Biology and Recent Developments in the Systematics of Phoma, a Complex Genus of Major Quarantine Significance Reviews, Critiques
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Fungal Diversity Reviews, Critiques and New Technologies Reviews, Critiques and New Technologies Biology and recent developments in the systematics of Phoma, a complex genus of major quarantine significance Aveskamp, M.M.1*, De Gruyter, J.1, 2 and Crous, P.W.1 1CBS Fungal Biodiversity Centre, P.O. Box 85167, 3508 AD Utrecht, The Netherlands 2Plant Protection Service (PD), P.O. Box 9102, 6700 HC Wageningen, The Netherlands Aveskamp, M.M., De Gruyter, J. and Crous, P.W. (2008). Biology and recent developments in the systematics of Phoma, a complex genus of major quarantine significance. Fungal Diversity 31: 1-18. Species of the coelomycetous genus Phoma are ubiquitously present in the environment, and occupy numerous ecological niches. More than 220 species are currently recognised, but the actual number of taxa within this genus is probably much higher, as only a fraction of the thousands of species described in literature have been verified in vitro. For as long as the genus exists, identification has posed problems to taxonomists due to the asexual nature of most species, the high morphological variability in vivo, and the vague generic circumscription according to the Saccardoan system. In recent years the genus was revised in a series of papers by Gerhard Boerema and co-workers, using culturing techniques and morphological data. This resulted in an extensive handbook, the “Phoma Identification Manual” which was published in 2004. The present review discusses the taxonomic revision of Phoma and its teleomorphs, with a special focus on its molecular biology and papers published in the post-Boerema era. Key words: coelomycetes, Phoma, systematics, taxonomy. Article Information Received 4 February 2008 Accepted 12 February 2008 Published online 31 July 2008 *Corresponding author: Maikel M. Aveskamp; e-mail: [email protected] Introduction species. Several molecular methods to detect quarantine species have been developed in the The genus Phoma is geographically past decade, e.g. for P. macdonaldii (Miric et widespread and consists of a large group of al., 1999), P. cucurbitacearum (Somai et al., fungi that are found in numerous ecological 2002b; Koch and Utkhede, 2004), P. foveata niches. Besides several harmless saprobic (Macdonald et al., 2000; Cullen et al., 2007) species, Phoma has also been shown to be an and P. tracheiphila (Balmas et al., 2005; important fungal plant pathogenic genus occur- Licciardella et al., 2006), but the validation of ring on economically important crops. Several these methods is heavily questioned as the Phoma species are also of quarantine signifi- species concepts of these taxa are not yet fully cance, posing serious problems to organisations understood. In this literature review we will that are involved in plant health quarantine provide an outline of the biology of the genus, regulation. Identification of isolates found on and circumscribe its taxonomic boundaries. We possible infected material is frequently carried will also focus on the methodologies that can be out under extreme time constraints. Because used to obtain a better understanding of morphological studies are time-consuming, speciation within Phoma. expensive, and require highly skilled person- nel, the chance of successfully identifying Phoma biology strains to species level in such laboratories is The generic name Phoma was in the first often low. Therefore, there is a need for the instance solely reserved for plant stem development of fast, reliable molecular methods pathogens (Saccardo, 1880), but nowadays the for the detection of quarantine actionable Phoma genus comprises pathogens, opportunists as 1 well as saprobes from a much wider range of Fitt et al., 2006). Although recent estimations substrates. The more ubiquitous species such as of financial losses are rare, the impact of this P. herbarum, P. glomerata, P. pomorum var. genus on agriculture is highly significant. pomorum and P. eupyrena have been found on Phoma lingam is regarded to be the most inorganic materials; isolates are known from important pathogen of oilseed rape in the asbestos, cement, oil-paint and plaster (P. Northern Hemisphere, with yield losses of up herbarum), chemicals, paint (P. glomerata) and to 25% being recorded (Fitt et al., 2006). crockery (P. pomorum var. pomorum), along Besides the direct costs due to yield loss, with many other inorganic substrates. These indirect losses occur due to import and export ubiquitous fungi probably also play an important restrictions to prevent introductions of possible role in the degradation of organic materials, pathogenic or quarantine relevant Phoma together with other, more specialized species. species. Rigorous measures, such as refusal or In contrast to these harmless saprobes, more even destruction of a shipment that is suspected than 50% of the species described thus far are of infection with such quarantine organisms, known to be able to occur in living tissue, are the cause of high additional costs to both either as opportunists or as primary pathogens. the exporting and importing traders. These Phoma infections commonly occur in quarantine organisms include amongst others humans and animals. Zaitz et al. (1997) and De P. andigena and P. tracheiphila in the Hoog et al. (2000) referred to nine species that European and Mediterranean regions (Smith et were isolated from humans. Recently, an al., 1992), P. foveata (also known as P. exigua additional species, P. exigua, was added to the var. foveata) in Southern America (Mendes et list of human pathogens (Balis et al., 2006). al., 2007), and P. macdonaldii in Australia Several severe vertebrate diseases are also (Miric et al., 1999). associated with Phoma, such as bovine mycotic Only in some cases the pathogenic nature mastitis (Costa et al., 1993) and fish-mycosis of Phoma is regarded as helpful, by means of in salmon and trout (Ross et al., 1975; Hatai et biocontrol agent of weeds and plant pathogens. al., 1986; Voronin, 1989; Faisal et al., 2007). The ubiquitous species P. herbarum, P. exigua Soil associated organisms such as arthropods and P. macrostoma may play a role as and nematodes can also be subject to Phoma bioherbicide, effective against broadleaf weeds, infections. Chen et al. (1996) listed 11 Phoma such as dandelion (Taraxacum spp.), and species found in association with cyst chickweed (Caryophyllaceae) (Stewart-Wade nematodes. Furthermore, Phoma species have and Boland, 2004, 2005; Zhou et al., 2004), been found parasitizing other fungi and clematis (Clematis vitalba) (Paynter et al., oomycetes (Hutchinson et al., 1994; Sullivan 2006) and salal (Gaultheria spp.) (Zhao et al., and White Jr., 2000). Although lichens have 2005, 2007). The antagonistic effect of P. been poorly studied, a key to 14 lichenicolous glomerata and P. etheridgei, respectively against Phoma species was provided by Hawksworth Microsphaera penicillata and Phellinus and Cole (2004). Still, the vast majority of the tremulae, has been studied in detail. However, species appear to only colonise plant material. their application as biocontrol agent is deba- Some species are only known from decaying table, due to application problems and a low leaves or wood, whereas others play a role as impact on the disease spread (Hutchinson et secondary invaders of weakened plant tissue. al., 1994; Sullivan and White Jr., 2000). However, more than 110 species are known to be primary plant pathogens, mainly speciali- The life cycle sing on a single plant genus or family. Although the life cycle is influenced by The economically most important patho- the occupied niche, it is relatively similar for gens include the widespread species P. all plant pathogenic Phoma species. Primary medicaginis (Broscious and Kirby, 1988) and infection of hosts may occur through wounds the two species that are involved in Black Leg that are caused by cultivation practices, weather in Brassicaceae: P. lingam and to a lesser conditions, or interaction with other organisms. extent the unnamed Phoma anamorph of Lepto- In several species, entering a host plant through sphaeria biglobosa (Gugel and Petrie, 1992; stomata or directly through the epidermis also 2 Fungal Diversity may occur (Williams, 1992; Agrios, 1997; sex in vitro. Roustaee et al., 2000; West et al., 2001; Van The abundant production of conidia, de Graaf et al., 2002). Initially, the fungal together with a relatively fast growth rate and hyphae grow intercellulary through plant the capability to invade a large number of hosts tissues (Hammond and Lewis, 1987). Follow- and substrates, are the main reasons why the ing this symptomless stage, the fungus genus is so cosmopolitan in distribution. The becomes necrotrophic. Host cells are subject to most frequent occurring species, P. eupyrena, phytotoxification or to a hypersensitive response, P. exigua, P. glomerata, P. herbarum, and P. after which the fungus has acces to the macrostoma are found worldwide, irrespective resources of the dead plant tissue. This can be of the climatic conditions. Phoma herbarum is observed macroscopically as the formation of probably also indigenous to Antarctica (McRae lesions. After a short period, often dark- and Seppelt, 1999; Tosi et al., 2002). Several coloured, mostly globose or flask-shaped plant pathogenic species have been transmitted pycnidial conidiomata can be observed within worldwide with the cultivated host on seeds the lesions, which are embedded in the plant’s and other plant material. epidermis. These pycnidia contain numerous conidia, which ooze in a pale white to pinkish The Phoma generic concept coloured matrix. A detailed description of the The first descriptions of fungi that belong spore production is provided by Boerema to the genus Phoma date back to 1821 (Sutton, (1965), Brewer and Boerema (1965) and 1980). Nevertheless, it took until 1880 before Boerema and Bollen (1975). In some cases the generic name was officially introduced by extradermal mycelium may be formed. Conidia, Saccardo, and was later emended by Boerema and in some species mycelial fragments, disperse and Bollen in 1975. In the Saccardoan system, easily by water-splash, misting or wind, and the genus name Phoma applied to filamentous can thus infect new host plants.