The courses at the doctoral-level, which were to on his response and adaptation, the trainee will studies. However since no majoring is provided in be implemented this academic year, but have been Criminal Law and Criminology, interest in those two be in charge of elaborating by himself some legal delayed because of the current eve~ts, will sponsor ASSESSMENT AND COMMENTARY topics, which are compulsory for the student, re­ issues. He disposes of cases as if he was himself courses seminars and research projects on the cur­ responsible. According to the results of its performance since mains subject to his own discretion. He may ap­ rent iss'ues in criminal behavior in connection with proach them with enthusiasm or with indifference, On the personal ground the trainee is paid an 1963 this system is deemed as fully satisfactory for criminal justice admin.istratio~. Pers?nal analysis the following reasons: r all depending on his own orientation. and resea rch differentiate thIS teaching from the allowance covering his expenses and usual spend­ The situation is quite different at the Faculty of 'lower level. ings. He enjoys the same status of senior judges. 1. It has ensured a selective choice of judges on Social Sciences. There, studies leading to an M.A. This confers on him independence and immunity. the grounds of their personality and knowledge - in Social Science make as a prerequisite the selec­ two basic and fundamental conditions for the fulfill­ DOCTORAL-LEVEL EDUCATION AND tion of topics in which is. required, to ment of such a delicate and important office. It t~e s~udent THE JUDICIAL CAREER Curricula major. Among the great dIversIty of n:aJors, Appl!ed should be said that between 50 and 60% of the The Institute's curricula covers three years of Criminology and Criminal Psycho-SocIology are Im­ Bearing in mind the former features of the actual judiciary is made up of judges who have been diff~r­ studies. The first year is scheduled to sponsor vari­ portant ones. According to our ~wn estimate. based ent levels of education in the field of Legal StudIes appointed after the completion of their studies and on our teaching of those two tOPICS at the saId Fac­ and Social Science, we can more easily locate legal ous stUdies, especially sentencing, interpreting law, training at the Institute. It is also known in the jurisprudence, sociology of law, impact of law on ulty, 20% of the M.A. cho?se education leading to the administration of criminal whole mideaste.'n region that the quality and ac­ ~tudents Cri~inology the citizen's social, economic and moral life, statis­ or Criminal Psycho-SocIOlogy as majors. It IS to be justice. curacy of the legal issues as stated by the Lebanese tics, expertise, accountancy. Courts are outstanding. remembered that Criminology is taught as a com­ As we have noticed earlier in this paper, neither pulsory topic during the third year of graduation in graduation nor a Ph.D. in Law could lead directly to The second year is concerned with more specific 2. It has developed a sensible identification of the Social Sciences. the fulfillment of a judicial office. A three-year topics: some issues on civil and commercial law, judge with his profession in the sense that he lives A high diploma in Criminology, as a preparat?ry studies and formative stage are to be completed practical issues on criminal law and criminology. his profession rather than merely fulfilling it. He In fact criminal law and criminology are taught in stage to Ph.D. in Social Science, was to be 1m· after due selection of the candidates. feels that his office has not only a legal function but, narrow connection with penal justice administration. plemented this year at the Faculty. I.t was delayed Therefore and before going into a more detailed as a social institUtion, it has to playa positive and because of the current state of war In Lebanon. While some theoretical approach to the basic theory guiding role in the community. approach of'the system, one should notice that .this of incrimination and sentencing is sought, emphasis Students who attend the Social Science courses formative stage is matching the, doctoral level sl~ce 3. Criminal justice administration, while handi­ is put on how the judge has to deal with the criminal capped by the less evolved institutions and agencies come from different disciplines. They major in it requires a similar amount of time and substantive law issues in connection with the offender's personal psychology, sociology, pedagogy, law, etc: Their aim teaching, which is not less important. connected to it, like the police, the prisons, takes situation and needs for treatment and rehabilitation. a new turn by being less impersonal, less routinal, is either to specialize in one of those. fields.. or to Therefore penology and corrections are integrated add social science knowledge to theIr basIc pro­ THE INSTITUTE OF JUDICIAL STUDIES more individualized. Being permeable to the into the teaching. Forensics are also taught in changes in conceptions and practices, criminal fessional education, 35 a means for advancement theory and practice. in their career. Among them, some would seek The formative stage of the judicial career is judges bring thei r contribution to the reformation The third year is concerned with some issues in sodal work assignments, social planning, auxili~ries sponsored by the Institute of judicial Studies, a of the penal system. Their contribution is effective real estate law, private international law, administra­ to the juvenile courts. However su~h professIOnal specialized institution created in 1963 and con­ rather than obstructive, contrary to what usually is nected to the Ministry of Justice. The Institute. is tive law, current problems in justice administration, the case in some systems where the judiciary is still training is sponsored by profeSSIonal schools, jUdicial psychology. known as Social Work Schools or Institutes. administered by a board made up of the teaching made up of appointees stemming from the old gov­ body who assist the President in carrying out .his ernmental infrastructure. The number of students belonging to the legal Field Work career and attending the Social Science Faculty is mandate. An Administrator cares for the organIza­ 4. Three Arab States have benefited from the Insti­ hard to estima"te. At the undergraduate stage, few tion of the study, the financial and the administra­ Besides the trainee's attendance at the court tute's performance, namely Tunisia, Libya and have already made a final career choice. On the tive management. The fulfillment of the curricula hearings he has to fulfill field work requirements in Jordan. More than twenty judges who followed the contrary, at the postgraduate level, most of the stu­ by the trainees leads to their appointment ~s j~dges. several areas such as industrial and commercial three-year training program actually fulfill key The Institute does not award an academIC tItle or dents are already engaged in one. or ano~her pro­ management, banking, prison administration, in­ offices in their countries. fession. Police officers, generally hIgh ranking ones, diploma unless the trainee is a foreigner. In this stitutional treatment for young offenders, social 5. Research stUdies performed at the Institute are a good score in the enrollment. This means that case, a full report is sent to his Government stating assistance, police work on detection and prevention. have enriched the Institute's legal library and served their stUdies would have a direct impact on the pro­ his performances and certifying that he successfully The aim of this field work is to put the trainee as an incentive, a stimUlUS for further research. Re­ fession though such studies are on a mere voluntary ended his studies and training in the Institute. face to face with the citizen's life and current prob­ search is no longer feared as inaccessible due to a basis. lems. It is thought that no one could accurately lack of technicians. Selection of the Candidates Criminology courses at the Faculty of Social Sci­ handle a case if he does not acquaint himself with Therefore it is hoped that the Institute will playa ences include two major parts: the first is concerned Judgeship being not only knowledge and wit but the peculiarities of the subject matter thereof. greater role in the future. Even a wider regional with the theoretical approach, the second with the primarily integrity and personality, a pre-selection vocation is contemplated. Research Work practical one, e.g., with social reactions as institu­ on the grounds of those qualities is made through It is significant to note that thirty-two new ap­ tionalized in society. an interview between the candidate and the mem­ Moreover, the trainee has to complete a research pointees have been qualified to take office by Octo­ The theoretical approach, sponsored during the bers of the Supreme Council of the Magistracy. A project during each semester. Generally the sub­ ber 1975 while twenty·nine were to complete this last year of graduation, is concerned :-vi~h the study hearing 'is held on many personal counts and it is ject is chosen within the framework of the field July 1976 their second year's examinations and of the historical development of CrimInology, re- the case in the United States when approval is work. However research in legal literature is not thirty to be selected for the coming session. 28 29 b± Among the former figur:es, fi~e judges from Jord~n However, this e:

IIoprofessor and Director, L'lnstitut de Criminologie, L'Universite d'Abidjan, Abidjan, Cote d'ivoire. 30 31 4. Governmental and Administrative specialists in criminology subordinat~d to the. ad­ Actually researches and surveys are conducted according to the modern penal system - and Difficulties ministration of justice or the preventIOn of cn~es toward obtaining concrete and useful results, vice-versa. and treatments of delinquents, would be waived The decree stating the creation of the In· That is our strategy for giving criminology its Also, conflict exists in these two systems. The (partially or totally) of the main subjects of their chances to stand as a science. stitute only stipulates that it must: cu rricu lum. former tends to reparation, the latter to treatment. The reason for the former still resirJBs deeply in a) provide additional t~a!~ing to some (Fourth proposal) - The teaching of crim!nology catenories of governmental and CIVIlian employees would be completely independent and would Include 9. Plea for Institutes of Criminology magico·religious beliefs which provide :I dissuasive invo~ed in the prevention of crime and the treat­ several levels: Bachelor Degree, Master Degree and power extremely effective against pain. It is worthy Is the teaching of criminology inopportune to note that the prison which was an institution ment of delinquents; Ph.D. This proposal implies th~t the functions of a in our countries? It was said, "yes". in the traditional judicial system has become the b) engage in research; specialist in criminology be defined. The socio-economic changes that affect our sole possible alternative to protect society against c) bring out publications in the concerned criminals. 6. Present Educational Organization countries bring mainly a disorganization of com­ fields. munity structures: clan, tribe, ethnic groups which Other reasons that we cannot discuss here, for The wording of this decree excludes the training Students are recruited from high school represent the control gear of social behavior. These they would lead us too far from this topic, compel of an independent body of specialists in criminology. graduates and from some categori~s of ~ov~rn­ changes bring with them a reevaluation of essential us to look for a judicial system better adapted to The governmental authorities feared that a new body mental and civilian employees belonging to Justl~e, traditions. Rural exodus - of which we often the minds of our populations. This necessary of governmental employees might not find work. gendarme and police departments and the SOCial speak - reveals that some of its consequences are adaptation must be based on adequate studies of They simply did not realize what services such spe· services. Those who do not belong to these cate· changing. In traditional societies, offense or crime the social, psychological and economic context in cialists could render. gories and are not high school graduates can only was considered as a break in the regulation involv· which the African divergent behavior occurs. These be admitted after successfully passing a competitive ing behavior of individuals between each other, or studies must be entrusted to research teams espe. Also, our two year study program towards an examination. cially trained to this end; otherwise, any politique of officially recognized diploma does not provide f~r between themselves and invisible forces, according The period of study is two years. Courses. are crime prevention and treatment of delinquents higher pay. Our Administra.tion c~nsiders, t,hlS to African cosmogony. Therefore, the old criminal would be inoperative. This r01e could be devolved diploma as equivalent to an .lnstructl?nal training given in the afternoon after 5:30 p.m. Th.e yarlous behavior deriving from customs is now accompanied courses cover the prinCipal aspects of Criminology upon doctors in criminology - whose institutes of program which does not provide for higher pay. by a new criminal behavior belonging to modern general and clinical criminology, general penal law, criminology would also provide training programs. penal law - this law being the only one officially These facts resulted in a reduction in enrol.lment. psychology, sociology, etc. The problems of our countries in developing their This unfair situation - which we are trYing to recognized. In fact, individuals are still submitted economies should not make us forget how serious correct - may be very hard on the future of the to these two forms of penal justice. Confusion ap­ 7. Our Position regarding the Ph.D. the problems of criminality are and how urgent it is Institute. pears, for example, when one realizes that what was in Criminology to find their sohltions. After all, an anti-crime poli­ considered a criminal act, according to the tradi­ tique protects and favors effective economic develop­ 5. Acade nic difficulties This degree is not requested from future tional penal system, is not considered as such, ment. law practitioners; therefore, their curricul~ would They are c1s serio,us as the prec~d~ng ones. not include it. It would only be requested to apply To understand our educational system, It IS ne,ces­ for a teaching or research position, sary to recall that - even after ~he c~untry gal~ed its independence - this system IS mainly a replica More important is the necessi.ty to m~ke t.he study of the French system which is still seen as a r;todel. of criminology comnulsory by integrating It to the However, criminology in the French .system IS n?t study of law since the law diplomas are the .only ones required for the recruitment of supervisors taught as an independent subject but IS a~ appendl~ of law. This explains why some ac.a?emlc auth?n­ (high and middle levels) subordinate? to the admin· ties who are still riveted to traditional. teachtng istration of justice, prevention of crimes and treat· methods are not ready to accept such an independ­ ment of delinquents. ent course of study. I even wonder if it would not be wise to accept - The main opposition comes from Law Schools and to accelerate - this evolution, even if it means which assess that the teaching of criminology, as an the disappearance of our independent entities of entity course, is inopportune. research and education. In order to conquer the apprehensions an? In this context, the Institutes would become train­ reticence of these traditionalistic academic authon­ ing centers for researchers and professors who could fill different teaching positions in the schools ties headed by the Dean of the ~aw School, w~ of law which would then be called School of Law submitted to the last board meeting of the ~nt· versity a series of proposals about the restructunng and Criminology. The Ph.D. would therefore have of the Institute. all its meaning. (First proposal) - We went so far as to propose the dissolution of the Institute body providing ,that. 8. Paradoxal Situation of Criminology the diverse courses we taught be completely mte· Criminology is required to produce r~sults grated in the teaching of law, either at the BaC'H~lor other sciences are not requested to do. It IS re­ level or at the Law level - all this to prove that quired to give evidence on its usefulness, on its we care more for the teaching of criminology than stand as an autonomous science. This means that for our positions amidst the Institute. its efficiency is doubted. (Second proposal) - Its purpose is to make the This challenge has to be faced. How? As a first study of criminology compulsory at the Master De· stage seminars have been organized with the con­ gree level (i.e., after the Bac.hel?~ D~3gree) for a.1I tribution of the Canadian teachers of the Inter­ stUdents working towards a Judicial career. ThiS national Center of Comparative Criminology - course would replace the professional training pro­ Montreal - directed by Professor Szabo. These gram of the future magistrates. seminars were concerned with items like: Develop· (Third proposal) - Students holding a Bachelor ment and Criminality, Modern and Tribal Penal Jus­ Degree or a Master Degree in sociology, psychology tice Apparent and Hidden Criminality. The public or social sciences, who would choose to become opi~ion 1as been sensitized to the criminal problem. 32 33 r'\

DOCTORAL·LEVEL EDUCATION FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PERSONNEL o,f researches i~ the specific areas of their respec­ graduate programme! In fact, it is now possible to IN NIGERIA tive tOPICS or 111 the general area of which their take an LL.M. degree with only criminology and respective research topics form a part. Besides criminal justice subjects. The above clearly demon­ these seminars, which are also attended by in· by strates the ~eed for criminology and criminal justice terested staff members, a doctorate candidate in to have their own separate and autonomous exist­ criminology is also required to attend all the LL.M. A.A. Adeyemi* ence, even where their unit is still located within semina~s in criminological foundations and/or a Faculty. This point of view has been accepted in sentencll1g and treatment of offenders, as well as principle in the University of Lagos. The Law Fac­ those on comparative criminal law and procedure ulty is now beginning to effect its implementation. Even though this paper is dealing with the doc­ ogy (at present under the tutelage of and nurtured unless he has himself passed through any of thes~ toral-level education, it is desirable to indicate the by the Faculty of Law), etc. courses at the master's level. Thereafter the basic Even though our undergraduate and postgraduate general educational and training structure in Nigeria requirement for the doctorate is for a th'esis which programmes are barely three years old, curiously EVen with these changes in curricula orientation, in order to enable us to see the doctoral-level edLlca­ will have to satisfy the examiners that the candidate en?u/ilh, our doctorate programme is much older. the universities were and still are performing tion there in its proper perspective. has, in the case of a Ph.D., contributed to knowledge ThiS IS because there is no need for any classes basically educational duties particularly at the on the ground that and, consequently staffing, for the doctorate pro­ Our system in Nigeria distinguishes between edu­ undergraduate level. This is because, in many ~ram:ne. ~II that is required for it are good facili­ cation and training; and the universities' curricula, instances, further professional training will be (i) he has put forward new materials that no ties, I~cludlng a g~od library, and supervision by a until quite recently, reflected this distinction. Their required by the graduate in the non-university pro­ other person has put across before; or c~mn:lIttee. There IS c.onsiderable flexibility in con­ curricula were basically structured for providing fessional institutions which, by the way, have no (ii) he has re-examined existing materials in such stituting such a committee in that staff members of academic or intellectual education, and whatever power to confer degrees even though the candidate a way that his presentation has shed new other faculties can be made members of the super. element of training that appeared in them were may train there for some three years, as is the case light on them. vising committee. Hence, our doctorate programme with the Accountants. However, the universities mainly secondary to the basic requirement of educa­ fhere is, of course, the higher doctorate like the was in operation ahead of the undergraduate and tion in the sense of intellectual development. Thus, ,have, on an'angement with the professional bodies, master's programmes, both of which require more agreed to introduce specialized professional post, LL.D., the M.D. or the D.Sc., which are awarded only faculty staff to handle them. for the professions, excepting Medicine and En­ to candidates who, by their published researches, gineering, where the total education/training is pro­ graduate training which will be recognized by the have been ~oun.d to have made significant and pro­ We may now examine the content of doctoral vided in the universities (including their hospitals particular professional bodies either as a substitute for their own examinations or as a reduction in the found contnbutlOn to the field of knowledge in which e~uc~tion in criminal justice and criminology in in the case of medicine), a graduate in a field like they have been working. Nlgena. Law or Accountancy, has to leave the University and amount of professional examinations the candidate go into the professional institution, like the Nigerian will thereafter be required to write. It is towards this This description of our system will seem to show In as much as the. approval for our criminology Law School or the Institute of Chartered Accountants end that the University of Lagos set as its third goal a distinction from the American system where the programmes was obtained only after we could justify to acquire professional training for a specific period in the 1975·80 National Development Plan the fol­ universities have always served almost exclusively them on the ground of their utility in manpower (in the case of Law, one year) at the end of which lowing; "to expand facilities for postgraduate teach­ as the .t:aining institutions for high level manpower. development, which the then Second National De­ he sits for a set of examinations set by that institu­ ing, particularly at the Master's level and with a In additIOn, the course structure and orientation is velopment ~la!l. 0\,1970-74 .accorded "the highest tion in collaboration with th'3 governing council of definite bias towards professional training." such that a person's training is not regarded as order of pnonties , along Side the agriculture in­ dustry, and transportation, we are duty bound to' run the profession. This professional training has It becomes relevant at this stage to explain our complete until he tai{es a doctorate degree. For us, nothing to do with the universities. a doctorate (usuClily the Ph.D., or more rarely the programmes, even at doctoral level, that will con­ degree structure. We still largely follow the British form to this national demand. We are therefore system of university education with some sprinkling LL.D., etc.) is only an academic degree. At pre~ent, Much the same separation was adopted by the therefore, it is not a specific requirement for em­ interested in programmes that will have relevance criminal justice services or agencies. Whatever the of American dilutions. For the Professions and the for producing high level manpower for our criminal Services, a gradua'le is considered ripe enough for ployment into our criminal justice agencies. But its educational level and orientation of a recruit, he is potentialities cannot be ignored. justice system. sent into a service school or college for specific employment-after his duly undergoing the necessary service training before he is put on the job. The post or non-university training for the profession or At present, in Nigeria, courses in criminology and Accordingly, we have been encouraging OLlr doc­ Police Force and Prisons Service have well estab­ the service. However, fl!rther university training is criminal justice are being taught as part of the other toral candidates (without dictating to them) to lished staff colleges for this purpose; and the latter avc:ilable at various levl'ls: major disciplines like law, sociology, psychology and choose topics in the area of criminal justice. Right now, in the University of Lagos Law Faculty, we have has a large number of university personnel in the (i) short courses of the Certificate type may be psychiatry at both the undergraduate and post­ various fields of Sociology, Psychology, Business provided; graduate levels. The degree of specialization at two such stUdents currently engaged in doctoral undergraduate level stops at choice of courses in research in the field of criminal justice. Administration, Law, Political Science and Criminol­ (ii) regular special diplomas may be provided; ogy come into their college to teach courses for six criminology and criminal justice areas, inter alia as If!e ar~, in ,fact, interes.ted in programmes and months to officers·in-training. These university per­ (iii) Masters degree courses May be provided. well as writing up a project in one of the ar~as. tOPICS which Will have beanng on the rationalization sonnel set and mark examination papers for them With our educational system, all formal teaching A greater degree of specialization is provided <:t the of t~e criminalization policy of Nigeria, crime pre­ in their respective courses quite apart from the and formal written examinations end at the Master's Master's level. But the constraints of the parasitic ventlo~ meth,ods (police and public), the trial sys­ purely service courses taught and examined by per­ level, unlike the American system where courses are existence of criminology are still such that we cannot tem (In particular the impact of its procedure on sonnel drawn from the Prison Service itself. The specifically run and examinations are conducted at really run the courses in the way in which we shall the offender) and, of course, the well known field Police have been more reluctant in inviting the uni­ the doctoral-level. This is why the University of want them run. Even this constraint affects our of "corrections". We note that the impact of the versity staff to teach in their college. Lagos' above-stated third goal specifically particular­ power to admit candidates to the Ph.D. course. A trial system has been universally neglected. Yet it ized the Master's level of postgraduate education as recent example was the case of an applicant who shou.ld be obvious that it is capable of generating Within the last decade-and-a-half, however, the the level for specialist professional training in the grad.uated in Sociology in a Department of Eco­ a stimulus or set of stimUli which can definitely Universities have been shedding their purely aca­ University. Indeed this is true for all the other nomICS an.d, therefore, holds a B.Sc. Econs. degree. affect the nature and the direction of the offender's demic stance as a result of considerable public and Nigerian universities. Th.e candidate took an M.Sc. Sociology, having response to the post-trial stimUli to which the of­ government pressure. They were requested to re­ wntten on a criminological topic in a sociology de­ fender is exposed at the "correctional" stage. spond more relevantly to the specialized training At the doctoral·level, however, we do not hold p.artment. Finally, the candidate applied for admis­ demands of the country. To this end, curricula were formal classes or conduct formal examinations sion to the Ph.D. course in our Faculty of Law to However, this is not to say that we can ignore the remodelled to accommodate new specializations normally, except where an intellectually good stu· write on a criminological topic. In practice, since production of scholars for the universities, whether within existing fields like Economics, Business Ad­ dent is admitted but needs some remedial courses there are no legal examinations requirements, there in the general theoretical field of criminology or in ministration, Engineering and Law. Also, new to strengthen his resources for the field in which can be no problem at all with this candidate. How­ the field of criminal justice. he proposes to work. Otherwise, doctoral seminars courses were introduced like Environmental Design ever, his application was rejected on the ground We may, at this stage, point out that we use the (with a faculty of its own), Survey (at present under are the only classes held. At these, the students are that the Faculty would find itself granting a law term "criminology" in a very wide sense to include tutelage in the Faculty of Engineering) and Criminol- expected to present papers containing the results degree to a non-lawyer. Yet criminology is a full­ all aspects of criminal justice. fledged subject in our undergraduate programme Finally, we recognize that criminal justice admin­ ~Faculty of Law, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria. and a recognized field of subjects in our post- istration is at one and the same time both general 34 35

_~ ______~f+.'.i.. ______...... __ ..... ______I and special. It is general in that it is part of the bias towards the area of specialization. Whilst the DOCTORAL-LEVEL EDUCATION IN CR!MINOLOGY iN iTALY larger area of public administration. However, Ph.D. level should concentrate on the specialized today, there is a marked and consciously activated area in which the candidate is mostly or most likely by tendency towards specialization, and this tendency, to be employed in the criminal justice system. and the need for it, provide the basis for the special Topics should be chosen with such definite aims in Giacoma Canepa"~ nature of the problems of the system of administia­ the background. However, as a University com­ tion of criminal justice. The problems which the mitted to the production of scholars we definitely have to carry on the production of specialists in the system faces today are increasingly complex and I. INTRODUCTION educati~nal activity at a 11ign level, under its present I general areas of sUbstantive criminology, as well as special and, as such, require a high degree of The academic teaching of Criminology in Ita Iv is appellatIOn of "School of Speciaiization in Criminal knowledge, skill, competence and, even, an orienta­ such areas as research planning and evaluation for Law and Criminology" (Delogu). The educational the criminal justice personnel. This way, the per­ traditionally called "Criminal Anthropology". This tion of a special nature in the personnel working discipline, which was introduced into Italian Uni­ purpose of the School is to study criminological sub­ within the system if those problems are to be suc­ sonnel, whether researcher, planner, evaluator or jects with an interdisciplinary orientation and spe­ administrator will fully understand the administra­ versities (Medical Faculty) by Cesare Lombroso, its cessfully tackled. Like in any other field of public founder, has changed and enlarged its content in cifically in relation to legal aspects. administration, efficiency (which is the end result tive problems, whilst at the same time specialised ?) More recently Benigno Oi Tullio founded a enough for competence and efficiency. Beyond this, relation to other disciplines, beyond its starting of such specia list training) is very essential. "School of Speciali~atiQn in Clinical Criminology" in however, we cannot go. trend which was predominantly medical. In a way, whilst the undergraduate level provides, This fact was acknowledged at an international 1967. The educatIonal purpose of the Schoo! was inter alia, courses in Administrative Law, we beHeve The alternative may well be to develop purely pro­ a~d authoritative level (UNESCO) by Carrol and t~ ~tu.dy critTlinological subjects with an inter­ that it may well be desirable to introduce a basic fessional institutions like the Nigerian Law School Pmatel, who noted that the program of courses of dl.s~lpl;nary orIentation and specifically in relation to course in the General Principles of Public Adminis­ and the Institute of Chartered Accountants, etc. to Criminal Anthropology, carried out by Italian Uni­ clInIcal aspects as we can see frorn its Statute Afterwards Statute was .changed to de: tration and Management. The broad specializations cater specifically for postgraduate professional edu­ ver~ities, shows ho,,:", "all the biological, psycho­ ~hi.s (1972) are provided at the masters level in the field of cation. But this may well be outside the purview of logIcal, and penologIcal aspects of criminology are velop the clInIcal and psychIatric orientation of the criminal justice and/or criminology, with a definite ,this conference - and consequently of this paper. taught as part of criminal anthropology or biology. School, as we can see from its new appellation This latter expression covers, in fact, a general teach­ ("School of Speciali.zation in Clinical Criminology and Forensic Psychiatry"). i~g Of. crimi~ology: There is, however, a specifically bIologIcal onentatlon to the whole subject". The University of Genoa carried out Benigno Di A course of Criminal Anthropology was introduced ~ullio's original initiative in 1969 with the founda­ as an elective into the Medical and Juridical Facul­ tIon of the "School of Snecialization in Clinical ties by government decree in 1938 (R.D. Septem­ Criminology" (Canepa, 1970), within the Criminal ber 9, 1938 n. 1652). Some universities have in­ Anthropology Institute, which was founded by D.P.R. troduced a course of "Criminal Sociology" (Napoli) July 21, 1969 n. 615 (Official gazette n. 239 a course of "Criminology" (Roma, Bari Pisa Bo: September 20, 1969). !ogna, Siena, Messina, Milano, Palerm~) int~ the Considering that the purpose of this International Juridical Faculties, and a course of "Juvenile Crimi­ meeting is to probe into the organization of crimi­ nology" into the Medical Faculty of Genoa. ~ologi.cal. e~ucation at the doctoral level and with an The course of Criminal Anthropology has changed Jrl~erdlsclplInary approach, I see the opportunity of appellation ("Criminological Medicine and Forfmsic b~lefly relating the activities of two of these Schools Psychiatry") only at the Medical Faculty of the WIth reference to the Italian University system; , University of Rome. 1) The School of Specialization in Criminal Law and At pmsent this course is named in the Statute of Criminology of the University of Rome; the !"1edical Faculties of 18 Universities, where it is 2) The School of Specialization in Clinical Criminol­ carned out by 11 professors (Roma Milano Genova ogy of the University of Genoa. Sassari, CabHari, Modena, Napoli' Bari 'Messina) Both Schools have a criminological educational and 9 lecturers (Torino, Padova' Trie~te Pavia purp~se as re~ar~s the jnterdisciplinary orientation: Parma, Siena, Pisa, Catania, Paler~o). ' , The fIrst probIng Into a Juridical penal direction the The activities of these teachers are carried out second into a clinical direction. ' in autonomous Institutes at the Medical Faculties of 7 Universities (Roma, Genova, Torino Pavia II. THE SCHOOL OF SPECIALIZATION IN Modena, Napoli, Bari). " CRIMINAL LAW AND CRIMINOLOGY The data here related refer to courses which are AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ROME chos.en as ~Iective by stUdents in their plans of _ . The Scho~1 ~arries out i~s activities within the In­ studIes leadIng to the granting of tl degree that is stItute of CnmInal Law, whIch is its official seat Its !o the w~nting of the t!t!e of "doctor" (e~peciaIlY Director i~ Prof. Tullio Oelogu. Students holding In Me;dlcIne, Law, PolItIcal Sciences Pedagogy a degree In Law or in Political Sciences from any Humanities). " Italian .or foreign University can enroll for the ord'i­ In Italian Universities there is no course leading nary dIploma course. The Board of tile School may to th,c granting of a title of "doctor" in Criminology. authorize the admission of graduates from Medical Th~r~ are, on the ,contrary, some post-graduate Sch~ols or .fro~ any other Faculty of any Italian or tramIng courses, whIch have been established on foreIgn UnIversIty, whose academic record, at the th~ ~reative ini!iative of two great pioneers of Judgment of the Board, is considered adequate In CrimInology: Ennco Ferri and Genigno Di Tullio. SUch cases th~ student, in order to be admitted 1) Enrico Ferri founded a "School of Juridical and must p.as:, an Internal examination in Criminal La'~ ~riminal ,Practice" at the University of Rome in and CnmInal Procedure. 1911. Thl.s s~hool has ofte.n c~anged.its appellation . Th~ courses which will be offered in the regular and organIzatIon although It stIli carnes out intense bIennIal program of post-graduate training are com-

School of Specialization in Clinical Criminology (International I ~~~~~to;f <>J1i~~~a:ngl~}~of~~)iu~~e~~~~h~f~I~Za~'1~t~~~he 37 36 ------~.... ------pulsory or elective according to the following cur­ III. THE SCHOOL OF SPECIALIZATION IN 2) activities carried out by criminologists with ju­ velops in a pressing and spontaneous manner, even riculum: CLINICAL CRIMINOLOGY OF THE ridical, sociological and pedagogical education: if high political authorities sometimes tty to ignore UNIVERSITY OF GENOA honorary judges at the Juvenile Court and in First year it, or, not to consider it according to its true The Director of the School is Professor Giacomo services of probation; government officials in importance. .. Juridical sTUdies police, courts, prisons; technicians at institutes Canepa and the Institute of Criminal Anthropology 1) General principles of Criminal Law for treatment of juvenile offenders. To understand and satisfy this demand, it would is its official seat. Students holding a degree in be enough to consider some legislative suggestions, 2) General principles of Criminal Procedure Medicine, Law, Political Sciences, Pedagogical and It is nn.cessary to point out that the School of but no necessary attention is paid to this possibility. Specialization carries out its activities within the 3) Constitutional Criminal Law Social Sciences, can enroll for the ordinary diploma I will remind the reader, for instance, that crimi­ course. The admission to the school is restricted to Institute of Criminal Anthropology, which also offers nological qualification is required by Law in order 4) Penology cducati.)nal courses for non-graduate, that is: thirty students (fixed number). The admission of for appointment as honorary judges ("private memo 5) One course to be chosen from ten of the elective foreign students is not limited, according to the juridical disciplines 1) Courses of Criminal Anthropology bers") at the Juvenile Court, and to be admitted Statute of the University. The student, in order to (for the Medical Faculty) to the competitive examinations for physicians in be admitted, must pass an internal examination. -·Criminological studies 2) Courses of Juvenile Criminology psychiatric hospitals; the indication of criminologi­ cal subjects is required for the competitive examina. 1) General Criminology The courses which are offered in the regular tri­ (for the Medical Faculty) ennial program, according to the educational pur­ tions to become a managing career physician in 2) Criminal psychopathology pose of the School, are the following: 3) Courses of Criminal Anthropology penal institutions, for the competitive examinations 3) Forensic Psychology (for the Law Faculty) to become a medical officer in Police, for the 4) Methodology of Criminal Statistics First year According to law, these courses can also be courses of the School for Carabinieri Officers, and 5) Criminalistics 1) General Criminology (1) attended by students of other Faculties; conse· for the courses of the School for Police Officers. quently a number of students in Political sciences, 2) General Principles of Sociology It seems, lastly, that a recent Law requires the Second year Pedagogy, Humanities include these criminological criminological qualification for the experts who, in ·3) General Principles of Psychology and Statistics courses in their plans of study, or they attend the -J u ridical studies the Prisons section, carry out the activities of study 4) General Principles of Psych.opathology Institute in order to prepare their graduation thesis and treatment. (Law n.354, July 26, 1975; Official 1) Criminal law in relation to Specific Crimes (in Medicine, Law, Political sciences and so on) on Gazette n.212, August 9, 1975). 5) General Principles of Clinical Psychiatry Social Services and Criminology juridical disciplines. 4) Juvenile Delinquency . Here are the number of graduation thesis for the 3) Moreover, the exigence of including Criminology same period: among the compulsory courses leading to the hold· 5) Diagnostics in relation to Crime (I) -Criminological studies n.24 (1971-72), n.4 (1972-73), n.10 (1973-74), ing of a degree in medicine (Di Tullio) has been 1) Criminology and Criminal Law Third year n.17 (1974-75). shown since, for example, the family doctor has many occasions to know individual situations of 2) Criminology and the Prevention and Control of 1) Diagnostics in relation to Crime (II) inadaptation leading to antisociality by working in Crime 2) Techniques of Treatment contact with families (Canepa, 1970). 3) Theories and Practices in Penology 3) Principles and Tec~lniques of Correctional Treat­ CONCLUSIONS 4) The present organization of the Schools of crimi· 4) Forensic Medicine ment nological specialization may be considered satisfy· The present situation of post·graduate education 5) One course to be chosen from seven of the elec­ ing as regards their educational programs. We 4) General principles of Forensic Medicine and in Criminology that I examined in 1964 with a report tive criminological disciplines. Forensic Psychiatry to the XIV International Course on Criminology in cannot say the same thing for its practical ac· 5) Techniques of Prevention. Lyon (Canepa, 1965, 1967) and in 1969 with are· complishment, considering the necessity of enlarg· At the end of each academic year the student port to the Congress of the Italian Society of Crimi­ ing the number of such schools and of providing must pass all the examinations concerning the re­ The classes may be supplemented by conferences nology in Naples (Canepa, 1970), shows that there them with SUitable financial contributions, with quired studies. The examination leading to the and lectures, seminars, examinations and practical has been undoubtedly an improvement during the structures, with means and with teachers. It Seems, granting of the "Diploma of Specialization in Crimi­ exercises at institutes qualified in criminology. At last year in Italy. . also, that teachers carry out their educational the end of each academic year the student must nal Law and Criminology", consists of presentation activity almost gratis, the wages being very small, pass all the examinations concerning the required Nevertheless the situation is not yet satisfying, and discussion of an original written dissertation on according to the modest budget of such schools, one of the subject areas of the course of studies. studies to be admitted to the following course. The and has already found the censure I previously diploma examination consists of the presentation expressed. Which are supported only by annual taxes paid by Other details will be found in the Statute of the and discussion of an original written dissertation. enrolled stUdents (this rule is applied in all the School, enclosed herewith (Appendix V). The advanced study of criminology, at a post· The student passing all the examinations receives doctoral level of specialization, is carried out only schools of Specialization of Italian Universities). The director of the School has kindly given some a diploma of "Specialist in Clinical Criminology". in Rome and in Genoa. 5) We must hope, in the present state, for the de­ data from which we can see that from 1965 to 1976 Other details will be found in the School regula­ With regard to this, we must remark: sixty students have received the diploma. Many of tions, enclosed herewith (Appendix VI, reproduced velopment of the Schools of criminological speciali. them come from foreign nations, especially South in Italian). 1) The present organization does not allow the Uni­ zation, following the exampl.e of the Schools working versity to face the increasing social demand relating in Rome (criminological and legal trend) and Genoa America. During the last seven academic years the During the last four academic years 28 students number of the students enrolled (Italian or foreign) to the development of new forms of professional (criminological and clinical trend). have received the specialization diploma. Experience activity in criminology. has been as follows: teaches that the specialists in Clinical Criminology In view of future reforms, we hope that Faculties This is to be seen, for instance, in the areas of 1969-70 n.38 (21 + 17), 1970-71 n.71 (41 +30), carry out some practical activities according to their and Schools of Criminology will be opened as hap· general pedagogy, of juvenile inadaptation and anti· 1971-72 n.101 (83+18),1972-73 n.103 (73+30), basic education (degree): sociality, of the juvenile court, of the activity of pened in Italy with regard to psychological educa­ tion. 1973-74 n.66 (35+31), 1974-75 n.77 (46+31), 1) activities carried out by criminologists with prevention and repression carried out by police, 1975-76 n.75 (56+ 19). medical education: experts in psychology and of the service of psychiatric relief, of the judicial Enrico Ferri, a leader of t:1e "positive Italian These data reveal that foreign nations (especially psychiatry at the law courts, advisors in medico· service in the penal area, and of the treatment school", to whom Radzinowicz acknowledged the South America) attach great importance to the di· psycho· pedagogy, physicians at prisons and at service in prison. high merit of founding the first "modern school of ploma of the School. General:y the students holding institutes for the prevention and treatment in 2) The augmentation of social demand for the Criminology" in Europe, called Criminology "a syn· this diploma can teach in the Universities. psychiatry; criminological qualification of such activities de· thetical science", based on "criminal anthropology 38 39 -~~------

and criminal sociology." Today we will Soy: an inter­ they ought to include in their programs not general disciplinary science based on clinical criminology criminology, but rather particular criminological DOCTORAL·LEVEL POLICE EDUCATION IN CRIMINOLOGY IN ITALY and sociological criminology. disciplines, such as clinical criminology (criminal by On such bases, integrated by the necessary ju­ anthropology) and sociological criminology, at two different levels: ridical education, would work the future Faculties Franco Ferracuti* of Criminology, which would offer a biennial pro­ 1) an undergraduate, during the courses leading to paedeutical course (including compulsory juridical the holding of a degree in Law, Social sciences, sociological and clinical studies) and a second bi­ Medicine; ennial course of specialistic education, according to It has been a pleasure and an honor to accept 2) a post-graduate level, as a School of Specializa­ much. of ~he d~ep gap between police and public the three directions mentioned. Professor Lejins invitation, since, as it has always that IS eVident In many countries exists in Italy. tion in sociological criminology (for graduates in t,he he ha:; combined warm hospitality Such Faculties, as I already said (1965), will b~en ca~e, Law and Social sciences) and School of Speciali­ With 91Scusslon of an Important and timely topic in The, ~,~, officers, the Finanza officers, and the have to prepare future graduates in Criminology, zation in clinical criminology (for graduates in our field. Professor Canepa's presentation relieves 9arablnlerl .offlcers, all attend academies, based with juridical, sociological and clinical education; Medicine). me from the task of discussing doctoral education I~ Rome, which are permanent, self-contained institu. that is, juridical criminologists, sociological crimi­ in criminology in Italy and I decided, after consulta­ tlons. Most of the Carabinieri officers on the other nologists and clinical criminologists, who will work This hope, as regard to medicine, I expressed in tion with Professor Lejins, to talk briefly about hand, prior to attending their Academy go through in judicial, social and clinical services of the 1965. Since 1967 it is a reality, after Benigno Di doctoral-level education in criminology in the Italian the Army Military Academy in Modena' the Italian criminological area. Tullio founded the first School of Specialization in Police Academies. equivalent of West Point. ' As far as other Faculties interested in the crimi­ Clinical Criminology in Rome, followed in 1969 by nological problem (Law, Social sciences, Medicine), the School of Genoa. There are two reasons for selecting such a topic: In ~he case, o~ the Finanza officers, no systematic a) The modern conceptualizations of the criminal teaching, of ~nmlnology takes place, In the academic year which just ended, two two-hour periods have jus~ice system considered as a unity, flowing from pollee work to courts, to prison, to after-care in a b~en devoted, for the first time, to criminology, This w!1I be ~xpanded to five two-hour periods next year, BIBLIOGRAPHY &Iobal perspe~tive, bypassing, and overcoming'tradi­ tional separations between different sections of the with a view to move slowly toward a regular course. system. The P.S. Academy has held annual criminology Canepa, G.: L'insegnamento universitario della criminologia e deil'antropologia criminale. Quanderni di . b) Italy ~as an unus~~1 system of police acade­ courses since the academic year 1967-68 after Criminologie clinica, vol. 7, p. 31, 1965. mle~, organized along military lines but kept at uni­ ~ev,~ral. a~ hoc brief courses, The title of the 'course versity level, and, as much as possible as part of IS C:lr:nl~al Anthropology" as is the case in the Canepa, G.: L'enseignement universitaire de la criminologie et de la medicine criminologique, Revue Canadi­ the national university system. The rea~on for this Carabll1len Academy. This name is due to historical enne de Criminologie, vol. 9, p. 11, 1967. a~rangem~nt an~ its advantages and disadvantages reasons, and the subject matter corresponds to a will be bnefly discussed. At the officer's level the general course in criminology (the textbooks used Canepa, G.: L'lnsegnamento e la ricerca criminologica nelle Facolta mediche delle universita italiane. Qua­ teaching of criminology takes place at the doctoral­ la,st ye~r, for exa~ple, were a general treatise by derni di Criminologia clinica, vol. 12, p. 237, 1970. !evel (al~hough this roughly corresponds to an M.A. 01 Tulho, the Italian translation of Radzinowicz's In Amencan terms) and must meet certain stan­ Ideology and Crime, and sections from Mannheim's Carrol, D., Pinatel, J.: Report on the Teaching of Social Sciences: Criminology. Ed. UNESCO, Paris, 1957. dar?S, determined by the existing credit transfer­ Comparative Criminology.) The course lasts 70 ability from the Academy to the National university hours, and approximately 65 officers attend it each system. year. It should be noted that P.S. officers are Delogu, T.: La Scuola di specializzazione in diritto penale e criminologia, Archivio penale, n. 1-2, p. 80, 1972. normally already graduated, generally in law. Every foreigner visiting Italy is baffled by the Di Tullio, B.: L'opera del medico nella lotta contro la criminalita. Quaderni di Criminologia clinica, vol 6, p. various types of policemen he meets. Italy has been The Carabinieri Academy functions in tandem 135, 1964. call~d "the country with 5 police systems". In with the Army Military Academy in Modena. Officers reality, apart from municipal police forces not undergo ~ total of four years training, two in Modena Radzinowicz, L.: Alia ricerca della criminologia, ed. Giuffre, Milano, 1964 (e. orig. "In Search of Criminology" relevant to our disc~ssion, and from special ~orps, and two In RO.me ..Standard criminal anthropology Ed. Heineman, London, 1961). there are three major types of police forces: the courses are gl~en In Modena at the second year P.ubblica Sicurezza (P.S.), the Carabinieri, and the level. Some officers, however, enter the corp without rlnanza. Hav!n!5 ~ad the honor of being a professor going through the Modena Academy, from the gen­ In !he Carablnl,en Officers Academy for 20 years, eral army pool, or from non-commissioned officers I wllI.try to outline the characteristics of the system. who have won a special competition. The Carabinieri Bnefly, P.S. and Carabinieri have similar func­ Academy, based in Rome, initiated its course in tions, and overlap to a great extent. The P.S. is a 1956 .. Originally, .two different courses were given: t;ivilian body, militarized, and under the supervision forenSIc and cnmll1al psychology and criminal an­ of the Ministry of Interior. The Carabinieri are a thropology. In 1962 the former was suppressed and ~ilitary body, under the same Ministry but institu­ fused, in part, with criminal anthropology. A final tionally under the aegis of the Ministry of Defense, program was established in 1966. Generally the as part of the army. In general, they are military co~rses . in criminology are given to second year police with civilian functions. The Guardia di officers In the Modena Academy and, to officers who F!n.anza are a special military body under the super­ do not go through Modena, in Rome. Normally vIsion and at the service of the Ministry of Finance. courses last approximately 60 hours, and end with They deal wi,th f~scal and valutary crimes, currency, an examination (oral and/or written). The textbooks regulatory VIOlations and drugs (these fields, how­ are .the same as those of the University of Rome. ever, can be covered also in part by the other two Subject matter includes general introduction to police forces). criminology, and a number of special topics (e.g., drug dependence and crime, consumer fraud art This trifurcation of authority and functions has theft, violent offenses, etc.). A special once a 'year deep historical roots and causes, with inevitably lecture is given to lieutenant colonels in the course some amount of duplication and overlapping. By of refresher training prior to promotion to colonel. and large, however, it has functioned well and not This year's lecture was on "social dangerousness".

~Professor of Criminological Medicine and Forensic Psychiatry, University of Rome, Medical School, Rome, Italy. 40 41 -----, ,----1IIIIIIII------Wn ------~~~------

The stated purpose of the course (as defined in ence, aimed at the general problem to which this DOCTORAL·LEVEL EDUCATION IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY the Academy statute) is to improve the education conference is addressed: of the officer and to give him all the theoretical and 1) to bridge the gap between academia and IN VENEZUELA practical notions which he may need in the course services is a difficult problem. The services can by of fulfilling his functions. Normally, the response of be brought to academia, through special courses, the officers to the teaching of criminology is enthusi­ ad hoc programs, etc., but the reverse is also Francisco Canestri* astic. Subjects such as criminal law, criminal pro­ possible, and it has worked in our case. cedure, forensic medicine, etc. are also taught but criminology remains a popular and lively discussed 2) In a global view of the criminal justice system, topic. the different sections of the system must be PREFACE Congress; the I International Congress of Criminol­ unified, at least as far as training in the basic ogy ... One special feature of the Finanza and Carabinieri sciences is concerned. This would mean, for ex· It is a great pleasure for me to participate in academies is that, since 1966, through an agree­ ample, coordination of the teaching of criminology this Conference which deals with a subject both of This international movement reached its culmina­ mont between the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry in the police, in the correctional services (at the worldwide interest and of special interest for Latin tio~ with .two events dealing with criminology edu­ of Finance and the Ministry of Education, credit for level of prison wardens and of chief administra­ America. cation which must be taken into consideration: First, courses taken in the academies are transferable to tors) and in tile magistrature. Currently, a few Education in criminology has bee!"! a constant the Conference of Specialized Institutions and inter­ the Italian University system (meaning practically to lectures are included, in Italy, in the special worry to all persons involved in the field, and that national non-Governmental Organizations Interested any university in Italy, since with one exception they courses given to correctional personnel and to is why it has been the main subject in many inter­ in Crime Prevention and the Treatment of Delin­ are all state universities). It is required that tre magistrates after they enter the service. This national events. It is evident, as I say in my paper quents':[3] hel~ in Geneva. under the auspices of courses in the academies be given by university per­ should be expanded and harmonized, with com­ on criminology educatio'l in Venezuela[l], that the United Nations. In their conclusions the con­ sonnel and that the programs match those which are mon and complementary curricula and textbooks. "teaching criminology is a very wide and complex ference pointed out: a) that the universities ;hould offered in the universities. This agreement has been The police functions include prevention and after­ subject. There is very little specialized bibliography org~nize ~riminology educ.ation ~nd criminological sanctioned into a law in June 1962, reconfirmed in care, and these must be considered in coopera­ and, with the exception of some papers exclusively subjects In accordance wl~h theIr own traditions 1964 and, recently, after our University reform, in tion with other sections of the criminal justice dealing with it, one is constrained to look for casual possibilities and needs; b) that this education should 1974 and 1975. A total of 18 courses are included system. ,'(:marks on our discipline in the works of ;:vell-known be compulsory for all persons aiming at professional duthors. magistracy and para-judicial functions. in this law, and the specific programs are described 3) In the current status of our discipline, new in the law itself. They range from criminal anthro­ theories and new approaches cannot be ignored. The serious contrast between the importance of Second, a paper published by UNESCO, dedicated pology to forensic medicine. to political geography, They must be considered and translated, if viable, this problem and the scant bibliography is a very to criminology in the "Education in the Social Sci­ to several legal subject. into operational practical terms, at the practi· grave obstacle to education, We are risking that enc~s" series examined[4] a world·survey on this tioner level. This requires bridging the academic­ It may be resolved as many other problems have subject. Answers from ten countries were obtained Essentially, the law establishing the transferability service gap. If this is not done, the gap may ended, IIfiled unsolved". We wish to deeply thank on the organization of criminology education, en­ of credit from military academies to university has degenerate into open conflict and opposition. tile organizers of this Conference for dedicating it countered difficulties, their solutions, and improve­ many advantages: (1) it establishes a university Traditionally, academia deals with theories and to this topic and thus rousing our enthusiasm. ment projects. The results of this survey, made in standard for personnel and for content in the pure research. The quasi-clinical nature of the There is another element which we have detected collab~ration with em,inent criminologists[5], are of academy teaching; (2) it motivates the officers to field, the case by case work in our discipline re­ in our researches[2] in criminological education. great Interest, especially bacause they all agreed seek a higher degree, at the doctoral-level, after quires a translation from theory to practice. This It is the impossibility of following the recommenda· on an organizational need at different levels, which they enter the service, since a large number of the should be done by practitioners and academics tions given at different international meetings makes the inevitability of an adequate criminal required courses for a doctorate in law are in together, and not left to one of the two sides only. regarding the organizational needs. poiicy evident. We have summed them up as fol­ lows:[6] Political Science and already included in the It is a difficult task, calling for balanced, objec­ tive information from a general body of scien­ A brief historical review shows that Criminology academy curriculum; (3) it bridges the gap between tifically valid knowledge to meaningful, practical from its early start with the works of Lombroso a) Most countries realize the need to change the administration of justice. academia and police, forcing both sides to a and realistic decisions at the policy level and at (1876), Ferri (1881) and Garofalo (1885), has been dialogue wllich would be difficult otherwise. the individual case level. constantly preoccupied with this subject: recommen. b) All persons dealing with the administration of criminal justice - police, magistrates, prison Essentially, the system has worked well, and 4) Given the changing nature of our discipline dations for the organization of teaching criminology expansion to otller areas (engineering and mathe­ at different levels were made at the International and prevention officers, counsels, public attor­ and the constant acquisition of new fields, a co­ neys, etc. - are well aware of the need to re­ matics) is under consideration. The Carabinieri ordinated system of in-service training and of Penitentiary Congress in st. Petersburg (1890); 5imilar requests were also made at the Congress of view their methods. They know by experience academy publishes a bimonthly journal (Rassegna refresher courses must be established. This is that when they try to put "new ideas" into prac­ dell'Arma dei Carabinieri), wllich is kept at the level essential to avoid a separation between practice the International Union of Penal Law held in Linz tice they always meet with a lack of precedents of a scientific journal, and which frequently includes and research. Since research and teaching so (Austria) in 1895; the IX International Penitentiary and even with inhibiting attitudes. Many have articles on deviance and on standard criminological often are carried out by the same persons, the Congress (London), 1925; the III International Penal tried, with poor results, to carry on in an em- topics. teaching experience, to persons in the field, will enrich the researcher's experience and force him I~Professor, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Facultad de Derecho Instituto de Ciencias Penales Y Criminologicas Caracas Some general considerations are in order at this to test his theories against the harsh realities of Venezuela. ' , , point based on the Italian Police Academies' experi- field work in our subject matter. [1] CANE~!R.I, F., "La Ensenanza de la Criminologfa en Venezuela". Revista Relaci6n Criminol6glca. Special volume dedicat. JJ ed to the Pnmeras Jornadas Venezolanas de Criminologla , Year 5, No.9, Valencia, Venezuela, 1972, pages 105.139. b2J ~AN~S:rRI, ~;' op. cit. See ~Iso ':La ensenanza de la Criminologfa en America Latina", Revista Internacional de Estudios nr:rllnologlco~; ,~roblems poses a I h~~re a~tuelle par I'enseignement de la criminologie dans certain pays de Amerique Latlne 7~ partlc~lierement a,u Ven~z~ela , Cahlers de Defense Socia Ie, 1973, No. I, page 65; "La investigaci6n crfminol6gica ~r Ar:nenc,,! La!lna, t~n~encla~ p;'lncl~aI7s. Reyista Neuronio, Oscar Freire Institute (Brasil), Vol. XXXIV, No. 1-2, 1973, p. 101; a Investlgacl6n Cnmlnol6glca , cnmlnologlcal chapter, Inst, de Invest de Crim Zulia University Maracaibo Ven- ezuela, No.1 1973, p. 87. "" , [3J O.N.U., Actas de las Conferencias de las Instituciones Especializadas, Geneve, 17.12.1952. [4J UNESCO" ",Les S?iences, Sociales dans I'enseign,ement superieur: Criminologia". (Pour Ie compte de la Societe Interna­ tiona Ie de Cnmlnologle). Pans, 1956. ~~tEt0LAND GRASSBERGER (Austria); PAUL CORNIL and R. GROSEMANS (Belgium); LEONIDIO RIVERO (Brasil)' THORSTEN • SNU (U.S.A.): JEAN PINATEL (France); CARLO ERVA (italy); HERMAN MANNHEIM (England); OLOF KLINEBERG (Swed- en ), LHi DONMEZER (Turkey); D. V. DIMITRIJEVIC (Yugoslavy). [6] CANESTRI, F., op. cit. 42 43

1 Ii pirical way. Good will is not enough. To channel The outline sketches of two evolutionary trends These books, although full of knowledge and the efforts and to achieve the pursued goals it is emerge, based on this general idea, and both are beg~n at this time to be considered, within the uni. describing the European criminological activities in verslties, as a scientific, autonomous and multi. necessary to have a scientific organization of influenced by a traditional and cultural universi­ the clinical and legal fields, had practically no disciplinary sciei:~e, capable of integrating a study criminology education. tarian element characteristic of latin American reference to a possibility of an analysis of the countries, where medicine and law are status program in the traditional careers as law, medicine, c) Criminology education is indispensable in an Latin American situation. or the new ones as psychology or sociology. age when criminal and penitentiary reforms re­ enhancing careers. quire the cooperation of new professionals such a) First we found Criminology in Law Faculties, as psychologists, sociologists, social workers, where it was included in the first part of teachers, probation officers, etc. This para­ Criminal Law and Forensic Medicine teaching B - Post-War Period Up to 1960 judicial staff, as well as the judiciary, must have programs, comprising 5 to 10% of the total 0- Our Age a common basis of criminological education in studies. Consequently, it was only mentioned The European criminological movement, inter. order not to scatter their activities or to focus incidentally as an auxiliary of Criminal law. rupted by the Second World War, gathered new We consider the XIX International Course in them only on one speciality. strength with its end. The II International[17] Criminolo?y, ~eld in Mendoza, Argentina, in 1969, b) The other discipline in which criminology Criminology Congress held in Paris in 1950 the to be of Vital Importance; not forgetting other efforts d) The continuous evolution of legal conceptions, evolved was in the Medical faculties where First[1S] and Second[19] International Cours~s in !Ike those of the In!ernational Center of Criminology penitentiary institutions and staffs, both in pre­ criminology education was included in Foren­ Criminology, also held in Paris, and sponsored by m Montreal, espeCially Dr. Deniz Szabo's personal ventive and repressive measures, leads to the sic Medicine or Forensic Psychology programs. the International Society of Criminology, were wor~. Research, teaching and other problems re­ question of a criminal law "renewal". Crimi· These two apparently contradictory positions especially determinant for Latin America because ferring specifically to Latin America were first nological data is necessary for the elaboration of merged into a single "clinically oriented" hybrid of their world influence. studied at MendoL.a. legal norms. Consequently, the jurists have an which jurists tried to apply in the practical profes­ Their influence is undeniable. Many Latin Ameri. I cannot avoid mentioning, because I lived imperative need for up-to-date information on sional field at court summations, by physicians and the advances in criminology. can professors who attended these events went back through the experience, the surprise caused by psychiatrists in the penitentiary field and by legal· with criminological interests leading to the evolu. these statements and their vehement rejection e) It is also convenient to take into consideration forensic experts. And so evolved a movement called tion of this discipline in their countries. as time passed. .B.oth reactions helped only to that criminology education is basic in teaching by some authors "criminological latin American", strengthen our position. It was then that criminol. scientific research in addition to its professional which can be felt in some forensic and penitentiary ogy was u~d~rs.to~d and ac.cepted as. an independent educational ends. Criminology education unifies, activities, varying in each country according to their and .multldlscl~lmary ?clen,ce, With accordingly coordinates and stimulates scientific criminologi­ legal order. C - The 1960's organized teachmg, takmg mto consideration the cal research. Our most important latin American criminologists, social reality of our developing and underdeveloped This very important movement that took place countries. This preface allows me to state in the first as important as the Europeans (the Argentinian Jose during the 1950's, characterizes the Latin American section, the way we meet this problem in latin Ingenieros, for example, who published in 1901 his criminological movement, in the sense that it We also believe that it was at this time when America, specifically in Venezuela and, in the "Criminologia"), only followed the European clinical changed criminology from its auxiliary position in world criminologists began to pay attention to Latin second section, outline what we consider a useful movement from theoretical aspects, and in particu· relation to Criminal Law to an independent science America which has become, due to its conditions sketch for criminology education at different lar the Italian criminal anthropology school. with a multidisciplinary character. levels, but especially at the doctoral level. a veritable psychosocial laboratory, with relevant We find this situation until the 1950's. Up to The progress of other social and hUman sciences criminological incidences reversing the previous then there was no attempt to organize some sort of is also important, especially sociology and psychol. situation that, in the past, had called our attention I - CRIMINOLOGY EDUCATION criminological education within the universities. We ogy, which created new university careers (eco. towards them. IN LATIN AMERICA, can even assert that our discipline was relegated to nomics, sociology, psychology and its specialities), ESPECIALLY IN VENEZUELA police or prison staff teaching institutes. breaking the traditional structural pattern which Finally, we believe also that it was at this time A brief analysis of the bibliography used between limited social studies to law and political science when what is known today as the latin American A - From the End of the 19th Century 1945 and 1955 proved this assertion well enough: faculties. Such a great development made the jurists criminological movement was born, as was evident To the Middle of the 20th Century it consisted of markedly biologically or anthropologi­ fear they would be absorbed by these new disci. during the I International Congress of the Crimino. plines, specifically criminology, supposedly giving In the preface I briefly touched upon the cally oriented German[S] and Italian[9] transla· logical Studies lnteramerican Association and the tions. Works published by Latin American authors birth to Jimenez de Asua's famous phrase: "Crimi· Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminol. historical development of worldwide concepts on nology will swallow Criminal law". criminological education. What I stClted there is or by resident Europeans, show this biological· ogy, held in Caracas in 1972, organized by Juan basic to understanding what has taken place in anthropological orientation also, and a seeming The polemic prestige of criminology led, in 1955, Manuel Mayorca. This finally led to the XXIII Inter. latin America where, in a general way, we follow struggle between physicians (who believed them­ to specialization trips by professors and students. national Course of Criminology in Maracaibo, the movements and scientific trends of other coun­ selves to be more progressive) and jurists (con· When they returned to their countries they estab. Venezuela, organized by lolita Aniyar de Castro[21], sidered more repressive and conservative). tries. lished criminology education, created university when our orientation was definitely set forth and our research institutes, etc. A glance at the latin American yield on Social and A large number of criminological books were pub· thoughts were consolidated. This was manifest duro Human Sciences during the last few years shows a lished during these years, some with pedagogic Criminological activities during these years dealt ing the X~V Course of Criminology held in Guayaquil, decisive European influence. The positivist philoso­ ends, such as those of Israel Drapkin[lO] from mainly with the state and context of criminological Ecuador, In 1975, dedicated to subjects of interest phy, through criminal law, played a decisive role in Chile, and Jose Rafael Mendoza[11] from Venezuela: education[20J, and it is important that criminology to Latin America. our criminological conceptions. The works of Lom­ others supporting the legal reform movement like broso, Ferri and Gar6falo were translated and printed Professor Manuel L6pez·Rey[12], Jimenez de many times, and until recently were quoted in books, Asua[13]; others with a more specific scientific ~}~ ~~~~~EZ DE ASUA, LlUS, "Estudlos de Derecho Penal y Criminologla", Omega Editores, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1961, articles and papers published in different Latin Amer· divulgation end as "Criminology" by the Chilean ican countries, not as historical quotations but as if HUclscar Cajfas[14]; Julio Morales Coello[15] from [14) CAJIAS, HUASCAR, "Criminologfa", Editorial Juventud, La Paz, BoliVia, 19.5,430 pages. they still were actual schools of thought. Cuba or Luis Carlos Perez from Columbia[16]. [15] MORALES COELLO, JULIO, "Criminologfa", printed by the La Habana University, Cuba, 1948, 282 pages. [16] PEREZ, LUIS CARLOS, "Criminologfa·la nueva concepci6 natural del dellto", Univ. Nac. de Columbia, 1959, 415 pages. [8] Among the German translations: EXNER, FRANZ, I/Biologfa Criminal," Editorial Bosch, Barcelona, Spain, 1957, 471 [17] Actes du II Congres International de Crimlnologie. (Paris·Sorbonne, Sept. 1950), 5 vol. P.U.F. pages. (18] Premier Cours International de Criminologie, l'Examen Medico·Psychologique et Social des Delinquants Ministere de la [9] Among the Italian translations: 01 TULLIO, BENIGNO, "Tratado de Antropologla Criminal", I.P.A.C., Buenos Aires, Argen­ Justlce, Pans 1952, 684 pages. ' tina, 1950. Cours International de Criminologie, Le Probleme de l'Etat Oangereux, Minister de la Justice, Paris 1953, 632 [10] DRAPKIN, ISRAEL, "Manual de Criminologfa," edited by the Eccuele Tecnica de Investigaciones, 1949, 264 pages. ~~~~s~eUXi~me [11] MENDOZA, JOSE RAFAEL, "Curso de Criminologla", 1st. edition, Gratic8s Marsiegen, Madrid, 1956,432 pages. [20] CANESTRI, F., op. cit. [12] LOPEZ-REY, MANUEL, "Manual, Introducci6n a la Criminologia", Edit. EI Ateneo, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1944, 2 vol. [21] "Los Rostros de la Violencia", XXIII Course of Criminology, Vol. 1, Maracaibo, 1974, 336 pages. 44 45

LiS aaM'UW=&&!£U 222 b R

11- CRIMINOLOGY EDUCATION Summing up, at this level criminology is inde­ trends presented: in treatment and re-socialization IN VENEZUELA pendently taught, with its own programs and as a This conception, under elaboration in Venezuela methods; those supporting social reaction, showed during the past ten years[25], has led us to make compulsory or an optional subject, depending on results in sterotipia and stigmatization leading the university, school or faculty. At the pre-graduate the f0110wing chart (see appendix VII), where we A - Historical Situation of the Problem to a new formulation of criminalization and de­ have pointed out the sciences intervening in the level, criminology education has been organized, criminalization processes; and those favoring the Until the 1960's, conditions in Venezuela especially through institutes at the universities, with the following chart (see Appendix VII), where we organization trend, showed results on evaluation of delinquent phenomenon as a whole. The different were the same as in other Latin American countries. a tendency to autonomy; elt the post-graduate level the different systems of justice administration. Excepting isolated ideas ~f ~er~ons who .ca~ be ~on­ we have not obtained the same results, in spite areas and preventive or repressive functions under. sidered pioneers in our disCipline, no criminological of all the efforts made. Excepting the first post­ As we can see, all these results are intimately taken by the government when planning a criminal movement was even outlined. graduate criminology course at the Criminological linked to the administration of justice systems, and policy can be deduced from this chart. Research Center in Maracaibo, all other post­ especially to their needs for renewal and improve­ ment. This project must be visualized within an indio After the dictatorship's fall in 1958, our demo­ graduate or doctoral level courses are on criminal vidual and social environment closely related to an cratic governments began to work to change the law and criminology. Consequently, criminology has age and a country in particular in order to establish image of the administration of justice, up to then not yet become wholly autonomous. its interaction and globalization. characterized by political repression. The Ministry B - Practical Conception of JtJsi.ice and the Central University granted schol­ We believe we can conclude by pointing out the Willingly putting aside the existent antagonism With the aid of this chart we have obtained a arships for specialization courses in Europe. These need to consider a possible organization of criminol­ between the clinical trend or "passage a J'acte", general view over both the criminal phenomenon, measures contributed to creating what we can call ogy education at the doctoral level, taking into ac­ and in the initially termed interactionist perspective the administration of justice and those sciences today our country's first generation of criminologists. count the aforesaid on the evolution of criminology (today known as the social reaction trend) and dedi­ dedicated to their study, and the result is our Ampli­ education at other levels. fication Course in Criminology, aimed at profes­ Upon their return they exerted a definite influence cating ourselves to the organizational trend, we must in developing the Venezuelan criminological move­ The last part of this paper is based on these ndmit that some of these contributions can be used sionals (lawyers, psychologists, physicians, teachers, ment, today considered of great importance in Latin considerations, and I mal{e this exposition in the as a base and as a direction for an anlysis of the sociologists, social workers, etc.) and persons work. necessary education of persons planning to work on American criminology. This group of specialized per­ 'hope that a possible scheme for the developme~t ing in criminal justice administration (prevention, sons directed their first efforts to organize education of a criminology doctorate may result from thiS Justice administration at the pre-graduate level. police and prison boards, Ministry of Justice, and research, the results being two Penal and Crimi­ discussion. We owe to the organizational trend[23] an integral judges" attorneys, prosecutors). nological Research Institutes (Caracas at the Central dynamic view of the administra~ion of justice sys­ In this project we now present, we have possibly University and Valencia, at the Carabobo Universi.ty), tem, as an entity inter-related to society as a whole, established the basis for an actual specialization a Criminological Investigation Center (Mamca!b~, as well as the actual concept of criminal policy. III _. CONSIDERATIONS ON CRIMINOLOGY course, based on the higher knowledge acquired Zulia University) and a project to create a Crimi­ EDUCATION AT POST-GRADUATE AND This has been achieved through 'evaluative re­ nological Institute at Los Andes University in Merida. search[24] based on social science methodological (even though rather elemental), and in a global view DOCTORAL LEVELS, ORIENTED TOWARDS of the criminal problem and administration of jus­ CRIMINAL JUSTICE ADMINISTRATION improvements, especially on the multidisciplinary The start of Seminars and Monographic courses fields. tice, and would like to hear your valuable comments. in Criminology at the different faculties and schools The organization of criminology education at (law, sociology, social work, journalism, etc.), th~ We can delimit a specific area corresponding to Due to the interdisciplinary aspect of the problem these levels must be the result of the conjugation the legal reality, structurally based on a criminal and the heterogeneity of the persons involved, we first organized criminology education, were immedl' of the theoretical conceptions on this science and ate consequences of this criminological movement procedural law in our countries, a police and peni­ consider that this third level (doctoral level) must its practical needs, according to each country, tentiary system which, taken as a whole, are sub­ and resulted in our present criminology courses, traditions, possibi lities, etc. be planned as essentially oriented towards research, systems of a larger system, which is the system for pointing out priority areas, as those included in the It is important to stress the great support lent by the administration of criminal justice. official channels: Police, Prevention and Prison A - Theoretical Conceptions program under the heading "Complementary Areas". Boards, especially when their directors were persons The conclusions of the last International spE'cialized in criminology. Congress in Criminology, held in Belgrade in 1973, Criminology education then already had such showed the emergenca of three main trends in an importance that it was one of the main su.bj~cts today's criminological theories: "the passage a at the "Primeras Jornadas Venezolanas de Crimina­ I'acte" or clinical trend, the interractionist or social logia", held in Valencia in 1974. action trend and the organizational or justice ad­ ministration trend, which correspond to the studies At the doctoral level we can also point to im· of the offender, delinquency and crime at different portant efforts that have led to the organization of levels of the criminological phenomenon in its Doctoral and Specialization Courses at the Centra! individual, legal and social realities. University, Catholic University and Zulia University. Up to now, however, these have lacked continuity The most important result of this Congress, in and permanency. our opinion, and as Professor Milan Milutinovic[22] points out in his magistral general report, is the understanding that these apparently contradictory B -- Actual State positions are, in reality, complementary. In other We can conclude, from the aforesaid, that the words, in order to be able to assert that one has a evolution of criminological education in our country, criminological conception from any of these three view-points, a global conception of individual legal at the pre-graduate level. is ~arri~d out thro~g~ teaching programs and courses In different speclal.l" and social problems is necessary. ties: law, social work, sociology, etc. Monographic This position leads to scientific problems that courses and seminars are used in other cases as go beyond technical investigation and into the independent subjects or as complementary to the methodological and epistemological levels, a risKy teaching programs in criminology. This situation is field, where the boundaries between science and also reflected in official police and prison staff ideology blend. Simultaneously. some practical [23] SZABO, DENIS, "Evaluation des Systems de Politique Criminelle, 7 Congress Internationale de Criminologie, Sept. 1973, schools and academies where there is also teaching results were presented at the Congress, which shoW Rapport de la III Section, 34 p. in criminology. the interrelationship needed between the various [24] As an example we can quote the results of huge researches as "National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Stan­ dLards and Goals", U.S.A., 1973. Rapport du Comite Canadiense de la Reforme Penal et Correctionelle, Ottawa, Canada 1969 [22J MILUTINOVIC, MILAN, "Les grands tendences de la criminologle cont~mporalne, Rapport General. VII Congress Interna­ a Societe face au crime, Comision d'enquetee sur l'Administration de Justice au Quebec, Canada, 1969. ,. tionale de Criminologie·Belgrade, 1973 (25] CANESTRI, F., "Hacia una polltica criminal en Venezuela, Revista Policia Cientrfica, No. 20, June 1968, Pages 5 to 8. 46 47 ~~~~GL~g~~~~Sg~.-~AQ.·m&~k••• A...... amaa.. ~-~d@~%~4"~~.~S&L~~tSEE~~L_~&~ .. _~L~LE~_~!&"_;._.... ~ ...... __ ...... __ ...... • ______The curricula is as follows: Governing Board: composed of representatives of SPECIALIZED PENAL AND CRIMINOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN MEXICO the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Public by First Semester Education, the Federal Attorney General's Office the Attorney General's Office of the Federal District' - General Criminology Gustavo Malo Camacho* the National Autonomous University of Mexico th~ - Penal Law (General) Metropolitan University and the Mexican Acade~y of Penal Sciences. - Judicial Psychology Its contents mark the beginning of a new stage in Academic Council: Composed of the Director Specialized training in criminology, criminalistics - Criminological Methodology Assistant Director and Directors for each subject: the attention given to the country'~. criminological and criminal sciences is currently provided at the - Legal Medicine area. Among other functions, it is the task of the postgraduate level in the following institutions in and penitentiary problems in which interest has been developed in the areas of legislation, architec­ Council to propose teachers and researchers as well as to prepare the internal regulations. Mexico: ture, teaching and research. a) Instituto National de Ciencias Penales (The Second Semester The center is set up as an autonomous agency National Institute of Penal Sciences) Special atten­ a) Legislation: reforms of penal law and of the providing services with its own means. Law on Penal Procedures guided by the principles - Criminological Sociology tion will be given to this Institute. The goals of the institution are: research in the of eliminating prison sentences; reforms of the or­ - Criminal Law (Special) b) Division de Estudios SuperiQres de la Facultad ganic law designed to improve and strengthe'l a areas of criminology, penal sciences and criminalis­ de Derecho de la Univarsidad Nacional Aut6noma swift and expeditious system for the administration - Criminal Psychology tics, teaching in, these same areas, and constituting a center for documentation and information. The de Mexico (Graduate Division of the School of Law of justice; new prison laws; new laws concerning the - Criminological Biology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico). FederaJ and Federal District Public Prosecutors; new material will be composed of information obtained - Penology from exchanges with Mexican and foreign universi­ Doctorate and Master's programs in Penal Law. legislation for the legal disposition of minors based on principles of guardianship and protection in ties and criminological institutes. In the future it c) Instituto Tecnico de la Procuraduria del Dis­ will function as a data bank. trito Federal (The Technical Institute of the Attorney­ -recognition of their particular condition; and new provisions for improved attention to drug addicts. Third Semester General's Office of the Federal District). Specializa­ General information: tion in Criminology and Criminalistics. . b) Material accomplishments: Construction of - Criminal Procedural Law d) Various other academic institutions located in new general and specialized prisons based on - Criminological Psychopathology Address: Magisterio Nacional No. 113, Colonia modern principles (45); new court buildings; and Tlalpan, Mexico 22, D.F. different States in Mexico. Particularly outstanding - Criminalistics for the interest it has shown in this field is the State new institutions for research and teaching in the Research area: 13 cubicles of Veracruz. field of criminology. - Police Law Teaching area: Three classrooms with a capacity In Mexico, in general, to obtain the professional c) Teaching: In undergraduate training programs - Penal Executive Law for police and prison staff. At the graduate level of 45 persons each, providing space for 135 stu- graduate degree called "Licencistura", it is neces­ dents. . sary to study 18 years: 6 years of eleMentary school; there are specialized education programs in penal 3 years of high school; 3 years of preparatory; and sciences, criminology and criminalistics. Fourth Semester . An .auditor!~~ with a. capacity of 216 persons, including faCilities for Simultaneous interpretation 5 years of University; plus the necessary time to d) Scientific criminological research. - Legal Psychiatry write and defend a thesis in a final exam. Studies and an area for the secretariat. beyond this degree will permit obtaining a "Master In relation to this outline, I would like to mention - Clinical Criminology again the new National Institute of Penal Sciences. A reading room for 40 persons. degree", officially within one more year, and a "Doc­ - Minor Criminality torate degree" which means two years of studies Library. Under the General Law on State Ministries and - Criminological Policy with the obligation of sustaining 2 doctoral disserta­ Departments, it is the task of the Ministry of the - Principles of Criminological Administration Information center with photocopying and mimeo­ tions after 2 theses. Interior to establish the country's criminological graphing facilities. Understanding the educational system in spe­ policy and guide the States in implementing this R?oms for associations related to penal sciences: cialized criminology at the graduate level in Mexico policy (Article 2, Section XXV). In this regard, after The subject matter of each of these subjects is MeXican Academy of Penal Sciences, Society of requires brief reference to the characteristics form­ a preparation program guided by Doctor Garcia in accordance with its title. In the papers that have Ramirez, which lasted approximately two years, the Criminology, Society of Criminalistics/ etc. ing its foundations. been given to you, you will find a brief reference to President of Mexico recently inaugurated the Na­ the topics that each one includes. Mexico is a country whose juridical structure tional Institute of Penal Sciences (June 25, 1976). Gardens. consists of a Federation composed of thirty-two The Center has worked in the field of criminological Finally, I just want to add that the Decree that internally free and sovereign States. Each State, research for several months, resulting in the pub­ Organic structure: created the Institute has been given to you (appen­ within its own jurisdiction, observes its own laws lications you have received. Soon operations of a dix VII), and some of the publications we have had in civil and criminal matters, in addition to the laws teaching institution for the training of criminologists The organic structure of the National Institute for in the field of criminology; also, I invite you to have of the Federation and the Federal District. Peniten­ at the graduate level will be initiated. Penal Sciences (Article 9, Decree) is as follows: an exchange of publications in the future. tiaries, pre-trial detention institutions and those dealing with administrative arrest for violation of the The fundamental importance of this new academic law also fall within the jurisdiction of the States, institution is its criminological orientation, since the with the exception of those under federal jurisdic- approach of the University to its graduate program is eminently juridical. This institution will train tion. researchers and teachers in the field of criminal The Political Constitution of the United Mexican justice. The educational system is based on credits States of 1917 bases prison operations and respon­ obtained for the study of certain courses, some re­ sibility for prisoners essentially on Articles 18, 19 lated to each other and others of an independent and 22. The provisions regulating the penal system nature. The length of the curricula is generally four and procedure are found principally in Articles 13 semesters for the doctorate level. to 23 of the Constitution. As a complement to the study program described, A fundamental document in this field has been syntheses of each of the subjects composing it are the Law on Minimum Norms for the Social Readapta­ being prepared as well as study manuals for each tion of Sentenced Persons, promulgated in 1971 . subject in order to serve as basic bibliographies.

• University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico. 48 49

, iL k&&;z RESEARCH AND EDUCATION ON THE DOCTORAL LEVEL IN CRIMINOLOGY effects of value disintegration or anomie on the rate We are indeed witnessing a deepening of crime in and nature of criminal arid deviant behaviour. As Israel with a qualitative change in the phenomena IN ISRAEL we are witnessing in Israel a rather marked process of crime as far as the profile of the individual of value disintegration as well as some retreat from criminal is concerned. The profile of the Israeli by the idealistic pioneering and utopic goals of the habitual and professional criminal has become more Zionist founding fathers, the overall effect on norma­ harsh and more severe; he is also becoming more S. Giora Shoham* tive disintegration might be discernable and investi­ sophisticated in his modus operandi and we are gated. It is indeed quite likely that the anomic witnessing more violence in his behaviour. The disintegration of some value systems within the hypotheses which may be relevant here are also re­ Israeli normative structure could be linked to the First of all let me say at the outset that in Israel didate in criminology is required t? suppl,eme~t lated to the efficacy of the various treatment institu­ I his studies because, unfortunately, mstructlon 10 fact that the third generation local born of immi­ tions and services. If indeed treatment is failing in we still regard criminology as. a science. W~ are grant parentage still experience the effect of culture well aware tt1at in many countnes .the so-calleo .new criminology in Israel has not reached the necessary Israel, as everywhere else, to rehabilitate the criminal level of interdisciplinary integration. A lawyer" f,or conflict which prevents the stabilization of the crime and offender, a proper topic for research could be, cl'iminology has caused some npple~, especlal!y and deviance curv'e. This relates not only to such among radically oriented youth. We think that this instance, would have, therefore, to take !nltlal how and when do we revert to deterrence. And disenchanting effects on the Jewish American immi­ "new criminology", is, alas, not new and hardly courses in the behavioural sciences and sociology would it be more efficient than treatment in many grants who do not seem to find the idealistic fervour criminology. The idea that society is kept together whereas a social psychologist woul~ ~ave to t~ke cases; or what sanctions would have a larger or they expected to find in Israel, or the Russian immi­ by the conflicting interests of groups has been force­ some courses in law in order to be eligIble for dOing smaller preventive effect? We are conducting at this research in criminology. It also depends on the grant to whom Israeli Jews are not Jewish enough. stage an investigation into the whole treatment fully elucidated by Simmel, Coser and Void. And But also to the anomic processes which hamper the the idea that the international brotherhood of specific subject one chooses: If a student would structure of prisons, institutions, probation and ef+icacy of social and legal institutions. prisoners is one of the dialectical vectors towards venture into the relationship between the XYY parole services in order to evaluate what is meant chromosome syndrome in crime or devia~ce, and by treatment and whether the personnel and clients progress whatever that means, is one of those value If, for instance, anomic trends set into the court laden sl~gans that has to be ~royed if. it pretends chose to write a thesis on it he would certainly need of the services think that treatment works or it does ,to have supplementary courses in biology and system and police force, and as a result they become not, and if it does not what should be done about it. to be scientific. If the new criminologIsts present less efficient in providing legal redress or protec· ideologies in the guise of science, this is untenable genetics before launching his actual research project. tion against crime and violence, the alternative The whole process of stigma comes under this to us The idea that science should be totally sub­ illegal structures of organized crime and protection jugat~d to value structures is equally .unacceptabl~. heading and here again the heterogeneity of culture As for the main areas of actual and potential rad,sts might gain more and more power because makes for a vast system of labelling and counter Whenever science loses its freedom It ends up In research which the Israeli social scene provides to they could be more efficient in extorting for a con­ a dead alley. Of course, science shoul? serve labelling. The derogatory labels and the stigma the aspiring doctoral candidate in criminol?gy, they sideration a debt from a reluctant debtor and or­ society but its enquiries should not be restncted by which is attached to the deviant and criminal is may be divided into three I,evels. The, fIrst level ganized crime would flourish in direct proportion to any dogmas. One may have assumptions but hy­ surposed to augments the positive feedback cycle, relates to the fluctuation of crime and deViance rates the inability of the police force to detect more potheses and measurements cannot be hampered which further separates the first offender from the as related to the social structure and the cultu:al crimes and secure more arrests. Indeed, these by any goals, however commendable they m,ay b~. legitimate society and sends him to be involved syste'1l. The second level rel~t~s to the S?~IO­ anomic trends are also quite discernible in the deeper with the criminal and deviant group. The Action research is many times very appropnate I~ psychological processes determining the transltl?n Israeli kibbutz system, which has been one of the effect of stigma on the genesis of primary deviance given situations, yet the researc~ must be mom­ of an individual from law abldence and conformIty very few successful ventures of human communal and crime is also investigated especially in conjunc­ tored measured and followed up In order to ascer­ to deeper involvement with the deviant criminal life, Some studies have been conducted to measure tain its efficacy. Another guiding line to ~he, s~udy a~d tion with some immigrant and ethnic groups which group. ,The th,ird level is .concerned with the ~x­ indices of social change within the kibbutz and some are more vulnerable to derogatory tagging and and research in criminology and rel,ated ~ls~lp,lmes planation of crime and deViance on the personalIty processes of personal anomie among kibbutz mem­ labelling than others. is that we should aim at a more. interdisciplinary bers as -conceptualized by Merton, Seeman and approach than ha~ bee~ the cu:rent trend, untd now. level. others. Finally a whole area of fruitful research is being Most researchers In cnme, deviance and ItS preven­ On the social level Israel has been and continu,es initiated in the rather neglected area of the expiana­ tion were mostly undisciplinary, This is largely due to be a prime arena for the stu,dy of culture co~fllct This brings us to another potent anomic pressure to the fact that the researcher is very fT1uch en­ tion of crime and deviance on the personality . level. in relation to crime and deViance. Indeed, In a whicr is the constant wars and political tension that This level of analysis has perrenially been the realm meshed in his original discipline so. that his way of country where more than 80 different ethnic gr?ups Israel encounters with its neighbours, It is indeed thinking, his use of concepts an;:! his mea~ur~rr~ent of the psychiatrists who regarded crime and devi­ have been identified, culture conflict may be hlgh!y true that external pressures may serve as a eunomic ance as disease entities, or mental aberrations. tools are mostly within the domain of one dlsclplme. relevant to the genesis of crime, d,elin~ue~cy ~nd and cohesive influence on a society, yet after a point The new trend, however, is to regard the ",:,hole social deviance. As the flow of JeWish ImmIgratIOn Once we define deviance on the personality level as these extreme pressures are believed to initiate a dynamic CJf human behaviour which relates to the human being as our unit of study and analysIs so to Israel has been continuous from the end, of the anomic defects, Investigations are therefore being that we have to analyze crime and deviance not ,as last centLiry to this present day, cultur~ conflict may carried out concerning the overall effect of the interaction between an individual and the norms of behaviour which is disconnected from, ~he. e,ntlre be studied in its external affect on crime and deVI­ constant wars in Israel on the rate of crime and society we can also investigate how these processes human personality and studied by multIdisciplinary ance, i.e., the clashes between norms bot~ le&al and deviance. manifest themselves within the personality struc­ eclecticism but as part and parcel of human be­ non-legal of the country of origin.' of the Im,mlgrants ture. These, of course, should be related to haviour as' a social animal to be studie~ ~hro~gh and the prevalling laws and SOCial norms In Israel. Finally, the Israeli Arab popUlation which num­ accepted methods of investigation by psychologists, a unified body of knowled,ge~ ~ynch,ronlzln~ The The focus of culture conflict a,s a process of ,generat­ bers over a quarter of a million people, is facing clinicians, personality theorists and anthropologists. normative and behavioural dIscIplines mto an inter­ ing primary deviance and cnme, may be linked to both culture conflict and anomic pressures. These Then such methods as depth interviews, case disciplinary frame of reference. the second generation native born of immigrant are related to the exposure and contact with Jewish studies, as well as laboratory observations or par­ parentage or those who came very young to the The ultimate goal in this context is ~o try ~nd culture and to the process of rapid modernization ticipant observations could be utilized to glean some country, By their wish to discard, so to I~pea~, th~ synchronize the yarious. level~ of analys,ls relatl~g which involves secularization, disorganization of insight into some personality core characteristics ":Qrms of their pa,rents and ~o become" lraelized traditional social structures and changing norms. to crime and devIance, I.e.! blops~cholo€pcal, SOCIO­ and peripheral personality traits as related to, for as quickly as pOSSible, a ce~aln area of Imy norma­ Some studies have been undertaken to measure the psychological, social and interactIOnal, mt~ a con­ instance, suicide and homosexuality. If the sym­ tinuous and homogeneous model of analysIs. tive pressure" is created With ,a re~ultant Inflow of rate of criminality and deviance of rural and urban street culture which has some ingrained patterns of Arabs in Israel as related both to culture conflict bolic interactionists are right in regarding mental As for the actual study and research in criminol­ crimogenic and deviant behaviour. These proce~ses and to anomie. abberrations and even schizophrenia as a break­ ogy on the doctoral level, this is conducted as a are deemed to stabilize with the third generation, down in human communication a comparison in thesis oriented programme and constitutes th8 third native born of immigrant pare~tage, but, the. ex­ The second level of anlysis relates to the deepen­ depth between mental illness, delinquency and crime level of university education after the B,A. and perience in Israel seems to ,be dIfferent. ThiS bn,ngs ing of crime and deviance, i.e., the process of recid-­ becomes a prime target of study on the personality Master levels have been successfully implemented. us to the second major tOPIC for the study of cnme ivism and the hardening of the profile of the criminal. level. Being multidisciplinary in nature the doctoral can- and deviance on the social level, which are the

;pr;f~ss~r,I~~tlt~;t;-;i-C~Jl1'li-1101~g; and Criminal Law, Faculty of Law, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel. 50 51

L .. &~ M.1£6t I'

DOCTORAL-LEVEL EDUCATION IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIMINOLOGY What then are the drawbacks of the present Despite this rather sad state of affairs of crimi­ system? nology in Japan, it should be noted that there is, IN JAPAN As it can easily be imagined, and in fact actually at least for the time being, no strong demand to be seen, the knowledge of correctional officers is develop and strengthen the education in criminol­ by inclined to be too clinical and practice-oriented. ogy at the post-graduate level. One of the reasons They often lack the desired broader, especially may be that, with the actual decrease in the crime Ryuichi Hirano* sociological and theoretical background which rate in Japan, which we can observe at present, the should be a 'must' for work in this field. Perhaps interest in crime prevention among the people is by its nature, the in-service training is oriented also slackening. Crime is not considered to be a To put it bluntly, Japanes.e .grad~ate. school Training Institute of the Supreme Court for two mainly to solving the problems the trainees face in great social problem. Another reason perhaps can education in the field of criminal Justice and years, before they become eligible to work as their day-to-day work. Their knowledge is not suf­ be found in a distrust in criminology, especially in assistant judges, prosecutors or practicing lawyers. ficiently critical, either, as they are educated to criminology at the doctoral level is poor.. In my "theories" of criminology. Finally, there is an Also almost all court probation officers are trained, follow the established lines of treating criminals. brief presentation here, I will try to explain: What ideological problem. In a country where the govern­ is the present situation in Japan? What are the r~a­ after serving several years as probation officers, for The present system is also detrimental to the a year in the Training Institute of the Supreme ment used to be more or less authoritarian, inde­ sons for the present state? What are the dements development of criminology itself, because they are pendence of the university from the government is of present day education in this area in Japan? Court. In addition to the Supreme Court, the the main-stay of criminological research. Here we Ministry of Justice established an institute, i.e., find the main reason why sociological criminology emphasized. The university is considered to be a However, before going into the problems at the the Training Institute for Prison Officers and ~he is undeveloped in Japan. Especially in a country center of criticism aimed at the government. On the doctor level I would like to give a brief description National Police Agency established the Police like Japan, which has much to learn from the crimi­ other hand, criminology is deemed in some quarters of the educ'ation in criminology, including criminal School. Especially in the Training Institute of the nology in foreign countries, there is a need for a to be a science meant for governmental use. justice, on two other levels, i.e., undergraduate.ed~­ Supreme Court, well organized classes in criminol­ place where this knowledge from abroad can be If the university became the center of education cation and training provided by government insti­ ogy and other related disciplines are provided for. digested and adapted to the situation in the home and research in the field of criminology, it is feared tutes. At the graduate level I will also touch briefly 'It might be interesting to point out at this stage ';ountry. I believe that this role should be played on the work done in the Masters program. that most of the research done in criminology is by the university. But unfortunately, as things by the authorities that education and training in this conducted by psychologists and sociologists work­ field might turn out to be too theoretical and critical, First lot us turn to the undergraduate level. stand today, such a place is missing. As a result, ing as probation or prison officers\ 9r by memb~rs criminological knowledge is not sufficiently inte­ something which would not be considered Useful and Basic ~niversity education in Japan is a four-y~ar of the Research Institute of the MlIllstry of Justice course leading to a bachelors degree. In the first grated in Japan and subsequently has not been able desirable for students in this area, since most of part of this four-year program, that is, the freshman and the National Police Agency. to become an influential power promoting the reform them by the very nature of the field, do become and half of the sophomore years, all students are Now, coming to the education in the field of of c~iminal justice in Japan. government officials. enrolled in courses in general education. In the criminology at the doctoral or post graduate level, second part, that is, the latter part of the sopho­ we find a situation somewhat between the two afore­ (nore year and the junior and senior years, students mentioned. Basically the graduate school in Japan receive their specialized education in fields such as: is a five-year course. The first two years are the law and political science, sociology, psychology, etc. masters course. Students who have received a This specialized education is 'provid~d. by the masters degree are permitted to go on to the doc­ respective departments and sections within a de­ toral program. Theoretically, the doctoral degree partment. Criminology has traditionally been a .s.ub­ may be obtained after three years, but the fact is ject taught in the department of law and polltl~al that they usually receive their doctoral degrees five science. Many law departments have set up chairs to ten years after they entered the doctoral program. for criminology. Looking at the substance of most Most doctors are expected to hecome university pro­ of the lectures, we may say that it is of a legal­ fessors. As to the level of the education in criminol­ sociological nature. The empirical research on ogy at this level, as pointed out at the beginning. of criminals had been conducted almost exclUSively by this presentation, there is only one word to descnbe psychiatrists, though no medical school has offered it properly, that is, poor. There is not even one courses on psychiatric criminology. school of criminology or institute attached to any After the war, with the introduction of juvenile of the many Japanese universities. Doctoral candi­ courts a new probation system, classification cen­ dates planning to specialize in criminology would encounter great difficulties getting a job at the ters, many psychologists began working in ~tc., ~he university. The reasons are obvious, that is, the correctional field. But here again, classes dealing with criminology are almost non-existent in the psy­ number of university jobs as professors of chology departments and sections of universities criminology is more than scarce. throughout Japan. The situation is not any better There are few sociologists or psychologists who in the field of sociology, perhaps it is even worse. have received a doctoral degree by writing a thesis Here again, we find very few sociology departments on criminology. Only a few law students have written which offer classes in criminology. What is even doctoral dissertations on problems related to the more daplorable is the fact that there is only a administration of criminal justice, such as, for handful of professors of. sociolo.gy who ~a~e done example, prosecutorial discretion and delays in any substantial research In the field of cnmmology. courts, etc. Before finally turning to a description and assess­ Perhaps the masters program which has as its ment of criminology education at the graduate object not only scholarly but also practical school level, let us have a brief look at some of the knowledge would be the proper place to give governmental institutes invol.ved In this field. Here criminological education to those who would like to we find, contrary to the Situation at the und~r­ work in the correctional field. But the fact is that graduate level, a fairly well developed pre- or Ill­ service training. Law students, who have passed a the initiative has been taken away by the type of highly competitive examination, are training in the in-service or on-the-job training mentioned earlier.

"'Professor of Criminal Law, University of Tokyo, Japan. 52 53 CRIMINOLOGY, JUSTICE AND SOCIETY. THE ROLE OF SCIENCE policy aimed at a more rational modernization and discipline exist and can it become the subject of a IN SOCIAL POLICY: A CANADIAN EXAMPLE management of the administration of justice. specific programme? Should the answer be in the This is a three-dimensional discipline: the criminal affirmative, would the criminologist thus trained by and his rehabilitation (psychological and clinical have his own niche on the labour market? Is crimi­ criminology); crime conducive societies and policies nological research different from other research on Denis Szabo* of social defense (sociological criminology and poli­ crime and delinquency, on legal institutions etc. cies of economic and social improvement); the undertaken by existing faculties and departments? system of criminal justice and its rational adminis­ Would public opinion, the supreme judge in estab­ tration (operational research, and administration lishing priorities in social policy, accept reforms or THE CHALLENGE OF CRIME, OLD AND NEW and political institutions of contemporary liberal and planning of justice). changes in the administration of justice? democracies. The increase in anti-social activities, either in the The answer to these objections voiced by the This diagnosis gave birth to a new concept of It was originally in this context that the Master's form of classical crime (robbery with or without the Doctoral and the Bachelor1s usual organs of university institutions (faculty research and of criminological training: to clinical (1960), (1964) violence, fraud, homicide, etc.) or in its new form programmes in criminology were created at b.oards' special study committees, planning commis­ criminology and to correctional "reform" was added (1967) (drugs, running away from home, violent contesta­ the University of Montreal, whose Department s.lons, etc.) was prompted by a series of considera­ tions of the legitimacy of public order, etc.), strikes the study of the functions of the instruments of tIOns whose pros and cons are briefly outlined here. justice, their evaluation (including that of their (changed to the status of School of Criminology in contemporary societies without discrimination. The 1972) teaches these cou rses. ~riminolo~y is. an appl.ied discipline drawing on choice victims, however, seem to be, without any economic dimensions by using "cost/benefit" vanous baSIC sCiences With the object of seeking possible doubt, the parliamenl:lry democracies. analysis), and research on the attitudes and opinions the causes for criminal behaviour in order to arrive of the ordinary man relevant to present laws. In CRIMINOLOGY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MONTREAL at more efficient means of curbing it. Thus pro­ fact, laws express the customs of a community fessors of "criminology" will be people trai~ed in undergoing swift and considerable changes due to ~eca~se the teaching of criminology at the Ul1Iverslty of Montreal started in this intellectual Il]e~icin~, law or the social. sciences who have spe­ ACADEMIC CRIMINOLOGY AND successive technological revolutions: are we still Cialized In the study of various types of criminality, APPLIED CRIMINOLOGY 'protecting values dear to the majority of citizens? climate, it might be interesting to outline, briefly, the strategy followed in the implementation, t~ou.gh always from the viewpoint of how to apply it Do we repress behaviour which, under the influence Within the context of the administration of justice. For a long time jurists and specialists in the of new conditions, has become prejudicial to collec­ academic as well as social, of this new discipline. behavioural sciences have looked for the causes of Students of criminology will be stUdents who grad­ tive interests? Many questions, seemingly of capital We will examine in succession the two fields in uated i~ other disciplines and who wish to specialize crime and their remedies by studying and working importance, present themselves in the search for which this activity was developed: first in teaching on tile individual and social causes of delinquency. for their Master's; they may also be practitioners the legitimacy of the actions of public authorities and research, and then in relation to the govern­ with a university background wishing to improve What may be called "classical" criminology (from the vigourously disputed by certain minorities whose ment and the public. end of the XIXth century to today's authors whose their knowledge. These practitioners come from number is on the increase in our contemporary police forces, penal and legal institutions etc. work reached maturity around the middle of this societies. I. Teaching and Research century) was characterized by its efforts to develop In.. short, crill]inology .is multi-disciplinary, like the psycho-genetic or socio-genetic theories of de­ 1. Teaching mediCine, urbanism or Industrial relations' it is applied in the field of treatment of criminals 'and of linquent behaviour. As a remedy, "clinical" or "cor­ CRIMINOLOGY AND SOCIAL DEFENSE As soon as the new discipline is introduced in rectlonal" criminology (an etymological difference th~ u~ually cons~rvative milieu of higher teaching, crime prevention, which has come to be called "the between the continental-European and the Anglo­ The sociology of law has been traditionally inter­ objections are raised on all sides. These objections field of social defense", in the same way as medicine American usage of the terms) strove to reform the ested in these problems, and the contemporary :ange fr0l!l disputi~g the existence of the disCipline is applied to preserve and improve personal and application of punishment, particularly within the movement of social defense has directed these pre­ Itself (define the object, the methods and techniques public health, urbanism to the planning of cities penal institution. In fact, prison remained the place occupations of academic research towards more peculiar to your "science") to questioning the use and metropolitan regions, and industrial relations above all others to which delinquents of all cate­ precise objectives of social and constitutional policy. of .the ~stablishment of su~h a programme at the to better labour conditions. gories were relegated. We can characterize teaching Thus, a certain amalgamation is taking place among University. Should the orientation be too thea­ The original students came from various back­ and criminological research of this initial hundred these various traditions born at the cross-roads of r~ti~al, this programme would be incorporated groun~s, with practi~io~ers making up a good years (1860-1960) as being oriented towards the medico-psycho-social sciences (classical criminol­ Within the fundamental human sciences which were potential for leadership In a sector which, in fact, study of the etiology of delinquent behaviour and ogy), on the one hand, and of penal law, political alw~ys concerned with the study of deviant be­ is very much lacking in this element. This very the reform of the penal institution as well as aiming and administrative scfences and legal sociology h~vlour, whether abnormal or "criminal". B8aring theoretically oriented two-year programme dealt with towards the training, on a complementary basis, of (social defense movement), on the other hand. This witness to this are the courses in psychology of groups of 30 to 50 students. Dealing with small specialists working mainly in the penal field; com· amalgamation of interests makes of the criminology delinquency, criminal sociology, juvenile delinquency classes, the professors were able to elaborate on plementary training in point of fact, since the prin­ of the last third of the XXth century a political and and the sociology of deviant behaviour, etc. offered unpublished teaching texts and to delve into quasi. cipal discipline was either law, medicine, or more social science whose objectives of applied research by th~ departments of psychology, of SOGiology and unknown sectors of applied criminology. recently psychology and the social sciences. aim not only towards discovering new and efficient ~f}~lletlr.1eS of psychiatry or political science. If it methods of treatment for adult and juvenile crimi­ ~he pra.ctical aspect. which i~ emphasized, the link During the second half of our century, chiefly in !S 2. Research searching for the cause and remedies for the new nals, but also towards drawing up an instrument for IS Immediately established, either with the schools forms of delinquency, some criminologists have put planning and adjusting the whole apparatus of social of social service or of "psycho-educateurs" which Soon it was apparent that the arrangement of a more and more emphasis on the imperfection and protection to the changing needs of a society in have special courses for training probation officers, doctoral programme founded on more thorough re­ malfunction of the system of the administration of rapid evolution. and educators of institutionalized juvenile delin­ search was indispensable if we wanted to prepare justice. The latter represents all the institutions This awareness which took place simultaneously quents. The Law Faculty often has resources not to our own human resources for higher learning and created by law and tradition to ensure the mainte­ in various intellectual circles in the world, was be overlooked for adding courses to its programme demonstrate the role of applied hUman sciences in nance of order, the equitable solution of conflicts emphasized at the XVllth International Course in on penal law. a more efficient social defense formula. This pro­ among people, the protection of rights and the Criminology which was held in Montreal under the Nor must we underestimate the objections in­ gramme was put into effect in 1964 and efforts carrying out of responsibilities. It deals essentially auspices of the International Society of Crimi­ spired by certain options regarding the priorities were made to prepare research projects in order with organizations such as the police, courts, peni­ nology. The Proceedings entitled "Criminology in to be accorded to the solution of social problems. to ensure the funds necessary to full-time studies tentiaries, community services for the prevention of Action" bear witness to the coming together of In the opinion of many people, justic& cames after by candidates in the doctoral programme. The delinquency, etc. It is increasingly apparent that opinions from both sides of the Atlantic. Thus we education, health and welfare, to mention but very Ministries of Social Affairs, Health and Justice, as the imperfections and the dysfunctional character witness the consolidation of the concerns of tradi­ broad sectors. For what university can presume ~ell as ~he CanadE! Cou~cil were funding research of the components of the administration of justice tional scientitic criminology with those of social to have done enough in each of its disciplines to In the field of SOCial sCiences; some large private constitute a major cause for the menace that defense movements. Criminology becomes an ap­ ?ecome interested in a new and apparently less organizations, Ii.ke the breweries, also gave funds crime imposes on the life and the socio-economic plied science called upon to contribute to a social Important one? for research proJects. These agreed to subsidize our programme and the Ford Foundation gave us a grant We have, in fact, to reply to four series of to make up for the inSUfficient number of bursaries *Professor and Director, International Centre for Comparative Criminology, University of Montreal, Montreal, 101, Canada. questions: does criminology as an autonomous destined for candidates to the doctoral programme, 54 55 All in all from 1960 to 1971, more than $1,600" would these needs be classified as priorities by the problems. All controversies which had aroused comprise a complete programme of reforms for use 000,00 ~ere spent wi~hin th~ framework ~f our planning office, the Treasury Board or other quali· public opinion: organized crime, prostitution, armed by the government in the coming decades. They research projects associated with the expansion of fied government organizations? robbery, architecture of penitentiaries, etc. were insist, upon major contributions from universities, our doctoral programme. This is obviously a major obstacle for those who discussed publicly and in depth by these societies. i.e., the field of training and research. want to develop criminology as a profession or as An attitude of tolerance, comprehension, indeed of These projects have contri~ut~d gr~atl~ !o the mutual respect, was generated among the various creation of the image of the crimInologist: It IS that an applied science. In fact, criminology is the product of prospective thinking, that is, an option professions, factions, and groups of thought, as re­ CONCLUSIONS of a researcher concerned with solving social prob· gards some basic themes which were on everyone's lems which are becoming increasingly more acute. concerning the probability of a certain type of evolu­ tion of change in a specific sector of public mind: making the penal system more humane, pro­ What conclusions are we to draw from this He can therefore be looked upon with consideration tecting society more effectively without infringing on Canadian venture carried out in Montreal? Can this by the academic community as well as ad~inistration; an evolution made possible by some (research~ favourable change in public thinking. This option, the civic rights of individuals and, essentially, recog­ knowledge be extrapolated or exchanged? What does by those interested in the fact of the social r~lev~nce nizing the fact that legal, police, penitentiary and it owe to exceptional circumstances, to chance, to of the university in the modern world (applicatIOn). of course, is not shared by all and there are very legitimate doubts as to the future evolution of these preventive functions are intflr-dependent and com­ the action of people and groups peculiar to the needs. The same observation holds true when it plementary. milieu? 3. Over-Specialization and Specialization comes to the "desirability" of this evolution and A new, duly incorporatted, professional associa­ It is obvious that the unique historical experience It seems, however, that criminological over­ the trend of public thinking gravitating in such a tion has grouped together all the graduates in crimi­ is always the result of special men or groups specialization was a pa rt.ia I and insuffici,ent ansyver direction, should the occasion arise. nology. Established to protect the common interests encountering a specific situation. From thei r con­ to the theoretical analysIs of the need In the field It was by not under-estimating these difficulties of its members, this association plays a role, by no frontation, from their action, emerges a reality of social defense for specialized professional that we conceived the strategy of contacts and means small, in the acceptance of criminology on which becomes part of the history of a country or workers. In fact, as these research studi~s have actions to undertake. This strategy aimed at two the labour market. an institution. The experience I have analyzed, shown by helping to clarify the need for. actl~n and objectives. The first was to give civil servants or obviously falls into this category. assistance we had to turn to the university for professional workers, already at work, concrete and 3. Government Commissions of Enquiry However, the same challenges could produce specialists' to accomplish the tasks thus defin~d. 'practical tools to improve tl1eir Vo:'ork. We are esse~· For example, the professionalization of the police identical reactions; and the same social forces could tial1y concerned With personnel III treatment and In Thanks to power-play politics in a parliamentary cause similar phenomena. The error, by some socio­ requires recruiting agents at a higher level of pro· the administration of penitentiaries, in probation democracy, some political parties came to include ficiency, and the openings for positions in .correc- logical determinism. was to think that these ties services, on parole boards and police forces, and reforms in the field of social defense in their plat· were necessary; even if they are only probable, this tions, probation and parole, etc., are mul~II?IYIng. with educators of maladjusted youths. The second forms; this resulted, among other things, in the The question is: who. is to the traInIll.g of is sufficient to set up a "science" called "historical e~sure objective was to widen the gap thus created by creation of a Commission of Enquiry into the Ad· forecasting" . people at these new Intermed!-,t" a,:d prof~sslonal pointing out the necessity of raising the require­ ministration or Criminal Justice in Quebec, on the levels? Law faculties, schools 01 SOCial service, de­ ments for pmfessiona! training of personnel in.ot.her provincial level, and in a Canadian Committee on With regard to the rest of Canada, the University partments of psychology and sociology train practi· categories, The creatIOn of new types of speCIalIsts Corrections in Ottawa, on the federal. of Ottawa and some universities in Toronto and tioners and research workers for careers relatively made necessary by the growth of new forms of Professors of criminology acted as researchers Aiberta have already followed our example. well·specified for a market far from being saturated. delinquency, was brought up later on. and as scientific consultants in the two organiza­ Thus, in 1967, the department of criminology We would like to submit the Canadian experience Government services ended by assisting in these tions entrusted with the preparation of a series of for testing by comparative methods: The Inter· started its three-year bacclaureate f?r progr~m.n:e endeavors, having recognized the advantages to be reforms for the entire system under their respective national Centre for Comparative Criminology, in the professional training of students specializIng In reaped in the race towards the effectiveness and the jurisdictions. The chairmen of these commissions collaboration with the International Society for the field of crime prevention and the treatment of "professionalization" which characterizes services and committee played a very important part in criminals. New sectors, mostly in the field of pre· Criminology. has the task of promoting similar ven­ in post-industrialized societies. In fact, the defining blueprints for reforms. These proposed tUres all over the World, after adapting them to the vention, opened up; in th.e criminolog~ s~hools, "sciences" sector requires tremendous improve­ reforms triggered productive public discussions special requirements of specific socio-cultural con· whose objective is youth who are In conflict w!th the ment; the higher level of the schooling of the popu­ which greatly contributed to the evolution of prin­ texts. This ongoing experiment has been in progress school authorities or with the juvenile law; gUidance lation should benefit all services, including those ciples favorable to change. The conclusions and counsellors in clubs for leisure-time activities where for two years. Eight years from now. the time will which were previously at a disadvantage, as was the recommendations of these commissions of enquiry come to make the first assessment. marginal characters, deviants, drug addicts, etc., case with the administration of justice. To facilitate gather. The applied orientation of yaining an~ matters, bursaries were arranged for students pre­ research in the department was ratified when It paring for careers in crim,inology,. and fieldwork w~s obtained the status of School, thus becoming the organized with the actIve assistance of pubilc "School of Criminology" in February 1972. services. 4. Professors and Students And this is where public opinion plays its role. For without an evolution of thought favourable to At present nearly three hundred st~den!s att~nd reforms in the field of justice, politicians - fearful courses scaled over six years of studies, IIlcludlllg and conservative by definition - would hesitate to graduate and post-graduate programmes. Seventeen approve such action on the part of the administra­ full·time and twelve part-time professors ensure the tion. Not only was it necessary to generate a change teaching load. Internships are much e~cou.raged .in of ideas and of moral values in communities par­ the third year and a close collaboration IS malll­ ticularly conservative in English Canada as well as tained with institutions and organizations of social in French Canada (even more so in the latter's case), defense. but one had to try to have some reward for reform, that is to make it possible for a politician to reap some ~redit, should he declare himself in favour i1. Relations with the government and the public of reform. 1. Manpower Needs The first problem that comes to mind concern­ 2. Societies of Criminology ing relations with the government is that of the labour market; the same is true when it comes to the These trends in thinking came into being thanks reaction of the public: is the "criminologist" listed to semi-scientific, semi-socially oriented societies as a professional by the civil service commission? called "Societies of Criminology", which brought Was any need expressed by senior officials reo together judges, lawyers, doctors, police and peni· sponsible for the administration of justice for any tentiary administrators as well as personnel from number or type of "criminologists"? If expressed, these services, and citizens concerned with social 56 57

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MID-POINT SUMMARY OF THE CONFERENCE Another morphological aspect is that research, knowledge and research findings to the people who in many fields, is taking the first step - as a are primarily and essentially involved in criminal by pioneer - toward implementing specific studies in justice administration. Is the institutes' action and criminology and criminal justice administration: Re­ output going to influence the current state or the M. EI Augi* search aiming not only at satisfying hUman curiosity future development of our society? How deep and and need for knowledge but also - and perhaps effective is the impact of the studies sponsored at mainly - to get policy-makers, politicians, scholars, these institutes on our daily life? persons holding key positions in government and the country. University traditions and structures Criminal Justice Administration is an integrated each judiciary, aware of the new impetus they have to This question leads me to the second aspect of playa dominant role. HoweVbr, two main features system; integration of the various disciplines into give to the institutions they are administering. Un­ my summary, the physiology of the system. which characterize the education system are evident: one system aiming at the prevention of crime and fortunately, not infrequently, the questioning of such the treatment of the offender. However, the crime 1. An unstructured approach to the criminal institutions has merely led to the dissolution of the approach is a multidisciplinary one. Behavior is the studies. academic agencies who dared to engage in such a PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SYSTEM outcome of a dynamic process where the biological, 2. A structured approach. critical enterprise. Such a negative attitUde is the psychological and social factors interact. It is the price paid for the lack of an integrated appro!;lch Physiology, as I understand it, is concerned with reflection of the human personality. to crime and criminal justice at the academic and the functioning of the system: internally and To be sanctioned by the State, deviant behavior 1. The Unstructured Approach professional levels. externally. needs incrimination and penalization. Law is the As to the internal function, it seems to me that qualifier. Courts are the agency which apply it. The prevailing image is that criminology and 2. The Structured Approach this aspect of the question should be left aside Corrections is the institution which carries out the criminal justice courses are somewhat spread over several academic branches. Generally they comprise because it raises issues of a local and particular sentence. Readaptation and reintegration are the On the other hand, in some countries, whether aspect, not to be approached in the framework of humane and social processes following. One can only one of the subject matters assigned to stu­ following a Cartesian line or the old classical tradi­ .dents. They are found, for example, in academic my presentation: budgetary arrangements, financing, imagine what an integrated system means when we lion to put everything and everyone where it logically staffing. give this adjective to criminal justice. Crimi~al jus­ departments (Sociology and Psychotogy), pro­ has to be, or feeling the need for integration of tice is the system whose goal is to cope with the fessional schools (law, medicine and social work), criminological studies and criminal justice admin­ As to the external function of the system, certain I crime problem in society. police academies, and so on. tn such disciplines istration, have proceeded to build up a structured issues remain to be debated based on the remarl

"'Justice, Supreme Court; Professor, Lebanese University, Palace oT Justice, Beirut, Lebanon. 58 ------

SUMMARIES OF PRESENTATIONS BY UNITED STATES' PARTICIPANTS During the first eight of the thirteen ye Irs of the First of all, the faculty wanted to avoid the implica­ doctoral program in CriminologYI the degree was tions of detachment from the university mainstream, offered cooperatively with the Department of Soci· supported by grant money alone, which would have ology. In 1971, coinciding with the assumption of DR. DONALD H. RIDDLE, CHANCELLOR striking and notable, given the existence of the been the case had they elected to call themselves school status, the joint degree in Sociology and a center. Second, they wanted to avoid an inter­ The University of Illinois at Chicago International Society of Criminology and the great deal of exchange alTlong its representatives. Criminology was replaced by a Ph.D. exclusively in vening dean, as well as sharing the budget, the pro­ Chicago, Illinois Criminology. gram, the glory, or the disgrace. This move assured Three other areas lack full exploration in the the autonomy of the school. Dr. Riddle is the newly appointed Chancellor at curricula presented. First. there is little attention According to Dr. Czajkoski, the Ph.D. program the University of Illinois at Chicago after having given to social control other than the criminal law, at the School of Criminology of Florida State Uni­ There are no part·time faculty or joint appoint­ spent many years as the President of John J~y which is only one of the forms of such control. versity is rather traditional by American standards. ments; the program is internally interdisciplinary, College of Criminal Justice. His remarks reflect his Second, there is an over-emphasis on criminal The student must have completed a thesis.type with only full-time students admitted after meeting experience in criminal justice education and ?b­ activity as individual deviance and an accompanying Master's degree before embarking on the doctoral the very high admission requirements of the School servations during this Conference, rather than being under-emphasis on criminal activity as a social program. There is a coursework requirement, a and the University. Dr. Newman noted that when a description of a specific program. behavior. Third, little attention is given to the comprehensive examination, and a dissertation the program began, the School of Criminal Justice Dr. Riddle stated that he is encouraged by finding historical development of criminal justice institu­ defense. shook the University's Central Administration by that there are more similarities than differences tions and to society's response to criminal behavior. The multidisciplinary faculty, composed of soci­ refusing to allow part-time students, the only com­ ponent of the State IJniversity to do so. That posi· among the various nations represented at the Con­ Dr. Riddle was most discouraged, however, by the ologists, lawyers, psychologists, economists and ference. Many of the differences are reflections of political scientists, present a program with a con­ tion has softened somewhat, with no more than ten fallen hope that a representative of one of the percent part-time students in any given year. the historical origins of the programs, such as the foreign countries would have seen the problems stantly changing content. The program has empha­ emphasis on forensic medicine in Italy an~ the ,tra­ confronting the United States and might have solved sized the offender based approaches, the sociolegal In order to attain a separate identity from crimi­ ditional reliance in the United States on universities them. Since this was not the case, Dr. Riddle urged phase, conflict perspective, critical criminology, and nology programs developed in sociology and psy­ for all kinds of formal instruction. The similarities, .that all the participants face the problems together the new criminology, and appears to be moving chology departments, the faculty elected to be called however, are significant. The roots of criminology in the hopes of working toward joint solutions. toward classical notions again. Dean Czajkoski a School of Criminal Justice rather than a School are reflected in the international common body of mentioned that he was unable to tell, however, if of Criminology or of Criminal Justice and Crimi­ Imowledge and the similarity of issues facing the his School of Criminology was ahead of or behind nology. This is a posture that has been maintained. representative nations, e.g., what constitutes the DR. EUGENE H. CZAJKOSKI, DEAN the other programs discussed during the Confer­ Dr. Newman remarked on the durability of the proper emphasis on research, or whether a program School of Criminology ence. Current research is being adapted to the curriculum developed during the planning year, should be located within or without the academic Florida State University justice model, which evolved in a pattern of social given the personalities of the high-powered faculty mainstream. Tallahassee, Florida change in a much larger arena than academic which Professor Richard Myren brought together. The major difference which surfaced during t~e criminology. Thus, the School is now involved in Although some changes in the curriculum have been discussion lies in the structure of graduate work In Established as a distinct entity in 1955, within deterrence research, incapacitation, crime preven­ made, the group has worked well together to con­ the United States and most of the other countries the School of Social Welfare, the Criminology pro­ tion through environmental design, genetics, and tinuously upgrade the program. represented. The graduate programs in the United gram at Florida State boasts twenty-one years of even brain physics. Two things surprise Dr. Newman about the stu­ States are more formally structured, more closely continuous operation. Because of the affiliation In conclusion, Dean Czajkoski stated that in aca­ dents who come to the School of Criminal Justice. tied to coursework, while most of the other coun­ with the School of Social Welfare, the program, demic research it is often too easy for scientists First of all, the students initially came from a wide tries have more individualized graduate education. which was initially known as the Department of to disguise their ideological convictions, which is variety of fields, such as history, English, chemistry, This Dr. Riddle surmized, is a part of the tradition Criminology and Corrections, was mainly concerned especially dangerous in criminology. In order to and biology. While there were a few from crimi­ of r~ading for a degree which is cOlTlmon in much with offender treatment. combat this, a means should be introduced to focus nology, there were more who had never had a of Europe. Dean Czajkoski pointed out, however, that there on humanist concerns and ethical analysis, an area criminology or statistics course. This situation has Whether the university should be academically or were three difficulties inherent in this association. which is too often neglected in the universities. been changing with the proliferation of community professionally oriented and the role of the govern­ First, while the program met with immediate student colleges and undergraduate institutions offering ment vis-a-vis the university are puzzling issues, popularity and demand, the productivity formulae degrees in criminal justice. The second surprise is Dr. Riddle felt. The premises on which the discus­ used by the University allocated resources generated DR. DONALD NEWMAN, PROFESSOR the large number of women entering the program, sion was based during the Conference are no longer by the Department of Criminology and Corrections School of Criminal Justice belying the image of criminal justice - courts, relevant, in his opinion, since universities sacrificed to the School of Social Welfare. rather than to the State University of New York at Albany police, corrections - as a man's domain. their virtue the first time they accepted government Department itself. Second, this affiliation presented Albany, New York The State Universities of New York, especially money' since then the haggling, to use George difficulties in gaining academic respectability with The School of Criminal Justice of the State Uni­ the graduate faculty, have a three-pronged mission Bernar'd Shaw's phrase, has been over the price. the arts and sciences component of the University. that has carried over into the School of Criminal Independence is essential to the universit¥ and is Third, the uniqueness of the program created diffi­ versity of New York at Albany was opened in 1968 as the first school of its kind in the State of New Justice at Albany: teaching, research, and commu­ in the interest of society; government funding does CUlties in making cllrriculum adaptations which were nity service. While it was thought by many in the not necessarily de-stroy that independence, as. the outside the understanding of the social work faculty. York. It is a graduate program only, awarding about thirty Master's degrees each year and seventeen State that the School of Criminal Justice should be British system of ladling out funds to pnvate 1.f1 1971, due to relentless student demand, the doctoral degrees over the last eight years. heavily involved in the community service function, universities has shown. There is no incursion Department became a School of Criminology this had to be carefully controlled given the size on the independence of the university, regardless of separate from the School of Social Welfare. This Dr. Newman noted that, prior to the admission and complexity of the crime problem and the crimi· whether the initiative for undertaking a certain pro­ move elevated Dr. Czajkoski to the status of Dean, of the first doctoral students in 1968, the faculty nal justice system in New York. The at~:tude of the gram comes from the government, groups in society, gave the Criminology program a stronger voice in of the School of Criminal Justice spent a year in faculty at Albany was that there was potential for or the university itself-provided the programs the faculty councils, and allowed the program to planning, in order to define the depth and breadth neglecting the first two components of the tripartite do not distort the basic educational function of the obtain more of the resources it generated. of the program. It was at this time that the faculty mission of the graduate faculty if they did not adopt institution and provided that the content is not Dean Czajkoski stated that the School of Crimi­ moved to resist pressures "to be all things to all at least informal policies in this regard. Therefore dictated from outside the university. nology has developed into a fairly complex opera­ people." The demands upon the small faculty were the School of Criminal Justice runs institutes and almost unbelievable. They were expected to train There are a number of serious deficiencies, how· tion. In addition to the 1000 undergraduate majors, conferences during times when they are not in police and probation officers, increase salaries, con­ ever, in the curricula of the various programs pre· there are 75 Master's candidates in five different session, but only if there is a corresponding re­ duct basic research, and, in short, improve mankind. sfmted. The most serious is the lack of a systemic types of degree programs, including a Master's in search component in which the students can get approach to criminal justice study and education. Criminal Justice System Planning primarily designed Structural decisions from the first planning year involved with data and perform some type of analysis. Rather than viewing the system holistically, the to provide in·service training for criminal justice established the School of Criminal Justice as a This emphasis on research, however, necessitates impression is of a disjointed approach with a series systems planners. The program also has. 25 Ph.D. school with a graduate program only because creating suitable research settings, including estab­ of institutions transferring people from one institu­ candidates. In 1975, the School of Criminology seventy-four other campuses in the State university lishing relationships with the on·line criminal justice tion to another. A second failing is the almost total granted 334 Bachelor'S degrees, 38 Master's de­ system could initiate and produce baccalaureate de­ agencies or with the sources of data in the com­ absence of comparative work. This is particularly grees, and 4 doctoral degrees. grees. It was initiated as a school for two reasons. munity. Yet the University must maintain its inde- 60 61 pendence in spite of these relatiol.silips. Dr. New­ tice at The American University, Dr. Myren limited State. As such, the Institute has a separate line in tion and by student tuition. As one of the largest man stated that this was difficult, and that it would his remarks to two areas: a brief discussion of the its budget from the legislature, as well as the private universities in the United States, North· continue to be a difficult task for all in the field. plan he hopes to implement at American University traditional formula budgeting. . eastern needs students and the programs to attract Dr. Newman also cautioned that, in studying and his general views on criminal justice education. In addition, Dr. Moore stated that the Institute is students. It has succeeded in doing so, according issues in criminal justice, especially operational Using his 25 years previous educational experi­ largely self·contained and totally inter.disciplinary. to Dean Rosenblatt, as demonstrated by an enroll· issues a research program must realize that the ence in large public universities, like SUNY at It is one of the most reputable schools at Sam ment of 35,000 to 40,000 students. Albany, where he was Dean of the School of Criminal world' beyond the walls of the university is not Houston with 29 full·time faculty from both law and The College of Criminal Justice has significantly Justice, Myren outlined the program currently at necessarily a rational one. Criminal justice is made Dr. the social and behavioral sciences, including soci­ contributed to the growth of the University. Or­ up of many issues and probl~ms that have symbolic American University, a small private institution, and ology, psychology, and political science. Dr. Moore ganized in 1967, the first class of 50 has swelled significance to which operational research IS often gave his views for its expansion. himself is distinctive as the only faculty member to an enrollment of 2000 full·time undergraduate irrelevant. Currently American University has no doctoral with a Ph.D. in criminal justice. majors at the present time. A distinctive feature of Castly, Dr. Newman warned that programs of program, although it does have an undergraduate Nearly one-fourth of the undergraduates at Sam the Baccalaureate program in Criminal Justice at criminal justice higher education cannot be st~tic. program of 1100 students majoring in criminal jus­ Houston are working toward their baccalaureate in Northeastern is that ail 2000 stUdents are on work­ As shifts in ideological values occur on the outside, tice and a Master's program with 230 stUdents. one of three criminal justice areas of concentration: study in a cooperative education system. Half of the the program must remain dynamic and flow with the About 1/3 of the students attend part-time, and the police science and administration, corrections and stUdent's upper division time at the University is times while ma:ntaining academic integrity. This present faculty consists of nine full-time professors criminology, or social rehabilitation and social servo spent working in a criminal justice agency, for which is a t~ugh issue which f}1ust be co.nfron~ed conti.nu­ and 55 part-time professors. ices. Four hundred students in the Master's pro­ they are paid. In order to locate positions for these ously in higher education, especially In the field As Dean of the program at Albany, Dr. Myren gram also concentrate their stUdies in one of the students, the College instituted a Job Development of criminal justice. developed a very strong research-oriented doctoral three previously mentioned areas. Department. program. While he recognizes that the planned doc­ There are currently 42 stUdents in the Ph.D. pro· gram in which the student selects an emphasis in The College also offers a Master of Science Pro· DR. DON GOTTFREDSON, DEAN toral program at American University may only be gram in Criminal Justice, and is one of the first 13 tenth of the size of Albany, he feels that there either theory, research, or administration. The School of Criminal Justice i.heory area of concentration is designed to prepare institutions to offer a Forensic Chemistry degree at Rutgers University is a great potential to be developed. the Baccalaureate, Master's, and Ph.D. levels. This Dr. Myren stressed that, after 25 years of think· the student for university teaching and rehabilita­ Newark, New Jersey tive work by exposing him or her to major socio­ latter degree program, established in 1974, was ing about higher education in criminal justice, he generated by cooperation between Northeastern's Tr,6 School of Criminal Justice of Rutgers Uni­ has concluded that tht:. traditional areas of police, logical and psychological theories relating to the dynamics of human behavior. In addition, stress is large Chemistry Department and the College of versity was established in principle by the State courts, and corrections cannot be treated in isola· Criminal Justice. The Institute of Forensic Sciences Legislature of New Jersey in 196.8 as an inde­ tion but must be viewed in a systems context. The placed on empirical testing. The research concen· tration prepares the student for univerc;ity teaching was able to initiate its Master of Science program, pendent school within the University system. Dr. view must holistic. However, higher education has which currently has 20 students, and its Ph.D. pro· Gottfredson noted that this was within a year of the previously omitted two components of the criminal as well as university research or research positions in criminal justice agencies, including planning and gram, with 4 students, because of the Educational President's Commission on Law Enforcement and justice system, the legislative and planning agencies, Development Consortium grant from the Law En­ systems management. The administrative concen· the Administration of Justice and immediately both of which have a great impact on the operations forcement Assistance Administration. following nationwide urban riots, which touched of the criminal justice system. In conjunction with tration acquaints the student with the fundamentals Newark. This series of events, according to Dean this systemic approach, the operations of the crimi­ of public administration and administrative peculiari­ Dean Rosenblatt stated that the Forensic Chem· Gottfredson, undoubtedly prodded the legislature nal justice system must also be viewed in relation ties of the criminal justice system. istry program has completed meaningful research, to establish the School. to the social, political, and economic system, since Each candidate in the Ph.D. program is responsi· with more research underway, and this research has Following the guidelines in the legislative act, the these i r cersect. ble for meeting the following requirements: caused the question of ethics, in particular; to be mission of the School is threefold: education of confronted on a daily basis. Since the Institute is [Jr. ~·jlyren's second point dealt with the isolation 1) 90 semester hours beyond the baccalaureate, often requested to pursue research in crowd control teachers, scholars, and policy makers in the field of ~ saparately structured, separately administered with at least 20 formal classroom hours be· of criminal justice; basic and applied research; and devices, explosives, and more effective bullets, for school of criminal justice from the University as a yond the Master's degree. This excludes all example,' it was necessary to establish a procedure public service. Dean Gottfredson stressed that these whole. He strongly emphasized that it would not be practicums, internships, and reading courses. three goals are mutually supportive and interlocking in which the ethical side of the proposed research enough to have a multi-disciplinary program, but 2) 30 hours of coursework as a full·time resident essentials to the building of a high quality program. could be explored. The procedure established is rather that criminal justice higher education must student with at least 24 of the hours consecu· The School elected to have only a graduate pro­ that, before research can be initiated, a representa· have an integrated and interdisciplinary orientation. tive. tive body of the Institute of Forensic Sciences must gram clnd to develop the educational componen~ of Joint teaching, joint research, and joint publication the School's mission first, expanding the subject 3) An overall B average. review and consent to the project. In addition, the with people from various disciplines combining Dean, in this case Dr. Rosenblatt,is given the right, areas for study into five categories: the nature of talents can produce this integrated interdisciplinary 4) A courseload of between 12 and 15 hours delinquency and crime; research methods on crimi· during a rsgular semestter term. in certain instances (those instances Wherein the focus. There is a danger, according to Dr. Myren, University resources and/or University time are in· nal justice; the law and criminal justice; criminal 5) Either two semesters of supervized college that criminal justice education could become para­ volved), to veto the proposals that come before him. justice system 7'lanagement; and program develop­ teaching above the Master's or the comple· sitic, taking research by sociologists and/or psychol· The general guideline for research, however, is that ment. The interdisciplinary faculty of eight Will tion of either supervized field administration ogists who are using crime as a vehicle for their the product be without harmful effects to the society. begin their newly approved Ph.D. program with four research, but not contributing anything to those or supervized research. (This includes teach· candidates in the fall of this year. disciplines. Professors in criminal justice must not ing by 9 doctoral fellows.) Research is not the only area in which ehtical In order to fulfill the public service mandate from be dead wood but must be in the forefront of inte­ 6) Demonstrated competence in research meth· considerations must be faced. Dr. Rosenblatt feels the legislature, Dean Gottfredson and the School grated interdisciplinary research on social problems. odology. that any student who is qualified for the program have been carrying out research in cooperation with 7) Either reading proficiency in one foreign ought to be accepted. He recognizes, however, that various criminal justice agencies. Dean Gottfredson language or one computer language. law enforcement agencies, regardless of academic performance, may refuse to employ those students strGssed collaborative research as an avenue toward DR. MERLYN MOORE, PROFESSOR 8) The passing of both written and oral compre· both insuring the utility of the program for the who may at one time have been clients of the crimi· Institute of Contemporary Corrections hensives. gmduate students and for providing the skills needed nal justice system, whether for political or other and the Behavioral Sciences 9) A dissertation. by the field. reasons. In this inStance the student is counseled Sam Houston State University on the employment outlook. Huntsville, Texas DR. RICHARD MYREN, DIRECTOR DR. NORMAN ROSENBLATT. DEAN While research within the College and the Insti­ Center for the Administration of Justice The Institute of Contemporary Corrections and Co-U.ege of Criminal Justice tute can be monitored and controlled, this is not The American University the Behavioral Sciences, under the directorship of Noruieastern University the case when a stUdent graduates. The possible Washington, D.C. Dr. George Killinger, was developed in 1965 by the Boston, Massachusetts applications by stUdents of their knowledge of ex· Texas Sta,te Legislature, and was designated as the plosives and drugs is the third nagging ethical prob· Having only recently assumed his position as primary program to offer educational preparation Northeastern is a large urban university sup­ lem. Dr. Rosenblatt and his faculty grapple con· Director of tile Center for the Administration of Jus· in criminal justice and criminology for the entire ported solely by donations from outside the institu· tinuously with these ethical issues, issues that face 62 63 -

all aspects of criminal justice education and which although there is one student enrolled in the pro· of criminal justice, was likewise transferred to the Thus the doctoral students of the Institute are should be explored. gram. The University of Maryland has two students Institute. required to prepare themselves in four areas for presently enrolled, and two interested applicants. Those entering the graduate program of the In· comprehensive examinations: (1) in general theory The University of Kentucky College of Education stitute are rc'quired to have a background in criminal and basic information of tile entire field of criminal DR. JAMES W. FOX, DIRECTOR program has four students presently enrolled and Criminal Justice Coordinating Center justice and criminology. While an undergraduate justice and criminology; (2) in a special topic within six applying as of August, 1976. Thus, there are degree in that field is not required, the student may that area, selected by the student; (3) in a social College of Law Enforcement seven students in the joint doctorate program, six Eastern Kentucky University be asked to make-up any deficiencies in criminal science discipline likewise selected by the student, of whom receive financial aid from LEAA. justice and criminology found by the Admissions Richmond, Kentucky with a representative of that social science depart­ Dr. Fox explained that the study of criminal jus· Committee. ment serving as the chairman of the examining The objective of the design of the doctoral pro· tice at the graduate level, especially for the doctoral There are three blocks of knowledge which are committee; (4) in statistics and research methodol­ gram at Eastern Kentucky University's Criminal degree, is an applied social science educational en· expected to be mastered by the doctoral· level stu. ogy, which subjects are also taught in the social Justice Coordinating Center is to provide highly deavor, the purpose of which is to prepare personnel dent. One is the body of knowledge related to the science departments in the Division of BehaviOial competent professionals who are able to make de­ for college teaching, research, and decision making field of criminal justice itself. It is postulated that and Social Sciences to which the Institute now cisions which are appropriately responsive to the positions in law enforcement, corrections, judicial even if these students will some day be dealing with belongs. total criminal justice system, the needs of society, management, and criminal justice planning. There· only a segment of the criminal justice system, they fore, professional education in criminal justice must After completion of the course worl, and the com· and the practical ~xpectation~ of individual speci.al. should be familiar with the whole field. This may prehensive examinations, the candidate for the doc· ties. Dr. Fox explained that, In order to accomplish be integrated with social science and other disci­ be compared with the teaching of law schools which plines. toral degree prepares a doctoral dissertation under this, students are expected to achieve familiarity in is not limited to criminal law or torts, but gives the the supervision of his advisor and a dissertation each of the five following areas presently offered: In order to contrast this approach with other ap· future lawyer an orientation to the total field of law. committee. The dissertation must deal with a topic 1) criminal justice education, 2) law enforcement proaches, Dr. Fox pointed out that applied social Dr. Lejins pointed out that the Institute attempts to from the area of criminal justice and criminology administration, 3) criminology, 4) corrections, and science is included and taught by faculty members present the stUdents with a variety of views and and represent a genuine contribution to scientific 5) juvenile delinquency. The student must demon­ of the College of Law Enforcement who have an interpretations of the criminal justice system. knowledge as the result of independent research. strate competence in his specialty and in research 'advanced degree in one of the cognate disciplines. Secondly, the Institute subscribes to the belief methodology as a prepartion for the rigorous thought By not allowing these courses to be taken outside that its graduates should have a broader background Dr. Lejins urged the participants of the Confer­ ence to seriously examine the holistic approach to processes implicit in criminal justice decision mak­ of the College of Law Enforcement, integration of than just the field of criminal justice and criminol­ the field of criminal justice represented by the Insti­ ing. For this reason, a thesis is required of all applied social science and professional training is ogy. They should be social scientists who specialize Master's candidates, of which there are 103 at the encouraged. in that field. Therefore on all levels, the B.A., M.A. tute and a number of other programs in the United States. This edUcational policy is paralleled by the present time. The role of liberal arts in this schema is as an and Ph.D., the stUdent is expected to acquire pro· perception of operational criminal justice agencies Dr. Fox explained that, since only two institutions intellectual foundation, providing depth and breadth ficiency in some social science discipline such as in the Commonwealth of Kentucky are allowed by for the edUcational experience, upon which the ap· sociology, psychology, political science, etc. On the as a coordinated system. Currently millions of dol­ the state to offer doctoral degrees, Eastern Ken­ plication of the cognate disciplines is built. In this Ph.D. level this means course work and a compre· lars are being spent on the education of students in terms of this educational model who will, as Dean tucky established joint degree programs with the fashion the liberal arts play the role of a means hensive examination in a social science discipline University of Kentucky, Michigan State University, for enrichment of the intellectual experience of the of the student's selection. Myren and Professor Newman indicated, soon ap­ and the University of Maryland. Each student must student and the foundation upon which professional pear as the carriers of this type of academic and Thirdly, the stUdent must master the tools of re­ scientific ideology in the field of criminal justice. meet the admission standards of both Eastern Ken­ programs are built -, the role they have had search, both to be able to do research himself, and tucky and the cooperating institution, as well as a throughout the history of higher education. These students, will be the ones to staff the aca­ to interpret the research findings of others. This demic institutions and the professional agencies in score of at least 1000 on the Graduate Record Ex­ impiies courses and a comprehensive examina· amination, a 3.5 Grade Point Average for graduate the years to come. Now is the time to analyze and tion in statistics, research meth1ds, and computer evaluate this conception of the criminal justice field work, and a 3.0 GPA for undergraduate work. Ap­ science. plications are submitted to both institutions and are DR. PETER P. LEJINS, DIRECTOR and of this educational program. processed simultaneously. In addition to the appli· Institute of Criminal Justice and Crimino!ogy cations the student is expected to submit a state­ University of Maryland ment dutling his vocational and educational objec­ College Park, Maryland tives as well as a statement as to how the student Dr. Lejins explained that the Institute of Criminal expects these goels to be met by participation in a Justice and Criminology of the University of Mary­ joint doctoral program. land is predicated on the assumption that there is While at Eastern Kentucky University, ti,e student a need for a unified educational approach to the works as a graduate assistant and is advised by the body of knowledge developed around the problem Director of the Criminal Justice Coordinating Center, of crime. This program is currently being offered who is the Eastern Kentucky representative on the by faculty comprising 13 full-time positions to 650 cooperative committees for joint doctorates. full·time undergraduate majors, nearly 60 Master's During the s,econd year, the student is required Degree students and approximately 20 Ph.D. candi­ to take residence at the cooperating institution and dates. has an advisor appointed by the appropriate com­ The current doctoral program in criminal justice mittee at that institution. The course load and cur· began in 1946 as a specialization in criminology in riculum for the second year is determined by the the Department of Sociology. In the 1960's this cooperating institution and, at this time, the student program was elevated to the status of a Division prepares his dissertation. The actual resear~h for with its own director and its own budget, but reo the dissertation is expected to take place In the mained part of the Sociology Department. In 1969, third year and is supervised by the student's grad­ the Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology uate (dissertation) committee. Th~ do~tor.al gegree was established as an autonomous academic body itself is conferred by the cooperating institution. within the College of Arts and Sciences with an As a direct result of a major Law Enforcement undergraduate law enforcement curriculum. It was Assistance Administration grant as part of the not until 1972 that the undergraduate criminology National Criminal Justice Educational Consortium program was transferred from the Sociology Depart­ effort, Dr. Fox explained, there are two joint doc­ ment to the Institute. In January 1973, the Master's torate prograrns in full operation at Eastern Ken· Degree program was also transferred from Soci· tucky. A third, with Michigan State Univers!ty, is ology. In the Spring semester of 1974 the Ph.D. awaiting final approval of the necessary committees, program, broadened to encompass the entire field 64 65

t44iU!C&=b.~.. ;;;·4A CONFERENCE SUMMARY activities in the field of crime interpretation, control in-depth, but somewhat isolationist approach of and prevention. Their programs clearly were not some of our foreign colleagues, demonstrated at Peter P. Lejins that, and they were in favor of their present pro· this Conference. It should be kept in mind, how­ grams. Here one might mention especially Professor ever, that this bias is intentional and very readily Leaute, Director of the Institute of Criminology at admitted. The very purpose of this Conference was the University of Paris; Professor of Criminal Law to expose the recently emerged holistic plan for This Conference Summary is the summary which In the presentations and discussions of this Con­ Alvar Nelson of the University of Uppsala; and Pro­ ference, the participants occasionally digressed criminal justice education of the United States to I presented at the last working session of the Con­ fessor Frederick H. McClintock, Director of the De­ discussion by an international group. ference as supplemented by a number of issues from the chosen topic of doctoral studies to describe partment of Criminology of the University of Edin­ suggested for inclusion by tile participants in the and analyze the total program in criminal justice, burgh. Professor Leaute raised the important issue 4. Another interesting issue which emerged dur­ subsequent discussion period. That this be done or whatever their particular terminology was, at of whether there is danger of losing the depth ing the Conference concerned the specific scientific this way was the unanimous wish of the participants, their respective institutions of higher learning, in­ reached by specific disciplines studying certain as­ disciplines which underpin the field of criminology who, likewise unanimously, voted to consider the cluding undergraduate and Master's level studies. pects of the crime problem if one strives for breadth and criminal justice. In the United States, with very Summary, so supplemented, the official Conference This is quite understandable and in many cases of coverage of the entire field in one unified pro­ developed social sciences, criminology and criminal statement and chose not to adopt any resolutions. useful for two reasons. First, the doctoral program gram. Thus the discussion of the advantages of the justice are generally viewed as the results of the Conference summaries perform different func­ in any field does not usually stand alone. It is a holistic as against the atomistic approach evolved. application of the principles and methods of modern tions depending on the size and organization of the continuation of the preceding studies and can be Professor Shlomo Shoham drew the simile of the social science to the problem of crime. Thus, as is conference, the natu re of the topic, the objectives fully understood both in terms of its theory and its criminal justice generalist as the conductor of an obvious also from this summary, whenever we think set, etc. In a conference which divides into sectional practical setting only within the structure of the orchestra: The conductor need not be an expert about the background disciplines for a student of meetings or workshops, the summary serves to total program in this particular field. Professor Van on each individual instrument. He needs only the crime, we immediately refer to sociology, psychol­ bring together the various facets of the subject Outrive especially emphasized this point in his com­ abifity to supervise, direct and blend his musicians' ogy, political science, etc. rn many continental matter discussed and is indispensable both to in­ ments on the Conference Summary, stating that Oile individual talents on the basis of his general know­ European countries and in South America, on the form the participants and to report the results to should always keep in mind that doctoral education ledge of music and the orchestra, which he man· other hand, one finds that the parent disciplines for the outside. In the case at hand, the participants 'is only one of a number of types of education, that ages as a unified system. While specializing in one criminological studies are medicine, psychology, met in twelve plenary sessions. Thus each one was its purpose has to be kept clear at all times, and particular aspect, the individual performers must, and psychiatry. Thus, for instance, Professor a party to the entire proceedings and probably has that all available resources should be utilized. however, be aware of the total production and their Canepa's program in clinical criminology is located a summary of his own in mind. It would be pre­ Secondly, since perhaps the major issue of the special role within it. That is what the concept of in the Faculty of Medicine of the University of sumptuous for the Chairman to substitute his own Conference is the need and desirability to develop a criminal justice system, whether, educational or Genoa. Although this program does have a certain summary for the summary of each participant. a unified body of knowledge and stucly of matters operational, contributes. A program in criminal interdisciplinary character, it is primarly a physi· Therefore the purpose of a summary by the Chair­ related to crime and crime control, nay, perhaps justice education, and especially a doctoral program cian's study of crime. Also Dr. Ferracuti is a man in this case is to formulate and catalogue the even a unified discipline under some single title in criminal justice - or a unified program under physician, and his program is likewise in the Faculty topics discussed and thus have available a record such as "criminal justice", the discussion of this whatever label - is presumably the best answer of Medicine. Professor Canepa tells us that there of what transpired for the participants, for col­ issue is not limited to doctoral studies but relates to this need. are all together some twelve universities in Italy that leagues elsewhere, and for the general public. to studies at any level. If indeed the need and de­ offer programs in clinical criminology, very similar sirability of such unified study is the central topic, 3. In the course of the discussion between the to his own. This, then, would be a perfect example In the Closing Session of the Conference, the then naturally, it is not important to limit the dis­ supporters of the hollstic and the atomistic ap­ of the difference in the background of the scientific participants unnnimously went on record as endors­ cussion of the topic to only one level, namely the proach, I made a comment which was, I believe, re­ discipline as represented by the sociological crimi· ing the need for continued liaison among criminal doctoral level. ceived favorably by all participants. I indicated that nologists of the United States and the clinical crimi· justice educators, continued interchange through in terms of a sampling of the criminal justice or nologists of Italy. Another type of background for joint research projects, faculty and student ex­ 2. Let us, then, look at what transpired in these criminology experts represented at this Conference, criminal justice studies is that of legal training. change programs, and general resource and infor­ four days with regard to the just-mentioned central there is an obvious disparity. The countries whose While the law schools in the United States have only mation sharing. theme: the existence, feasibility and desirability of criminal justice education programs were committed in recent years developed some interest in crimi­ The agenda of the Conference consisted of de­ developing a unified body of knowledge or rather an to the atomistic approach are naturally represented nology and such studies as law and society, on the scriptions of doctoral-level programs by the foreign integrated system of theories, data and experi­ here by educators who espouse the atomistic ap· continent of Europe, in South America and in many participants in their respective countries, followed ence-ali pertaining to the general topic of the phe­ proach. In the United States - and this applies other countries, the faculties of law are the ones to by similar descriptions by the American participants nomenon of crime and its prevention and control­ probably also to Canada - both the holistic and house programs in criminology and all other aspects of the programs of the universities from which they under one label and as one academic unit, gradually Eltomistic approaches are practiced in criminal jus­ of the criminal justice field within their structure. came. As various issues came up, these were dis­ leading to the development of a scientific discipline tice education. As a matter of fact, the holistic ap­ An interesting proposal was made by Dr. Mc­ cussed by the entire group, and in the end several similar, perhaps, to economics or political science. proach is an innovation which appeared on the scene Clintock, who discussed in some detail the socia­ sessions were devoted to the discussion of some By and large, the representatives of United States less than 10 years ago and caught on like wildfire. legal approach as a frame of reference for educa­ general topics regarding doctoral-level education. and Canadian programs subscribed to this plan in The tradition of the past, however, was the separate­ tional and research programs in what is here The discussion was quite freewheeling, often return­ general, including doctoral education. Here also discipline approach, with the exception, perhaps, of referred to as criminal justice. ing to topics previously discussed. This Summary belongs the position taken by Professor Shlomo the School of Criminology of the University of Cali­ Shoham of Tel Aviv University. It would perhaps be The difference in the disciplinary background attempts to organize the materials presented as a fornia, Berkeley, which especially in the more recent underpinning studies in the field of criminal justice fair to say that a number of the representatives of years, practiced the holistic approach, offering spe­ series of topics, which follow. is, of course, reflec~ed also on the doctoral-level. other countries, while not necessarily committing cializations in etiology of criminal behavior, correc­ 1. The subject of this conference is doctoral· themselves to the above concept, did not explicitly This is an important topic which could be pursued tions, police science, and criminalistics under the in depth in a special conference devoted solely to it. level education in criminal justice. As was explained criticize it either and seemed to be cautiously evalu­ general title of a degree in criminology. In select· in the invitational letters and also in the statement ating it. At least one representative from Europe, ing the representatives of United States educa­ 5. Another important topic was brought up by on the Bac!

I, £&5 .:SZ:Z&&.k =1-. WALE cational pyramid. One may contemplate the base ment, complete independence from the pmctical pointed up the importance of purely factual informa­ mentioned the efforts of his agency to establish a of that pyramid as being in one of the basic disci­ interests of the operational agencies and from poli­ tion with regard to the educational and training consortium of universities in forensic science, but plines, and the specialization in criminology and tics, and hence the capability of being radically in­ systems, both academic and "civil service", in the the plans never materialized. Dean Rosenblatt of criminal justice beginning perhaps only with grad­ novative and critical of the status quo. various countries. For an international discussion Northeastern University, one of the National Crimi· uate education. Perhaps the base of the pyramid Into this context belong perhaps also Professor such as this Conference, this information can be nal Justice Educational Consortium universities, de­ could be interdisciplinary in terms of the basic Newman's appeal for attention to the issue of ethics, provided in written descriptions or may be given by scribed the development of a Ph.D. degree in disciplines. particularly ethics in research. Control of the re­ the participants in the give and take of the dis­ forensic science in cooperation with the Department search and teaching activities of an academic person cussion. If such information is lacking, such a point of Chemistry. Some of the foreign participants, for 6. In terms of organization of the curriculum, the and freedom of choice are ethical issues whic!l must as raised by Dr. Szabo in all probability might be instance Professors Canepa and Ferracuti, described Conference envisaged the following two patterns: be carefully watched at all times. missed by the United States participants unless, be­ ample educational opportunities in some aspects of one represented by the curriculum of Sam Houston The second plan is to have the doctoral degree cause of special happenstance, they were familiar the forensic sciences in Italy. University as described by Professor Moore, which of generally the same type as described above, but with the specific educational systems for career civil A second issue which received a considerable includes not only the total spectrum of courses and used by the top executive, planning and research servants developed in many continental European amount of attention was the atomistic nature of seminars in the criminal justice field, but also the personnel within the operational agencies. This and other countries. Upon completion of the first forensics. There are chemical forensics, medical related subject matter from the fields of sociology, plan is based on the assumption that the broad and academic degree, usually in law, economics, or forensics, fingerprinting, etc. It was pointed out that psychology, anth ropology, political science, and scientitic background of doctoral-level education is political science, the young person entering public it is more appropriate to day to speak of the forensic administration, as well as statistics, methodology, very useful for those responsible for guiding the service in one of the ministries of his country, es­ sciences rather than of a forensic science. computer science, etc. Faculty members in such a operational programs. This plan envisages basically pecially the ministries of justice or the interior, is It was interesting to note, however, that Professor program number as many as 30-40. On the other one and the same doctoral degree for academic; and given an opportunity to avail him or herself of an Canepa very cogently argued for recognition of the hand, another curricular pattern in the United States for the operational field. This conception probably elaborate inservice educational system, which is a interrelationship between the various types of foren­ limits the course work of the criminal-justice aca­ envisages a lesser detachment of the academicians precondition for professional advancement. This sic expertise. His example was that a dead body demic unit to the specific criminal justice subject than Professor Nelson described in his remarks. amounts to an elaborate course of study, tutorial or which was found with some white powder near it. matter. In that case, even if a wide spectrum of in small groups, under the guidance of senior civil The expertise of a chemist is needed to establish The third plan is to have two separate doctoral servants. In part this is carefully supervised per­ criminal justice courses is taught, the faculty can be degrees; one, an academic research degree, the that the powder is heroin. But after that, a physi­ much smaller, ber.ause the students take their social formance on the job and in part it is study quite cian must establish whether the person died from other a professional degree. This could perhaps be similar to academic study in a university, except and behavioral science background courses such as illustrated by the existence, at least in the United an overdose of this narcotic. At the same time one sociology, psychology, and political science in the with a more applied emphasis. After a certain spe­ must realize that the findings of the chemist and States, at some Universities of a Ph.D. in Education cified period of time, usually several years, the respective university departments and also pick up and a Doctor of Education degree, as I mentioned of the physician must be presented in court in a the tool courses - statistics, methodology and com­ young civil servant is expected to take professional way acceptable from the point of view of criminal in my staj:ement on the Background and Purpose examinations, as the result of which he is promoted puter science - in the social science departments, of this Conference. procedure. Thus a chemist or a physician does not or, in some universities, in special departments of to a higher grade in service and given a coveted suffice. There must be trained forensic experts at statistics or computer science. This second pattern In order to understand the function of the doc­ professional title. In some civi I service systems toral degree in criminal justice in modern society, the same time. Thus the various types of forensic is exemplified by the programs of Michigan State there are several such examinations, and a hierarchy expertise cannot stand alone, but must know how University, the University of Maryland and several as was forcefully brought out by Professor Szabo, of titles, certifying the professional competence of one must know the total educational system of the to relate to each other and have a common back­ others. Whichever of the two patterns - or combi­ the civil servant. The result is a remarkable pro­ ground of legal training. nations thereof - is used by a specific university respective country: both the academic education and fessional competence of such civil servants both The Conference participants voiced some caution in the United States, it became clear in the course the preparation of professional personnel for public with regard to the theoretical aspects of their spe­ in view of the fact that the forensic sciences were of our presentations and discussions that graduate employment, or perhaps one might say, for civil cialization and the effective capability in handling not strongly represented at this Conference, but students, and especially the doctoral students, re­ service. According to Professor Szabo, the differ­ practical issues. In international conferences one is urged attention to the developmer~ of this field ceive instructions in three rather distinct areas: (1) ence witnessed in this Conference in the points of often exposed to a mixed group of participants made view on doctoral education depends to a large extent up of academicians and of civil servants. One often and the role of an international interchange of in criminal justice and criminology; (2) in some experience. social science or combination of social science on the difference in the educational systems in the has to give credit to the civil servants for being as disciplines selected by the student; and (3) in the countries of the participants. Professor Szabo cited well prepared as the most respected academicians The last major item which should be included in tool courses-methodology, statistics and computer as examples the elaborate educational programs for in their fip-Id. Our colleagues coming from countries this Summary is the feeling repeatedly expressed science. In other words, the doctoral-level experts the preparation of civil servants in Italy, France and with SUCII systems of preparation of career civil by the Conference participants of the need for con­ for teaching, research, and operations in the field Austria, which make a civil servant educationally servants for their operational agencies would, of tinued contact and international cooperation and of criminal justice are produced as the result of the quite a different functionary from a civil servant course, have a different perspective on the role of exchange of ideas concerning the entire matter of above three-faceted integrated background. in the United States. The meaning of an academic doctoral-level education as provided by the univer­ education in the area designated here as criminal doctoral degree for the operational agencies is quite sities, than the representatives of those countries justice, inclusive of course more particularly, of 7. A major topic that was addressed in this different for the North American continent, the who are not aware of such an educational resource doctoral-level education. The desirability of student Conference and kept coming up in connection with United States and Canada, as compared with for the operational field. and faculty exchange::;, joint research projects, joint many other topics is the relationship of the doctoral Europe. This makes the issue of doctoral education, meetings, and the maintenance of organizations degree in the field of criminal justice or in some when viewed internationally, a very complex prob­ 8. At one point in the discussion there was a which would include representatives from the vari­ part of that field to the operational field or the prac­ lem, which must, however, be understood. flare-up of intensive interest in forensic studies and ous countries was mentioned in connection with tical aspects of crime control. To what extent are An interesting sidelight on this issue came out of the advanced educational programs, including doc­ practically every issue brought up for discussion. persons with doctoral degrees needed by the opera­ an exchange between Dean Myren and Professor toral programs, in this area. For the purposes of If the Conference were to adopt any resolution, I am tional agencies? Three possibilities with regard to McClintock. Dean Myren remarked that at the this summary, three issues received special atten­ sure that a resolution favoring continued inter­ this relationship crystallized in the course of the present time in the United States the operational tion on the part of the participants. national cooperation would be the one that would discussion. First, there is an academic doctorate system of criminal justice with all its ramifications One of these issues was the relative weakness of gain unanimous support. As far as the United States in criminal justice, a Ph.D. - which is a research could probably absorb five thousand new Ph.D.'s. forensic educational programs in the United States. are concerned, a major organizational step was degree - which stands in its own right with­ Professor McClintock replied that he sees at the A number of the participants from this country felt taken last Spring with the establishment of the present time about six positions for additional per­ out any immediate direct connection to the opera­ that forensic studies in U.S. universities have re­ American Association of Doctoral Programs in Crimi­ tional field. Individuals with that degree may be sonnel with doctoral degrees in Britain. While these remarks were probably made to convey impression­ cently suffered a considerable decline. Some of the nal Justice and Criminology. Eight universities have perceived as producing knowledge that is useful or programs on which the country used to depend for perhaps evell basic to the operational agencies, but istic images of the situations existing in the respec­ so far joined this Association, and there are several they would not necessarily themselves be involved tive countries and not accurate survey results, they top-level educators and experts have disappeared, more that are in the process of developing such pro­ in worldng in these operational agencies. Such per­ nevertheless illustrate well the point made by Dr. as for instance, the Criminalistics Program of the grams. Representatives of all eight member uni· sons would be researchers, evaluators and profes­ Szabo. School of Criminology at Berkeley. Mention was versities were invited to this Conference, and I am sors. If I interpret correctly Professor Nelson's re­ This is'sue of doctoral-level education for academia made of the training programs in the operational sure that the Association stands ready to support marks, one of their main qualities would be detach- and for the operational agencies in criminal justice agencies and their laboratories. Dr. Foster of LEAA continued international cooperation. 68 69

.!!!E .... ~_ _ _ ~ _. -_ . APPENDIX I reputation of being a 'failed' Ph.D. as it is within career aims and prospects is clearly of paramount the powers of examiners to award this degree to importance. UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE - INSTITUTE OF CRIMINOLOGY candidates who have not achieved the standards required for a doctorate. A candidate for a research As regards the kind of proposals put forward National Conference on Research and Teaching in Criminology degree must be accepted by the Board of Research for research in criminology, we have found that stu­ Studies who are advised by the Degree Committee of dents fall into three fairly distinct categories: (a) Cambridge, June 1966 the Faculty concerned who, in their turn, are advised those who give precise and detailed plans for a re­ by the Head of the Department within which the search project; (b) those who merely have an idea Post-Graduate Teaching: Research Degrees in Criminology student would like to undertake his research. If the that they would like to do research in some rather candidate is accepted the Board of Research Studies vaguely defined area of study, and (c) those who F. H. McClintock then appoints a senior member of the Department or wish to do research under some particular person Faculty concerned as his Research Supervisor. The and who would like to be advised by that person as supervisor has to report regularly to the Board of to what lines of research would be most appropriate in their particular case. 1. Although criminology is still a relatively young students studying for research degrees in criminol­ Research Studies on the progress of the stUdent and, academic discipline, the scope of its university ogy has, so far, not been given a high priority. In in conSUltation with the Head of the Department, to Students in the first category are often over teaclling at the undergraduate level is already con­ the early stages of research the emphasis has been raise with them any difficulties that are encountered. ambitious in their research design, but they can siderable and the problems of training competent placed more upon giving criminological training to It is, perhaps, of some interest to mention that, usually be persuaded to modify their proposals to fit research workers and teachers in this subject are junior research staff, selected and appointed from although criminology in Cambridge is taught in an the resources available to them for a research de­ extremely varied and complex. Criminology, along various disciplines, rather than upon promoting a inter-disciplinary Institute, the Degree Committee gree. Students in the second and third categories with other social sciences, has problems that have group of research students specialising in criminol­ which advises the Board of Research Studies, is that can usually be persuaded to make fairly clear cut certain similarities with those of a growing industry ogy. However, a start has been made; and today of the Law Faculty. Such an arrangement could lead proposals after one or two short discussions. One or, perhaps more accurately, with those of the there are four research students working for Ph.D. to difficulties in cases such as those of graduates in is obviously in a much better position to give some rapidly changing under-developed countries which degrees in the Institute of Criminology. The small­ psychiatry or psychology who apply to do research advice and help to prospective research students have recently achieved independence. Criminology, ness of the number of research students necessarily in a specialised area of criminology. So far this has if they have been studying in the Post-Graduate it seems to me, is trying to become academically reflects, in part, the scale of priorities which has had not proved a difficulty, since the Director of the In­ Diploma Course in Criminology, or in the Post­ respectable, while at the same time trying to justify to be established in relation to the various commit­ stitute is a member of the Degree Committee, and Graduate LL.B. Course, or for a first degree here in its usefulness to the community as an applied sub­ ments undertaken by a comparatively small staff. he can always, of course, seek the advice or opinion Cambridge than if their formal application comes ject. It claims to influence, or to be allowed to in­ They also reflect, I think, a rigour in selection which of senior members of his staff. from outside. But the practice has grown among fluence, our criminal law and penal system as well is not unconnected with the special !leed for main­ some universities of making informal inquiries to as central and local social policy and practice. The taining extremely high standards in a new subject 6. Aims of candidates who apply to study for re- members of the staff of the Institute as to the pos­ aspirations of criminology - or should one say which is being established in an ancient university. search degrees. sibility and desirability of their stUdent applying criminologists? - are clearly important matters for The Cambridge Ph.D. degree in scientific subjects The cnajority of candidates who formally apply to to study for a research degree in criminology in consideration and cannot be kept very far in the clearly has an international standing which those study for a research degree in criminology or who Cambridge. background even when considering only that aspect concerned with university policy naturally wish to be informally approach senior members of the staff as of the subject which is directly connected with maintained in any new subjects now being developed. to the possibility of makir.f:; such an application, 7. In most of the basic disciplines the research research degrees. Be this as it may, an unsuccessful applicant said clearly have in mind an academic career either in degree can be seen as a natural sequence to a good two years ago that he thought the policy of the In­ teaching or in research, or in both. A few have in first degree. With criminology the position is fre­ 2. My own research and teaching experience is stitute of Criminology could be summed up by the mind the prospect of going into research outside the quently quite different. Firstly, criminology rarely primarily restricted to Cambridge University where phrase: "many apply, but few are chosen!" academic sphere as, for instance, in some govern­ forms a major part of a first-degree course, and, I have been for the past seventeen years. Although, ment research unit, while others regard research secondly, at the post-graduate level criminology has naturally, I have tried to follow the developments 4. The relative importance of research studies at work as providing useful or interesting experience to be regarded as an inter-disciplinary subject. Stu­ that have been taking place elsewhere, I cannot, of the Institute can perhaps be gathered from the fol­ before going on to professional work or administra­ dents coming to research in criminology from law course, speak with detailed knowledge and authority lowing summary course of criminology within the tive posts. Naturally, in criminology as in other sub­ usually lack the basic knowledge of sociology and about them. It is not without significance, as it university, and the number of candidates taking each jects, there is also the occasional application from psychology and have little idea of the scope of seems to me, when looking at the Cambridge scene, course: the degree collector or the Dostoevskian type of methodological problems in the social sciences. On that, apart from the Wolfson Chair of Criminology, (i) Undergraduate law students studying criminol­ perpetua I student. the other hand, students coming to criminological all the senior posts (as well as all the junior posts) ogy and penology as one out of five papers taken in research from the social sciences often have a dan­ in the Institute of Criminology are primarily research Part II of the Law Tripos (between 80 and 100 stu­ We find that few research students intend to gerously imprecise knowledge of the substantive posts and not teaching posts. There are, as yet, no dents each year). make a specialised career in criminology. Most of criminal law and, not infrequently, quite strange them apply to study criminology because it overlaps lectureships or assistant lectureships in Cambridge notions as to the way in which the law is enforced (ii) One-year Post-graduate Diploma Course in with their interests in the basic discipline of their for the purpose of teaching criminology. Teaching is, criminology (between 14 and 18 stUdents each year). in practice. Ideally, of course, the Diploma Course therefore, carried out by people whose primary in­ first degree (e.g., law, sociology, psychology, history, is designed to deal with these problems: "to impart (iii) Graduate law students studying the history of terests are in research and who are actively engaged or medicine). On completing a research degree the a so.und knowledge of criminology in various as­ criminal law and penolClgy as one of four papers for it~ in current rf:search. The present position is directly intention is to return to their basic discipline, and pects; to form an aptitude for teaching and research the one-year Post-Graduate Course leading to the to apply the specialised knowledge, gained while connected with the early policy for the development of a high academic standard; and to train a critical LL.B. degree (between 6 and 12 stUdents each year). studying for a research degree in criminology, to of criminology in Cambridge and, although this em­ mind towards basic problems and the administra­ teaching and research. Occasionally research in phasis on research has several disadvantages in the (iv) Graduate students, from different disciplines, tion of justice." However, it is perhaps asking stu­ teaching sphere, it is my impression that the ad­ studying for research degrees (Ph.D. or M.Litt.) in criminology is regarded as an escape route from one dents to undertake a rather long course if, after vantages are far more numerous and important. A criminology (4 or 5 students registered at anyone discipline to another. This is particularly so for law three years for a first degree, they then have to take developing subject needs to place research before time for a research degree). students when they have found their legal studies the one-year Post-Graduate Diploma Course before teaching; and in an applied subject, such as crimi­ restricted in scope and too rigid or too professional going on to a three-year course for a Ph.D. degree nology, exposition needs to be constantly replenished 5. Formal arrangements for research degrees. in content. This kind of student sees the Ph.D. de­ in criminology. This means a minimum of seven from direct experience and fresh knowledge. In Cambridge the majority of students who wish to gree as a path to academic openings in social ad­ years before they are able to earn a regular income study for a research degree apply as candidates for ministration or social studies. Another aim, among and, with the size of present post-graduate grants, 3. The next point, which I think should be stressed the Ph.D. This degree usually involves full-time students from some of the new universities whose such a long period of study can be too heavy a in relation to the developments at Cambridge, is that study for at least three years but, not infrequnetly, first degrees have been of an inter·disciplinary na­ financial sacrifice to prospective research stUdents. while the Post-Graduate Diploma Course in Crimi­ candidates do not present their dissertation until ture, is to become more specialised in one aspect Some of our students from the Post-Graduate nology has now been well established, and while they are in their fourth year. The M.Litt. degree is of their original inter-disciplinary courses. For the Diploma Course have, in fact, left Cambridge in teaching at the undergraduate level will soon be in not normally selected by research students in the majority of students who consider the possibility of order to take research and teaching posts elsewhere, its fourth year, the fostering of a group of graduate first instance and has, unfortunately, gained the a research degree in criminology, the question of so as to be able to take advantage of a longer, but 70 71 '"'

only part-time, Ph.D. course provided by other uni­ developments along these lines are obviously limited inter-disciplinary range and how this should be research studen!; Ru~h.erford, "in fact, enjoyed being versities and thus obtain a reasonable income at an to the kind of research which is likely to be of some planned. Such questions, of course, always raise the ~hocke~ by"thelr ongmality and bold experimental earlier age. There are three other possibilities of direct practical value to the government. issue of autonomy and academic freedom. I have mnovatlons . A good supervisor must feel the spirit shortening the present seven-year full-time study This Institute of Criminology does not possess any some doubts, however, whether the present systElm of adven~ure .at the boundaries of knowledge; he under the Cambridge system. separate funds for financing research undertaken in is ~he most effec!iv~ for ~uilding up a eroup of well­ mu~t delight 111 the process of discovery; he must young crlmll1ologlsts at the doctorate level. (i) To encourage students to work for a Ph.D. de­ connection with a post-graduate degree. tral~ed adVise, but never control the work of his students. Is. It. wro~g to ask these questions? How many The bad res~ar~h supervisor is, in my opinion, the gree immediately after the completion of a first cnmmologlsts do we need in this country at the degree and to allow them to attend those parts of 9. The choice of research topics. perso~ who IS either too conservative in thought, or doctorate level for teaching and research in the uni­ who IS too busy in other activities to share and the Post-Graduate Course which were directly rele­ As far as the basic requirements of the university versities, in government units and elsewhere? What vant to their research and which they had not already foster the spirit of adventure which is so vital in the are concerned it is clear that the choice of research k!nd of s.ubjects could they most profitably select for development of good research. To have to work covered in their first degree. This was tried out with topics has to be SUCll to enable the candidate to dissertations? Where should the facilities for these one post-graduate student who has recently obtained u1der a bad supervisor must indeed be in an aca­ demonstrate his efficiency in carrying out a substan­ research studies be developed? There is obviously demic sense, "a fate worse than death"'. With the his doctorate within the three-year period and it was tial piece of research, and to prove his ability to scope for a planner: I myself have a number of mis­ considered by him to be a highly successful arrange­ demand for more post-graduate work in criminology make an original contribution within his chosen field givings about leaving these matters to be settled by at the doctorate level, there is now a real danger ment. However, if many research students were of study. Proper advice during the early stages of a "the hidden hand of nature". given this kind of facility on the Post·Graduate that r~s~arch st~dents .will not get the quality of research degree is obviously very important. Weak­ supervIsion that IS reqUired. Perhaps in this era of Course, the close unity derived from common experi­ nesses at that stage will most certainly come to light ences on that course would be rapidly lost. 10. Relationship between research student and expansion in higher education we should not try to if the candidate decides to compete in one of the supervisor develop too rapidly. annual events, under the Cambridge collegiate sys­ (ii) To enable students who have shown their po­ The merits of the present arrangements for tentialities for research during the Post·Graduate tem, for a research fellowship. As a co liege elector In many ways the relationship between the research one is occasionally disappointed by the narrowness student. and supervisor in criminology or, for that research degrees are undeniable in terms of pro­ Diploma Course to count that year towards a re­ moting originality ~nd independence; they do, how­ search degree. It might have to be stipulated, how­ in the scope of the work presented by a man who matter, m any of the arts or social sciences still has obviously has considerable talent. Scmetimes­ many similarities to that of the and the ever, possess on~ lmportant drawback, namely, the ever, that a candidate would not be awarded the apprentic~ research stUdent IS offered no chance of experience Diploma in Criminology if, by the end of the year, and this is particularly so in applied scientific sub­ craftsman of the middle ages. The research student jects - it would seem that the topic had been sug­ learns, stage by stage, how to undertake on his own III group research. There is little doubt that in the he had been accepted as a research student; on the fut~re r:nuch crimin?logical research, along with ground that one should not be allowed to obtain two gested because there was a gap in the research a piece of research work; sometimes he is under programme of a department, rather than because the fairly close supervision and with regular advice at SOCiological research 111 general, is likely to be under· qualifications out of the same year's work. Unless, taken by small groups of workers rather than by the however, students obtain some practical research subject was of intrinsic importance. each step, but eventually, if he is to produce a dis­ sertation of the right standard, he becomes inde­ lone independent researcher. Such developments experience of research during the Diploma Course, The choice of research topics in criminology have already taken place in the natural sciences in pendent. He makes his own original contribution. it is, I think, unlikely that they would be able to presents other problems as well. Above all there is this country and in the social sciences in America. reach the required standard for a Ph.D. degree in the question of access to required data. Can it be This is a method of higher education which has very only two years. fairly readily obtained, or is it restricted in terms of great merits indeed, although one should not fail to My final questions then would be: shOUld not confidentiality? Does it involve interviewing either mention that there are a few outstanding scholars some kinds of criminological work for doctoral dis­ (iii) Recently the University of Cambridge has in the academic world who are not too enthusiastic sertations involve group research? If so, what kind made alternative regulations whereby a member of t~e persons concerned in the administration of jus­ tice, or the offenders themselves, their relations or about the Ph.D. degree. There are even those who Of. topics would be most appropriately dealt with in the staff of a University Department may apply for thiS way? How could such research be organised so their victims? The practical implications of these think. that it m~y restrict originality and cramp the a Ph.D. degree by an alternative method, namely, by genumely creative research worker. Be this as it as to allow one to evaluate the originality of the submitting published work. Thus, students from the problems have to be worked out by the supervisor. His assessment as to the suitability of a candidate may, the critics of the doctorate do at least force us different participants for the purpose of awarding Post-Graduate Course taken on as junior members of to remember that the relationship between the re­ higher degrees? Would this be the best way of track­ the research staff with specially assigned projects for undertaking research has to take account not only of the intellectual ability of the student, but search student and his supervisor is a two-way ing down answers to questions relating to crime would have a considerable chance of obtaining a process and, as has recently been said by Kapitza prevention, law enforcement and the treatment of doctorate under these new regulations. also of his social maturity and ability to deal with difficult and sometimes unanticipated situations. of the great Rutherford, he can be shocked by his offenders in the society of today? However, there still remains at Cambridge an The supervisor has also to decide how many of the acute problem of trying to maintain high standards arrangements and how much of the responsibility for for research degrees in criminology and yet, at the access to records and contact with various agents same time, easing the financial strain for graduate he may be called upon to undertake and how much stUdents wishing to carry out independent research. may be left to the initiative of the research student. Lastly,. and by no means of least importance, the 8. Financial provision for research degrees. supervisor has to assess the extent to which a re­ Most research students receive a grant from their search topic will involve senior officials in a con­ local authority or from the Department of Education. siderable amount of extra work and whether or not A few students today still finance their research out the probable value of the research is of sufficient of private financial resources or from parental sup­ importance to justify putting them to this incon­ port, but the number of such students in the uni­ venience. versity is now dwindling away. Most proposals for The present arrangements leave the choice of research have to be carefully examined in terms of subject for a dissertation almost entirely to the likely financial expenditure as, at the most, supple­ student. There is, of course, the art of persuasion mentary grants can only be obtained for minimum which can be exercised to a greater or lesser extent essential travelling and computer costs. A research by the research supervisor or head of the depart­ student who obtains a college research fellowship or ment, but if the student is not able to get accepted prize fellowship on the strength of the first part of at one university - because of the nature of the Ilis dissertation is, of course, in a secure position subject in which he wishes to do research - he can for several years. The open competition for such fellowships is, however, extremely severe: one of our tty his luck elsewhere. This type of laissez-faire present Ph.D. candidates was last year fortunate liberalism for the research student has much to enough to be elected to a research fellowship. On recommend it. The questions which, perhaps need two occasions the Home Office has made grants to some discussion are whether those universiti~s en­ finance and support research which is being carried gaged in teaching criminology should have an agreed out as part of a programme for a higher degree, but policy among themselves for higher degrees in this 72 73 ------~-- ~

APPENDIX" is concerned with control of crime ... and schematic about this whole intellectual "The objective of criminology is the exercise. SEMINAR ON RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND LAW development of a body of general and '''It is not a definition that is needed but verified principles and of other types of a workmanlike description of functions. (Northamptonshire, 21-22 February, 1975) I

APPENDIX III APPENDIX IV (Addendum to the paper of Josef M. Haussling) (Addendum to the paper of Jflcques Leaute)

STUDIENVERLAUFSPLAN SE 18 Verfassung, Gesamtrechtsordnung und Ver­ Universite de Droit, d'Economie et de Sciences b) Le seminaire Epreuve Cantrole continu wirklichung des sozialen Rechtsstaates Socia Ie de Paris Der Studienverlaufsp!an erglbt sich aus den beilie· annuelou orale 40 % de la note (2 SWS) genden Tabellen getrennt fOr Grund· und Haupt­ D.E.A. DE CRIMINOLOGIE, PENOLOGIE ET un des deux 60% de studium. Die Nummerierung der Studienelemente Erkundungspraktikum READAPTATION SOCIALE seminaires la note semestriels entspricht nach Fachern geordnet der Zeitlichen SE 19 Vor- und Nachbereitung des Praktikums Responsable: Professeur LEAUTE. Foige im Verlauf des Studiums. Dieser Verlaufsplan designe par sowie wissenschaftliche Exkursionen Ce D.E.A. peut etre ouvert aux etudiants titulaires I'etudiant hat fOr den Studenten empfehlenden Charakter, (6 SWS) insbesondere bleibt die Moglichkeit, das Studium de la licence en Droit. c) gemass personlichen Neigungen und Interessen zu Wahlpflichtfach L'autorisation d'insciption sera accordee apres ex­ Eventuelle- Epreuve Cantrole continu organisieren, unberOhrt. SE 35 Wahlpflichtfach (8 SWS) amen du dossier depose par I'etudiant. ment, orale 40 % de la note Ie second 60% de seminaire . GRUNDSTUDIUM • . HAUPTSTSTUDIUM • Organisation des Enseignements la note semestriel (Basic Studies) (Main Studies) 1-L'etudiant suit obligatoirement les cours theo· designe par retiques suivants et les seminaires qui sont rat· Wissenschaftstheorie und I'etudiant Soziologie abweichenden Verha!tens taches: . Methoden!ehre der Sozialwissenschaften SE 20 Anwendungsbereiche der Sozologie I Cours (1 h annuelle) SE 1 Wissenschaftstheorie (2 SWS) abweichenden Verhaltens (4 SWS) * - Sociologie criminelle (2 h. semestrielles) SE 2 Methodenlehre (4 SWS) . SE 21 Spezialgebiete der Soziologie abweichen· den Verhaltens und sozialer Kontrolle M. LEA UTE Statistik fUr Sozialwissenschaften (4 SWS) - Sociologie juridique Universite de Droit, d'Economie SE 3 Statistik (4 SWS) M. CARBONNIER Soziaipadagogik et de Sciences Socia/es de Paris Seminaires (2 h annuelles) Allgemeine Soziologie SE 22 Historisch bestimmte gesellschaftliche ~t D.E.A. DE THEORIE ET PRATIQUE DU DROIT SE 4 EinfOhrung in die Soziologie (3 SWS) Funktionen padagogischer Praxis - Methodologie de sciences criminelles (1 sem.) PENAL ET DE POL/TIQUE CRIMINELLE M. LEAUTE SE 5 Soziologische Theorien (5 SWS) (3 SWS) Responsable: Professor SOYER SE 23 Padagogisches Handeln (5 SWS) - Sociologie criminelle (1 sem.) SE 6 Anwendungsbereiche der Soziologie M. LEAUTE Ce D.E.A. peut etre ouvert aux etudiants titulaires (4 SWS) de la licence en Droit. Sozialpsychologie - Sociologie juridique SE 24 Theoretische Vertiefung: Soziologie abweichenden Verhaltens M. CARBONNIEF; L'autorisation d'inscription sera accordee apres soziale Interaktion (4 SWS) examen du dossier depose par I'etudiant. SE 7 Soziale Probleme (4 SWS) SE 25 Verfahrensweisen und Techniken psycho­ 2-En outre, I'etudiant suit un seminaire annuel ou SE 8 Institutionen sozialer Kontrolle (4 SWS) logischer Behandlungsstrategien (4 SWS) deux seminaires semestriels a choisir parmi les Organisation Des Enseignements enseignements suivants: SE 9 Soziologische Theorien abweich. Verhaltens Rechtswissenschaft l-L'etudiant suit deux cours theoriques a choisir (4 SWS) - Informatique juridique (1 sem.) [1] parmi les enseignements suivants et les semi­ SE 26 Familien- und Vormundschaftsrecht; M. CATALA SE 14 Orientierungskurs fOr das Hauptstudium Arbeitsrecht; Recht der sozialen naires qui leur sont rattaches. - Philosophie penale (1 sem.) (2 SWS) Sicherung und Planung (4 SWS) >:< Cours (1 h annuelle) Mile BONGERT SE 27 Staatliche Einwirkungsmoglichkeiten Droit penal general - Politiques criminelles comparees et Sozialpsychologie bei Sozialisationsstorungen (4 SWS) M. DECOCQ SE 10 Allgemeine Grundlagen der Psychologie penologie comparee (2 sem.) SE 28 Spezielle Probleme der Rechts- und M. LEVASSEUR Droit Penal special (4 SWS) Sozialphilosophie (2 SWS) M. LOMBOIS .- Traitement penitentiaire (1 sem.) SE 11 Sozialpsychologie (8 SWS) Studienschwerpunkte M. LEVASSEUR - Politiques criminelles comparees SE 14 Orientierungskurs fOr das Hauptstudium M. LEVASSEUR SE 29 Delinquenzprophylaxe ~~ Les seminaires option pour lesquels au moins (2 SWS) a SE 30 Straffalligenpadagogik huit etudiants ne se seront pas fait inscrire ne * Seminaires (2 h annuelles) Sozialpadagogik SE 31 Rehabilitation un Sozialtherapie seront pas ouverts. - Droit penal general et applique M. DECOCQ SE 12 Allgemeine Erziehungswissenschaftliche (10 SWS) und sozialpadagogische Grundlagen Controle Des Connaissances - Droit penal special applique Forschung und Praktikum Mme RASSAT . Mile MAYER (4 SWS) SE 32 Forschungsprobleme der Soz.wiss.schaften Admissabilite: - Politiques criminelles comparees SE 13 Padagogische Handlungsfelder (2 SWS) Ensr; .... ~ .... ."ent Epreuve Contrale continu sur Ie 6 SWS) et penologie comparee theo, '1 ,<;; ecrite seminaire ou sur Ie SE 14 Orientierungskurs fOr das Hauptstudium SE 33 Vor-u. Nachbereitung d.Forschungs· M. LEVASSEUR (2 SWS) praktikums (4 SWS) design~ en groupe des deux semi- premier par 50% de naires correspondants SE 34 Berufsfeldanalyse (2 SWS) 2-En outre, I'etudiant suit un seminaire annuel ou Rechtswissenschaft I'etudiant la note 50% de la note deux seminaires semestriels a choisir parmi les Wahlpflichtfach enseignements suivants: SE 15 Grundbegriffe des Privatrechts (2 SWS) II Admission: SE 35 Wahlpflichtfach (10 SWS) SE 16 Grundbegriffe von Straf - und Jugendstraf· a) Enseigne- Expose- Contrale continu sur Ie .- Droits de I'Homme (1 sem.) recht und dem Recht der Ordnungswidrig­ Der auf 80 SWS verbleibende Rest von 14 SWS soli ment discus- seminaire ou sur Ie M. ROBERT keiten (2 SWS) "dem Studenten Gelegenheit zur selbsUindigen theorique sion groupe des deux semi- - Droit penal des affaires (1 sem.) SE 17 Organisation und Formen offentlicher und Vorbereitung und Vertiefung des Stoffes und zur designe en naires correspondants Mme DELMAS privater Verwaltung sowie Grundbegriffe des Teilnahme an zusatzlichen Lehrveranstaltungen nach second par 60% de 40 % de la note - Droit penal international (1 sem.) Verwaltungshandelns (2 SWS) eigener Wahl" (HRG § 11 Abs. 2 S.4) geben. I'etudiant la note M. PLAWSKI

SE = Studienelement (seminars) [1] 11 est precise que ce seminaire constitue un enseignement d' initiation qui ne suppose pas de connafssances mathemati­ SWS = Semesterwoch,~nstunden (9 weekly periods per semester) ques ou information particulieres. 80 81 Histoire du droit penal et de la 2-Deux seminaires a choisir parmi: - Droit penal des affaires procedure penale (1 sem.) - Droit penal des affaires - Procedure penale Mile PIVETEAU - Histoire de la repression penale - Sociologie criminelle Informatique juridique (1 sem.) [1] - d'autres seminaires prendre M. CATALA a dan d'autres D.E.A. Libertes publiques (1 sem.) M. ROBERT Philosophie penal (1 sem.) Mile BONGERT Procedure penale (2 sem.) Universite de Montpellier Mme MAYER-JACK D.E.A. de Sciences Criminelles * Les seminaires option pour iesquels au moins Univel1'sites de Bordeaux et Pau a I-Deux cours tMoriques a choisir entre: huit etudiants ne se seront pas fait inscrire ne D.E.A. de Criminologie et Penologie seront pas ouverts. a) Droit penal general! Droit penal special i-Deux cours theoriques obligatoires: Controle Des Connaissances b) Procedure penale - Crise penitentiaire Adr~issibilite c) Criminologie - Delinquance juvenile et adult et deux seminaires sur ces sujets Enseignement Epreuve Contn'jle continu sur Ie Deux semlnaires sur ces sujets theorique ecrite seminaire correspon- 2-Deux seminaires au 'choix sur: designe en dant 50% de la note 2-Deux seminaires a choisir parmi: a) Criminologie premier par 50% de - Histoire du Droit penal I'etudiant la note b) Penologie - - Criminalite des estrangers c) Police scientifique II Admission - Environnement et criminalite a) Enseigne­ Expose- Controle continu sur Ie ment discus- seminaire correspon- theorique sion dant 40% de la note designe en 60% de second par la note I'etudiant b) Le seminaire Epreuve Controle continu Universite de Grenoble annuel ou orale 40% de la note D.E.A. de Science Criminelle et Criminologie un des deux seminaires 60% de I-Deux cours tMoriques: semestriels la note designe par - Droit penal general et special I'etudiant - Rapport entre droit civil, droit c) Eventuelle­ Epreuve Controle continu administratif et droit penal Deux seminaires sur ces sujets ment orale 40 % de la note Ie second 2-Deux seminail'es au choix: seminaire 60% de - Science criminologique semestriel la note designe par - Science penitentiaire I'etudiant - Histoire du droit penal - Pathologie Medecine legale et criminalistique Procedure policiere Droit penal pratique

Universite d'Aix en Provence D.E.A. De Science Penale et Criminologie I-Deux cours theoriques obligatoires fj choisir parmi: - Criminologie treorique Universite de Lyon - Droit penal general D.E.A. de Droit Penal et Science Criminologique - Procedure penale Trois seminaires obligatoires: I-Deux cours theoriques: - Methodes de la criminologie - TMorie du droit criminel - Science penitentiaire - Criminologie - Droit penal special et deux seminaires a choisir parmi:

[l]-Il-~st -preCise que seminalre~~~stitue un enseignement d'initiation qui ne suppose pas de connaissances mathematiques ou informatlques particulieres. 82 83 APPENDIX V and may be quarterly, biannual or annual. At the The examinations of the second year of the School end of each academic year, in the process of co­ may be undertaken only after having passed all the POST·GRADUATE SCHOOL IN CRIMINAL LAW AND CRIMINOLOGY ordinating the teaching programmes for the next examinations of the required first year juridical or (Rome University Statutes) year, the Board of the School will establish the hours criminological studies. of teaching to be assigned to each course. Director: Prof. Tullio Delogu When applying for admission to the School each (First Addendum to the paper of Giacomo Canepa) year, the student must indicate to the administrative Art. 190.-The specialization diploma examination office of the School which electives he intends to consists of the presentation and discussion of an include in his yearly study plan. Once this choice original written dissertation on one of the subject has been made, it is binding. The Director of the areas of the course of study; a topic for the disserta­ Art. 185.-The educational purpose of the School 6. One course to be chosen from the elective tion, agreed upon with a professor, must be sub­ is to study in depth the theories of criminal law, criminological section School, in consultation with the School Board, may suspend those electives in a given year for which mitted for approval to the Director of the School criminal procedure and criminological disciplines within the prescribed period of time. as well as their application; its scientific purpose is not enough students have opted. Second year the systematic research related to these disciplines. Section 1: Juridical Studies Art. 188.-The ordinary diploma course includes two Art. 191.-Tl1e marks for examination range from To this aim, the School: years of study and leads to the granting of a Diploma 0-30 (minimum of 18 for passing) and for disserta. 1. a) Criminal Law in Relation to Specific Crimes a) offers a biennial course of studies leading to of Specialization in Criminal Law and Criminology. tion from 0-70 (minimum of 42 for passing). The b) Seminars on the Criminal Law in Practice a diploma which is restricted to regularly en­ Students holding a degree in law or in political Board of the School, following the recommendation rolled students: 2. a) Criminal Procedure sciences or in social sciences of any Italian or foreign of the Director, may assess a dissertation, which has b) offers seminars on specific subjects or groups b) Seminars on Case Material university can enroll for the ordinary diploma course. obtained the highest mark cum laude, as meriting of subjects not limited to regularly enrolled 3. Law and Procedure with Juvenile Offenders On the recommendation of the Director, the Board publication. students; 4. Police and the Law of the School may authorize the admission of c) offers in-service training courses for magis· 5. Sociology of Criminal Law graduates from medical Schools or from any other Art. 192.-The School. adheres closely to the calen­ trates and civil servants; 6. One course to be chosen from the elective faculty of any Italian or foreign university, whose dar of the Faculty of Law of the University of Rome. d) directs and carries out scientific research on juridical section academic record, at the judgement of the Board, is its own or for other agencies. considered adequate. In such cases, thE! student, The examinations and discussions of disserta­ Section 2: Criminological Studies in order to be admitted, must pass an internal tion take place during ali three sessions: summer, The School carries out its activities within the examination in criminal law and criminal procedure. autumn and winter. Institute of Criminal Law, which is its official seat, 1. Criminology and the Criminal Law 2. Criminology and the Prevention and Control and is connected, whenever this is necessary, with Art. 189.-Examinations are held each year for in­ the Italian Section of the Association Internationale of Crime Art. 193.-Details of subject matter, enrollment, at­ dividual courses and only those students who have tendance and examination procedure, concerning the de Droit Penal; with the International Society of 3. Theories and Practices in Penology obtained a certification of regular attendance from Criminology; with the Correctional Studies Section special seminars and courses mentioned in Art. 185, 4. Forensic Medicine the Dire.;tor of the School will be eligible. will be made known from time,to time. of the Ministry of Justice; and with the post-graduate 5. One course to be chosen from the elective School in Clinical Criminology, all based in Rome; criminological section and with any other Italian or foreign agency whose cooperation may be considered desi rable. The courses from which the students may choose are the following: Art. 186.-The rules under Art. 177, Title XVI of the Statutes of the University of Rome, concerning the Section 1: Juridical Studies general disposition.s o~ post-graduate Schoo,ls, are 1. Fiscal Criminal Law applicable to the direction of the School and Its fac­ ulty. 2. Industrial and Commercial Criminal Law 3. Military Criminal Law and Procedure Art. 187.-The courses which will be offered in the 4. Maritime and Aerial Criminal Law and regular biennial program of post-graduate training Procedure are compulsory or elective according to the follow­ 5. Foreign and Comparative Criminal Law ing curriculum: 6. International Criminal Law 6. International Criminal Law First year 7. Roman Criminal Law Section 1: Juridical Studies 8. Canonic Criminal Law 1. a) General Principles of Criminal Law 9. History of Criminal Law b) Seminars on the Criminal Law in Practice 10. Philosophy of Criminal Law 2. a) Criminal Procedure b) Seminars on Case Material Section 2: Criminological Studies 3. Constitutional Criminal Law 1. Criminal Anthropology 4. Penology 2. Criminal Sociology 5. One course to be chosen from the elective 3. Criminal Psychology juridical section 4. Clinical Criminology Section 2: Criminological Studies 5. Techniques of Criminological Research 6. Principles and Techniques of Correctional 1. General Criminology Treatment 2. Criminal Psychopathology 7. Historical Criminology 3. Forensic Psychology 4. Methodology of Criminal Statistics The classes may be supplemented by conferences 5. Criminalistics and lectures given by Italian or foreign specialists, 84 85 APPENDIX VI e trattamento giuridico dell'antisocialita e della Norme per I'ammissione delinquenza minorie!. Metodi di osservazione e ~e immatricolazioni alia Scuola sono limitate alia Universita degli Studi di Genova trattamento. Predizione e prevenzione del com· portamento antisociale minorile. disponibilita dei posti pretabiliti e gli aspiranti ver· SCUOLA 01 SPECIALIZZAZIONE IN CRIMINOLOGIA CLINICA rano scelti in seguito ad esami d'ammissione che TERZO ANNO: avranno luogo nel periodo compreso tra il 1\.) ed ill5 Oirettore: Prof. Giacomo Canepa Dicembre. - Diagnostica Criminologica (2°): "Genesi e dinami· (Second Addendum to the Paper of Giacomo Canepa) ca dei singoli comportamenti antisociali e crimi­ Per essere ammessi agli esami suddetti, occeorre nosi" . presentare dal 2 Agosto al 5 Novembre e per gravi - Metodi di Trattamento ("Terapia criminologica - e giustificati motivi fino al 30 Novembre quanto Con D.P.R. del 21 luglio 1969, n. 615, pubblicato PRIMO ANNO: "II trattamento individualizzato"): concetto segue: criminologica di trattamento. II trattamento sulla Gazzetta Ufficiale del 20 settembre 1969 - Criminologia Generale (1°): cenni storici, defini· A) Domanda in carta bollata da L. 500. :-, diretta tradizionale: funzione della pena, ambiente (n. 239), e stata istituita la Scuola di Specializzazio· zione della criminologia e delle sue branche, cri· al Magnifico Rettore con Ie generalita complete, ne in Criminologia elinica presso l'Universita di teri di classificazione. Campi di applicazione nel penetenziatio, prospettive critiche. Forme di tratta· residenza della famiglia. mento (medicochirurgico, pedagogico, ergoterapi. Genova. settore della ricerca fondamentale ed applicata. co, psicofarmacologico, psicoterapico). Edilizia B) certifi.cato di laurea in bollo con i voti dei singoli Scopo della Scuola e di conferire una particolare Finalita e compiti operativi della criminologia. esaml penitenziaria e trattamento. Classificazione dei qualificazione e preparazione in Criminologia Clinica Fondamenti giuridici (studio del delitto), fonda· C) scheda (da ritirarsi in segreteria delle scuole di a coloro che operano nel campo medico·assistenziale menti sociologici (studio della criminalita) e fon­ delinquenti e trattamento. Trattamento e reci· divismo. Trattamento in liberta. Cenni sui "pro· specializzazione - Piazza dell'Annunziata, 6.) e giudiziario, amministrativo'penitenziario, psi co· damenti biopsicologica (studio del delinquente). pedagogico, giuridico'sociale e forense, impegnati in bation". Garanzie giurisdizionali e aspetti tecnici D) due foto di cui una autenticata in bollo con tutti Elementi di Sociologia ("Scienze della persona del trattamento. II trattamento "codificato". attivita finalizzate alia prevenzione del comporta­ umana"): teorie del comportamento deviante. i dati anagrafici . mento delittuoso, nonche alia osservazione ed al - Techniche di Rieducazione ("Trattamento delle Elementi di Psicologia e di Statistica ("Psicologia varie forme di capacita a delinquere e di pericolo· E) eventuali titoli (certificati di specializzazione, trattamento dei soggetti antisociali, nel settore dei e criminologia clinica"): definizione e metodi della stati di servizio, ecc. redatti in bollo). minorenni e degli adulti. sita crimina Ie"): la strategia del trattamento in psicologia. La conoscenza del mondo e il processo funzione della diagnosi e dell'evoluzione del caso. La Scuola ha sede presso I'lstituto di Antropologia di apprendimento. Memoria, pensiero, intelligen· Strumenti di intervento dell'educatore specializ· Gli aspiranti avranno I'obbligo di accertarsi presso Criminale dell'Universita di Genova (Via De Toni, 12, za. Motivazione del comportamento. Emozioni e zato. La psicoterapia nell'ambito della rieducazi· I'lstituto della data degli esami di ammissione. tel.510·612,515·313). sentimenti. Definizione e teoria dell personalita. one. Gli aspiranti ammessi allo Scuola, dovranno entr~ iI Metodi statistici per la ricerca in psicologia. •• Elementi di Medicina Legale e di Psichiatria Fo­ termine di dieci, giorni, presentare: Norme per I'iscrizione - Elementi di Psicopatologia Generale ("Psicopatol· rense ("Giustizia penale e criminologia clinica"): a) originale, del titolo di scuola media superiore Alia Scuola sono ammessi i laure~ti in medicina ogia e1inica e criminologia clinica"): sviluppo la perizia medico·legale. Oggeto metodo e finalita b) ricevuta comprovante il versamento dell 10 rata e chirurgia, in giurisprudenza, in scienze politiche, storico e tendenze attuali della psichiatria. Cenni della perizia psichiatrica. La perizia in tema di in pedagogia in sociologia. di anatomia e fisiologia del sistema nervoso. II circonvenzionzione di inca pace. Interdizione e c) dichiarizione rilasciata dal Comune di residenza comportamento umano come oggetto di osserva· inabilitazione. Capacita a testare e capacita al relativa al reddito accertato per I'imposta di II numero complessivo degli iscritti non pub zione psichiatrica. Semeiotica e psicopatologia matrimonio. Famiglia, owero un certificato dell'Ufficio essere superiore a trenta per I'intero corso degli delle fuzioni psichiche. Metodi di Prevenzione ("Profilassi criminale e Distrettuale delle imposte, al quale e stats pre· studi. - Element.i di Psichiatria Clinica ("Malattie mentali criminologia clinica"): Cenni sulle istituzioni sentata la dichiarazione unica dei redditi, da cui II corso e di durata triennale. II Consiglio della e criminologia clinica"): etiopatogenesi delle mao operanti nel settore del disadattamento minorile, risulti se il reddito complessivo annuo del:a Scuola, su proposta del Direttore e con approvazione lattie mentali. Nevrosi, psiconevrosi, personalita dell'orientamento scolatico e professionale, del· famiglia delle studente superri 0 meno j tre della Facolta, pub concedere un abbreviamento del psicopatiche. Psicosi esogene. Psicosi endogene. I'assistenza psichiatrica. Assistenza ai dimessi milioni di lire. corso degli studi di specializzazione ammettendo Cenni di terapia delle malattie mentali. dalle Carceri. Attivita della polizia. Programma direttamente aI secondo an no quegli aspiranti che, di prevenzione. I candidati ammessi che non avranno regolarizzato, oltre aile condizioni prescritte per I'ammessione SECONDO ANNO: entro i termini stabiliti, la completa documentazione norma Ie, diane prova della lora preparazione tecnica - Criminologia Generale (20): teorie criminologiche, Norme per gli esami sopra richiesta, saranno ritenuti rinunciatari a tutti e culturale (ad esempio, per avere gia conseguito aspetti sociologici e clinici. Orientamenti e indiriz· Gli insegnamenti indicati nel piano di studi sarar.· gli effetti, senza possibilitfl di ricorsi. titoli di specializzazione in discipline affin! alia zi nello studio della personalita antisociale. As­ no integrati da conferenze, seminari, visite di stur.iio Alia domanda d'iscrizione agli anni di corso suc· criminologia clinica), owero documentino una petti morfologici, tipologici, psicodinamici, fen· ed esercitazioni pratiche presso istituzioni qualificate cessivl al primo, da presentarsi dal 2 agosto al 5 specifica attivita, chiaramente qualificata, in settori nomenologici. Orientamento integrale e teoria in campo criminologico, cui gli escritti parteciperan· Novembre e per gravi e giustificati motivi e nei strettamente affini a quello della criminologia clinica. della personalita crimina Ie. no a gruppi, secondo turni di internato 0ppoliuna· limiti dei posti disponibil" previo pagamento della Coloro che siano eventualmente ammessi ad - Metodologia della Ricerca in Criminologia ("Se­ mente predisposti. mora per ritardata presentazione, fino al 30 Novem· usufruire delle suddette agevolazioni sono ten uti meiotica criminologica"): Metodi della ricerca Alia fine di egni anne di corso saranno tenuti bre, debbono essere allegati i seguenti documenti: egualmente a sostenere i colloqui di idoneita, per clinica e sociologica. Statistiche della criminalita. glisami di profitto, per gruppi di materie, consistenti a) Libretto personale di iscrizione I'iscrizione all'anno successivo, anche nelle materie Ticerca fondamentale e applicata. Metodi di in un colloquio, che gli iscritti parteciperanno a trattate negli anni da cui so no stati dispensati. predizione. gruppi, secondo turni di internato opportunamente b) quietanza di pagamento della 1 ° rata c) quietanza pagamento del supplemento reddito La domanda di iscrizione, indirizzata al Magnifico - II Servizio Sociale in Criminologia ("Esame soci­ predisposti. Rettore con i prescritti allegati e redatta sull'apposito ale del crimina Ie"): Organizzazione, finalita e Alia fine di ogni anna di corso saranno ten uti gli (per chi supera il reddito annuo di tre milioni). modulo bollato fornito dalla Segreteria dell'Univer· metodi del servizio socia Ie. Attivita di prevenzione esami profitto, per gruppi di materie, consistenti, in sita, deve essere vistata dal direttore della Scuola e di assistenza svolta dal servizio sociale. un colloquio, che gli iscritti dovranno sostenere di Coloro che non avranno presentato la domanda di in presenza dell'interessato. Oiagnostica Criminologica (1°) ("Esame medico fronte ad una Commissione proposta dal Direttore iscrizione agli anni successivi al primo, entr~ iI ter­ e psicologico del criminale"): Esame della per· della Scuola, ed approvata dal Preside, per stabilire mine stabilito, potranno cttenere la ricognizione agli Ulteriori dettagli sulle norme di immatricolazione sonalita del delinquente. Applicazione dei reattivi la lore idoneita 0 meno per la iscrizione al succes­ studi in qualitfl di fuori corso. potranno essere richiesti presso gli uffici di Segre· mentali in criminologia clinica (come strumenti di sivo anne di corso. teria dell'Universita di Genova (Via Balbi 4). diagnosi, di prognosi, di terapia e di ricerca). Va· L'esme di diploma consiste in una discussione Tutti i versamenti debboro essere effettuati sugli lore e limiti delle applizioni giudiziarie dei reattivi sopra dissertazione originale scritta, nonche in prove apposti moduli di c/c postale da richiedersi alia Piano degii stl.ldi mentali. teoriche e pratiche stabilite dalla Commissione Segreteria della Scuole di specializzazione .. Piazza Le lezioni impartite nella Scuola sono distribuite - Oelinquenza Minorile ("Criminogenesi . Crimino· giudicatrice. dell'Annunziata 6. nei tre anni di corso secondo iI seguente progetto, dinamica"): cenni sulle caratteristiche psicol· A coloro che hanno superato I'esame di diploma Per nessun motivo si possono accettare domande in cui sono fornite indicazioni sintetiche sui conte· ogiche dell' eta "minorHe". Cause del comporta­ viene rilasciato il diploma di "specialista in crimi· di iscrizione aile Scuola mancanti dei documenti nuto dei diversi insegnamenti: mento antisociale minorile. Legislazione speciale nologia e1inica". richiesti. 86 87 2. SUBJECTS OF THE AREAS 2. Reason as origin of Morality and Law. APPENDIX VII Natural Law and judicial Relativism. We will talk about the three different areas in a 3. Guilt from the point of view of Psychology, PROJECT rather tentative form. The remarked points a're the ones which we consider as essential and should Morals and Law. Extension Course In Criminology never be considered as a taxative, rigid, appoint· 4. Responsibility according to Criminology. (Addendum to the paper of Francisco Canestri) ment. 5. Complexity of the concepts of Penality. 6. Notions on Criminal Ethnography. History l. Fundamental Area of the Criminal Law Comparative Criminal B. The contents, being the essential part of the Law. Introduction This area should be considered as divided into course, should be divided into two levels which 7. Judicial Sociology. Penal Dogmatism and cover: A global view of the criminological sci­ two stages, corresponding to one of the semesters: Normally, we consid~r ~hree possible ~Iternatives Stage One: Dedicated to the provision of a global Penal Anthropology. to the teaching of Criminology, according to the ences and the crimina! sciences and its cross· relations; a second ievel oriented towards the view of the Criminal and Criminological Sciences, depth of the level we wish to come up to; these are: covering the following: 4. Prime Theoretical Currents specialized criminologies. 1. Extension Courses C. It must be developed in such a way that the A. Anthropo·Biological approach in Criminol­ 2. Specialization Courses 1. Criminology and Man's Sciences. first level coincides with the first semester and ogy. Its beginning and development in 3. Ph.D. Courses at the same time, gets related with the Instru­ There would be some kind of introduction Europe at the end of the XIX Century, Its new apogee on the second decade of the mental Area. to Criminology. and Man's Sciences, giving Since beginning at the first level seems right and some definitions of the Human'Sciences and XX Century. Basic concepts~ inherent iogical to us, tl1e planning of a course of this nature D. Placing: levels and semesters must coincide. Social Sciences and a very general idea about criminal, atavism, epilepsy, biological in­ should consider the following points: E. Duration: 2 semesters with 60% of the time the Man's Sciences used in Criminology (Bi· heritance and physical typology. Classifica­ A. Those alternatives are not exclusive; on ~he of the first semester and 50% of the second ology, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychoanalysis, tions: Systems of Criminological Biotypo!­ contrary, they are complementary; all of which semester. Sociology). The main idea would be focused ogy. Studies on Criminological Genetics: oblige us to consider the other two, even on pointing out the actual crisis of Man's studies on Genealogy, the twins, cyto· though our project has been limited to the Sciences, over all on their epistemology. In genetics, the chromosomes. II. Instrumental Area "Extension Cou rses". this part there must be a speci.al emphasis Role of Brain Damage. B. In the planning we considered the t:'I 0n· A. The main objective is to provide the necessary on the integration between the concepTS, hy­ tools to focus on Criminology as a Man's Sci­ pothesis and theories, indicating the most Brain and endocrine dysfunctions. Bio­ existence of previous courses on the subject, chemical and alimentary factors. since the Cathedra of Criminology has been ence in its social and individual aspects. significant ones for Criminology. newly created. B. The contents must be oriented toward the Finally, there must be determined the idea B. Psychological Criminology. C. Also account was taken of the circumstances exposition of the great methodological, indi­ of the Criminological Team, in the fields of Psychological approach in Criminology. Its caus'ed by the very nature of the subject, which vidual, and social currents, which have ~a~ of the Criminological Team, in the fields of In­ beginnings and development in the XX demands a total comprehension, a special kind some influence in the development of Crimi" vestigation, Observation, Treatment of Crimi­ Century. of thinking and a certain Methodology, oriented nological thought. nals and Crime Prevention. Nevertheless, one towards the concrete realities of the Social C. The development must begin in the elementary could wonder, in the course of the exposition, Basic Concepts. Sciences and of Man, which requires a special levels, since most of the attendants to the if there is a construction of a Criminological The intelligence, learning, attitudes, affec­ formation. course have a lack of knowledge about crimi­ Object. tivity. Criminal Personality. Characteris­ nological sciences. In the Fundamental Area, there should be tics. Notions on Psycho·criminogenesis On the other hand, besides the former points some emphasis on the basis of Crimino­ and of criminal psycho·dynamics. Psycho· which could be considered as very particular to the D. The placing must be mainly in the first semes­ logical Thought (Biological, Psychological, Psy­ logical Classifications of Criminals. teaching of Criminology in our school, there are ter, concurrently with the introduction of the chiatrical, Psychoanalytical, Sociological and Psychology of the Prison. Psycho!ogy and other facts, which also were considered in our plan· course. Penological sources), and on the concepts of crime prevention. ning. They are: E. The duration must be at least 40% of the total Crimina! Policy, trying to settle each stage D. Autonomy time of the first semester. of the development of Criminology on its spe· C. Psychiatric and Psychoanalytical Criminol­ E. Multidisciplinarity cific historical context. In such a way, while ogy. F. Concurrence of practical and theoretical as· III. Complementary Area the conceptual evolution of Criminology is The Psychological and Psychiatric ap· analyzed, its history is presented. pects A. The fundamental objective is to study actual proaches of Criminology. Its beginning and development in the XX Century. G. Adaptation to the country's realities and interesting subjects related to the general 2. Notions on General Criminology H. Degrees or levels of difficulty themes, trying to conduct the selection and Basic Concepts. preparation of monographic work papers. The Criminal Law as a discipline which de­ Because of the combination of other facts which have fines the criminological object and the develop­ The childhood, the unconscious. Psycho· been studied in 'other reports, especially D, F, and G B. The contents must be oriented towards the ment of the concept of criminal individual. analitical explanation of deViance, starting the necessity of conceiving our "Extension Course" exposition of exact and concrete problems, in For the students who have knowledge about from the components of the personality in three main areas, with defined objectives, appears the legal, law enforcelT)ent, pe~itentiary o.r .Special Law, General Law, Criminal Prosecut­ (conscious, sub·conscious and unconcious) clearly: preventive fields, considered In a multi­ ing and so on, there will be an emphasis in and the development of the normal per· disciplinary approach. sonality. I. Fundamental Area the selection of the basic concepts related to C. The development must be done in the second Criminology. II. Instrumental Area semester, with the end result being the use of D. Sociological approach in Criminology. General Criminology and co·ordination of the Antecedents. Its beginnings and develop· III. Complementary Area the knowledge obtained from the Instrumental interdisciplinary investigations in criminology, According to this structure, we present our project and Fundamental Areas for the possible per­ ment in the XIX and XX Centuries. Sociolo­ basic notions, sources, concepts and methods. gical definitions of crime. Concept of deVIa­ formance of a concrete investigation. for discussion, elaborating its details. Concept of criminality. General characteristics, tion and its criminological inferences. Soc· D. Placing must be in the second semester, with facts, particular types. Criminality from a iological variables in connection with the 1. PROGRAMMATIC AREAS a schedule which should extend along the total differential point of view. criminal individual: age, sex, profession, extent of the course, to provide the students social status, ethnic group, religion, etc. I. Fundamental Area with more time. 3. Introduction to Criminal Sciences and Sociological variables, in connection with Criminal Law A. The main objective is to provide the basic E. The' outline must be directly related to the the social milieu of the criminal individual: theoretical knowledge about Criminology as a Instrumental Area, and independent of the 1. Criminal Philosophy; free will and determi· family, habitat, school, education, work, science, its historical evolution and to give a Fundamental one. nism; freedom and determinism. recreation, etc. view of its actual situation. t 88 89 'I I I Intents of Theorization. 1. Sciences for the Treatment: Prime sociological paradigms: the cultural B. Equipments and techniques. transmission paradigm. A. Penology: C. Photography. Competency rules. Procedural rules. Basic concepts: cultural conflict, sub­ Reactions originated by the crime in so· D. Specialized st~~ies: firearms, ammunitions, Measu:es. Attachment of the sentences. cultural, differential association. The para­ ciety. documents, wntlngs. ProbatIon. Juvenile Institutions. digm of mean/goal. Basic concepts: Moral Reactions: vengeance and retribu· E. Id~ntification: 'forensic anthropology finger. Legislation for the pubescents in danger. anomie, differential opportunity. tion. pnnts. ' Yout.h Crin:inology: The Youth Crime Problem. The paradigm of the interaction ism. Basic Utilitary Reactions: individual prevention F. Re.'at,ions between the scientific police and ManIfestatIons of youth crime. Statistics. concepts: labelling, stigmatization, primarj (elimination, intimidation, correction, treat· Cnmlnology. ment), general prevention, (exemplary char· Forms. Gangs. "Pavitos" (youngsters in and secondary deviation, stereotypography. G. Criminalistic study of the main violations ~ene~uelan familiar way of talking). Collec. Sociology of prison. Sociology and crime acter of the punishment). of law. t,ve VIolence. Young adults. prevention. Scientific study of the moral and utilitary reactions. 4. Basic noti?~s' on criminal statistics. C~ncept Youth cri!1'!es etiology. Biological, psychologi. E. The Anti-Criminology and of I?r~bablllty. Statistical index. Lecture of cal, . familIar geographical, ecological, eco. Development of the contemporary penologi· statIstIcs. Criminal statistics in Venezuela nomIC, and cultural factors. Clinical Criminology. cal doctrines. Problems. . Diagnosis and Prediction Age limits. Re. Its beginning and development since the Examination of the modern systems in incidenc;e. . 5. Youth Crime: 60's. Influence of anti·Psychiatry on Penology. and problems of treat­ Criminology and the questioning of the Technici~1 pe~agogical The problem of the prison's future. Sci~nc~s of ~hildrood: General notions on :ne!lt. 1 re~tm.ent In an open milieu, treatment concept of deviance. Pedlatncs, .Chlldren's Psychology, Children's inSIde an Institution. The materialist paradigm in Criminology. B. Psychiatric Criminology ~europsychlatry, Family and Adolescence So. Speciali:z:ed Pedagogy. Semi-freedom. Post­ Intents for an epistemological rupture. clology. cure. Mental illnesses. Definition and classifica­ tion. Le~islation for the Pubescents in danger: His. Yout~ Crime Prevention. Prevention Programs. If. Instrumental Area Psychosis, neurosis, oligophrenia, disturb· t~~lcal Evolution. Child (youngster) responsi. Mass s Therap~utics. Club and prevention ances of the character, alcoholism, addic· blllty. teams. EvaluatIve and active investigations. A. General tions, sexual anomalies. Organization of the juvenile jurisdictions. You!h crime and society. Prevention in the 1. What is the methodology of the investiga' Psychiatric studies of the main infringe­ famIly, the school and the community. tion? definition, concepts of precision, reo ments. liability and validity. The Psychiatric examination and the Psy­ 2. Design of the investigation: descriptives, chiatric report. casual;;, explicative. Main objectives and Psychiatric diagnosis in Criminology. Re­ pr(,blems. sponsibility and dangerous state. 3. The experimental method: the quasi·experi· Psychiatric disorders in Criminology. mental method and ex post facto (retro· Penitentiary Psychiatry. spective). 4. Techniques and instruments: Study of C. Clinical Criminology: documental sources; systematic observa· Definition and objectives. tion; test; socio·metric studies; surveys; Differentiation between Clinical Criminology statistics. and Medical Criminology. B. Methods and Techniques of Analysis Integration of the specialized Criminolo· in Criminology. gies at the level of the observation, treat· ment and prevention. 1. B!ological and Medical Examinations: com· The social, and medical·psychological ex­ plementary examinations. Electroencepha· amination. lography. Types of bio-psychological evolu· tions. Bio·psycholagical diagnosis: correia· Diagnosis of the dangerous state. Social prediction. tions between the criminal act and the per· sonality. Experiments. Treatment Program. 2. The Psychological Test: The test. Psycho­ logical 'Diagnosis. Study of cases. Control 2. Forensic Medicine groups. Experiments. A. General notions on the organization and 3. The Sociological examination of the indio history of Forensic Medicine. vidual case. Hie social survey. The socio· B. Personal injuries, personal identification. logical diagnosis. Follow up studies. Anal· Forensic Hemathology. Toxicology. ysis of the differential rates of criminals. C. Medical deontology, basic forensic prob· Multifactorial analysis. Studies ex post lems in the Criminal Law. Relations be­ facto. Predictive tables. tween Forensic Medicine and Criminology. 4. A new methodolot:ical approach: The his· D. Forensic study of the main violations of torical materialism. Law. NOTE: It is fundamental that these points are exposed in a practical way, along with Ill. Complementary Area tutoring and visits to police laboratories. Oriented towards fundamental problems, outlining a possible specialization, selection of themes for 3. Scientific Police study, preparation of monographs, etc. as the A. General problems of judicial identification. ones which follow: The laboratories and the scientific tests. 90 APPENDIX VIII ordinator of the juridical, criminological, and crimi. (Addendum to the paper of Gustavo Malo Camacho) nalistic areas, a teacher and a research worker, y. To appoint the administrative staff of the In­ representing the respective bodies, and a student stitute; Executive Power representative. The representative members of the VI. To operate the Information and Data Center, Ministry of the Interior (Gobernacion) Council shall be elected every two years by the the Laboratory, the Criminology Museum, and, in members of the group or sector they represent who general, all the technical and administrative sections DECREE establishing the National Institute shall also elect alternates. of Penal Sciences of the institute, to maintain relations between the Institute and other national, foreign or international ARTICLE 8. The powers of the Academic Council A seal in the margin bearing the National Shield shall be: individuals and organizations, and to decide on aca­ and the words "United Mexican States - demic and administrative matters with the pertinent Office of the President". I. To consider and. decide on academic projects staff members; and programs presented by its members; VII. To execute the approved programs of activi­ II. To prepare draft bylaws for the consideration ties; and WHEREAS the Government of the Republic ,has and approval, as the case may be, by the Board of II. Create a permanent scientific-research section; Directors; VIII. Others provided for in the bylaws and which sr

Thomas F. Courtless, Professor and Chairman Hans·J u rgen Kerner, Professor Department of Sociology Fakultat fur Rechtswissenschaft George Washington University der Universitat Bielefeld Washington, D.C. Universitatsstrasse 4800 Bielefeld I Federal Republic of Germany Eugene H. Czajkoski, Professor and Dean School of Criminology Jacques Leaute, Professor and Director Florida State University L'lnstitut de Criminologie L'Universite de Paris II Tallahassee, Florida 32306 12 Place du Pantheon 75005 Paris Mustafa EI·Augi France Justice, Supreme Court Professor, Lebanese University Peter P. Lejins, Professor and Director Palace of Justice Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology Beirut, Lebanon University of Maryland present address: College Park, Maryland 20742 Schlosshaldenstrasse 17 8570 Weinfelden Switzerland Frederick H. McClintock, Professor and Director Department of Criminology University of Edinburgh Marcel Ette Bogui, Professor and Director Edinburgh, Scotland L')nstitut de Criminologie L'Universite d'Abidjan Merlyn Moore, Professor P,O. Box 20632 Institute of Contemporary Corrections Abidjan, Cote d'ivoire and the Behavioral Sciences Sam Houston State University Franco Ferracuti, Professor of Criminological Huntsville, Texas 7:7340 Medidne and Forensic Psychiatry Faculty of Medicine Richard A. Myren, Professor and Director Instituto di Psicologia Center for the Administration of Justice Universita di Roma The American University Rome, Italy Washington, D.C. 20016

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Alvar Nelson Norman Rosenblatt, Professor and Dean APPENDIX X Regius Professor of Criminal Law College of Criminal Justice Faculty of Law Northeastern University University of Uppsala Boston, Massachusetts 02115 PROGRAM, Jurridicum S. Giora Shoham, Professor Riddartorget 5 Institute of Criminology and Criminal Law All sessions will meet in Room 1105 of the Center of Adult Education S-751 20 Uppsala Faculty of Law Sweden Tel Aviv University Wednesday· July 7, 1976 Trubowicz Building Tel Aviv, Israel 9:00·10:30 Opening Session Donald Newman, Professor School of Criminal Justice Denis Szabo, Professor and Director Peter P. Lejins, Director ..- State University of New York at Albany International Centre for Institute of Criminal Justice and Criminology 1400 Washington Avenue Comparative Criminology Welcoming Remarks Albany, New York 12203 University of Montreal Montreal, 101, Canada Robert L. Gluckstern, Chancellor University of Maryland, College Park Donald H. Riddle, Chancellor Lode Van Outrive, prof.essor Stanley J. Drazek, Chancellor The University of Illinois at Chicago Katholicke Universiteit te Leuven University College, University of Maryland P.O. Box 4348 School voor Criminologie Chicago, Illinois 60680 Leuven, Belgium The Honorable Richard W. Velde, Administrator Law Enforcement Assistance Administration J. Price Foster, Director Office of Criminal Justice Education and Training Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Representatives Background and Purpose of the Conference Richard W. Velde, Administrator J. Price Foster, Director Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Office of Criminal Justice, Education and Training Peter P. Lejins U.S. Department of Justice Law Enforcement Assistance Administration 633 Indiana AvenUF~, N.W. U.S. Department of Justice Introduction of the Participants Washington, D.C. 20531 Washington, D.C. 20531 Election of Resolutions Committee

Observers 10:30·11:00 Coffee Break

Friedrich Berckhauer Gerhard O.W. Mueller, Chief Sessions 1·5 Max·Planck·lnstitut fur Auslandisches Crime Prevention and und Internationales Strafrecht Criminal Justice Section Description and analysis of doctoral degree programs in the area of criminal justice and criminology in the countries represented at this Conference. Each 78, D Freiburg i.B. The United Nations New York, New York 10017 session consists of 3 presentations of 10·15 minutes each and a question Gunterstalstrasse 72 period. Freiburg Federal Republic of Germany 11:00·12:30 Session 1 An invitation to take part as observers has been extended to the Vice President for Graduate Studies and Alvar Nelson Sweden and Scandinavia Research of the University of Maryland, the Dean of the Graduate School, the Acting Provost of the Division Frederick H. McClintock of Behavioral and Social Sciences, the Chairmen of the Departments of Anthropology, Government and Great Britain Politics, Psychology and Sociology, as well as the Graduate Faculty and Ph.D. candidates of the Institute of Lode Van Outrive Criminal Justice and Criminology of the University of Maryland. Belgium Question Period

University of Maryland Conference Staff 12:30· 2;00 lunch

Mary Jane Wood· Coordinator David Celeste· Recorder 2:00· 3:30 Session 2 Elaine Maney· Secretary Catherine Conly· Recorder Hans·Jurgen Kerner Stuart Kaufman· Recorder James R. Brantley· Recorder Federal Republic of Germany Ka',:hleen Brophy· Recorder Josef M. H§ussling Federal Republic of Germany Jacques Leaute France

Question Period

3:30· 4:00 Coffee Break 96 97 Wednesday - July 7, 1976 (continued) Friday - July 9, 1976

4:00- 5:30 Session 3 9:00-10:30 Session 8 Mustafa EI-Augi Conference Mid-Point Summary Lebanon and Arabic countries Mustafa EI-Augi Marcel Ette Bogui Ivory Coast 10:30-11:00 Coffee Break A. A. Adeyemi Nigeria Sessions 9·11 Question Period These sessions are to be devoted to a general discussion by all participants of the policies and organizational patterns for doctoral programs in criminal 5:30 Dinner justice and criminology. Examples of key issues which might be discussed: 7:15 Departure from the Center of Adult Education for 8:00 p.m. reception at the invitation of Dr. and Mrs. Peter P. Lejins at the Cosmos Club, Washington, D.C. Doctoral degrees in related disciplines versus a doctoral degree in Transportation will be available. criminal justice and criminology. Academic and research doctoral degrees (Ph.D.) versus professional doctoral degrees (needs of the operational agencies). The role of the social science disciplines as a background for a doctoral Thursday - July 8, 1976 degree in criminal justice and criminology. The role of methodologies (research methods, statistics, computer 9:00·10:30 Session 4 science) in a doctoral degree program. Giacomo Canepa Relationship of the doctoral degree to the Master's degree in criminal Italy justice and criminology. Franco Ferracuti Location of the doctoral program in criminal justice and criminology Italy 'Nithin the university structure. Francisco Canestri Venezuela and South America 11 :00-12:30 Session 9 Gustavo Malo Camacho Mexico 12:30- 2:00 Lunch Question Period 2:00- 3:30 Session 10 10:50-11:00 Coffee Break 3:30· 4:00 Coffee Break 11:00-12:30 Session 5 S. Giora Shoham 4:00- 5:30 Session 11 Israel Ryuichi Hirano 5:30 Dinner Japan Denis Szabo Canada Question Period Saturday - July 10, 1976

12:30- 2:00 lunch 9:00-10:00 Session 12 Summary of the Conference 2:00- 3:30 Session 6 Peter P. Lejins Statements describing doctoral programs in the United States. 10:00-10:30 Discussion 3:30- 4:00 Coffee Break 10:30-11:00 Coffee Break 4:00- 5:30 Session 7 Statements describing doctoral programs in the United States. 11:00-12:00 Closing Session

5:30 Dinner Ri~c;;olutions

8:00 Reception at the invitation of the Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences at the Student Union, Room 0118. Walk over escorted by staff unless it rains, in which case cars will be provided. . 98 99