Creative Solutions for Environmental Issues in Morocco and the Mediterranean Region

Home , 2019 in Morocco, Al Haouz Province, Tameslouht

A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Community Planning

In the School of Planning of the College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning by

Robert Eastman Johnson

B.U.P. University of Cincinnati July 2018

Committee Chair: Johanna Looye, Ph.D. Committee Member: Margaret Kupferle, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

The Mediterranean region has a rich history of ancient civilizations and traditions, which makes the entire area a tourist hotspot, attracting one-third of the world’s tourists yearly. A traditional staple is the olive oil industry, with 95 percent of the world’s olive trees located in the region. As a result, many municipalities suffer from excess waste produced by the tourist industry, while also struggling to find a solution to the wastewater produced by olive oil production.

The Marrakech-Safi region has additional environmental challenges within the artisanal sector, particularly in Tameslouht, located in the El Haouz province. A small town located 10 miles southwest of Marrakech, Tameslouht’s artisan sector is the main economic driver, aside from olive oil, with a reputation for their pottery. However, the production of the pottery presents its own environmental issues. Due to its arid climate, wood is scarce, which forces potters to burn tires to power their kilns. Tameslouht’s predicament has made it difficult to find a feasible alternative energy source to best serve the potters’ needs.

When considering alternative designs for Tameslouht’s pottery sector it is important to consciously merge traditional with modern practice and design. Technology, cost, and environmental and social sustainability are central to identifying a viable solution.

Appropriate technology comes down to simplicity in terms of design, practical use, and efficient production, with consistent returns and compatibility with existing infrastructure in relation to environmental and cultural conditions to achieve the intended purpose.

In terms of sustainable development, King Mohammad VI’s ascent to the throne in

1999 set off a now-impressive list of environmental reforms, programs, and projects. These

accomplishments were showcased in 2016, when Morocco hosted 196 countries for the

22nd Conference of Parties, a follow-up to the Paris Agreement of 2015, which drafted a collection of documents that covered finance agreements, facilitative dialogue on creating a

“rulebook” that all countries could share in assessing each other’s climate pledges, and the approval of a five-year work plan.

With the support of Morocco’s progressive environmental agenda and international treaties, a search for a solution to Tameslouht’s pottery kiln issue led to the discovery of

EnergyXchange and Mayland Community College’s methane-powered artisan studios built upon a covered landfill in North Carolina. The Environmental Protection Agency’s Landfill

Methane Outreach Program, a program that also supports international projects, performed the feasibility study.

Morocco is preparing for the aging youth population, but some will be negatively impacted by these changes. Providing an inclusive planning process and resources could help the transition from traditional to modern technologies.

The EnergyXchange case study is the cornerstone of this thesis and the starting point for the development of Tameslouht’s own waste-powered kiln project outlined in extensive technical detail in the Appendix. The sections put into context Tameslouht’s current pottery kilns, current waste management practices, and the current olive oil processes. Next, best practices in waste-to-energy processes are examined to determine how to produce energy for the kiln. The remaining sections outline an action and implementation plan for Tameslouht.

PREFACE

.2014 3, April on Morocco, ,(تمصلوحت ,(tmsloʊht Tameslouht1 in arrived first I

Upon my arrival, I met with my host family whom I was to live with for the remainder of the month until I found my own apartment. My host brother, Abdo, and I began immediately discussing the main problems Tameslouht faces. The most obvious was the plumes of black smoke bellowing near his home. The source of these was their traditional pottery kilns and the tires that fueled them. We went on to observe the traditional olive oil mills and their pollutant by-product, olive oil mill wastewater (OOMW2), flowing freely into the ground. Abdo went on the show me the massive open landfills and described their waste management operation, which included three men with their donkeys hauling a cart full of trash. All of these systems within Tameslouht are directly related to their economy, environment, and their cultural indifference to environmental health and education.

Over the next year, I spent my time learning the language, culture, and local government processes; teaching English, doing projects, and gaining trust and respect from the community and local organizations. Along with trust was an open discussion about what changes the residents wanted to see in Tameslouht. Most pointed out the apparent issues although others did not care either way. However, I knew there had to be a way to connect all of the environmental problems into one package.

As I observed all of these environmental problems on a daily basis, my focus was primarily on creating a solution for the pottery kilns. Every day, I woke up to the smell of burning rubber that eventually became natural to me. One day while looking at the piles of

1 Also spelled Tameslohte, Tamesluht, or Tameslouhte. 2 Also hyphenated as OOW, OMWW, and OMW.

burning cardboard left over from the weekly market, it hit me that somehow I could capture that energy from the trash and use it to power a kiln. Over the next three years I gathered information from case studies, the Tameslouht potters and residents, and fellow colleagues and professors, all of which has culminated into this thesis.

As my Peace Corps service was coming to an end, a basic understanding was established on how to resolve Tameslouht’s pottery kiln and OOMW issues. Even though these ideas sound like a viable solution on paper, they are end-products of an implementation plan that still needs to be developed. The main components missing are data and stakeholder input.

Before leaving Morocco, Abdo and I created two surveys — one to be distributed to residents to record their daily trash production and another to be given to the potters to gather information on how individual operations, health, and whether they would be in support of an alternative kiln design. Local counterparts distributed both surveys and overall, valuable data was gathered.

When my Peace Corps service ended, I returned to the States to finish my final year of my master’s degree. This allowed me to have more resources at my disposal, which I took advantage of by recruiting environmental and mechanical engineering students to help me develop a pottery kiln design that can be efficiently powered by solid waste. It was not until during these meetings that we began seriously looking at the possibility of utilizing the OOMW as a possible benefactor to methane gas production through the decomposition of food waste. Thus, we connected all of Tameslouht’s (and most of

Morocco’s) environmental issues into one sustainable pottery kiln.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... ii

PREFACE ...... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS...... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii

LIST OF TABLES...... xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ...... xiv

CHAPTER 1 INDUSTRY, EMPLOYMENT, AND POLLUTION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION...... 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1

REGIONAL CONTEXT...... 1

OLIVE OIL INDUSTRY...... 3

OLIVE OIL BY-PRODUCTS...... 4

LOCAL BUSINESS TRENDS ...... 5

TRADE AND SERVICE SECTOR...... 6

POLLUTION...... 7

CHAPTER 2 INDUSTRY, EMPLOYMENT, AND POLLUTION IN MOROCCO’S AL HAOUZ PROVINCE...... 9 INTRODUCTION...... 9

MARRAKECH-SAFI REGION - GL HAOUZ PROVINCE...... 12

TAMESLOUHT...... 14

ECONOMY ...... 15

AGRICULTURE ...... 17

OLIVE OIL INDUSTRY...... 18

BUSINESS TRENDS ...... 20

Mining Industry...... 20

Construction and Public Works...... 20

Environmental and Sustainable Business Development...... 21

vii

Artisan Sector...... 22

TRADE AND SERVICE SECTOR...... 23

POLLUTION...... 25

Household Waste...... 27

Agricultural Waste ...... 28

Small Business Waste ...... 29

Large Business Waste...... 30

CHAPTER 3 USING AVAILABLE RESOURCES TO INSTIGATE CHANGE IN TAMESLOUHT ...... 32 MONEY ON THE GROUND...... 32

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY ...... 33

Theory and Origins ...... 33

Application in Community Development ...... 36

Scales of Application...... 38

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ...... 39

Influence...... 39

Implementing Appropriate Technologies...... 40

INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT FOR SUSTAINABLE PROJECTS...... 43

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)...... 43

Conference of Parties 22 (COP22)...... 44

The Spotlight on Morocco...... 46

MOROCCO’S ENVIRONMENTAL AGENDA...... 47

ARTISAN EMPLOYMENT AND IMPROVED QUALITY OF LIFE...... 49

Moroccan Rural Context: Tameslouht ...... 49

Literacy Programs ...... 50

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN TECHNOLOGY...... 55

viii

BRAINSTORMING FOR A SOLUTION...... 56

EnergyXchange...... 56

Environmental Protection Agency’s Landfill Methane Outreach Program...... 56

U.S. Millennium Challenge Corporation – Artisan & Fez Medina Project...... 57

Fez’s Tile Kilns...... 58

SUMMARY ...... 59

CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY ...... 61

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 63 CONCLUSION ...... 63

IMPLICATIONS...... 64

RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 67

PREFACE TO THE APPENDIX...... 69

APPENDIX A: TAMESLOUHT’S CONTEXT...... 71 LIFE IN TAMESLOUHT, MOROCCO...... 71

TOXIC POTTERY KILNS...... 71

Current Process ...... 72

Traditional Kiln Design...... 74

Effects of Tire Burning ...... 75

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN FIRING POTTERY ...... 77

WASTE MANAGEMENT ...... 78

Current Process ...... 79

OLIVE OIL INDUSTRY...... 82

Current Process ...... 82

APPENDIX B: WASTE-TO-ENERGY PROCESSES ...... 85 INTRODUCTION...... 85

WASTE-TO-ENERGY PROCESSES...... 86

DECOMPOSITION (LFGTE)...... 87

OLIVE OIL WASTE...... 88

UPFLOW ANAEROBIC SLUDGE BLANKET (UASB) REACTOR...... 91

COMBUSTION (WTE)...... 93

SUMMARY ...... 94

APPENDIX C: KILN DESIGN...... 96 INTRODUCTION...... 96

TYPES OF KILN STRUCTURES...... 96

Updraft Kiln ...... 96

Cross-Draft Kiln...... 97

Downdraft Kiln...... 98

Sprung Arch Kiln...... 99

Beehive Kiln ...... 99

TAMESLOUHT’S CURRENT KILN PARAMETERS ...... 100

TAMESLOUHT’S KILN DESIGN OVERVIEW...... 102

TAMESLOUHT’S KILN DESIGN DETAILS...... 103

Kiln Structure...... 103

Chimney ...... 104

Heat Exchanger...... 104

Kiln Chamber Materials...... 105

FUEL DELIVERY ...... 106

Venturi Burners...... 106

UASB Reactor ...... 107

SUMMARY ...... 108

APPENDIX D: DATA GATHERING AND RESEARCH ...... 110

INTRODUCTION...... 110

TRASH COMPOSITION SURVEY ...... 110

QUESTIONNAIRE OF CURRENT POTTERY METHODS AND PROJECT SUPPORT...... 111

UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI KILN DESIGN TEAM...... 112

Kiln Design Studio...... 112

Mechanical Engineers ...... 112

Environmental Engineers...... 113

Ongoing: Utilizing OOW for Methane Capture...... 113

FUTURE DATA NEEDED: REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTS...... 114

SUMMARY ...... 115

APPENDIX E ACTION PLAN FOR TAMESLOUHT ...... 117 INTRODUCTION...... 117

BRIDGING THE GAP: RESILIENT COMMUNITIES...... 117

STRATEGIC PLAN...... 118

Lessons Learned from EnergyXchange...... 120

Lessons Learned from the Artisan and Fez Medina Project...... 121

Application...... 121

APPENDIX F IMPLEMENTATION PLAN ...... 122 INTRODUCTION...... 122

IMPLEMENTATION PLAN ...... 122

DESIRED OUTCOME ...... 124

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 125

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Map of the Mediterranean Region...... 2 Figure 2.1: Map of Morocco's Regions...... 11 Figure 2.2: Map of the Marrakech-Safi Region...... 12 Figure 2.3: Location Map of Tameslouht Municipality and Town Center...... 14

Figure 3.1: Official logos for the Sustainable Development Goals...... 43

Figure A.1: A pottery kiln in Tameslouht...... 75 Figure A.3: Tameslouht’s largest landfill covering 2.6 acres...... 81 Figure A.4: Olive oil wastewater by-product and olive oil...... 83

Figure C.1: Diagram of airflow in an updraft kiln...... 97 Figure C.2: Diagram of airflow in a cross-draft kiln...... 98 Figure C.3: Diagram of airflow in a downdraft kiln...... 99 Figure C.4: Comparison of a Traditional Tameslouht Kiln to a Beehive Kiln...... 101 Figure C.5: Refractory materials and their efficiency...... 106 Figure C.6: Venturi burner...... 106 Figure C.7: Design of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor...... 108

xii

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: List of Mediterranean Countries ...... 2

Table A.1: Mineral Composition of Tameslouht’s Clay ...... 77 Table A.2: Pottery Firing Cone Chart...... 78

Table B. 1: General Characteristics of OOMW...... 90

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

ADEM: Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy* AFM: Artisan and Fez Medina Project BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand BTUs: British Thermal Units CNEDS: National Center for the Disposal of Special Waste* COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand COP21: 21st Conference of Parties COP22: 22nd Conference of Parties DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane EPA: Environmental Protection Agency EU: European Union GARF: Global Adaptation and Resilience Fund GDP: Gross Domestic Product GEF: The Global Environment Facility GIZ: German Corporation for International Cooperation* HAPs: Hazardous Air Pollutants HCP: High Commission for Planning IBRD: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development KfW: Reconstruction Credit Institute* LFG: Landfill Gas LFGTE: Landfill Methane Gas-to-Energy LMOP: Landfill Methane Outreach Program MASEN: Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy* MCC: Millennium Corporation Challenge MDGs: Millennium Development Goals MENA: Middle East and North Africa MICA: Marrakech Investment Committee for Adaption Fund

*Translated from original abbreviation.

xiv

NHWP: National Household Waste Program NGO: Non-Governmental Organization NPO: Non-Profit Organization NSDS: National Sustainable Development Strategy ONEE: National Office of Electricity and Potable Water* OOMW: Olive Oil Mill Wastewater OPC: Olive Press Cake PAHs: Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons PCBs: Polychlorinated Biphenyls PNDM: National Municipal Solid Waste Management Program* SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals SEMCs: Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Countries SMEs: Small and Medium-size Enterprises SOR: Semi-Solid Residue UASB: Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor UNECE: National Program for Prevention of and Fight against Industrial Pollution* UNFCCC: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change USAID: United States Agency for International Development USEPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency VOCs: Volatile Organic Compounds WECD: World Commission on Environment and Development WtE: Waste-to-Energy ⎯ °C: Celsius °F: Fahrenheit ft3: Cubic Feet m3: Cubic Meter mg/l: Milligrams per Liter g/m3: Grams for Meter Cubed g/l: Gallons per Liter kg: Kilogram

t: short ton (US) ⎯ pH: Power of Hydrogen*

Al2O3: Aluminum Oxide CO: Carbon Monoxide CaO: Calcium Oxide

CH4: Methane

CO2: Carbon Dioxide

Fe2O3: Ferric Oxide H: Hydrogen

K2O: Dipotassium Oxide MgO: Magnesium Oxide

NOx: Nitrogen Oxide O: Oxygen

SOx: Sulfur Oxide

SiO2: Silicon Dioxide

CHAPTER 1 INDUSTRY, EMPLOYMENT, AND POLLUTION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

Introduction

Industry in the Mediterranean region covers a wide variety of services and products given its large area. The region’s industries each face its own successes and struggles with environmentally-conscious methods of production. Even though many of these countries are signatories of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and other international and regional treaties, it ultimately comes down to the individual country’s policies, regulations, and enforcement of environmental standards for their industry.

The olive oil industry is a major concern for pollution that many of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea struggle with remediating. There are multiple ways to attempt to address olive oil mill wastewater (OOMW); however, it all depends on the country’s political and economic context. One solution may be more expensive than another, but ultimately there would need to be a large-scale implementation of wastewater remediation practices.

Regional Context

The Mediterranean region covers a large number of countries belonging to Europe,

Asia, and Africa. The countries in the region have agriculture, climate, and irregular topography in common. Mountain ranges have been pushed up from the sea’s tectonic plates to collide with the surrounding continents and these mountains have considerable influence over the coast and inland climates.

Figure 1.1: Map of the Mediterranean Region. Source: Central Intelligence Agency, 1982.

The coastline of the Mediterranean is made up of many bays and inlets. Three large peninsulas, the Iberian, the Italian and the Balkan reach out into the Mediterranean Sea.

The Mediterranean region is often called the cradle of civilization because many early cultures and civilizations developed along its shores. The following analyses of the region involve all 21 countries touching the Mediterranean Sea (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: List of Mediterranean Countries Albania Algeria Bosnia and Croatia Cyprus Egypt France Herzegovina Greece Israel Italy Lebanon Libya Malta Monaco Montenegro Morocco Slovenia Spain Syria Tunisia Turkey Source: United Nations Environmental Program 2016.

The climate in the Mediterranean region is usually characterized by erratic rainy winters and dry, warm to hot summers. As a result, the native vegetation has adapted to survive these temperatures. The combination of climate and topography lends to the specialization of specific crops in the surrounding countries’ agricultural economy.

In the region, subsistence farming and commercial farming benefit both the local, national, and international economies. According to the CIA’s World Factbook, the agriculture sector across all 22 countries in the Mediterranean region provided USD3

$548.6 billion, or 4.75%, of the total GDP in 2016 (Central Intelligence Agency 2017).

However, because of the drastic changes in climate, the amount of production and employment are often seasonal. In a sector that employs 8.2% of the total labor force in the region, this unpredictability of employment and income places a strain on the many single- income households that are prevalent in the southern and eastern Mediterranean countries.

Agriculture mostly attributes to the local economies through weekly markets and corner stores. The agriculture sector is not a major exporter throughout the region since almost all of the countries have fertile land and produce enough to sustain their local economies (depending on the season). The common agricultural products produced in the region include orchard farming (citrus fruits, olives, and figs), viticulture, cereal and vegetable cultivation (wheat and barley), and limited animal husbandry, where grassland is available (Chand 2016). Although agriculture plays a major role in the Mediterranean countries, there are other industries that make each country unique.

Olive Oil Industry

There are over 750 million olive trees cultivated in the world and 95% of them are grown in the Mediterranean region (PROSODOL 2012, 8). Even though olive oil does not play a major role in every Mediterranean country in terms of exports, it is a prominent

3 All following monetary values including the symbol “$” signify United States Dollars.

orchard crop that is a culinary stable in the Mediterranean diet. Since cultivation of olives has been occurring in the Mediterranean for thousands of years, local and foreign demand for the high quality oil is highly sought after. Recent scientific discoveries state that olive oil is proven to fight against high blood pressure, cancer, osteoporosis, and other metabolic syndrome effects, contributing to the increasing foreign demand for Mediterranean olive oil (Paravantes 2011).

For the 2016-2017 olive crop year, the region combined to produce 2,767 tons (t) of olive oil. Spain accounted for 1,445t of production and exported 369t, well above the next closest producers, Greece (287t), Italy (268t), Syria (121t), and Morocco (121t)

(International Olive Oil Council 2016). Aside from the amount of land used for olive tree cultivattion in these countries, the amount of olive oil production can also be attributed to technology. Larger producers have an advantage of advanced olive oil mills, while many other countries still use traditional methods. All but two countries in the region produce a significant amount of olive oil (Monaco and Bosnia and Herzegovina).

Olive Oil By-Products

The major issue with the olive oil industry lies in the production process, which generally yields four times more waste by volume than actual product with three main byproducts:

1) A solid residue or olive press cake (OPC) 2) A semi-solid residue (SOR) 3) Olive oil mill wastewater (OOMW) (Hansen 2015, 22).

Traditional mills are mainly responsible for creating an OPC after the initial pressing of olive oil paste and an OMW after initial washing of the olives and after final separation.

This generally yields 20% olive oil, 30% SOR, and 50% OOW, which equates to 80% more waste by volume being produced than actual product (Dimitrios 2012, 275). Olive oil mill effluents are “claimed to be one of the most polluting effluents produced by the agro-food industries because of its high-polluting load” (Rhamanian, et al., 2014, 1). Olive oil mill byproducts contain a high organic load consisting of a number of different substances such as salts, lipids, pectin, polysaccharides, nitrogenous compounds, organic acids, polyalcohols, polyphenols and oil residue. This high organic load leads to high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) resulting in numerous environmental problems4 (Hansen 2015, 22).

In countries without stringent environmental regulations the untreated OOMW may be discharged into water bodies or applied to the land, which is problematic because the wastes cause environmental degradation. The reason this is such a problem is because there is not an effective solution in dealing with these wastes properly. As a result, these wastes are dumped haphazardly and trickle into the groundwater supply, contaminating the water used for irrigation and in turn, harming the health of the consumer, people and livestock.

Local Business Trends

Since the Mediterranean region covers a large number of countries with different cultures, there are typical industries that tie these regions together based on geography.

Geology in the Mediterranean basin provides many countries access to valuable resources that are in high demand for export. These large industries include phosphates,

4 Further details on OOMW composition can be found in Appendix B.

petrochemicals, petroleum, natural gas, clay and refractory products, and mining for metals. In return, the region’s imports mostly consist of fuels, transport equipment, machinery and equipment to keep their industries in operation. In addition, textiles play an important role in the manufacturing industry for many of these countries (Central

Intelligence Agency 2017).

These large industries often pull young workers straight out of high school for their pay and guaranteed work. However, on the local level there are businesses that are family owned and are often replicated, thus creating a monotony of businesses in a small town or region. Many of these include services and specializations for basic needs such as metal shops, carpenters, barbers, mechanics, vegetable vendors, pharmacies, and corner stores.

Since small towns often have their preferred store or craftsmen that are either a friend or family with skill sets handed down through apprenticeships, there is little encouragement for new businesses in these areas. This creates the opportunity for innovative services to boast more powerful local, national, and international markets such as tourism. However, for many small towns this potential is not taken advantage of due to complacency, lack of access to resources, and the rural-urban migration of younger populations.

Trade and Service Sector

The Mediterranean region offers a variety of services aside from the specific agricultural climate it provides and geological based industries. The region is well known for its service sector, with a majority of countries attributing more than half of their GDP to

tourism, government services, financial services, information technology services, construction, commercial, and retail.

The most significant service in the region is tourism, with nearly 300 million international arrivals in 2010, i.e., with approximately a third of the total international tourist flow worldwide, the Mediterranean is the world’s premiere tourist region. Due to the presence of the tourism giants of the north shore (France, Spain, and Italy), the southern and eastern Mediterranean countries (SEMCs) account for only a small percentage of the total (50 million) (Weigert 2012, 209).

Mediterranean small towns often suffer from the lack of economic diversity, lending to a lack of competitiveness in the regional markets. With heavy reliance on the tourism industry throughout these countries, there is little collaboration among nations to ensure a safety net model for a deflated tourism economy. Therefore, countries must depend on their secondary industries on the regional and national levels to be able to support the economy. These hazardous pitfalls come down to policy decisions made by the nations and by regional partnerships.

Pollution

The consequence of being the largest tourist destination region in the world is the amount of waste that tourists leave behind. Most of the small coastal towns that rely on tourism in the region do not have the adequate infrastructure or policies in place to handle waste created by small and large businesses. The land and sea both suffer from leaking chemicals and by-products from manufacturing services and the dumping of raw sewage into the sea, lending to a toxic environment, polluted water sources, and a decline in marine

life (Klaus English Online). In turn, these environmental problems are hurting the tourist economy that many countries in the region rely on.

On the local level, many of the countries in the region are categorized as Lower

Middle Income or Middle Income countries, particularly in the southern and eastern

Mediterranean areas. It is difficult to generalize the whole Mediterranean region but for the countries in North Africa and the Middle East, pollution on the local level is of major concern. Since a majority of these nations’ wealth is held in the few cities, this leaves a majority of the smaller rural towns with little income to provide basic public services in their communities.

Whether it is an economic or cultural issue, the sight of open landfills and improperly disposed waste is a common problem in these towns. However, with the rise of global environmental initiatives such as the Paris agreement, which addresses the growing awareness of environmental health, local governments are trying to take responsibility of their public health by providing waste management services at the local level.

CHAPTER 2 INDUSTRY, EMPLOYMENT, AND POLLUTION IN MOROCCO’S AL HAOUZ PROVINCE

Introduction

The Kingdom of Morocco is located on the northwestern tip of Africa and situated south of Spain across from the Strait of Gibraltar and borders the Atlantic Ocean and the

Mediterranean Sea. It is one of only three countries in the region that borders both the

North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea (others being Spain and France). The geographic diversity of Morocco makes it a highly sought after destination for tourists, which lends to certain economic advantages depending on the region within the country.

The landscape spans from the coasts, through the Rif and Atlas Mountains, and into the

Sahara desert. This combination of geological and geographic landscapes has made

Morocco a political and economic target throughout history. With the fifth largest economy in Africa, Morocco has established itself as an economic intersection of commerce and trade. However, the economy still struggles with fragile industries and a weak export market.

The 1990’s brought positive constitutional reforms, separating the legislature into two branches and expanding the Parliament’s powers in 1996. This has enabled the government to have more representation and accountability in decision-making processes.

In 1999, King Mohammad VI came into power and immediately began moving the country in a progressive direction. King Mohammed VI has instituted, accelerated and consolidated a range of social, democratic, environmental, and economic reforms to improve the lives of

Moroccans and strengthen the Kingdom’s institutions. The King has addressed issues of poverty, improving foreign relations, establishing and investing in environmental

programs, and enacting a number of political reforms that have reduced his own powers and strengthened the Moroccan parliament (Nsehe 2014).

Although these reforms have pushed the Kingdom in the right direction, the country still needs more accessible government incentive programs that encourage private-public partnerships. In addition, investment strategies could be made for sector infrastructure to raise internal demand lending to inflow of private investment, internal and external, in hopes of creating a more competitive market. Lastly, the government could invest in educational strategies that give the youth a glimpse of progressive technologies and possibilities in a new and evolving job market.

Currently, it is estimated that Morocco’s total population is approximately 35.5 million people (High Commission for Planning 2017, 1-6). Morocco has a large youth demographic that has the nation in a race for finding ways to improve the social and economic structures to ensure a secure future for the country. According to the 2014

Census, 47.2 percent of the population was under the age of twenty-four. This staggering number of youth has started entering the workplace, along with increasing rural-to-urban migration in search of more opportunities, has been straining urban resources and crippling the economy. However, the most recent 2017 national figures for employment in each industry are merely estimates representing the period between the first quarter of

2016 and the first quarter of 2017. The most recent detailed economic publication available, which gives statistics for the nation as a whole, is for the third quarter of 2015.

The benchmark publication is the 2014 Census, which provides demographic and economic data for the nation, regions, prefectures, provinces, municipalities, and rural communes.

These numbers will be the basis for analytical comparisons, using the most recent data and adjusting appropriately for each topic.

In 2010, the Moroccan government established the Consultative Commission for the

Regionalization (CCR), which was responsible for consolidating the country’s sixteen regions into twelve. The reason for this was to further decentralize national power to the regions by creating new regional councils containing local elected presidents and governors. In theory, this will enable local governments to access resources more efficiently and implement programs and policies relevant to their region. The new administered regions went into effect March 5, 2015 (National Portal of Local Authorities

2015). The regions are further subdivided into provinces, prefectures, and communes.

Figure 2.1: Map of Morocco's Regions. Source: www.Ezilon.com, 2015.

Marrakech-Safi Region - Al Haouz Province

The Marrakech-Safi region is the area that includes the Al Haouz Province and the town of Tameslouht, which is the main focus of this report. Since macro-level data are easy to access through Moroccan government websites, the focus area for statistical data will be the Marrakech-Safi region. Quantitative data for the Al Haouz Province will be the closest to putting Tameslouht into context. With close proximity to Marrakech and similar economic end markets, Tameslouht can be linked qualitatively.

Figure 2.2: Map of the Marrakech-Safi Region. Source: Morocco’s Ministry of Interior, 2015.

The geographical and natural surroundings of the Marrakech-Safi region are characterized by great diversity, with a climate that is subject to the influence of the

Atlantic Ocean and to the very high altitudes of the High Atlas Mountains. As a result, the inland areas of the region experience cold winters, little rainfall, and hot, dry summers.

Water resources are relatively abundant due to the presence of High Atlas

Mountains. However, with the succession of severe periods of drought combined with pollution and overexploitation of the region’s two water basins, proper mitigation methods could be implemented to ensure sustainable development in the region. This also periodically negatively affects the agriculture industry.

The population of the region is 13.4 percent of the total national population, at 4.5 million. The Al Haouz province’s total population makes up 12.7 percent of the region’s total population with 572,000 people. It is characterized by a predominately young majority, as is the whole country. The region’s population for the demographic under the age of twenty-four is 48.3 percent, while the Al Haouz province stands at 50.2 percent

(High Commission for Planning 2015). Fortunately, the region has strong training and research facilities; the University of Cadi Ayyad in Marrakech has a yearly enrollment of over 30,000 students a year. There are also public engineering schools, public and private business and management schools, as well as around twenty vocational institutes.

Nevertheless, without a more diverse and larger job market to provide opportunities available to college graduates, unemployment may remain high for younger workers and may force many to find jobs in the informal sector. This decline in will hurt the overall national GDP but in reality the Marrakech-Safi region has all the assets to remain

attractive and competitive to internal and external markets through tourism, agriculture, and artisan sectors.

Tameslouht

Tameslouht is a rural commune located 10.5 miles southwest of Marrakech, the commune covers an area of 97 square miles and contains 15 smaller villages throughout the commune. The town center, also called Tameslouht, holds the administrative offices, artisan center, schools, and weekly market. As of 2014, the commune population was

28,977 and the town center held 9,093 people or 31.4 percent of the total population.

Figure 2.3: Location Map of Tameslouht Municipality and Town Center. Source: Morocco’s Ministry of Interior, 2015.

The town has been experiencing rapid growth because of its close proximity to

Marrakech and it offers a more affordable alternative for families living in the city. Between

2004 and 2014, Tameslouht witnessed an exponential growth of 34.3 percent, with the

Tameslouht commune growing from 21,400 inhabitants to 28,2978 and the town center growing from 6,346 to 9,093 (High Commission for Planning 2014).

This drastic change in population has been straining local infrastructure such as overcrowding of schools, dwindling housing stock, and public services. Recently, the local government initiated local projects to improve the quality of life in the town center such as streetscape improvements in the center of town and the construction of a market area for the weekly market.

Economy

Although Morocco’s character is more related to the Middle East and North African region, its economy and cultural influences are intimately connected with Europe. Morocco has tried to capitalize on its market-oriented economy and trade with countries to the north through cheap labor, progressive reforms, and has engaged in bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, the EU, and Turkey in efforts to boost exports, with very little benefit. However, Morocco has a stronghold on exporting olive oil and phosphates.

Despite Morocco’s advances in economic and environmental policy reforms and agreements, the country’s growth is still sluggish. This is because the country lacks an international and domestic competitive edge, suffers from high unemployment due to an unpredictable agriculture sector, illiteracy and poverty due to inadequate investment in

education and vocational training lending to unmet job vacancies and high unemployment among youth (International Monetary Fund 2017, 2).

According to a report released by the High Commission for Planning for the first quarter of 2017, the unemployment rate continued to increase to 10.7 percent, up from

10.4 percent in 2016, leaving 1,296,000 people unemployed. At the crux of the nation’s unemployment is the enormous employable youth population. With over one-third of

Morocco’s population being between the ages of 15 and 34, youth represent the highest rate of unemployment at 42.1 percent (High Commission for Planning 2017, 6).

This high unemployent rate has to do with a socioeconomic structural problem that

Morocco has been struggling to improve by providing more job opportunities to youth in urban areas. As more families and youth continue to migrate to the cities in search of more opportunities and education, the vacancies in the job market are filled, making it more difficult to find work. Currently, 15.7 percent of the urban population is unemployed, compared to 4.1 percent of the rural population (High Commission for Planning 2017, 6).

The vastness of the Marrakech-Safi region allows it to benefit from different economic activities. However, the region still reflects the rest of the country’s economic base, which is mainly dominated by the agriculture sector, which provides employment to the majority of the employed population, followed by the trade and service sector, and then the industrial sector. The region’s biggest advantage is the connectivity to the major economic hubs throughout Morocco, with all roads meeting in Marrakech.

Marrakech is a multi-modal transportation hub of imports and exports, with a strong tourist base to sell the region’s products. It also contains the second largest airport in the Kingdom, drawing 84 percent of tourists into its city a year. This enormous economic

pull directly benefits the those who commute to Marrakech to work in one of the many service sector jobs (Ministry of Interior 2014, 47).

Al Haouz exists in a pocket of a dry and hot climate and little vegetation due to the towering High Atlas Mountains to the south jutting up from the land stretching from east to west. The rural province lacks the proper soil and climate for agriculture. However, the area is well known for its traditional crafts such as leather, textiles, pottery, metalwork, and handicrafts. Many people take advantage of their unique products by capitalizing on the tourist market in Marrakech; Tameslouht is a model example. The town center has a very successful artisan center that supports the variety of local artisans throughout the commune.

Agriculture

Similar to other countries in the Mediterranean region, Morocco relies heavily on its agricultural season for employment and sustaining the economy. Morocco’s agriculture and fishery sector accounts for 35 percent of the work force (High Commission for Planning

2017). The 2017 estimates show the addition of 28,000 jobs (5,000 urban/23,000 rural) to the agriculture sector from 2016, putting approximately 4.2 million farmers to work. The unemployment rate rises and falls throughout the year, with spikes around the beginning of the year when the rural farmers expect to reap the benefits of the rainy season. When the climate is unfavorable, then so is the employment.

The agriculture sector in the Marrakech-Safi region is very important to the local and national GDP. The Regional Census of Agriculture observed that 48.6 percent of the

region’s area is used for agriculture, which makes up 22 percent of the nation’s agricultural land, absorbing 53 percent of the region’s active population.

The agricultural practice of the region is predominantly sylvopastoral, meaning it is a practice that integrates trees and forage with livestock. This method is proven to enhance soil protection and provide the potential to improve production in the long run. In terms of land use, cereal crops dominate, providing nearly 78 percent of the nation’s total. Fruit plantations, fodder crops, and vegetable gardens make up 9.5 percent, 1.8 percent, and 1.2 percent of the region, respectively (Ministry of Interior 2015, 39).

As mentioned earlier, Al Haouz and Tameslouht’s contribution to the agriculture sector is very limited. It is situated between the wet and fertile land in the High Atlas foothills and the fertile land that benefit from the cool, moist climate of the Atlantic Ocean, making a pocket of hot air that results in an arid climate with heavy clay and silt deposits.

During the rainy season (December-February), the area enjoys warm days and cold nights luring and trapping clouds filled with precipitation. The result is almost half of the rainy season filled with overcast skies, with sporadic, scattered, and brief downpours throughout

(Holiday Weather Morocco).

Olive Oil Industry

The olive tree is an icon of the Mediterranean region and the same is true in

Morocco. Due to the tree’s bioclimatic diversity, olive trees are harvested throughout

Morocco except along the Atlantic coastline. Olive growing has undergone significant expansion with the implementation of nationwide development programs. In 2011, olive tree orchards covered 840,000 hectares and grew to over 990,000 hectares in 2014

(International Olive Council 2012, 1). The Ministry of Agriculture plans, with continued help of their development programs, the growing area to reach 1,220,000 hectares by 2020

(Ministry of Agriculture-Olive Industry).

Olive trees are cultivated on over 400,000 farms in Morocco and provide over

100,000 permanent jobs to mostly poor rural farmers (International Olive Council 2012, 1).

The high quality of Moroccan olives has created a significant international demand, exporting over 78,000t of table olives and 25,000t of olive oil, accounting for 15 percent of agricultural exports (International Olive Oil Council 2016 Exports). Morocco’s table olive production is geared primarily towards the export market. However, table olives only account for 25 percent of the total olive production and generate 40 percent of the sector’s revenue. Olive oil dominates the domestic market, covering 60 percent of the revenue and accounting for 75 percent of production. The product is vital for local consumption, especially in rural areas, because of its high-energy value and nourishment (International

Olive Council 2012).

The resilience of the olive tree has made it a viable cash crop for local and regional consumption in the Al Haouz province. For Tameslouht and other towns like it, the olive tree is usually the only type of vegetation visible amongst the tan fields of dirt. Thanks to the Green Morocco Plan established in 2008, the region has seen massive investment in rural areas, adding 16,000 hectares of olive tree orchards to the region and benefitting

28,790 farmers over an eight-year period (Ministry of Agriculture and Maritime Fisheries

2016).

Business Trends

There have been a number of incentive programs across almost all the departments to encourage job growth and modernization of sector infrastructure to become more efficient since the King took power in 1999. There have been positive results from these programs but there is still work to be done in order to improve competitiveness, encourage entrepreneurship, and supply job demand for the largely unemployed youth cohort.

Mining Industry

Morocco’s diverse landscape offers a variety of minerals and metals to be mined, the most abundant being phosphates. The Kingdom has approximately 78 percent of the world’s total phosphate reserves and is also the leading exporter. Lately, Morocco has been investing more in other minerals and metals available, such as lead, silver, gold, and copper. The industry also has access to 16 percent of global arsenic output, 10 percent of barite, and 2 percent of cobalt. As of 2015, the mining sector adopted a new mining code to improve resource development by increasing the number of exploration permits to help diversify their mining export market. The sector currently makes up 10 percent of

Morocco’s GDP, with 90 percent of that total coming from phosphates (Oxford Business

Group 2016).

Construction and Public Works

The construction sector is finally seeing positive growth since the Unified General

Regulations on Construction were adopted and provided a stronger regulatory framework and improved transparency and oversight. This is necessary in a sector that attributes 25 percent of its workforce to the informal sector. Although building materials are still

rebounding and financing is still difficult to acquire, incentives have been created by the

Ministry of Housing and Urban Policy to assist developers.

Public investment has mostly been placed in industrial zones, housing, and public infrastructure, primarily transport. Notably, there are plans to build a 350-kilometer high- speed rail connecting Tangier to Casablanca. The project has drawn $435.5 million in foreign investment.

Recently, the Kingdom has implemented a $31.2 million rehabilitation of

Marrakech’s old medina. The project includes the restoration of ten public squares, six fountains, sixty gates, six mausoleums, along with improvement of tourist routes, spiritual cemeteries, and wooden façade improvements to depict the original ambiance of the ancient city (Menara 2017).

According to Morocco World News, the Ministry of Urban Planning’s national program “Cities without Slums” has been implemented which “aims to reach an estimated annual production of 170,000 units, revise existing programs, and improve the rental housing sector.” With the implementation of recent public investment projects it is estimated that the sector now employs over 11 percent of the labor force (High

Commission for Planning 2017).

Environmental and Sustainable Business Development

There have been a variety of reforms (institutional, regulatory, and financial) and incentive policies that have began to be implemented to foster a “green economy” in

Morocco. Methods to stimulate business growth and investment in terms of integrating environmental issues and promoting the development of strategic sectors are still in their

infancy, requiring more innovative practices and technological development. The National

Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS) was created in 2014 from the National Charter for Environmental and Sustainable Development and 99-12 Model Law on the

Environment and Sustainable Development Charter to help accelerate the implementation of the national climate change policy and encourage companies to initiate sustainable projects (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa 2014, 1-3).

Although there are currently few examples of green technology in the Marrakech-

Safi region, Morocco has been encouraging small and medium-size enterprises to lead the way in eco-business. Currently, there is little collaboration among private sector, civil society, and local communities. This has been the focus of a variety of funding initiatives and programs created by the Kingdom of Morocco. The opportunities being created for financing sustainable development have recently become available; it just needs to be tapped into. This is a sector that could provide a number of new jobs and enhancing skills and innovative practices (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa 2014, 3).

Artisan Sector

The artisan crafts sector reflects local know-how and has a world-wide reputation.

Marrakech is a major hub for artisan activity and employment, constituting 38.9 percent of

Morocco’s exports, 11.4 percent of total sales, and 8.9 percent of employed artisans. The major crafts in the area are traditional construction, clothing, and carpentry. These three specializations make up 67.5 percent of employment and 57.9 percent of total sales in

Marrakech (Ministry of Crafts and Social and Solidarity Economy 2016, 12, 30, 37).

The artisan sector is an important source of revenue especially for areas in the region that cannot rely on agriculture. Recently, the National Agency for Promotion of

Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) was established to provide technical support and funding for artisan entrepreneurs and helping existing artists through the modernization of their management methods and their production systems. This program helps diversify the artisan’s clients outside of selling to merchants and local residents. Although the program is still new, it continues to grow, with 20.6 percent of artisans employed in Marrakech involved in the program (Ministry of Crafts and Social and Solidarity Economy 2016, 48).

Trade and Service Sector

The trade and service sector is as important to Morocco’s economy as is agriculture.

The sector has consistently provided employment for over 40 percent of the working population every year. This is because it includes a wide variety of services, such as installation and repair of home appliances, private household services, transportation services, retail and commercial trade, restaurants and hotels, and tourism (High

Commission for Planning 2015, 6, 13).

Morocco’s GDP highly relies on the trade and service sector for 57 percent of its yearly GDP (Central Intelligence Agency 2017). A large majority of this income can be attributed to the transportation services, retail and commercial trade, and, especially, tourism. All of these services intimately benefit one another; in the Marrakech-Safi region local commerce makes up 67 percent of the establishments and provides jobs to 27 percent of the working population (Ministry of the Interior 2015, 44-47). These jobs include mostly

shops and markets that not only serve local residents in larger cities, but also the tourist population.

Moroccan Tourism is an important asset to the growth of the national economy.

Over the last two decades, the tourism sector has created a trend of socio-economic growth through its influence on all fronts: societal, economic, and environmental. With a direct and indirect contribution of 12 percent in national GDP and 5 percent in employment, the tourism sector has been able to assert itself as a real priority of the Moroccan economy

(Observatory of Tourism 2015, 7).

Morocco has continued to have one of the strongest tourism industries in the region.

This is because of its location and its strong culture and history. After and during the sociopolitical unrest happening in the SEMCs, Morocco was still able to capture a slight increase of international arrivals of 1.6 percent in 2011 (Weigert 2012, 210). However, unfavorable international partnerships in the unstable geopolitical context in the region has led the Kingdom to face new challenges in order to initiate critical restructuring projects for the Vision 2020 plan.

Vision 2020 builds upon the foundation laid by Vision 2010, through programs, ambitious policy, and projects. Morocco plans to “continue to make tourism one of the engines of the economic, social and cultural development of Morocco” and “[in 2020] will stand within the 20 largest global destinations and will emerge as a reference in the

Mediterranean periphery on sustainable development” by attempting to “double the size of the sector” (Ministry of Tourism 2016).

In spite of a difficult regional and global situation, Morocco was able to achieve positive results, with a total of visitors exceeding 10.17 million in 2015, against 9.3 million

in 2010, an increase of 9.6 percent over the last five years (Observatory of Tourism 2015,

7).

Marrakech has remained the number one tourist destination in Morocco for decades. In 2015, Marrakech brought in 1.8 million tourists to witness its dynamic cultural attractions and entertainment, because of the city’s variety of attractions in and outside of the city, tourists are willing to stay longer; with 6.26 million overnight stays, or 34% of total overnight stays in the country (Observatory of Tourism 2015, 42).

Many Moroccans living in and around the Marrakech area benefit from tourists and their willingness to spend money. With the exchange rate averaging around 9.5 dirhams per 1 dollar, the average Moroccan can sustain herself/himself easily. The city boasts 241 of the nation’s 1,199 (20 percent) travel agencies and 30 percent of the nation’s tour guides

(Observatory of Tourism 2015, 34). These services are often elaborately connected to friends and family who work in other destinations of the country and use Marrakech as the hub for departure, thereby offering a variety of ways to reach the next destination, taxi, bus, train, or plane.

One of the most attractive things about Marrakech is that it has invested in environmental services to keep the city clean and keep up the historic gardens. Other larger cities have followed suit, making proper waste management a necessity in order to modernize Morocco with uncommon public services.

Pollution

Landfills in Morocco are often open dumping grounds owned by the local government or the private company. Many communities outside of larger cities do not have

basic waste management services, trash disposal is taken care of by the individual voluntarily or by a group of men paid by the government to collect and burn the waste. On a larger scale, industrial waste is semi-controlled in terms of location and density but the enforcement of environmental safety regulations do not exist. This is because of the complexity of Morocco’s legal system, limited resources, and the challenge of consulting with multiple sectors responsible (Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance

Program 2008).

The legal and institutional framework in Morocco weak has been weak and financial unstable. There has been an urgent need for integrated and modernized sector management systems. To address these issues, the government enacted the first Solid

Waste Law in 2006, and also approved a fifteen-year, three-phase National Municipal Solid

Waste Management Program (PNDM) in 2007 (World Bank 2013).

Since the creation of the PNDM, Morocco has undertaken a series of strategic actions to reform the waste management sector, such as: strengthening the legal framework, implementing solid waste management programs, putting a fee on the use of plastic bags, developing a master program for the management of hazardous wastes, and instituting local tax reform (SWEEP-Net 2014, 7). This is important since the common understanding and practice of waste management and environmental education is a fairly new concept in

Morocco. The Kingdom realizes this is an important topic, especially with the huge youth population growing up. It is time to prepare with basic services in rural areas and use current city models to educate the public so that it will become a natural consideration for future generations.

Household Waste

Walking the streets of a larger Moroccan city such as Marrakech, one will find the more public areas are well kept up with by street cleaners, as the secondary and tertiary streets are just like any big city with trash strewn on the street and overflowing garbage bins. However, Marrakech is an exception because they make the extra effort to keep things clean to satisfy the tourists.

While riding from Marrakech to Tameslouht, there will be plastic bags caught in bushes and trees alongside the road. This is due to Morocco’s guilty pleasure of overusing plastic bags, but because of the recent plastic bag ban the view to the future may not be as distressing as it once was.

Tameslouht is a typical small town in Morocco, although it may be a little more financially stable than others because of its close proximity to Marrakech. Recently the town upgraded the public infrastructure along the road leading to town and the center roundabout. This included repaving roads, installing sidewalks, light posts, trees, benches, and even trash cans. However, there is still no effective waste management system in place.

Currently, three trash collectors with donkey carts disperse throughout neighborhoods to collect trash weekly from homes and businesses. Residents pay a 10 dirham ($1) monthly fee and leave their trash outside their door to be collected and dumped in the nearest landfill. Periodically, the waste is burned to clear way for more.

In a small survey distributed by Tameslouht’s Association Youth Without Borders for Development to 22 households to determine daily, weekly, and monthly trash composition it was discovered that, on average, half of the garbage consisted of food scraps with the remainder being mostly cardboard and plastic. Unfortunately, stray dogs quickly

find the food scraps but the cardboard is a viable resource for energy production. In addition to household use of cardboard, the weekly market disposes of up to 155 pounds of cardboard that is burned openly.

Much of the waste sector in Morocco operates informally, particularly with regard to waste sorting, recycling, and disposal in unregulated operations. In a recent World Bank loan agreement to support the National Household Waste Program (NHWP) to incentivize municipalities to modernize solid waste management services. The program trains and educates waste collectors in the informal sector on new technology and methods so they are systematically integrated into the restructured and modernized sector. From 2011 to

2012, a training program was implemented to improve the skills of the participants

(municipal management, trainers, etc.) and educate them on the environment and on household and similar wastes in particular (SWEEP-Net 2014, 22). There have also been grant incentives for SMEs accompanied by technical and financial capacity building to encourage the creation of microenterprises in the recycling business (United Nations

Economic Commission for Africa 2014, 13).

Agricultural Waste

Although the agriculture sector plays a major role in the local and international economies, a formal and comprehensive study on agricultural waste has been never carried out to evaluate the details of the corresponding quantities, which may explain the discrepancies in the available data. However, there is a growing need for this data with the planned growth in the sector that is being brought upon by the Green Morocco Plan initiated in 2008.

The plan seeks to bring create partnerships amongst the State, private investors, and small and medium-size farmers. The increased financial support also comes with social support of being able to afford more land and purchase more efficient and sustainable agricultural practices. As of 2013, the Ministry of Economy and Finance observed an increase of 750,000 hectares of farmland (United Nations Economic

Commission for Africa 2014, 12).

Although the Green Morocco Plan is very beneficial to rural farmers in boosting agricultural performance, economic growth, and poverty reduction; this increased yield will also produce increased waste that needs to be addressed also, such as hazardous byproducts and wastewater that are difficult to remediate and create an additional environmental hazard in the future.

Small Business Waste

A majority of small businesses are family-owned corner stores, pharmacies, fruit and vegetable stands, butchers, office supply shops, hardware stores, electronic shops, cyber cafés, cafés, restaurants, or craft workshops. The common waste that comes from these uses includes paper, cardboard boxes, metal scraps (often reused), food scraps (eaten by animals), and plastic bags.

Morocco is the second-largest plastic bag consumer after the United States. It uses about three billion plastic bags a year, according to the Ministry of Industry. That means, on average, that each one of Morocco’s 34 million people uses about 900 bags a year.

Fortunately, Morocco passed a law on July 1, 2016, to ban all use of plastic bags, replacing them with reusable bags (Alami 2016).

The Zero Mika (plastic) law applied to all plastic bags except those for agricultural and industrial sectors as well as household waste collection. Isothermal bags and those intended for refrigeration and freezing were also exempt. Sadly, the plastic bag ban has resulted in a black-market of plastic bags. According to the Ministry of the Interior, they have seized more than 464 tons of plastic bags, 70 manufacturing machines, 16 vehicles, arrested 55 people, and collected millions of dirhams in fines. The Ministry of Industry has set up a $21.8 million fund to help companies affected by the law to transition from plastic to reuasble paper and biodegradable cloth bags (The View From Fez 2017).

Large Business Waste

It is estimated that the Moroccan industrial sector produces about 1.6 million tons of solid waste per year, of which 318,992 tons are hazardous waste (SWEEP-Net 2014, 26).

Since only 8 percent of this tonnage is disposed of through the formal sector of private companies, the majority of this waste is disposed of untreated in uncontrolled landfills and municipal landfills. The Department of the Environment has thus begun the establishment of a National Center for the Disposal of Special Waste (CNEDS), with the support of the

German Cooperation (GIZ and KfW), which will have an annual capacity of 48,501 tons

(SWEEP-Net 2014, 24).

The objective of the CNEDS is to build facilities and provide equipment for the disposal of hazardous waste and develop an appropriate system of integrated management of hazardous waste in Morocco with adequate control and monitoring in accordance with international standards on the environment and the legislation in force in Morocco.

In the absence of an adequate collection, treatment and disposal infrastructure, almost all hazardous waste produced by the industrial sector is deposited in open landfills, municipal landfills, on surrounding land, in abandoned quarries or rivers, without any treatment or control. This process is often outsourced by informal operators, who sort out the wastes having a market value and discard the rest of the products considered dangerous. This informal system has serious consequences for public health, the environment, and the future socio-economic activities of the country.

CHAPTER 3 USING AVAILABLE RESOURCES TO INSTIGATE CHANGE IN TAMESLOUHT

Money on the Ground

Tameslouht, Al Haouz, the region, and the nation find themselves at a crossroads between progress and tradition, with nationwide incentive programs and laws presenting opportunities throughout different ministries. It is up to the local governments, organizations, and associations to take advantage. To create a successful proposal with and for a town of 10,000 people, it has to be adequate for the town but also have components that can transcend the economies of scale and be replicated to fit other municipalities’ needs and opportunities. This common thread is the issue of inadequate waste management practices.

Since smaller communes cannot, or do not want to, pay for these services without a tangible return on investment, there could be creative solutions to link waste management to an existing beneficial economic driver within the commune or larger area. In

Tameslouht, this niche is the pottery sector and olive oil industry. How these two sectors connect to solid waste has to do with providing energy to offset each sector’s pollution.

The main need is to create something that is sustainable in the true sense of the word. This means, the design and programming contributes to improvements to the economy, environment, and social structure of the community. If this sustainable infrastructure exists and the intentions are in the right place, then it may be possible to create an enduring project. Socially, the education it can provide may spark the imagination and inspiration for the next idea.

Appropriate Technology

The basis of what classifies something as an appropriate technology comes down to its simplicity in terms of design, practical use, and efficient production, with consistent returns, compatible with existing infrastructure in relation to environmental and cultural conditions. This idea applied to economic development creates an efficient model of little investment and tangible reward, whether that is financial capital, physical capital, or self- sustaining. At its core, appropriate technology is the simplest level of technology to achieve the intended purpose. This ideology has evolved and branched off into more focused functions but overall, it is a common approach to sustainable development, especially in developing countries.

Theory and Origins

The emergence of appropriate technology in the past century began as an ideological response to technological improvements in industry, production, and the ruling centralized power structure. Poor and underprivileged populations of the world, especially the vast majority in most of the nations of Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean were almost left out from the benefits achieved out of the scientific and technological development. As a response, the governments in developing nations began to adopt new development strategies to promote growth in certain sectors of the economy. This occurred most notably in developing countries where colonization had taken root and the elite had established a strong system of economic power.

The policies of these industry driven nations resembled good intentions for improving local job growth and national GDP. However, this was far from the truth, as a

series of problems began to arise from the apparently unequal distribution of wealth between the minority wealthy elite and the laboring rural majority. This inequality manifested itself in high inflation, unemployment, crises in health care, energy crises, and pollution and environmental disasters.

The working poor caught in this rat race of working hard, trying to make ends meet, and providing for their own, began to notice the imbalance. Their income and living conditions were not improving as a result of their hard work, as the (foreign) government promised. A shift in consciousness began to occur, realizing the moral and economic inadequacies of these capital driven systems, a structural shift was needed from “the techno-centric conventional development strategy to an alternate people-centered development” (Abraham 1999, 93-94). The idea of technology discriminately enriching a minority of people at the expense of the majority is counterproductive and unacceptable.

As E.F. Schumacher states in his book Small is Beautiful, "the poor of the world cannot be helped by mass production, only production by the masses" (Schumacher 1973, 153).

These influences are what drove M. K. Gandhi’s independent movement against

British rule. Gandhi can be considered the founder of the appropriate technology movement before it was given a name. He was vehemently against the mechanization of

India’s economy by Great Britain, the Charkha (spinning wheel) was Gandhi's ideal appropriate technology device, and he saw in it a symbol of freedom, self-reliance, and a technical means that was right for India. However, Gandhi was not uncompromising in his rejection of large-scale, capital-intensive industrial enterprises. Modern-sector industrial development, in Gandhi's view, should supplement and reinforce the development of small- scale industries and agriculture in the hinterland (Akubue 2000).

Gandhi’s influence and ideology reached far and wide, eventually reaching renowned economist, E. F. Schumacher, thus setting in motion a series of events that led to his seminal book, Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered, published in

1973. In his book, Schumacher expands upon his prior work experiences in Burma, and with the Indian Planning Commission with the idea of “intermediate technology” (or appropriate technology). As Schumacher puts it, “…intermediate technology would be immensely more productive than the indigenous technology but it would be immensely cheaper than the sophisticated, highly capital-intensive technology of modern industry”

(Schumacher 1973, 180).

In his book, Schumacher references John Galbraith’s analysis on the change of Ford

Motor Company’s business model from the Model T (1903) to the Mustang (1963). He lists all of the factors that were involved in this sixty-year leap, leading to more sophisticated technology which creates more specialization. The point being, “(w)hen the simple things of life…are produced by ever more sophisticated processes,” then the ability to effectively generate income from production, “…moves beyond the capacity of any poor society”

(Schumacher 1973, 176-177). By inverting the factors that made Ford Motor Company an industrial powerhouse in 1963, it helps creates a list of factors needed to make the concept of appropriate technology accessible and useful for economies in developing nations.

1) Location, Small-scale5 and Non-bureaucratic: Workplaces have to be created in the areas where the people are living now, and not primarily in metropolitan areas into which they tend to migrate. The individuals and families or village and community associations are responsible for its management.

5 Small-scale is a desired trait of appropriate technology, but not an absolute. Schumacher said, “Whether a given industrial activity is appropriate to the conditions of a developing district does not directly depend on 'scale,' but on the technology employed” (Schumacher 1973, 179).

2) Low-cost of Technology: Adaptability, diffusion and indeed appropriateness of a technology will depend upon the cost of the technology, so an unattainable level of capital formation and imports are not needed. 3) Labor Intensiveness: The production methods employed must be relatively simple, so that the demands for high skills are minimized, not only in the production process itself but also in matters of organization, raw material supply, financing, marketing, and so forth. 4) Self-Reliant: Production should be mainly from local materials and mainly for local use and also for know-how's and solutions. 5) Environmentally Friendly: The technology should have a limited impact on the health of the environment and community. (Abraham 1999, 114-118; Akubue 2000)

In essence, it is going back to “simpler times” in relation to meeting economic needs in regards to the spatial context. The need for having the best modern technology means nothing when it is not practical. Therefore, by beginning this paradigm shift from a mechanistic to a holistic conception of reality, we find that applying the necessary technology for proper development in each country fits better in the local contexts of economy, history, culture, environment, and politics (Abraham 1999, 94).

Application in Community Development

The evolution of what is defined as appropriate technologies has changed and expanded since its first use in the 1962. Schumacher initially used the term as a critique of the colonial-style development practices leeching off of developing countries. After World

War II, countries were getting left behind in the wake of industrialization, so the industrialized nations attempted to dump massive amounts of capital and technology in hopes of sparking a sudden industrial revolution of their own.

This economic development approach depicted these nations as merely aggregate data of production, imports, exports, and GDP. Attempts to improve the data sets ended up

hurting the social and cultural fabric instead. As only a few urban elite benefited from these foreign technology imports, income was being drained from the countryside. This contributed to a trend of rural-to-urban migrations inspired by hope for more financial opportunities. Unfortunately, these events only caused massive strain on urban infrastructure and public services, creating more problems than they started with

(Abraham 1999, 56, 58, 61-62).

After the release of Schumacher’s book, appropriate technology became a growing trend for organizations and businesses established in developed countries. These services were aimed at helping developing nations through providing investment for the implementation of appropriate technology. The trend slowly died after fifteen years for lost interest due to the challenges of project development and implementation in developing countries, lack of investment, and the image of being an inferior technology. However, the notion of appropriate technology still lives on; it was merely absorbed into newer, innovative, and more efficient comprehensive development trends.

Appropriate technology (AT) still remains a valuable theory and practice in sustainable development for the same reasons it was successful in the first place -- diversity and adaptability. These traits are a result of the established ideology that appropriate technology is intended for the rural and informal sectors of developing countries and is meant to address extreme poverty, starvation, unemployment and urban migration. Now, through decades of even more technological advancements, including easier communication and globalization, AT has lived up to its purpose by expanding its diversity of uses through trial and error.

Each country has its methods of development and socio-economic challenges; this is where AT comes in to bridge the gap in finding the best solution for a particular context. It should be noted that appropriate technology is not the same as sustainable design.

Although they both have overlaps in theory and even adaptable design, sustainable design focuses more on the aesthetics of design mixed with innovative technologies that aim to

“eliminate negative environmental impact completely through skillful, sensitive design”

(McLennan 2004, 5). This makes sustainable design often expensive and an attractive piece in architecture and urban settings. However, since neither of these technologies have to stand alone, they have been brought together under the umbrella term of sustainable development. Through comprehensive and inclusive community planning practices, there is an opportunity for appropriate technologies and current technologies to complement one another, allowing more people to reap the potential benefits of both.

Scales of Application

Going a step further, there are two different sub-categories that can play a role in the types of appropriate technology implemented depending on scale. They are family- employed technology and community-defined technology (Diwan and Livingston 1979,

88).

Family-employed technology is when a group of family and friends employ themselves to produce good and services needed by the larger majority. These technologies satisfy at least three of the following criteria:

• They improve the productivity of labor without replacing it. • The operators are solely in control of the operation of these technologies. • They encourage self-reliance and innovation by being labor-intensive and/or capital saving.

• They are relatively cheap technologies, easy to operate and maintain so a majority of people can obtain and use them. • They use local resources in terms of inputs and energy. (Abraham 1999, 119)

A community-defined technology is one predetermined as a need to improve or provide a basic need for a community. The basis of “community” must be established by the two criteria: people living together in a geographical area thereby sharing the same natural phenomena, and a genuine human interaction between people in an area on a day-to-day basis (Abraham 1999, 120).

In identifying the type of technology, and at what scale it is to be applied in either one or both of these contexts, is critical in creating the most effective action plan for implementation.

Sustainable Development

Influence

The environmental movement was born in 1962 with the publication of Rachel

Carson’s Silent Spring. The book brought attention to the effects of synthetic pesticides

(especially DDT) and environmental poisons on humans, wildlife, and the environment.

Rachel Carson was an employee for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which allowed her to take advantage of government resources and confidential studies being conducted at the time. She discovered that the spraying of DDT had little effect on the fire ants it was supposed to target; instead, it was responsible for killing a large number of birds, causing human illnesses, and causing ecological damage. Her analyses drew outrage from the chemical companies making clear the intentions behind corporate greed and government

leniency for the sake of economic growth (by trying to help the agriculture sector by killing pests) and the effect it has on the environment. Although Carson died a year after the book’s release, her influence lived on through environmental movements across the world.

Her work helped ban the use of DDT in 1972 and was the impetus for the creation of the

Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 (Griswold 2012).

Similar to appropriate technology, the environmental movements that began in response to Carson’s book started trends that have evolved into a diverse range of practices and theory in the realms of economics, design, and development. Unlike

Schumacher’s appropriate technology trend, the environmental movement created long- standing institutions involved in creating effective codes, standards, and policies for protecting the environment. It is these national and international advocates of environmental protection that have influenced community development and design. If anything, appropriate technology owes its effectiveness as an important asset in modern rural development to the practicality and organization of sustainable development.

Implementing Appropriate Technologies

The most widely accepted definition of sustainable development is from the United

Nations’ Our Common Future report, published in 1987. Sustainable development is,

“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and

Development 1987, 43). As trends evolved and development practices became more inclusive, the notion of sustainable development began to grow into a holistic approach to

attempting to provide economic viability, environmental sustainability, and social responsibility into every project possible (Shaker 2015, 305).

There are a variety of development processes that can be chosen to implement a project. Each approach realizes the understanding of the political, social, and cultural contexts of the area, and also prioritizing roles to individuals and groups to establish and maintain the community’s vision and objectives. Throughout time, the community-led approach to defining problems and creating solutions with the backing of a local organization and the guidance of the local government has become the most successful method for effective community planning.

Often, small rural communities in developing countries become content with the ways their community operates. From an outsider’s point of view, they see the obvious issues of environmental degradation because it is not normal in their eyes. Whether it is garbage on the ground, or wastewater contaminating the groundwater, or the burning of heavily polluting solid waste into the atmosphere, the reason behind this complacency stems from a variety of cultural, social, and political norms.

The importance of the grassroots approach is critical in empowering the community to take initiative in the planning process by taking ownership of the community’s development goals and outcomes. Often, large and influential community projects in rural areas are supported by foreign investment. This outside collaboration makes it difficult to sustain the project, even if the development process is completed. It is the knowledge building programs before, during, and periodically after the project is completed that ensures the success of the project.

Community empowerment is a transformative process of educating the public on how the new technology is built, maintained, and its potential room for improvement. This participation is reliant upon the strength of the social network existing in the community. If a community has a strong base of social capital (supportive associations, organizations, and local government) and is well organized, then sustainability of the project is possible.

When a new appropriate technology is being introduced to a community, education for everyone involved is important for inclusive participation. This involves the citizens as the main stakeholders, along side local experts of the existing technology and researchers of the new technology for education and exchange of ideas, and also the local government for the legal and implementation guidance, and the foreign organization as the mediator.

This is the “giving” of a new technology and the exchange of knowledge allows the residents to “maintain” the new technology with trainings and workshops. After these responsibilities and knowledge are established, then the community members create the action plan for project implementation. This empowerment of ownership is what allows the community to “make” the sustainable development process themselves, making them more resilient and adaptable to challenges may arise in the future.

It is vital that local entities be involved during this process for programming and bureaucratic guidance. Active involvement of the local government is the ultimate lifeline of the project. In addition, ongoing training and workshops provide increased knowledge of the new technology, therefore allowing greater accessibility to its economic, social, and environmental benefits (Sianipar, et al. 2012, 1008-1014).

International Support for Sustainable Projects

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The Sustainable Development Goals are a United Nations initiative of seventeen global goals containing 169 targets between them. On September 25, 2015, the SDGs were adopted by the 193 member states along with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable

Development. The goals established were built upon the same principles as the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs), except that the SDGs concentrate more on the solving the causes of the problem in contrast to directly solving the problems themselves.

Figure 3.1: Official logos for the Sustainable Development Goals. Source: UN Sustainable Development Goals website, 2017.

The United Nations Assembly did not begin taking action concerning sustainable development until the 1990’s. However, concerns for human rights and environmental health were expressed at the United Nations Conference of the Human Environment in

1972. It was not until 1983 that the UN established the World Commission on Environment and Development (WECD), which was the first to define the term “sustainable

development.” The first major agenda for the WECD was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in

1992. The conference saw the creation of Agenda 21, which was the first action plan outlining strategies for voluntary global participation in sustainable development practices.

There were subsequent 5, 10, and 20-year meetings to track progress and develop new strategies. It was during this time that in 2000 the MDGs were established in the document

The Future We Want. The report identified four approaches in global vision for sustainable development: Inclusive Social Development, Environmental Sustainability, Inclusive

Economic Development, and Peace and Security. Since the MDGs were established for a fifteen-year time horizon, efforts were made by the UN General Assembly’s Open Working

Group to create the SDGs based on the principles established by The Future We Want and the Rio+20 conference in 2012 (Sustainable Developmet Knowledge Platform).

The implementation strategy for the new 2030 action plan is non-binding and voluntary amongst individual nations. Similar to the MDGs, individual nations must create and adopt their own policies, budgets, and create their own development strategies to achieve the SDGs desired outcomes. The SDGs act as a guideline for sustainable development in support of other compatible national and international programs

(Begashaw 2017).

Conference of Parties 22 (COP22)

In November of 2016, 196 countries met in Marrakech, Morocco, for the 22nd

Conference of the Parties (COP22). It was organized under the United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); the Marrakech Conference was a continuation of

yearly global summits organized by the United Nations following the Kyoto Protocol in

1997.

The conference addressed the implementation and negotiation of the Paris

Agreement that was adopted during COP21 in Paris, France. The Paris Agreement was created by representatives of 195 countries for dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance beginning in 2020. The agreement is the world’s first comprehensive climate agreement and driver for fossil fuel divestment (Meiman 2016). It was adopted on November 4, 2016, leading into the agenda for COP22 (Yeo 2016).

The aim of the convention is described in Article 2, "enhancing the implementation" of the UNFCCC through:

• Not letting the global average temperature to exceed 2° C [35.6° F] above pre- industrial levels by pursuing efforts to limit this global average temperature increase to 1.5° C [34.7° F], recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of climate change; • Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does not threaten food production; • Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development. (UNFCCC 2015, 21)

The Marrakech conference was the first step in laying out the details and programs amongst governments, international organizations, cooperative initiatives and non- governmental stakeholders that would help fast-track the implementation of the Paris

Agreement over a three-year timeline. The official outcomes were a collection of documents that covered finance agreements, facilitative dialogue on creating a “rulebook” that all countries could share in assessing each other’s climate pledges, the approval of a five-year work plan that covers “loss and damage associated with the impacts of climate

change…in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change” (UNFCCC 2016, 25).

The Spotlight on Morocco

Out of the dozens of programs and policies created, Morocco adopted the Marrakech

Action Proclamation for Climate and Sustainable Development, which “calls for the highest political commitment…so that climate action can fully support the achievement of the SDG’s for the benefit for the people and the planet” (Marrakech Action Proclamation 2016, 1).

It also saw the creation of the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action “as means of providing a strong road map…in the service of those across the globe who are passionately engaged in efforts to fight climate change and ensure a better, more resilient and more equitable lifestyle for our fellow citizens of the world” (UNFCCC 2016).

Last came the creation of the first private adaptation and resilience investment vehicle called the Marrakech Investment Committee for Adaption (MICA) Fund. MICA is a

$500 million blended finance fund that combines the concessional finance (long grace periods) and private investment capital in partnership with The Lightsmith Group (United

States), BeyA Capital (Africa), The Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Government of

Morocco, and Global Adaptation and Resilience Fund (GARF) private investors (Ibid.). The partnership’s goal is to ease the flow of money for innovative climate solutions and by alleviating “high risk” projects and taking first loss to help the private sector finance for both adaptation and mitigation projects (Morocco World News 2016).

The Conference was the first of many high-level gatherings focused on accelerating investment in emerging and existing climate-oriented projects. Making transactions and

investment easier in Africa for project development was of central importance, and will continue to be, as institutions join forces with the private sector to finance and scale energy, water, agriculture and other climate-friendly projects.

Morocco’s Environmental Agenda

As the host of the COP22 conference, Morocco used the opportunity to showcase the

Kingdom’s environmental programs and initiatives introduced under King Mohammad VI’s reign since 1999. Since 2001, King Muhammad VI has ushered in a new era of environmental reform, providing multiple initiatives and programs to encourage sustainable development and environmental awareness in Morocco. With the establishment of the Mohammad VI Foundation for the Protection of the Environment, the government has founded several environmental programs. Among them are the National

Municipal Solid Waste Management, the National Program of Sanitation and Wastewater

Treatment, the National Program for Collection and Disposal of Plastic Bags, and the

National Program for Prevention of and Fight against Industrial Pollution (UNECE). These have set up multiple projects that have moved Morocco to the forefront of environmental policy, including one of the largest solar farms in the world.

Notably, in response to Morocco’s reputation as the second leading producer of plastic waste in the world, the Moroccan Parliament signed a bill into law on July 1, 2016, that bans the use, production, or import of plastic bags throughout the country. In part due to citizen engagement, the Moroccan Parliament also suspended the import of foreign waste for disposal on July 15, 2016.

Even though these new policies are new, monitoring and enforcement is still a challenge. Regardless, the wide variety and success of Morocco’s programs and policies ranked them in the top ten climatically conscious countries in the world, and number one in the developing world for 2016, based on criteria including CO2 emissions, renewable energy development, efficiency, and climate policy (CCPI, 2016, 5).

Morocco has implemented multiple renewable energy measures, committing to generate 42 percent of the country’s energy needs from renewable resources by 2020 and

52 percent by 2030. Infrastructure in place includes 13 wind farms with plans to build 6 more before 2020, in total producing 2,000 megawatts of energy. Morocco has partnered with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the United States

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) to increase the number of people with access to potable water, develop efficient technologies for the utilization of water in agriculture, and manage wastewater and sanitation (Morocco on the Move 2016, 1).

The Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy (MASEN) is a public-private partnership that administers the NOOR solar energy project. MASEN aims to develop five Noor6 power complexes capable of producing 2,000 megawatts of energy by 2020. Noor I, inaugurated in

2016, is the biggest solar energy project in the world (World Bank 2016).

In the near future, MASEN will merge with the National Office of Electricity and

Potable Water (ONEE) to form the Moroccan Agency for Sustainable Energy (ADEM), which will be a centralized organization that works to increase Morocco’s renewable energy output in diverse ways.

.نور — Transliteration of the Arabic word for light 6

Morocco’s efforts have been amplified after hosting the 22nd Conference of Parties

(COP22) in Marrakech in November of 2016. COP22 is part of the Paris Agreement’s initial three-year action plan to begin the foundation for future projects. This international, multilateral collaboration helped establish multiple international initiatives for Morocco including the Marrakech Investment Committee for Adaption (MICA) Fund, Marrakech

Partnership for Global Climate Action, and the Marrakech Action Proclamation for Climate and Sustainable Development.

Artisan Employment and Improved Quality of Life

Moroccan Rural Context: Tameslouht

The Artisana, or headquarters for the Artisan Association, is anchored in the center of Tameslouht and is open to the public. Currently, the Artisana is undergoing an expansion to include a colonnade of artisan shops/studios facing the roundabout, which is the transit hub of town. The interior is complete with individual workrooms, a classroom, a meeting room, and a very expensive gas kiln; this space provides a consolidation point within the community for all of Tameslouhts’ artisans.

The Artisana orchestrates the production and end markets of the artisans’ goods.

Most of the products are sold locally directly from the artisan’s studios, and at the Friday market. Additionally, stalls in Marrakesh and other cities throughout Morocco serve as distribution points for the goods produced by Tameslouhts’ artisans. These decorative goods draw a small but consistent stream of tourists to Tameslouht.

Men and women both work as artisans. Although membership within the Artisan association appears to be mainly male, women throughout the community work

independently to produce goods. Woven baskets, crocheted decorative objects, jellaba buttons, and clothing are some of the most commonly produced objects from the women artisans. Some of these women have male connections within their family who take care of the business transactions. These “middle-men” transactions often exploit the women and other artists for their work, for example, a common homemade craft item made by women are reed bags (Tigmi bags). The material for one bag is 10 dirhams ($1.07), and then they sell the products to the “middle-men” who take them nearby city for 12 dirhams ($1.28) each. Products like Tigmi bags are highly profitable; the shops that buy from the artists end up selling the bags for at least 200 dirhams each ($21.35) to cover their own costs and to make higher profits.

In these situations, women do not consider their work to be a form of employment, but rather an extension of their domestic duties. Regardless, these unfair business practices are responsible for keeping individual artisans in poverty. In the past ten years, artisan organizations such as The Anou, described below, have been created to help connect the artisans directly to consumers online, thus streamlining the process.

Literacy Programs

Functional Literacy and Vocational Training Compact (FLVT)

On August 31, 2007, The Kingdom of Morocco and the United States Millennium

Challenge Corporation established the Millennium Challenge Compact (MCC-Morocco). The

Compact focused on three sectors — agriculture, fishing, and artisanal handicrafts — across six regions in Morocco. In turn, the Kingdom selected five projects for MCC support that focused on “stimulating economic growth by boosting productivity and creating jobs in

sectors with high growth potential where poverty and illiteracy are rampant” (Firdawcy,

Ibourk and Bernede 2013).

Morocco’s inter-ministerial commission for the Compact decided to expand the functional literacy component to include the agriculture and small-scale fishing sectors, and to re-focus the vocational training for the artisan sector in February of 2009

(Millennium Challenge Corporation 2017). This expansion shifted the original Artisan and

Fez Medina Project (AFM) into the Functional Literacy and Vocational Training Activity, which were carried out by UNESCO and DCLA from 2010 to 2013 with $3.8 million support from the MCC, the restated aim was to reinforce the basic skills of individuals who were active or seeking employment in the artisan, fisheries, and agribusiness sectors — including beneficiary artisans from other Compact sectors. The FLVT's ultimate objectives were to: (1) improve the revenues of artisans, (2) improve the revenues of people engaged in fishing, and (3) improve the revenues of farmers.

One of these projects, the Artisan and Fez Medina Project (AFM), aimed to stimulate economic growth through the tourism and artisan sectors through literacy and vocational training to the artisans (Millennium Challenge Corporation 2017). The AFM was provided thirteen percent ($84 million) of the total compact that sought to stimulate economic growth by connecting the crafts sector, tourism, and the Fez Medina’s rich cultural, historic and architectural assets. The AFM consisted of three components: (1) the artisan production and promotion activities, (2) the Fez Medina activity, and (3) the FLVT activity.

The FLVT activity involved three components aimed at improving the productivity, employability, and income of 30,000 artisans. These included:

1) Provide basic literacy skills: these skills included reading, writing, and arithmetic and these skills’ applications to major functions and tasks in all three sectors (agriculture, handicraft, and artisan fisheries). 2) Enhance vocational skills of men, women, and young people: the strengthening of vocational skills within the three sectors (agriculture, handicraft, fisheries) especially reinforced workers’ independence in their respective enterprises. 3) Develop transferable skills and life skills: this would improve the autonomy of the beneficiaries through promoting awareness of civic rights, improving the capacity of managing work activities, professional organization, and how to start income generating projects. (Millenium Challenge Corporation 2016)

The MCC used multiple approaches to monitoring the Compact’s results. The implementers monitored the program participants throughout the Compact, the MCC conducted performance evaluations on how well the program was designed and implemented, and a performance evaluation was used to assess the programs activities on coherence, efficiency, effectiveness, applicability, and durability.

The project’s impact was considered a success by the eighty-two percent of enrollees who had learned to read, write, do arithmetic, and perform other life skills in all three sectors, with ninety-three percent of them becoming certified. The high representation of women and girls that participated confirmed the significance of the community-based and flexible hours approach in implementation. The Compact’s ultimate success was influencing the creation of the National Agency for Combating Illiteracy in

Morocco and the adoption of the Compact’s tests, guides, and procedures were adopted by the Government of Morocco to apply to other training programs. The adoption of these long-term strategies will help sustain these programs and others in the future (Millenium

Challenge Corporation 2016).

The Anou Fair-Trade Cooperative

The Anou’s model has become an example for providing the marketing skills for artisans to improve their quality of life by being able to enter into the global market online

(The Anou 2014). Developed by a Returned Peace Corps Volunteer (RPCV) named Dan

Driscoll in 2013, the Anou provides training in advertising and marketing that teaches local artisans to upload images of their products and manage their own accounts through the

Anou’s website. The organization is almost completely led by Moroccan artisans. This community-led model ensures sustainability through transferring knowledge and skills to local artisans throughout Morocco. However, the transition to this model was difficult to manage in a culture where communication is often done in person, and personal and business time management is lagging.

Moroccan artisan associations exist but often offer little support for creating a strong community of artisans; this creates unconnected businesses with overlapping skills and no organization to initiate collaboration. This was the Anou’s vision, to create a network of artisans where they are encouraged to support and learn from another. This vision began to grow through word of mouth beginning with their first artisan-led workshop in Meknes, which began with training one artisan how to properly photograph their products, navigate the language-free website, and manage their own webpage. Within a week there were fifty artisans eager to be trained, including association presidents and representatives so they would be able to carry out their own training with their community

(Driscoll 2013).

As the Anou grew, the organization acquired more artisan leaders to manage sessions in towns around Morocco. The growth of leaders scattered across Morocco led to

communication errors between artisans because of “archaic custom rules” and several shipping mishaps that are being corrected with a new quality control process. This included working with the national post office to directly ship products to their office to be inspected by the Anou’s artisans. If the problem cannot be solved on the spot, then the artisan is shown how to take detailed pictures of the flaws and fill out a simple form through their accessible app. The customer is notified and then they are given the option to accept or reject the order (The Anou 2017). This has greatly improves the business’ efficiency and reliability.

In Moroccan culture, it is common to almost always seek advice from people they trust and know in their community such as fellow artisans, friends, or family members.

This community-led model has proven to be successful in building artisans’ competencies in building significant income while being supported by a larger network of artisans.

Today, there are over fifty communities and over five hundred artisans involved in the

Anou. In 2017, the Anou became Morocco’s first national fair-trade cooperative.

Organizations that put the community first are important for giving Moroccans a sense of pride and self esteem through economic self-sufficiency by promoting a sustainable artisan and tourism sector (Ponzio-Mouttaki 2017).

Bridging the Gap Between Traditional and Modern Technology

As Morocco continues to lead the way in renewable energy, sustainable programs, and progressive policy, its commitment provides a strong foundation for support, investment, and collaboration with international agencies committed to the same ideals of environmentally conscious projects and climate change mitigation.

It is useful to explore similar environmental projects that can be applied to

Tameslouht’s situation so that they can be easily adapted to Tameslouht and other similar communities. What makes it adaptable is the variety of environmental issues it aims to address, such as waste management and improved efficiency in pottery kiln designs.

The pottery sector plays a very important role in Tameslouht’s economy; it also invokes a heavy environmental burden due to the lack of wood in the area and the inefficient design of the traditional kilns. Massive amounts of energy are required to heat the large, cylinder-shaped kilns; the only resource that is abundant and capable of providing this amount of energy for 9 hours a day are tires.

As most Moroccan towns face at least one or a combination of these issues, the only barrier is the lack of education on how to create, design, and manage projects. This gap is something that needs to be addressed on the local level by understanding the town’s political context, local and regional organizations, and current processes and then choosing from the list of programs, policies, and initiatives listed above to help implement their ideas.

Brainstorming for a Solution

EnergyXchange

The idea for EnergyXchange was created through the partnership of three organizations -- Blue Ridge Resource Conservation and Development Council, HandMade in

America, and Mayland Community College. From 1996-1999, EnergyXchange sought out how to utilize the recently closed Yancey-Mitchell Landfill as a potential energy source.

With help from the EPA’s Landfill Methane Outreach Program (LMOP) in conducting a feasibility study, EnergyXchange was able to raise $1.5 million for a gas collection system and campus construction.

Environmental Protection Agency’s Landfill Methane Outreach Program

The Landfill Methane Outreach Program (LMOP) is a voluntary program within the

EPA that encourages the recovery and innovative reuse of biogas generated from municipal solid waste. The program helps aid and fund landfill gas projects nationally and globally, including a project list of successful international projects around the globe.

LMOP helps “form partnerships with communities, landfill owners and operators, utilities, power marketers, states, project developers, tribes and nonprofit organizations to overcome barriers to project development” (LMOP). Throughout a project’s life, they provide valuable resources such as technical assistance, feasibility studies, informational materials and networking opportunities with peers and renewable energy experts.

EnergyXchange utilized the EPA’s program to help bring its project to life. As a result, an artist studio was established on top of the Yancey-Mitchell Landfill as part of

Mayland Community College. The artisan complex includes four greenhouses, three cold

frames, a retail craft gallery, visitor center, clay studio and a glass studio. Everything in the complex was powered by landfill gas until 2016 when the landfill stopped releasing a substantial amount of methane gas; they now use propane gas to power the kilns

(EnergyXchange). The Global Methane Initiative project listed the Yancey-Mitchell County

Landfill Project as one of the 15 best case studies in 2012 (International Best Practices

Guide for Landfill Gas Energy Projects, 2012).

U.S. Millennium Challenge Corporation – Artisan & Fez Medina Project

The Millennium Challenge Corporation was created in January 2004 by the United

States Congress to fight global poverty. In August 2007, Morocco was granted a 697.5 million dollar compact to increase productivity and employment based on the Moroccan government’s Plan Emergence, a national growth strategy started in 2005 (Millennium

Challenge Corporation, 2007). The compact funded five projects: Artisan and Fez Medina

Project, Enterprise Support Project, Financial Services Project, Fruit Tree Productivity

Project, and Small-Scale Fisheries Project (US Government, 2012).

The Artisan and Fez Medina Project’s goal is to preserve artisanal trade by increasing the direct links between artisans and tourists. The strategy is to increase the quality of artisanal wares by training artisans in modern production techniques and business management. The training was provided to 50,000 master artisans, while 3,800 artisans received production assistance. Thirty new careers were added to the public artisan schools to diversify access to artisanal jobs, which will improve employment and income (Millennium Challenge Corporation, 2007).

Fez’s Tile Kilns

MCC granted $84 million to the Moroccan government for the Artisan & Fez Medina

Project, they outlined options for mitigating air pollution emitted from Fez’s tile kilns, which are powered by wood, sawdust, and olive pits. One proposal written by a team from the Worcester Polytechnic Institute recommended retrofitting the existing tile kilns by placing venturi scrubbers on top of the chimneys.

Venturi scrubbers use water to clean polluting exhaust. Dirty gas enters a cyclone separator at a high speed where it is met by a spray of water. The diffused water droplets absorb the particulates upon collision. The water then drops out of the bottom of the separator into a tank where it can be filtered and reused. However, the efficiency relies on the particle size in relation to increased water pressure and scrubber design (Flock, et al.

2012).

In addition, the scrubber creates its own wastewater sludge that needs to be filtered for proper disposal or reuse, raising the cost of the system even higher. The estimated cost was between $58,000 and $120,000, depending on the flow rate, and an additional $9,300-

254,000 per cubic meter per second per year to maintain and operate according to the EPA

(Air Pollution Control Technology Fact Sheet – Venturi Scrubber).

Unfortunately, the MCC did not accept the proposal for the scrubbers but still offered artisans gas kilns to purchase at a reduced cost. Since the artisans needed to share a proportion of the costs, only 20 of the 144 artisans were able to afford them (MCC, 2012).

Summary

Every country has its own unique cultural, economic, and social contexts that must be approached in different ways when working to identify a problem and implement solutions. One problem that plagues every nation is protecting the environment and mitigating climate change. The international concern has created new programs and initiatives to support the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris

Agreement through the recent 22nd Conference of Parties held in Morocco.

On the national level, Morocco has shown that it is dedicated to making its Kingdom more sustainable by investing in environmental programs, policies, and technology. These advancements have gone highly recognized by international agencies that have offered support and funding to enhance these projects. As observed with MCC’s AFM project, the artisan sector is characteristic of Morocco, but it is also struggling economically by not being able to keep up with the needs of globalization and lack of education.

Looking at the successful program models from the MCC and the Anou, they were able to address the contextual problems on the local levels and adequately find solutions by utilizing the international and international resources available for their niche artisan sector. In terms of a program’s sustainability and success on the local level, the methodology, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation are important for the sustainability and scalability of any project.

Bridging the gap between international and national environmental initiatives and economic improvement, improved technology, and literacy for artisans is one method to improve the livelihoods of traditional artisans by generating more income that allows them to incorporate modern technology into their marketing and production. The challenge of

integrating new systems with traditional systems while retaining the heritage and respecting the context of how artisans live will help bring the goal of sustainability full circle through addressing the cultural, social, economic, and environmental contexts with education and empowerment.

CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY

The Mediterranean region covers a large area of diverse geography and cultures, but many countries struggle with the monitoring, disposal, and regulation of within waste management sector. For many countries, the most polluting wastes are produced from their main economic drivers such as tourism, agriculture (especially olive oil production), and artisanal crafts. More developed countries and larger cities have the economic and financial advantage to enforce regulations and implement services and technology to mitigate these environmental issues.

The recent COP22 has tied together these nations in a common goal for mitigating climate change. The conference saw the creation of multiple international partnerships and agreements to assist developing nations in establishing a stronger regulatory framework and modernized waste management sector and also encouraging "green" business development for innovation.

In Morocco, these two problems are prominent in addition to pollution local arts and crafts industry. These scenarios are a threat to the growing concern for combating global climate change and making communities more resilient for future generations. This has led to the development of programs and incentives to encourage private-public partnerships and small/medium-size business development to help aid in the implementation of solutions to these problems and encourage an eco-friendly economy.

Although many programs have been created in the past ten-years, it is still too early to measure the effectiveness of these programs. There is still a need for innovative technology within the pottery sector’s kilns. Many potters located in more arid climates are faced with having to use toxic fuel sources where wood is not readily available. The designs

of the traditional pottery kilns are also very inefficient; wasting excess energy that could be used to benefit the community in another form.

Recently, the U.S. MCC carried out the Fez Medina and Artisan Project, which educated artisans on how to read, write, and incorporate modern techniques into their businesses and crafts. In addition, it attempted to retrofit Fez’s tile kilns with venturi scrubbers to filter the pollutants released from the kiln. The project was not successful since the scrubbers were too expensive for the potters to afford. However, other alternatives have been developed elsewhere such as WtE and LFGTE practices utilized by

EnergyXchange in the United States by partnering with the EPA’s Landfill Methane

Outreach Program.

With the encouragement of more sustainable technology and forming international partnerships to achieve them, it is helpful to find proper resources that can be adapted fit the context of a region’s particular environmental issues. It takes finding the right partnerships and citizen interest to utilize these resources and create a project that can adequately address an area’s most pressing issues.

There have been multiple successful projects that have been implemented in

Morocco in recent years. Even though the enforcement of regulations are still lacking, there has begun a shift of being more environmentally conscious for the sake of Morocco’s enormous youth population. There is still much to do, but the foundation has been laid and it is only getting stronger. This platform is what gives resources to motivated organizations and hope to worrisome youth when thinking about their futures.

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

Analyzing the success of EnergyXchange’s artisan studio project with Mayland

Community College has proven the ability to utilize solid waste to produce enough methane gas to power the studio’s kilns. Even more so, it is rewarding to know that the EPA’s

Landfill Methane Outreach Program will support a project of this nature. The facility in

North Carolina has already served as a case study for artisans to replicate in other cities and towns. Its success has served as an educational piece to inspire others to use elements of the projects and apply to their own contexts. The EnergyXchange project is what inspired the pottery kiln project outline in the appendix.

Finding new methods and technology to mitigate pollution from old habits and reliance on fossil fuels will be a challenge to address for the future health of communities.

By looking at the existing problems such as excess solid waste and olive oil wastewater, it is apparent that basic waste management services must be in place before anything can be done to potentially turn Morocco’s pollution into energy. Nevertheless, the recent programs and incentives created by the Kingdom to encourage an eco-economy, national and international funding willing to support innovative projects, and resources and case studies available to help learn from all offer an opportunity to initiate positive change with the trash around Morocco.

Morocco’s drive to encourage more environmentally sustainable development and education is apparent through local associations, private businesses, and government projects. There has been a growing network of environmental consciousness that can now

be tapped into. There is a need to educate more people how to begin setting their ideas in motion and becoming a part of this network.

Translating these waste-to-energy opportunities to other countries in the region that share these common environmental issues can be a valuable resource for others to replicate. Whether it is similar pottery kilns in the Middle East or using OOMW in Spain to assist in methane gas production, these potential solutions can be replicated once they are thoroughly tested and evaluated, giving others valuable data to reference. The need for creative and innovative research and technology is on the world stage with the recent Paris

Agreement and 22nd Conference of Parties beginning to pave the way for funding and implementing projects that can be scaled and replicated to benefit a large number of people.

The most important pieces to planning a project that covers a large scope of environmental, social, and political realms are the quality of data gathered, community stakeholder input needed, and political influence acquired to fully support a project that can potentially change the underlying fabric of how one’s society operates.

Implications

In Morocco, to carry out any event, workshop, or project, an entity has to be part of a local association or organization. It is not possible to work and implement projects as an international organization standing alone. Without these partnerships, one organization will not be able to get anything done and involve the community. This inclusive approach to developing the pottery kiln project is what makes it so rewarding, knowing the citizens are want a change. They know that their current situation is not sustainable to the future of

their community. However, it is important to consider that there are individuals who may prefer the current way of life. Since it is what they have known and it is their norm, why should they change?

In the small town of Tameslouht, the pace of life is slow and everyone knows everything that is happening. The citizens have a lassaiz-fare relationship with the pollution around them, it is acknowledged but potential change is not expected. Several people actually rely on the trash and pollution for their livelihoods — the three men who are commissioned by the local government to collect and dispose of trash using their donkey carts, the potters who consider the tire-smoke baths a unique part of their traditional pottery and are used to the current order and operations of their profession, and the men who come to collect plastic waste from households and transport the waste to

Marrakech to end markets for a profit.

If these current social and economic processes continued in Tameslouht, many would continue to live their daily lives without any concern. The fleeting thoughts of

“Wouldn’t it be nice if…” followed by, “They won’t do anything about it” would continue in the minds of the average passerby. The normalcy of pollution would be preserved and the sting of resentment and hopelessness would still linger. For the individuals and industries that currently make a living off of the current pollution, any changes will disrupt their daily operations and could be met with opposition and resentment as well.

These changes in waste management could also have an effect on waste producing industries that currently have no disposal methods. Such as the olive oil industry that simply dumps the OOMW into old dried-up wells or into man-made ponds. This could add additional expenses to their operations for disposal and transport to facilities. In turn,

these infrastructure improvements could force the local government to re-work their budgeting and allocation of other funding, which can have a heavy political backlash.

The barriers to implementing this project in its entirety are the long-range goals and operating in a foreign culture. Implementing a project that requires changing a town’s relationship with waste and bringing in new technology and infrastructure will have an effect on the formal and informal sectors. Changes to cultural and societal norms can be met with a backlash that can come in many forms. These changes could also have political and social implications that may surface as the project begins to be implemented.

Acknowledging all of these concerns are important to understand, but it may not be possible to properly address all of them with alternative solutions. As experienced from past projects in Morocco, a project’s action plan can be changed due to inexplicable circumstances. These challenges have been faced before and are well aware of, it is how one reacts to these unforeseen instances that can kill or progress a project.

Change is difficult for anyone, even if the general outcome will have a positive result on a majority of the community, there will be those who could be affected negatively. An all-inclusive approach along every step of the project’s development is the most practical way to allow the community’s voices to be heard and adjust accordingly. If we are able to find innovative solutions that are appropriate to the context and create alternative solutions to anyone that may be affected, either directly or indirectly, then it could help with the transitional growing pains of introducing new practices into their lives.

Recommendations

Having a strong local support network behind a foreigner working in another culture is important to the resilience of an individual’s health and feeling of purpose. What gives this project and my personal drive to pursue it is the support network of motivated and trusted Moroccans that I have accumulated over the past four years. This network expands through each individual I am in contact with — personally and professionally. My recent visit to Morocco attested to this; I had daily meetings with contacts I was introduced to via my close Moroccan counterparts that all share the same vision of a healthier future for Morocco and also with individuals and groups that I have been in contact with since my first days in Tameslouht.

Establishing those deeper relationships

The most effective way to implement projects on the local level in Morocco is not only by getting authorization from the local and regional governments but, more importantly, by partnering with local organizations to help carry out studies and workshops necessary for the sustainability of the project. Forming a strong personal relationship with a Moroccan or Moroccan association before creating projects or talking business is an important cultural and societal custom. These relationships and partnerships are what allow for the opportunity to establish trust and understanding that both parties are involved for similar goals.

Education is key to understanding how to approach difficult problems that a community faces. Taking time to learn the local processes and concerns of those whose livelihoods are intimately connected to the issue at hand can give deeper insight into how to properly address those issues. Acknowledging, understanding, and mutually working

towards a common solution help make those involved more enthusiastic and willing to participate in the project’s development. This is what helps create a sustainable project that can potentially outlast an initial workshop and inspire others to want to help or create their own. The strength of a project is equivalent to the involvement of the local population and organizations.

PREFACE TO THE APPENDIX

The following appendix presents an action plan and technical designs for implementing a waste-powered pottery kiln in Tameslouht, Morocco. It showcases the data gathered while in Peace Corps, the design work that was developed with an engineering team while drafting this thesis, and upcoming data gathering that will take place with a

Fulbright grant, and the currently anticipated action plan for ultimately creating the pottery kiln.

The preceding content established the theoretical basis for developing this project in Morocco. Beginning with the larger context of overlapping environmental issues in the

Mediterranean region, Morocco, and Tameslouht addressed how the following project is important on a larger scale an the potential impact it could have on the macro-level.

Breaking down the different elements involved in the overall kiln design made it easier to understand how each component addresses the larger environmental problems of solid waste management and olive oil wastewater mitigation.

The urgency for environmental projects and the regional financial strategies and programs addressed by the Paris Agreement and developed at the 22nd Conference of

Parties in Marrakech is important to understand the potential scalability of this project as they are in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. On the national level, Morocco has been building-up a range of environmental programs and incentives to encourage the modernized waste management sector, development of environmental projects, and the creation of small and medium-sized eco-businesses. Such as, the establishment of the World Bank’s National Municipal Solid Waste Management Program,

the Marrakech Investment Committee for Adaption, and the National Sustainable

Development Strategy.

With a supportive framework established on the national level, the next step was to analyze programs and case studies relatable to Tameslouht’s context of open landfills, olive oil wastewater, and tire-fuelled pottery kilns. While walking past a burning a pile of trash in

Tameslouht, I thought of the energy being wasted and how it could be captured and used as a resource. My initial research led to the discovery of EnergyXchange and Mayland

Community College’s methane-powered artisan studios built upon a covered landfill in

North Carolina. The feasibility study and partial financial support was from the

Environmental Protection Agency’s Landfill Methane Outreach Program, a program that also supports international projects. This case study set into motion everything within this document.

By analyzing the implications of Tameslouht’s environmental issues, current practices, supportive government programs, case studies, and funding opportunities on the local and regional levels justified the pursuit of designing a waste-powered pottery kiln.

While designing the prototype kiln with the engineering team (explained in appendix D), it was important to convey the parameters of the kiln design in regards to current firing methods of the potters and their traditional kiln design in Tameslouht. The consideration of appropriate technology between the design elements selected with the engineers at the

University of Cincinnati and the traditional practices in Tameslouht is important for the potters to potentially accept a new kiln design bridging traditional and modern design.

APPENDIX A: TAMESLOUHT’S CONTEXT

Life in Tameslouht, Morocco

Tameslouht is a growing town of about 12,000 people located 17 kilometers southwest of Marrakech, a large tourist city. Tameslouht is known for its traditional artisanal crafts ranging from clothing, baskets, metal work, carpentry, and especially carpentry. In addition, the town also produces a significant amount of olive oil. These olive oil trees surround the northern edge of the town, offering the only vegetation visible in

Tameslouht.

The town offers the small quintessential traditional Moroccan environment but also has access to Marrakech with direct transit routes running daily. This gives Tameslouht an advantage with access to resources other small towns do not have, such as easy access to institutions and the tourist market.

However, Tameslouht still shares the common environmental struggles many countries in the Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) region face, such as olive oil wastewater (OOW), open burning landfills, and heavily polluting traditional pottery kilns.

Fortunately, Morocco has recently made progressive policies and incentive programs to collectively try to address these environmental issues.

Toxic Pottery Kilns

Tameslouht is a well-known producer of pottery in the Marrakech-Al Haouz region as ceramics are a major economic driver in Morocco’s economy. More than 400,000 people worked as artisans in Morocco in 2014, according to government figures. The sector had a turnover of $2.2 billion, up 7.5 percent from the previous year (Jenkins 2016).

The Artisana, or headquarters for the Artisan’s Association, is located in the town center and open to the public. Complete with individual workrooms, a classroom, a meeting room, and a very expensive gas kiln, this space provides a consolidation point within the community for all of Tameslouht’s artisans. It orchestrates the production and sales of the artisans’ goods. Most of these products are sold locally, directly from the artisan’s studios and at the Friday souq (market). Additionally, stalls in Marrakesh and other cities throughout Morocco serve as distribution points for the goods produced by Tameslouht’s artisans. However, the problems that potters face are not often economic, but the negative impact these operations have on their health and the environment.

Current Process

Tameslouht has approximately 15 pottery kiln facilities with a majority of them located on the southeastern edge of the town. They are located near open land that is what potters use for collecting red clay deposits 30cm beneath the surface and deliver to the pottery facility by donkey cart. Once the clay is received, the clay is mixed with water from a well usually located within the compound so that it is soft to work with and deplete of air- bubbles. The potters then work their magic, creating tagines, vases, kitchenware, or tiles.

Once a piece is thrown it is set out to dry until ready to be put into the kiln, often stacked with other pots, to be fired. The complete drying, firing, and cooling process lasts 3, to 5, to 18 days depending on the season and the size of the pieces. At the most, there can be over 200 small pots lined and stacked on the upper level. The pots’ base diameters range from 20 to 40 centimeters and can be anywhere from 30 centimeters to 1.8 meters tall.

Unfortunately, due to stacking and the presence of hydraulic lime in Tameslouht’s soil, potters lose 20-30 pots per fire (El Boudour El Idrissi, et al., 2016).

Marrakech provides a never-ending supply of tires, making them the most cost effective fuel source for Tameslouht’s potters. Every morning an average of 120 tires are brought in for each kiln at about a ½ dirham (5 cents) each. Depending on the size and number of pots being fired that day, the potters throw tires into the firebox for three to five hours straight.

In order to reach the desired temperature needed to create earthenware, the pottery needs to be baked in an atmosphere of 1,832°F (1,000°C) to 2,200°F (1,200°C) and fired for an average of nine to twelve hours a day. In a properly sealed kiln using the same bricks made and used in the traditional kilns, the kiln needs a rate between 12,000

BTUs/hr and 18,500 BTUs/hr to reach the required temperature for proper oxidation to cook the pottery.

A twenty-pound tire emits 10,900 BTUs/lb, which is plenty to thoroughly fire the pottery. Regardless of the high-energy output of rubber, most of it is lost because the openings to the firebox and top are merely covered with sheets of metal. This causes a loss of 31.2 million BTUs per workday for one kiln, making the process cost effective but extremely inefficient, not to mention that the fumes released from the burning rubber are extremely toxic to human health and the environment. In the 1997 EPA study “Air

Emissions from Scrap Tire Combustion,” they found that burning tires are 4 times more mutagenic (causing genetic mutation in a cell) than emissions from oil, coal, or wood

(Environmental Protection Agency 1997).

Traditional Kiln Design

The traditional kiln design consists of a two-tiered system that utilizes the bottom as a combustion chamber where they throw any materials available including, garbage, sawdust from woodshops, plastic and especially tires. Since the climate is arid and hot in the region, there is no abundance of cheap wood to be used as fuel, aside from the olive tree orchards. The olive trees provide their own share of economic value and environmental pollution through being pressed into olive oil and creating a toxic wastewater by-product.

In Tameslouht, there is a clear “pottery kiln sector” located on the southeastern side of the town. There are fifteen different kilns operating out of several individual compounds.

Potters come to fire their pots in bulk, sometimes 200 pots at a time, to be able to sell to

“middle-men” who then sell them to vendors in Marrakech.

The kilns stand, on average, about 15 to 18 feet tall and have a diameter of about 10 to 12 feet. The ceiling of the firing chamber is about 10 to 12 inches thick with rows of bored holes of various size and spacing. This allows the heat and smoke to rise directly up and through the pottery stacked on the upper level.

Figure A.1: A pottery kiln in Tameslouht.

Effects of Tire Burning

The emissions given off from burning tires include “criteria pollutants, such as particulates, carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxides (SOx), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). They also include non-criteria hazardous air pollutants

(HAPs), such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxins, furans, hydrogen chloride, benzene, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs); and metals such as cadmium, nickel, zinc, mercury, chromium, and vanadium” (Environmental Protection Agency 1997).

Both criteria and non-criteria pollutants can cause significant short and long term health effects. Depending on the length and degree of exposure, these health effects could include irritation of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes, respiratory effects, central

nervous system depression, and cancer. The EPA suggests that any unprotected exposure to these emissions be avoided. Furthermore, uncontrolled tire burning has been proven to be sixteen times more mutagenic, meaning capable of inducing genetic mutation, than traditional residential wood combustion in a fireplace, and 13,000 times more mutagenic than coal-fired utility emissions with good combustion efficiency and add-on controls

(Hansen 2015, 81).

Especially troubling is the exposure that children living within these communities are inadvertently being subjected to. Children, fetuses, nursing babies, elderly, asthmatics, and immune-suppressed individuals are all extremely vulnerable to the pollutants released by burning tires (Mayer 2005).

The pollution created by the pottery kilns are such a concern to health that even the

United Nations have noted that a solution must be found. As stated in the United Nations

2013 Environmental Performance Review of Morocco, under Chapter 6: Air Protection:

The traditional pottery sector is an area of major concern, given the heavy emission of harmful pollutants into the air from pottery kilns in heavily populated areas. The Ministry of Handicrafts and the Department of Environment have combined their efforts to offer acceptable technical and financial solutions to the craftsmen to shift pottery kilns from wood to gas. For financial, technical and social reasons, local solutions, with equipment designed in Morocco, would be an interesting option to work on.

Recommendation 6.3: The Ministry of Handicrafts and the Ministry of Energy, Mines, Water and Environment, with the support of the Mohammed VI Foundation for Environmental Protection and relevant stakeholders, should continue to work out technical solutions and incentives to shift traditional pottery kilns from wood to gas fuel. (Environmental Performance Reviews: Morocco Synopsis 2013, 18-19)

Even though it only mentions shifting kilns from wood to gas, the increased health problems associated with tires are an even more concern. This initiative is enough to support future projects within the pottery kiln sector.

In terms of water and soil pollution, according to the EPA, “for every million tires consumed by fire, about 55,000 gallons of runoff oil can pollute the environment unless contained and collected.” If uncontained, this runoff can then be carried away by rainwater to local water sources contaminating them. Additionally, the remaining residue can cause two types of pollution; either by immediate pollution by liquid decomposition products seeping into soil, or gradual pollution from leaching of ash and unburned residues following rainfall or other water entry.

Chemical Reactions in Firing Pottery

Clay is derived from the feldspar group of minerals; these minerals are alumina

(Al2O3) and silica (SiO2), the basics of clay and one metal oxide. In Tameslouht’s clay, there are significant traces of calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO), and iron oxide

(Fe2O3).

Table A.1: Mineral Composition of Tameslouht’s Clay Mineral % SiO2 63.8% Al2O3 14.3% CaO 8.9% Fe2O3 6.2% K2O 2.8% MgO 2.6% Source: El Boudour, El Idrissi, et al. 2016.

These clay minerals are coated with sheets of crystalline structures in the form of group of oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) atoms. As the temperature rises the clay particles link with the

O and H atoms and modify these oxides (Wickman 1978, 48).

Initially, the pot is fired to 1,800°F (982°C) to bisque7 and shorter and stronger oxygen bridges replace the weak hydrogen bonds (removing most of the water from clay).

This process continues throughout the firing process as the pottery reaches its “maturing temperature” of 2,200°F (1,200°C), or Cone 6.

Table A.2: Pottery Firing Cone Chart Kiln Color Cone °F °C Notes White 14 2552° 1400° Porcelain products. Bright Yellow- 10 2372° 1300° High-fire/Stoneware: Cone 8-10, above White 1250°C the glow is intense, making it difficult to see in the kiln. High Yellow 6 2192° 1200° Mid-fire pottery: Cone 2-7. Yellow 03 2012° 1100° Low-fire/Eartenware: Cone 08-1. Yellow-Orange 06 1832° 1000° Minimum temperature for oxidizing the atmosphere inside the kiln. Orange 010 1652° 900° Clay particles begin to vitrify. Bisque is between 900°C and 1000°C Bright Red 015 1472° 800° Enamel kilns are fired between 750°C and 850°C. Cherry Red 018 1292° 700° Between 700°C and 800°C carbon and sulfur are burned off. Source: Jenne Tichi, 2012.

Throughout firing the pottery burns off all of its organic minerals, notably carbonates,8 and begins to vitrify into a solid piece. The abundance of iron present in the clay leaves the product with a reddish orange color.

Waste Management

In consistency with research and analysis of methane capture and release, the definition for solid waste as classified under the Office of the Federal Register’s Code of

7Bisque is the name given to all types of clay that have been fired without a glaze. The lower the temperature of firing, the greater the porosity the piece has as it burns away all carbonaceous matter. The temperature for firing clay into bisque is between 650° C and 1050° C. Refractory can be fired up to 1300° C. 8Carbonates refers to a group within a large molecule that contains a carbon atom bound to three oxygen atoms.

Federal Regulations will be used. Solid waste is any “garbage or refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded material, resulting from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and from community activities” (40 CFR 240.101). This excludes sewage and olive oil wastewater (40 CFR 240.4), which will be addressed in the following section.

Solid waste management is a major issue worldwide, especially in developing countries. Inadequate collection, no separation of materials, and uncontrolled disposal of waste in open landfills lead to severe hazards, such as health risks and environmental pollution. A lack of waste management and dumping of waste in uncontrolled and uncovered landfills emit greenhouse gases, like methane, toxic leachates pollute subsurface and surface waters and enhance the risk of disease transmission to nearby residents. These dumps make very uneconomical use of the available space, allow free access to animals and flies and often produce unpleasant and hazardous smoke from slow-burning fires

(SANDEC, 2008). Burning waste is used to reduce the volume or odors of dumped or uncollected solid waste. Open burning is the major source of toxic gas emission such as dioxins and furans.

Current Process

Every Friday, entrepreneurs arrive in the early morning equipped with their vans full of merchandise to prepare for Tameslouht’s weekly market, hoping for good fortune.

Merchants fill the town’s center dividing up into areas of clothing, kitchen supplies, hardware supplies, vegetables and spices, and meat market. Given Tameslouht’s close

proximity to Marrakech and other smaller villages, people come from all around to stock up on their bulk supplies for the week, making it one of the largest weekly markets in the Al

Haouz region.

The weekly market brings thousands of people bussing in and out with loads of goods to take back home with them. For one day a week, the typically quiet center of

Tameslouht comes alive to serve the people of the region. When the day is done and the vans pack up to head back to their homes, the center is left littered with plastic wrappings, cardboard boxes, and food scraps.

The current waste management situation is simple. Tameslouht has three trash collectors on donkeys toting a flat bed who gather the trash and throw it in the nearest landfill. There are over 8 landfills of various sizes located around the town. Each resident pays the trash collector 10 dirhams a month (~$1) to transport their plastic bag full of trash to the landfill. A common method of disposing trash is to burn it, slightly clearing the way for the next load. Local sheep and dogs immediately consume the food waste.

Figure A.2: Tameslouht’s largest landfill covering 2.6 acres.

The lack of proper waste management makes trash burning an economically viable solution. Unfortunately, the health effects of burning waste is largely neglected or unknown to a large majority of Moroccans.

Burning trash is detrimental to the health and environment because of the dioxins it produces and particle pollution of harmful carcinogens and ash that can be absorbed through the skin, inhaled, or ingested from agricultural contamination.

Olive Oil Industry

Tameslouht is also known for its olive oil industry, which is seen from the remaining olive tree orchards that used to flourish before the draining of the natural spring and development began to eat away at the fields that once surrounded the town.

Based on recent data, Morocco ranks among the top ten major producers around the world and has a national production estimate of 160,000 tons of oil a year. It also offers seasonal jobs for farmers; within the European Union’s (EU) olive sector alone, there are roughly 2.5 million producers, who make up roughly one-third of all EU farmers. While it is a valuable economic commodity, it also produces its share of by-product waste due to their use of traditional mills (Hansen 2015, 12).

Current Process

The traditional mills, also called maasras, are rolling stone Roman-style mills that grind the olives into a coarse olive paste. After crushing, the olive paste needs to be mixed to achieve maximum oil yields. “The mixing operation consists of a slow and continuous stirring of the olive paste, which increases the percentage of “free oil” by helping the droplets of oil to merge into large drops and by breaking up the oil/water emulsion” (Di

Giovacchino 2013, 69). The ground and mixed olive paste is then placed between pressing mats where it is subjected to immense amounts of pressure in order to expel the oil. Then finally, the mixture is further transferred to a vertical centrifuge, which spins to separate the olive oil from the vegetation wastewater. These mills tend to have low extraction rates that are rarely above 14% mainly due to the fact that after pressing; the olive paste still contains a lot of oil. In the most recent data available, Moroccan millers wasted up to

900,000 liters of oil using traditional milling methods to produce their olive oil in 2002

(Hansen 2015, 19).

Figure A.3: Olive oil wastewater by-product and olive oil. Source: Olive Oil Market, 2015.

APPENDIX B: WASTE-TO-ENERGY PROCESSES

Introduction

The environmental issues at hand are all complex in their own right, which makes tying them all together to explain how they can be used to power a pottery kiln even more complex. Understanding how waste can be turned into energy relies on their own particular environments (combustion or anaerobic digestion) for these processes to work, particularly what solid waste is available and the barriers present in using the olive oil mill wastewater (OOMW) to produce energy. These chemical and microbial reactions need to be closely monitored and understood to power the potter kiln.

Looking at how it is possible to create this energy, it is necessary to observe how this energy is carried through the kiln itself. A kiln utilizes airflow of heat to create different appearances at different temperatures. The type of chemicals present in the clay and the materials combusted also play a role in creating the uniqueness of Tameslouht’s pottery.

Their pottery kilns only reach a temperature of 2,200°F (1,200°C), or Cone 6. Mixed with the combusting, “smoke bath” of rubber gives their pottery a natural raw look. The ability to create a design that does not stray from the traditional methods and economic means is important to this project’s sustainability.

The technical knowledge of how the pottery kiln design functions is important for the project’s success and to create a legitimate proposal to submit for funding. However, one must analyze similar kiln projects, the avenues they took for implementation, the previous successes and failures, and where these projects are today. Case study analysis allows one to pull inspiration and project lessons to be applied to the proposed project. The initial inspiration was found in a landfill-turned-artisan studio campus that utilized the

methane being released by the decomposing waste underground. They used the methane to power everything on site from their heating to their kilns.

An additional case study was an attempt to modernize the zillij (tile) kilns processes and improve economic income through educational programs for artisans, primarily women. The U.S. Millennium Challenge Corporation’s Morocco Compact funded the project.

Looking at how the programs implemented were successful and how the funding was acquired abroad and in Morocco is an important consideration for the project.

Waste-to-Energy Processes

Depending on the type of waste available and the means by which it is handled, solid waste can give off an array of gases and toxins in different forms. The most prevalent gases released from basic solid waste are methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). CH4 is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas after CO2. Methanes lifetime in the atmosphere is much shorter than CO2, but CH4 is more efficient at trapping radiation than CO2. Pound for pound, the comparative impact of CH4 on climate change is more than 25 times greater than CO2 over a 100-year period. Globally, over 60 percent of total CH4 emissions come from human activities (Environmental Protection Agency 2010, 1-2).

Landfill gas-to-energy (LFGTE) involves the collection of landfill gas (LFG) (50% CH4 and 50% CO2), which is generated through the anaerobic decomposition of solid waste in landfills. This process can utilize Tameslouht’s food waste, and potentially use the OOMW to aid in the process through an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor or a hybrid system that first treats the OOMW to ensure a balanced microbial environment.

Waste-to-energy (WtE) involves the direct combustion of solid waste. The resulting heat may be used to generate steam that turns a turbine to generate electricity, or in this case, to heat a kiln (Kaplan, et al. 2008). Through first separating waste from Tameslouht’s landfills, this combustion method can substitute to some degree for tires in the current pottery kiln methods, but it is still more efficient to explore using the methane gas or “bio- bricks” formed from burnable organic materials such as bio-solids and paper or waste plant material.

Decomposition (LFGTE)

A large portion of CH4 emissions can be linked to the biological process of anaerobic decomposition, in which bacteria break organic matter down in the absence of oxygen. This involves a four-part cyclical process of hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis. Although each of the steps needs to be closely monitored to ensure the next, the last step is the most important for methane production.

Figure B.1: Anaerobic Processes of Methane Gas Production. Source: Wilson 2014.

Methanogens are a specialized group of microbes that break down certain molecules, such as hydrogen (H2) and CO2, to produce CH4 through the process of methanogenesis. Some of this CH4 can be partly or completely oxidized by another group of bacteria, called methanotrophs, while the remainder can ultimately enter the atmosphere

(Environmental Protection Agency 2015, 2). The desirable environment suitable for efficient methane release is a lack of oxygen, proper temperature for mesophilic conditions

(68°-104° F / 20°-40° C), proper pH for microbial growth (6.8 and 8.2), an organic acid to alkalinity ratio less than 0.3, a 25-30 Carbon (C) to 1 part Nitrogen (N) ratio, and water.

Olive Oil Waste

The major issue with the olive oil industry lies in the manufacturing process, which generally yields four times more waste by volume than actual product with three main byproducts:

1) A solid residue or olive press cake. 2) A semi-solid residue (SOR). 3) A liquid waste called olive oil mill wastewater (OOMW) (Hansen 2015, 22).

Traditional mills are mainly responsible for creating an OPC after the initial pressing of olive oil paste and an OMW after initial washing of the olives and after final separation.

This generally yields 20% olive oil, 30% SOR, and 50% OOW, which equates to 80% more waste by volume being produced than actual product (Dimitrios 2012, 275). OOMW has a dark brown to black color, acidic smell, a high organic load, high Carbon to Nitrogen ratio, an acidic pH between 3.0-5.9, more than 30 different phenolic compounds, and high content of solid matter. In countries without stringent environmental regulations the

untreated OOMW may be discharged into water bodies or applied to the land, which is problematic because the wastes cause environmental degradation.

Olive oil mill effluents are “claimed to be one of the most polluting effluents produced by the agro-food industries because of its high-polluting load” (Rhamanian, et al.

2014, 1). Olive oil mill by-products contain a high organic load consisting of a number of different substances such as salts, lipids, pectin, polysaccharides, nitrogenous compounds, organic acids, polyalcohols, polyphenols and oil residue. This high organic load leads to high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) resulting in numerous environmental problems (Hansen 2015, 22).

Amongst the various substances found in olive oil waste, the most concerning are the phenolic compounds. Olive oil mill effluents often carry high concentrations of phenolic compounds ranging up to 10 g/l depending on the type and origin of the effluent (Sarika, et al. 2005, 289). Olive oil contains a minor amount of phenol content only around 2 percent.

The majority of the phenolic compounds remain in the waste itself, particularly the wastewater (Stamatelatou, et al. 2012, 93). In olives themselves, the phenol content is most abundant during its growing phase, but as it ages the phenol content lowers. In order to make olives palatable they are curated which removes any remaining phenols (Omar 2010,

138). This remaining high phenolic content not only causes a major obstacle in the waste’s detoxification but also causes a disposal and treatment problem when it leaches into the surface or subsurface waters and is converted by oxidation and or polymerization into phytotoxic and antibacterial pollutants (Hansen 2015, 24). Phenols’ phytotoxicity causes a toxic effect that inhibits “seed germination and early plant growth, alter soil characteristics,

and create reducing conditions, affecting microbial diversity in soil” (Ntaikou, et al. 2009,

1).

Phenols are not only phytotoxic but they also have a “high oxygen demand and can readily deplete oxygen in the receiving water, with detrimental effects on those organisms that abstract dissolved oxygen for their metabolism” (Wallace and Tieman 2014, 3). This reduction of dissolved oxygen can result in the eutrophication of water sources and pH alterations (Hansen 2015, 24). Eutrophication is a serious kind of water pollution that results in the reduction of aquatic plants, fish and other animal populations as it promotes excessive growth of algae and reduces dissolved oxygen in the water. Furthermore, as the algae die and decompose, the decomposing organisms can alter the water’s natural state that may lead to the production of disease-causing bacteria (Ansari, et al. 2010, 144).

Table B. 1: General Characteristics of OOMW Chemical Oxygen Demand 23-100 Total Solids 1-102.5 Organic Total Solids 16.7-81.6 Fats 1-23 Polyphenols .002-80 Volatile Organic Acids .78-10 Total Nitrogen .3-1.2 Source: Azbar, et al. 2004.

Morocco ranks among the top ten major producers around the world and has a national production estimate of 160,000 tons of olive oil a year (Hansen 2015, 131). This waste has the potential to be used as a substrate for anaerobic digestion because almost

80% of organic compounds of OOMW are biomethanizable. According to Sampaio,

Gonçalves, and Marques, anaerobic digestion has been reported as one of the most promising technologies for the disposal of OOMW (Hansen 2015, 26). Theoretically, a yield of 37 m3 of methane per m3 of OOMW could be achieved according to one estimate (Reith

and Barten 2003, 81). One study done on OOMW indicated that it could be treated anaerobically with efficiencies of 85.4–93.4%, and that anaerobic treatment of 1 liter

OOMW produced 57.1 +/- 1.5 liters of methane gas (Ergüder, et al. 2000, 3).

Despite these promising results, this study only considered small-scale batch reactors that may not be applicable to large-scale production; therefore full-scale application is not yet a reality (Ntaikou, et al. 2009, 287). The phenolic compounds found in olive oil effluents are antimicrobial. The high concentration of polyphenols inhibits the normal development of methanogenic bacteria (Oreopoulou and Russ 2007, 153). Other compounds such as lipids, sugars, high levels of sodium and chloride also contribute to the overall toxicity (Hansen 2015, 24).

To combat inhibited biogas yield and efficiency, and to preclude these undesirable characteristics, a pretreatment process is necessary, which will contribute to the cost.

Pretreatment involves diluting the OOMW to an appropriate level where the composition of phenolic compounds are at a concentration that would not inhibit natural methane gas production. OOMW provides a promising yet problematic source of biogas; therefore more research and pilot studies are needed to expand the applicability of the technology. Once this technology becomes well established, it has the potential to produce large quantities of energy and possibly mitigate environmental consequences associated with olive oil production.

Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor

The UASB is the most commonly used anaerobic digestion process and is estimated to have more than 500 installations across the world (Latif, et al. 2011, 114). In the UASB,

water containing organic waste entering from the bottom of the reactor passes upward through a dense anaerobic sludge bed. As organic materials pass through the sludge bed they are anaerobically decomposed, and soluble chemical oxygen demand9 (COD) is converted to biogas. The gas that is produced is then separated by a gas–liquid separator while the granular sludge naturally settles to the bottom (Goswami, et al. 2016). These reactors are suitable for high volumetric pollution loads of between 5 and 15 kg

COD/m3/day (Oreopoulou and Russ 2007, 144). Bench and pilot plant-scale experiments indicate that it is possible to operate these systems at a COD loading of 40 kg/m3/day

(Goswami, et al. 2016). The UASB is a versatile system that is simple, and has relatively low capital costs.

In addition to the UASB, a two-phase methane extraction process is the most ideal for biogas production because it segregates the the phases leading to methanogenisis, which creates a more efficent system. When these stages are optimized separately, it has been found that the overall reaction rate and biogas yield improves (Reith, Wijffels and

Barten 2003, 15). An added advantage is that an acidogenic fermentation ﬁrst phase in combination with a UASB second phase is useful in reducing the amount of suspended solids entering the second phase. This sequencing can improve biogas yields (Goswami, et al. 2016). This makes a two-phase system superior to the other systems in terms of yield and efficiency. However, this system also requires two reactors to be constructed and, depending on the reactor type they can require additional energy input, which increases the capital and operational costs for this type of reactor.

9 The COD value indicates the amount of oxygen that is needed for the oxidation of all organic substances in water and is expressed as mg/l or g/m3.

In order to use OOMW as a type of feedstock for an anaerobic digestion system, additional processes are necessary to ensure proper filtering of the waste. This filtering enhances its productivity in aiding in the creation of biogas. The best option, which is still being developed, is to create a two-phase process that separates stages of the methane production.

In relation to providing energy to the overall kiln design, the methane gas will be tanked and used periodically for regulating steady temperature rise within the kiln chamber. Since the digestion process takes weeks or months to begin (depending on size), it will be used as a secondary source of energy compared to the primary combustion of solid waste. Another benefit of the UASB reactor is that the sludge created will need to be removed. This sludge can be mixed, compacted, and dried in bio-bricks that can be combusted in the kiln as well.

Combustion (WtE)

The amount of energy captured from solid waste combustion relies on what material is being burned, since different materials release different amounts of British

Thermal Units (BTUs) and their moisture content for effective combustion. Since the moisture content can be manipulated by drying the material, more important is how much material is available and needed to reach the desired amount of energy needed for operating a pottery kiln.

In a survey distributed to 22 households to determine weekly trash composition, the results discovered that on average, half of the garbage was food with the remainder mostly cardboard and plastic. Unfortunately, stray dogs quickly find the food scraps but the

cardboard is a viable resource for energy production. In addition to household use of cardboard, the weekly market disposes up to 155 pounds of cardboard that is burned openly. End markets can be found in nearby Marrakech to distribute the remaining plastic for recycling or the creation of a local separating and recycling facility could greatly benefit

Tameslouht more directly.

Although there is a vast amount of waste to be used for energy production, the lack of recycling and waste management services in the town is the first major concern that needs to be addressed. Once basic waste management services are established - such as garbage truck collection, public trashcans, and a separating facility - then the waste can be distributed appropriately and transformed into energy. A possible action plan for developing this project is outlined in Appendix E: Action Plan for Tameslouht.

Summary

Tameslouht’s environmental issues could potentially be used to benefit the community and mitigate the root of the issues themselves by developing waste-to-energy methods. When thinking of how to power Tameslouht’s pottery kiln, one must look at what are the available energy sources.

The abundant solid waste resource can be combusted; this will be the primary energy source for the kiln. It must first be separated, using only cardboard, carton, and paper to burn in the kiln. The rubber and plastic will be taken to end markets located in nearby Marrakech.

The olive oil mill wastewater poses a chemical problem; it must be properly pretreated to remove its phenolic compounds to ensure it will not disrupt the anaerobic

processes necessary for methane production when added to the liquid waste. The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor can act as a scrubber that filters the gas through the organic matter sludge before being tanked. Given the wastewater’s toxic characteristics, tests will be needed to determine to proper mixture needed to supplement the environment within the reactor. The methane captured can be used as a secondary source of energy for the kiln, stove tops, or even electricity.

APPENDIX C: KILN DESIGN

Introduction

The basic function of an artisan kiln is to deliver a flow of heat from the energy source, through the ware, and out the chimney. This flow rate is dependent upon the interior dimensions of the kiln and the height of the chimney to pull the heat through the interior chamber. There three most commonly used structural kiln designs – updraft, cross- draft, and downdraft. Each of the kiln styles has advantages and disadvantages over the others depending on the requirements.

Types of Kiln Structures

Updraft Kiln

An updraft kiln, as shown in Figure C.1, is a kiln in which the flame or heat source in introduced from the bottom of the kiln and exhausted through a chimney in the rook.

Updraft kilns consist of three main components: the firebox (or where the waste powered heat source enters), the main pottery area, and the damper (which helps control the exhaust air flow). Advantages to using this type of kiln is the simplicity to build, pack and ship however with that simplicity comes the disadvantage of heat efficiency, as this is the least efficient kiln type.

Figure C.1: Diagram of airflow in an updraft kiln. Source: Author’s rendering.

Cross-Draft Kiln

A cross-draft kiln, shown in Figure C.2, is a kiln in which the heat source is introduced at the bottom side of the kiln and then, due to hot air being less dense than colder air, the heat naturally flows upwards. The construction of the kiln then forces the air back down to the bottom of the kiln and out through the chimney on the other side. This airflow allows the heat to stay in the kiln for more time, which increases overall efficiency; however, it also increases installation costs. Similarly, to the updraft kiln, the cross-draft kiln consists of four main components: the firebox (or where the waste powered heat source enters), the main pottery area, the damper (which helps control the exhaust air flow) and chimney (which helps create draw to force the airflow).

Figure C.2: Diagram of airflow in a cross-draft kiln. Source: Author’s rendering.

Downdraft Kiln

A downdraft kiln is a kiln in which the heat source is introduced at the bottom of both sides as shown in Figure C.3. The heat, similarly to the cross-draft, flows upwards along the construction pattern. When the airflow meets at the top the pressure differential then causes both patterns to be pushed downward and out through the chimney in the bottom middle. There are five main components to downdraft kilns: the firebox (or where the waste powered heat source enters), the main pottery area, the damper (which helps control the exhaust air flow), the chimney (which helps create draw to force the airflow) and the stack height which is what helps control the airflow upwards and then back down and out through the chimney. Similarly, to the cross-draft kiln the style allows the heat to

stay in the kiln longer which increases the heat transferred to the pottery thus increasing efficiency. This kiln also increases total volume of heating, which means more BTUs of fuel are required throughout the day.

Figure C.3: Diagram of airflow in a downdraft kiln. Source: Olsen 2013, 129.

Sprung Arch Kiln

A “sprung arch” refers to the roof structure. The arched roof allows the heat to curve around or through the pottery before leaving out the exit flue. This design feature is integrated with either an updraft or downdraft kiln.

Beehive Kiln

A beehive kiln was the first kiln constructed that looks like what we consider a kiln.

The energy source is located below the ware, called the firebox. The structure can either be

a simple cylinder or, to insulate the interior better, an arch with an exit flue at the top with a damper blade to regulate the flow of heat through the ware. The pots are stacked within this chamber allowing greater retention of heat. As the fire burns, and the kiln gets hotter, the hot air rises and leaves the kiln through the flue. Meanwhile, cool air enters the bottom at the firebox.

Tameslouht’s Current Kiln Parameters

Creating an alternative pottery kiln to be used by the potters in Tameslouht need to fit the parameters of the current pottery processes discussed in Appendix A and incorporate waste-to-energy principles described in Appendix B. The designs created by the engineering team at the University of Cincinnati, discussed in Appendix D, incorporated the familiarity of the current kilns with the option to use alternative energy sources such as solid waste or methane gas. This appendix outlines the engineering team’s recommendations for the engineering specifications of Tameslouht’s kilns, dynamics of kiln design and best materials, and methods for delivering methane gas produced from liquid waste.

The following conditions must be taken into consideration when designing an alternative pottery kiln:

1. Tameslouht’s traditional kiln design is similar to a “beehive” design. 2. The firebox below reaches 2,200° F (1,200° C), or Cone 6. The area above reaches 1,832° F (1000° C) bisque or Cone 06. 3. Main energy source is from combusted rubber tires. 4. Wood and gas alternatives are too expensive for the potters. 5. Tameslouht pottery is not glazed. 6. The minimum and maximum dimensions of pots made by the artisans determines the necessary interior dimensions of the kiln.

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In addition, introducing new practices will greatly improve the kiln design’s efficiency and sustainability: 1. Materials and components needed for greatest efficiency and affordability. 2. How the energy from the captured methane gas and incinerated waste will be delivered through the system. 3. The programs and workshops needed to educate potters on how to use the kiln. 4. Prototypes and tests needed to discover what changed must be made to properly operate on a larger scale.

Figure C.4: Comparison of a Traditional Tameslouht Kiln to a Beehive Kiln. Source: GcCeramics: Kilns – History and Basic Design.

The current cylinder structure of Tameslouht’s traditional kilns is extremely inefficient since it does not trap any BTUs within the structure. This is why the kilns require large quantities of tires to reach Cone 6 temperatures. According to the Council on

Plastics and Packing in the Environment, rubber releases 10,900 BTUs/pound when incinerated. Although tires give off the most BTUs when combusted, the heat is immediately lost through the top opening of the kiln, resulting in a release of 31,200,000

BTUs per day. In addition, the process released harmful compounds into the atmosphere that are eventually spread throughout the town. This major flaw in efficiency leads the team to consider a more modern pottery kiln design. This task requires determining the internal volume for existing pottery, the heat delivery system, and the flow of heat through the kiln.

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Tameslouht’s Kiln Design Overview

There are a variety of kiln shapes, heating methods, and materials to choose from in designing a pottery kiln. However, there are basic elements to choose from that lend to an overall efficient pottery kiln with special attributes added to benefit the proposed system.

The interior should be built with insulated firebrick to heat the interior quickly with the exterior built with firebrick to retain the heat for a long period of time. The kiln should include a sprung arch shape with a downdraft flow system, with air being pushed by venturi burners through the chamber including a combustion chamber, also called the firebox, below the burners. The two-source energy system is what makes the kiln design peculiar and complex, by providing a chamber for combusting solid waste that can be switched to, or diverted to, the gas powered venturi burners above. A damper blade regulates the balanced heat input of these two systems over the interior inlet flues.

One source of fuel is methane gas that is generated in an anaerobic biological system. The upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (decomposer) captures and cleans generated methane of corrosive particulates. A liquid waste that will consist of food scraps, sawdust, wastewater, and other organic matter fed to the anaerobic reactor produces the methane gas through natural anaerobic digestion. The gas will be collected and stored in a tank that can be connected to the venturi burner system. The by-product produced in the digester is a nutrient-rich sludge that can be used either for fertilizer and/or be compressed into bio-bricks along with other combustible material that will be incinerated.

Bio-bricks will be used to preheat the firebox along with pre-sorted solid waste such as cardboard and paper. The solid waste can be fed to the combustion chamber by a hopper system to ensure a constant rate of heat input. Depending on the methane gas available

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from the decomposer, the venturi burners can provide additional heat periodically when needed.

Given the kiln’s large interior, the chimney will have to be nineteen feet tall to ensure proper airflow. One method to decrease the size is to place a forced air blower in the chimney that will shrink the height by 33% and increase heating efficiency by 81%.

Tameslouht’s Kiln Design Details

Kiln Structure

In order to allow for the firing of their largest product, the interior volume needs to be very large, 72 inches high x 42 inches wide x 51 inches long or 93.2 cubic inches. In order to provide enough BTUs to reach cone 6 temperatures, the kiln needs 105,000

BTU/ft3/day. Compared to the 31,200,000 BTUs used for reaching the same temperature, the kiln is already vastly more efficient.

To provide the best fuel efficiency for the kiln, a downdraft system would be the best option. In this design, a flame is introduced at the bottom of the kiln and naturally flows upward and follows the arch back downward, passing through the pottery and drawn out flue at the bottom of the kiln and up the chimney. A sliding plate, or damper, is located in the chimney; it can be adjusted to decrease or increase the rate of oxygen flow inside the chamber. The flow rate is important for evenly firing all of the pots, helping create the desired air to gas ratio.

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Chimney

A problematic design element for the kiln is the building height needed for efficient airflow rate through the kiln chamber. The kiln design principles (Olsen 2011, 130) state that for every 1 foot of downward pull you must provide 3 feet of chimney height. Likewise, for every 3 feet of horizontal pull there must be 1 foot of chimney height. These standards would put the chimney at about 23 feet tall. The reason for these dimensions is to provide an optimal draft rate of 4 feet to 5 feet per second (Olsen 2011, 79). An adjustable damper blade in the chimney also helps regulate the airflow within the chamber.

Reduction of the size of the chimney without sacrificing efficiency can be achieved by introducing a forced air blower to help with natural air flow while the venturi burners

(Figure C.5) are not operating, since the venturis (pressurized gas) do not require the same chimney dimensions.

Heat Exchanger

A heat exchanger was added in order to further increase efficiency. The heat exchanger works by making ambient temperature airflow through the chimney. The warm heat is transferred through the piper walls and energy is transferred to the cooler air. This warmer air now has a higher initial temperature when combusting. This higher initial temperature allows for a more efficient combustion as the change in temperature decreases. According to Marvin Bartel in “A Revolutionary Kiln Design,” a heat exchanger increases efficiency by roughly 70%. This is a huge increase for a rather small investment.

The blowers are able to provide 1,100° F of air before entering the firebox. This would then further increase the temperature and thus the efficiency. This would mean that

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less garbage would be burned per day and the garbage could be split between more kilns of this design. That also decreases the carbon and pollution emissions from the kiln. A major limitation of this method is that is requires another level of complexity and operator training. It also requires additional safety measures, electricity, more structural support, and airflow control.

Kiln Chamber Materials

The refractory material is important in determining the number of BTUs required to heat up the kiln and to retain that temperature. They are materials that can withstand extreme temperatures above 1,000° F. Refractory bricks allow for the gas supply to be reserved as the atmosphere within the kiln continues to fire. There are three different materials that will be used: firebrick, insulated firebrick, and refractory fiber-blanket.

Firebrick is most commonly used, but it requires a lot of energy to reach desired temperatures since it needs to absorb the BTUs to make the interior hot. Firebrick will be used as an exterior insulator.

Insulated firebrick is a lightweight, porous material that stores and absorbs little heat, essentially, it functions as a structural piece that does not take heat away from the pottery. Thus, it allows energy and time to reach desired temperatures.

Refractory fiber-blanket is a highly efficient yet fragile material that should be used sparingly in peepholes and around other openings. It is expensive and is vulnerable to chemicals and needs to be replaced frequently.

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Figure C.5: Refractory materials and their efficiency. Source: Ward Burner Systems 2017.

Fuel Delivery

Venturi Burners

The large volume of the kiln calls for four venturi burners to heat up the interior adequately without expending too much methane. The benefits of venturi burners is that they require no electricity, work well with natural gas, and will complement the natural airflow of the combustion chamber below. The amount of pressure is easily adjusted to manipulate the air-to-gas ratio supplied into the kiln, allowing for greater flexibility when using both the systems at once (Ward Burner Systems 2017).

Figure C.6: Venturi burner. Source: Ceramics Arts Daily 2018.

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The combustion chamber will be fed by hand periodically, three times a day through a slot that will trap the heat when closed. It is important to have a removable metal grate to clean off the ash that accumulates from the burned materials. Initially, the area below the grate is used as a starter pit, warming the combustion chamber to the point where additional solid waste or bio-bricks put above the grate will immediately combust and fall through the grate into the ash pit area below.

Each system should have its own set of inlet flues sucking the BTUs released from the combustion chamber and/or gas from the venturi burners. In order to maintain a consistent rate of BTU input needed, damper blades will be installed to control the size of the inlet flues, thereby controlling the rate of energy being pumped through the kiln.

UASB Reactor

An upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor (Figure C.6) will be utilized to capture the methane case while acting as a wet scrubber, removing hydrogen sulfide particulates that are corrosive to any metal it touches. Anaerobic processes can take weeks to get the microorganisms moving within a favorable environment to create methane gas.

The sludge blanket is comprised of microbial granules resist being washed out in the upflow. The microorganisms in the sludge layer degrade organic compounds. As a result, gases (methane and carbon dioxide), are primarily released. The rising bubbles mix the sludge without the assistance of any mechanical parts. Sloped walls deflect material that reaches the top of the tank downwards. The clarified effluent is extracted from the top of the tank in an area above the sloped walls.

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After several weeks of use, large granules of sludge form, which, in turn, act as filters for smaller particles as the effluent rises through the cushion of sludge. Because of the upflow regime, granule-forming organisms are preferentially accumulated as the others are washed out (Akvopedia 2015). This secondary methane source will be used if methane release from combustible waste is running low. In addition, the reactor will have a compressor to pump the accumulated methane into storage tanks as the sludge is dried into bio-bricks for combustion.

Figure C.7: Design of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor. Source: Akvopedia 2015.

Summary

Each of the kiln’s design elements serve its own function in utilizing waste-to- energy systems and offering its own process and unique complications when thinking of how to efficiently connect it to power a functioning pottery kiln. The structure of the kiln is

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determined by where the heat source is entering the chamber (below) how the heating air will travel through the ware and within the chamber (upflow draft with sprung arch) before being pulled out of the chimney with the greatest efficiency. Given the large chamber, the height of the chimney would be impractical. Therefore, we proposed that a heat exchanger be added to the chimney and rechanneling the heat back into the firebox via pipes.

The project team decided to design a kiln with a firebox below the chamber with the heat being delivered from two sets of flues – one fed from the incinerated trash below and the other from venturi burners powered by methane gas captured from the UASB. Sliding a damper blade over the inlet flues not being used can alternate the sources of energy. This kiln design is the most complex out of four kiln concepts created by the engineering team.

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APPENDIX D: DATA GATHERING AND RESEARCH

Introduction

The foundation for the success of long-term projects is built upon the relationships established, research performed, and the quality of data collected. The research and data gathered is what gives a project its qualitative and quantitative legitimacy. Currently, there is the opportunity to fill in the gaps of missing information that can support the future applications of proposals focused on waste management projects in the region and eventually, the country.

The initial data gathered were limited but gives a picture of what waste is like in the town of Tameslouht. With that snapshot of Tameslouht, the information that was gathered allowed the engineering team at the University of Cincinnati to create a prototype of an alternative kiln design using the analyzed research and the numbers collected. This data can act as a baseline, and built upon as the project progresses.

Trash Composition Survey

The data were gathered by giving 10-liter buckets to households of various sizes with a survey that listed different types of waste produced such as cardboard, paper, food, newspaper, plastic, and milk cartons. The participant would estimate the percentage occupied by each type of waste within the bin at the end of each day. This method has flaws to it given the reliance on individuals’ estimation and the willingness to document adequate data in the first place. However, given the limited time and resources this was the best method at the time but also began the conversation of needing solid waste data at the local level in Morocco.

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The survey was distributed to 22 households to determine daily, weekly, and monthly trash composition. We discovered that, on average, half of the garbage was food scraps with the remainder being mostly cardboard and plastic. Unfortunately, stray dogs quickly find the food scraps but the cardboard is a viable resource for energy production. In addition to household use of cardboard, the weekly market disposes of up to 155 pounds of cardboard that is burned openly. The remaining plastic (bottles) are collected by men who take it to Marrakech to be cleaned and reused for olive oil distribution, with the biggest concern being the enormous amount of plastic bags used and discarded daily (these data were not collected). The percentages of solid waste collected were then converted into weight by using data available by the Environmental Protection Agency 1997 report,

“Measuring Recycling: A Guide for State and Local Governments.”

Questionnaire of Current Pottery Methods and Project Support

The data needed were to understand the potters’ kiln processes and pottery sizes

(explained in Appendix B) and support from the potters themselves. The premise of the survey was that if there were insufficient support for an alternative kiln design, I would not carry on with the project. Fortunately, all of the potters were supportive of the alternative design because they are aware of the pollution it causes and the effects it has on their health. However, many were skeptical of any of these ideas becoming reality because of past promises made and broken by foreigners and government officials. The trust amongst the potters and outside entities needed to be re-established.

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University of Cincinnati Kiln Design Team

After these data were collected, an engineering team was recruited to help design the actual pottery kiln and do the calculations for estimating the amount of energy needed to operate the kiln. When I returned to the U.S., I scheduled meetings with professors in the

College of Mechanical and Environmental Engineering and the College of Art at the

University of Cincinnati on how to design the pottery kiln with the data I had collected. As a result, I was able to gather a team of two mechanical engineering students, two environmental engineering students, one environmental engineering professor, and one ceramics instructor. Our team met weekly during the 2016-2017 school year to develop an alternative kiln design for Tameslouht.

Kiln Design Studio

I participated in a kiln design studio within the College of Art at the University of

Cincinnati with guidance from ceramics instructor, Jesse Ring. The ceramics studio allowed us to design our own pottery kiln, build a new pottery kiln for the college, and also create and fire our own pottery. The holistic approach in addition to our weekly meetings allowed for the engineers and me to better understand the thermodynamics and aerodynamics of designing a proper kiln that could be used by the potters in Tameslouht.

Mechanical Engineers

I was directed by Professor Thomas Huston to present my project to his senior mechanical engineering class to use as their capstone project. Robert Caudy and Stephanie

Horvath volunteered to take on the project. They were responsible for the 3D design renderings, selecting proper materials, and evaluating economic analysis of the five

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alternative designs created through our meetings. Their final report, “Waste Powered Kiln” was created to fulfill their Bachelor’s degrees.

Environmental Engineers

The first meeting I held was with Professor George Sorial of the environmental engineering program at the University of Cincinnati; he directed me to Professor Margaret

Kupferle who specializes in solid waste to energy production. Dr. Kupferle recommended that I take her introductory course “Solid and Hazardous Waste Management,” to better understand the processes I would be dealing with. I realized the need for environmental engineers on my team, so I was able to recruit a master’s student, Saurabh Desai, and a fourth year undergraduate, Andrew Francis.

They were responsible for analyzing Tameslouht’s solid waste to determine various methods of converting it to usable fuel via incineration and methane gas capture. It was during one of our initial meetings that I was presenting the project’s context and solid waste data that mentioned the olive oil wastewater problem in Tameslouht. Dr. Kupferle caught this off-hand comment and she began to probe further into possibly using this as an additive to help the decomposition process in production of methane gas. Thereby, creating an additional project for the environmental engineers that would be developed further in the future.

Ongoing: Utilizing OOW for Methane Capture

A fellow Peace Corps volunteer, Catherine Hansen, served in Tameslouht from 2013-

2015. Her thesis, “A Feasibility Analysis for the Development of a Facility Utilizing Olive Oil

Mill Production Waste as a Carbon Substrate in Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production in

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Morocco,” analyzed how to convert OOMW into a bio-plastic, her research on the characteristics of OOMW allowed the environmental engineering team to consider it as a viable substrate for methane production. In order to determine the proper mixture of

OOMW with liquid waste to maintain the proper environment for methane gas to be created, laboratory tests must be conducted to gather the data.

In the following year, another capstone project will be established for the environmental engineers. The capstone will expand upon the data and research gathered from the previous year and will require the team to run tests in a small homemade batch- reactor to determine what types of feedstock can create the highest yield of methane gas.

The known OOMW characteristic data can be recreated in the laboratory and applied to the reactors. The data gathered could then potentially be used for the design of a large-scale, waste-to-energy facility in Tameslouht that will produce methane gas to be tanked or combusted into electricity.

Future Data Needed: Regional Environmental Reports

There have been several environmental reports carried out by outside private organizations and government agencies about solid waste in Morocco on the macro-level, but these reports are missing detailed data on the regional, provincial, and local level. This data is needed to create a clearer image of how much and what kind of solid waste is produced on the local level. Once the data is collected then local governments and organizations can use the data to reference in grant proposals and use a benchmark study to compare in post evaluations of project implemented.

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I have recently been awarded the U.S. Fulbright Student research grant for 2018-

2019 in Morocco. The main objective of my research is to hold workshops throughout the

Al Haouz province, where Tameslouht is located. These workshops will be carried out under the identity of my nonprofit organization (NPO), Resilient Communities, in partnership with local associations in each of the six towns located throughout the province.

The workshops will expand upon the initial survey I carried out while serving in the

Peace Corps. It will also be used as an educational platform to citizens; explaining the current environmental issues in the Al Haouz province and in their respective towns. Those in attendance will be asked to document their waste production either by paper survey or with a mobile application that will be developed. The data will be drafted into a report for the Al Haouz province.

Summary

The development of this kiln project has spanned four years and counting, from the beginning research for two Peace Corps Master’s International students’ theses, the assistance of a mechanical engineering team, and with the research and data gathered the project could now come closer to implementation with a complementary follow-up environmental engineering capstone project and my Fulbright research.

The relationships built along the development of this project has inspired many and provided hope to those that were once complacent with their circumstances. I recently returned to Morocco to carry out business meetings with new contacts gathered with the help of my Moroccan counterparts in preparation for my Fulbright research. The Fulbright

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grant will help establish an anchor for sustainability to support the development of this project and other waste management projects. This can be accomplished with the launch of my NPO’s presence in Morocco by building partnerships with local associations through the workshops implemented and the creation of the first solid waste provincial report.

The creation of this report will not only enhance the possibility of implementing this project but also potentially establishing more waste management and recycling operations in the province. However, one province is not enough, Resilient Communities anticipates to continue creating these reports one province at a time until an each region is documented.

Adequate research and data will allow for the cycle of project development to thrive, providing opportunity and inspiration to those who least expect it. A more detailed action plan is outlined in the following appendix.

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APPENDIX E ACTION PLAN FOR TAMESLOUHT

Introduction

A short, medium, and long-term approach is needed to establish the proper data, administrative connections, and local resources that will lead to the implementation of a large-scale pottery kiln.

Since the foundation has already been laid in Tameslouht with basic data already gathered, artisan support and representation, and trust established between the University of Cincinnati team and local Moroccan associations, the following action plan is for

Tameslouht in particular but can be adjusted for other towns.

Bridging the Gap: Resilient Communities

Since a foreign organization cannot solely operate in Morocco without a local partnership, it is mandatory to establish strong partnerships between the project developer and the Moroccan associations and governments that will be involved in implementing the project. To establish the international partnership, an organization in the

United States could be created that can help Moroccan organizations with acquiring funding and helping carry out community workshops, and technical trainings. These skills would be slowly transferred to the local associations to be used for the betterment of their own communities.

The nonprofit organization, Resilient Communities, has been recently established to assist in the implementation of this project and strengthen Moroccan communities by providing proper resources and gathering local data that support sustainable projects. The

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author of this thesis, Eastman Johnson, and environmental engineering student, Andrew

Francis, who worked on the kiln project, created Resilient Communities.

For tax purposes, the organization has been established as an educational and charitable nonprofit organization in Ohio under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue

Service Code of 1986. While pursuing research through the Fulbright U.S. Student program,

I will learn how to properly manage my international nonprofit with my affiliate international organization, the High Atlas Foundation, located in Marrakech, Morocco.

Strategic Plan

The core of creating a sustainable project such as this one is the quality of the data and network of local associations to support it. In Morocco, the data needed to support the functional design of the pottery kiln on the local level does not exist yet. These are the

“bookends” of the overall project outline below.

1. Establish a solid waste database on the provincial level to support future environmental projects. a. Through the Fulbright U.S. Student program, Resilient Communities will partner with local associations in larger towns in the Al Haouz province to help perform environmental workshops. b. The environmental workshops should address: i. Why the data are being gathered and how citizen participation can help support future development of their communities. ii. How to properly log and report the solid waste data. c. The data and methodology should be gathered into a provincial report that can be used as a benchmark and reference for future projects such as the pottery kiln. i. The data and workshops can be replicated to other provinces, eventually tying together entire regions with local solid waste data to be utilized by local organizations and governments.

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d. Strengthen partnerships with local associations and governments in the province for future community planning and data gathering. 2. Launch a second capstone project using the environmental engineering team at the University of Cincinnati. a. The project should analyze how the local wastewater treatment plant can naturally filter the olive oil wastewater effectively without disrupting the natural anaerobic processes of the plant. i. Data will be requested from the Ministry of Electricity and Potable Water. b. The team should also design an accompanying facility and digester that can capture the methane gas naturally to be tanked and/or combusted for electricity. i. The system should also consider the period pumping of the organic matter by-product to utilize as bio- bricks and/or fertilizer. 3. Establish a waste management operation and recycling facility in Tameslouht. a. The capstone project will support future plans to implement holistic sustainable infrastructure in Tameslouht. b. With basic public services being a sole responsibility of local governments, Resilient Communities will work with the government of Tameslouht and other associations to gather necessary data and create the project proposals. i. Resilient Communities and local associations should hold workshops on educating the public on the new collection system and how to separated waste will be used for energy. ii. The facilities should focus on training and hiring local residents. 4. Work with the local potters to create small-scale prototype kilns to determine the best design for large-scale production. a. The small-scale kilns should focus on using local materials and utilize the local potters expertise to create the most efficient design. i. There will be several prototypes but each will serve as an educational piece for local artisans and students. ii. Training of employees of the separating facility on how to properly operate the kilns, this training can be used to also train local potters how to use the kiln for their work. b. Partnerships and agreements will be made with governments in the area to collect, separate, and transport their solid waste to Tameslouht to power the kilns.

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It will be necessary to hold continuous workshops to include and educate the public on the changes being made. In particular, periodic meetings should be held with the potters, local stakeholders, and local authorities discussing the overall action plan and designs of the kiln and proposed facilities. Providing opportunities for valuable input and collaboration will enable the community to be part of the planning process, and strengthening the foundation for long-term programming.

It is important to encourage involvement of the local government who will ultimately act as the mentoring entity to oversee the project and adopt particular contracts and new policies that may come out of the process. Encouragement of partnerships between governmental agencies, non-governmental agencies, and private entities will allow for proper collaboration of resources to ensure the project will be implemented properly in line with the Marrakech Action Proclamation for Climate and Sustainable

Development. Providing support to create a long-term project that is economically beneficial to the community, socially inclusive throughout the planning, design and implementation process; and environmentally responsible.

Lessons Learned from EnergyXchange

With aid from the EPA’s Landfill Methane Outreach Program, EnergyXchange was able to raise $1.5 million for a gas collection system from a capped landfill that powered an artisan facility for Mayland Community College for seventeen years. Although the facility has now switched to propane gas, it served as a case study for the possibilities of landfill methane gas generation. It also shows what can be accomplished when public-private partnerships are formed that have overlapping interests and goals.

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Lessons Learned from the Artisan and Fez Medina Project

The partnership between the Kingdom of Morocco and the United States’

Millennium Corporation Challenge produced several productive programs and project, including the Artisan and Fes Medina Project. The Project’s strategy was to increase the quality of artisanal wares by training artisans in modern production techniques and business management. The training was provided to 50,000 master artisans, while 3,800 artisans received production assistance. The training provided basic literacy skills, enhance vocational skills, and develop transferrable skills and life skills. The program was considered a success with a majority of the ninety percent of participants passing the program being women.

Application

Funding and support will be solicited from invested organizations such as the EPA-

LMOP, Global Methane Initiative, MCC, Kingdom of Morocco, etc. Workshop guidance, training collaboration, and project support will be sought from the Artisana in Tameslouht,

Tameslouht’s local government, schools and associations, national associations, Engineers without Borders, the Academy of Traditional Arts, Ensemble Artisana Marrakech,

Marrakech government, Cadi Ayyad University, and others. There are a large variety of associations established in Morocco; they act as the heartbeat of grassroots development.

Allowing more collaboration entails ownership and strengthens involvement amongst those involved. Once this proposal is realized then the social and economic possibilities will begin to unfold such as workshops and trainings and tourist opportunities leading to a better-educated populace and a stronger economic base for a brighter future.

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APPENDIX F IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

Introduction

As this thesis has progressed, so has progress on the project itself, with new project developments and contacts being made constantly. Aside from the pottery kiln design completed by the engineering team, Andrew and I have established Resilient Communities to act as the international entity, I have received the Fulbright research grant and language scholarship, and we are currently awaiting data from the Ministry of Electricity and Potable

Water to help assist in the upcoming capstone project for the environmental engineering team during the upcoming 2018-2019 academic year.

These developments have strengthened the project’s foundation with the prospects of gathering more supporting data and preliminary conceptual designs in the coming two years. The continuous developments will naturally fill-in, add, and change the broad action items outlined in the strategic plan. The following implementation plan explains what it planned for the near future and the potential these advances will provide if successful.

Implementation Plan

With the designs for the pottery kiln already completed, the numbers needed for the kiln’s energy source is the immediate action item. The solid waste data will be collected in the Al Haouz province from September 5, 2018 to December 6, 2019. This data will be gathered and put into a provincial report. It will be the first report documenting the amount and the type of trash is created on the provincial level.

Resilient Communities is able to perform this research with a grant from the U.S.

Fulbright Student program. The workshops held and data gathered will allow Resilient

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Communities to build rapport with a wide range of associations, institutions, and government agencies for future partnerships and resources. The establishment of Resilient

Communities can help ease the transfer of funds internationally to collaborate on projects in Morocco related to the nonprofit’s mission and vision.

During this time, the environmental engineering team at the University of Cincinnati will be developing the waste recycling facility and business plan for establishing proper waste management operations in Tameslouht. The resulting designs and report will act as a guide for how Resilient Communities will proceed after the solid waste data is collected.

The combination of having the local data, engineering and business plans for the waste recycling facility will enable Resilient Communities and its partners in Tameslouht begin to plan for the following years in implementing this phase of the project. During this time, Resilient Communities will partner with environmental engineering departments in prominent institutions in olive oil producing regions of Morocco to aid in gathering data concerning olive oil wastewater and performing more detailed tests on methane production.

Following the gathering of proper olive oil wastewater data, the establishment of waste management services and a recycling facility will be a major step in enabling

Tameslouht to improve the livelihoods of their citizens by being able to reuse the waste around them. Having this infrastructure in place will also allow the potters to begin building and testing small-scale kiln prototypes powered by the waste. Contracts, budgeting, and partnerships will have to be made with surrounding towns to transport their trash to Tameslouht to be separated and incinerated in the kilns.

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Desired Outcome

A project is only as successful as the sum of their parts. To truly make a legitimate project is to start with who the project is for – the people of Tameslouht. Their support is the cornerstone of this project; without it the proposal would lack purpose. That is why surveys were collected while living there, to ensure my time and effort would not be for nothing.

Next is to tie in the importance of the project in relation to the environmental impact, potential economic improvements, and overall social impacts this will have beginning its scale with Tameslouht and moving outward to the Al Haouz region, Morocco, and beyond to other developing nations whose towns are in the same circumstance as

Tameslouht’s.

The ultimate goal is to create a sustainable project that can benefit not only

Tameslouht but also other towns, by ensuring it is environmentally, economically, and socially viable. This entails including everyone in the process along the way, because this project is bigger than any individual. It can possibly be something that can benefit many and provide inspiration for even more.

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