Nigeria's University

Home , Babs Fafunwa, Eni Njoku, Kenneth Dike, University of Ibadan

NOTES

CHAPTER 1 1. University Herald (hereafter UH) 1:1 (1948). 2. Kenneth Mellanby, The Birth of Nigeria’s University (London, 1958), 59. 3. Southern Nigeria Defender (hereafter SND), 4 February 1948. 4. SND, 5 February 1948. 5. West African Pilot (hereafter WAP), 9 February 1948. 6. SND, 12 February 1949. 7. A.B. Aderibigbe and T.G.O. Gbadamosi (eds.), A History of the University of Lagos, 1962–1987 (Lagos, 1987); J.F. Ade Ajayi and T.N. Tamuno (eds.), The University of Ibadan 1948–73: A History of the First Twenty-Five Years (Ibadan, 1973); Abdullahi Mahadi (ed.), A History of Ahmadu Bello University, 1962–1987 (Zaria, 1989); B.A. Mojuetan (ed.), Ibadan at Fifty, 1948–1998: Nigeria’s Premier University in Perspective (Ibadan, 2000); E. Obiechina, C. Ike and J.A. Umeh (eds.), The University of Nigeria 1960–85: An Experiment in Higher Education (Nsukka, 1986); Olufemi Omosini and ’Biodun Adediran (eds.), Great Ife: A History of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, 1962–1987 (Ile-Ife, 1989). 8. Eric Ashby, Universities: British, Indian, African. A Study in the Ecology of Higher Education, with Mary Anderson (London, 1966), 147–8; Nduka Okafor, The Development of Universities in Nigeria (London, 1971), 2. 9. The ‘west’ and the ‘western world’ are problematic terms that misleadingly imply a homogenous, clearly bounded region that has been seen as the cradle of modernity. The term ‘western education’ is used here to refer to forms of

education with roots in the west, although western education has a lengthy genealogy that has involved interactions between geographical regions. References to the ‘west’ and ‘western education’ are used here as a shorthand. A lower case ‘w’ has been employed as a reminder that these categories should be treated with caution. References to the Nigerian regions, for example the Western Region, Western Nigeria, and the West, have been capitalised. Places are referred to by the names that were current during the period discussed, and Yoruba diacritical marks have been omitted. 10. Because of the focus of this study, the terms ‘education’ and ‘educated’ are used to refer to forms of education with roots in the west, unless otherwise speciﬁed. Other systems of knowledge with roots in Africa and the Islamic world have important histories, although they are not the central concern of this book. On this point see Sanjay Seth, Subject Lessons: The Western Education of India (Durham, NC, 2007), 1–9. 11. Bronwen Everill, Abolition and Empire in Sierra Leone and Liberia (Basingstoke, 2013), 18–19. 12. Everill, Abolition and Empire,49–50. 13. Toyin Falola and Matthew M. Heaton, A History of Nigeria (Cambridge, 2008), 87–8, 93–109. 14. Useful discussions about deﬁning the Nigerian ‘educated elite’ include: Kirstin Mann, Marrying Well: Marriage, Status and Social Change Among the Educated Elite in Colonial Lagos (Cambridge, 1985), 2–7; Philip Zachernuk, Colonial Subjects: An African Intelligentsia and Atlantic Ideas (Charlottesville, 2000), 12, 83, 128–39; Nozomi Sawada, ‘The educated elite and associational life in early Lagos newspapers: in search of unity for the progress of society’, Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Birmingham (2011), 19–20. On Blyden see Okafor, Development of Universities,22–34; Ashby, Universities,62–7. 15. M.J.C. Echeruo, Victorian Lagos: Aspects of Nineteenth Century Lagos Life (London, 1977), 30. 16. Contrasting accounts are offered in P.K. Tibenderana, Education and Cultural Change in Northern Nigeria, 1906–1966: A Study in the Creation of a Dependent Culture (Kampala, 2003), 26–66; and Ogechi Emmanuel Anyanwu, The Politics of Access: University Education and Nation-Building in Nigeria, 1948–2000 (Calgary, 2011), 25–6. 17. On the Elliot report see Report of the Commission on Higher Education in West Africa, Cmd. 6655 (1945) (hereafter Elliot report). 18. Björn Wittrock, ‘The modern university: the three transformations’,in Sheldon Rothblatt and Björn Wittrock (eds.), The European and American University Since 1800: Historical and Sociological Essays (Cambridge, 1993), 323–44. See also Edward Shils and John Roberts, ‘The diffusion of European models outside Europe’, in Walter Rüegg (ed.), A History of the University in NOTES 185

Europe,Vol.III:Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1948) (Cambridge, 2004), 163–230. 19. Ethnicity and race are not understood here as primordial categories, but as constructed in dialogue with political agendas and practices. On ethno- political competition, see Larry Diamond, Class, Ethnicity and Democracy in Nigeria: the Failure of the First Republic (Syracuse, 1988), 7–11. 20. For example see Wall Street Journal, 9 December 2013. On recent ‘Africa rising’ narratives, see The Economist, 2 March 2013. 21. For example see Hanne Kirstine Adriansen, Lene Møller Madsen and Stig Jensen (eds), Higher Education and Capacity Building in Africa: The Geography and Power of Knowledge Under Changing Conditions (Abingdon, 2016); Peter H. Koehn and Milton O. Obamba, The Transnationally Partnered University: Insights From Research and Sustainable Development Collaborations in Africa (New York, 2014). 22. Some scholars have seen American modernisation theory as closely related to British colonial development ideas, with similar roots, while others empha- sise differences, stressing the distinctive American roots of modernisation theory. For work stressing similarities see M.E. Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and ‘Nation Building’ in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill, 2000), 213–14; Inderjeet Parmar, Foundations of the American Century: The Ford, Carnegie and Rockefeller Foundations in the Rise of American Power (New York, 2012), 152; Larry Grubbs, Secular Missionaries: Americans and African Development in the 1960s (Amherst, 2009), 9, 71. For work stressing differences see David Ekbladah, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, 2010), 2–7; M. Adas, ‘Modernization theory and the American revival of the scientiﬁc and technological standards of social achievement and human worth’, in D.C. Engerman et al. (eds.), Staging Growth: Modernization, Development and the Global Cold War (Amherst, 2003), 35. On decolonisation and the nation see Frederick Cooper, ‘Possibility and constraint: African independence in historical perspective’, Journal of African History 49:2 (2008), 174–9. 23. M.P. Cowen and R.W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996), 3–11; Gilbert Rist, The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith, trans. Patrick Camiller (London, 2014), 40–3. 24. Elizabeth Darling, Re-forming Britain: Narratives of Modernity Before Reconstruction (Abingdon, 2007), 5–6. On the politics of expertise see David Edgerton, Warfare State: Britain, 1920–1970 (Cambridge, 2006), 9, 111–13; Joseph M. Hodge, The Triumph of the Expert: Agrarian Doctrines of Development and the Legacies of British Colonialism (Athens,OH,2007),3–4. 25. S.R. Ashton and S.E. Stockwell, ‘Introduction’, in S.R. Ashton and S.E Stockwell (eds.), British Documents on the End of Empire,SeriesAVol.I: 186 NOTES

Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice, 1925–1945,pt.1:Metropolitan Reorganisation, Defence and Constitutional Relations, Political Change and Constitutional Reform (London, 1996), lxvii–lxviii. On calls for urban reform in Nigeria see for example Ruth Watson, ‘Civil Disorder is the Disease of Ibadan’: Chieftaincy and Culture in a Yoruba City (Oxford, 2003), 127–30. 26. Frederick Cooper, Africa Since 1940: The Past of the Present (Cambridge, 2002), 85–90; Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914–1991 (London, 1995), 199–204, 268–74. 27. André Gunder Frank, ‘The development of underdevelopment’, Monthly Review 18:4 (1966); James D. Cockcroft, André Gunder Frank and Dale L. Johnson (eds.), Dependence and Underdevelopment: Latin America’s Political Economy (New York, 1972). 28. James Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine: ‘Development’, Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho (Minneapolis, 1994); James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998). 29. James Ferguson, Expectations of Modernity: Myths and Meanings of Urban Life on the Zambian Copperbelt (Berkeley, 1999), 13–14; Frederick Cooper, Colonialism in Question: Theory, History, Knowledge (Berkeley, 2005), 115. 30. D.A. Low and J.M. Lonsdale, ‘Introduction: towards the new order 1945–1963’,inD.A.LowandAlisonSmith(eds.),A History of East Africa Vol. III (Oxford, 1976), 12–15. Also see John Darwin, ‘Was there a fourth British empire?’,inMartinLynn(ed.),The British Empire in the 1950s: Retreat or Revival? (Basingstoke, 2006), 24. 31. J.M. Lee and Martin Petter, The Colonial Ofﬁce, War and Development Policy: Organisation and the Planning of a Metropolitan Initiative, 1939–45 (London, 1982). Also see Stephen Constantine, The Making of British Colonial Development Policy, 1914–1940 (London, 1984), 231–61; Michael Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850–1960 (London, 1993), 215–30; Joanna Lewis, Empire State-Building: War and Welfare in Kenya 1925–52 (Oxford, 2000), 4–9. 32. David M. Anderson, Eroding the Commons: The Politics of Ecology in Baringo, Kenya 1890s-1963 (Oxford, 2002), 6. 33. For example see Edward H. Berman, The Inﬂuence of the Carnegie, Ford and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy: The Ideology of Philanthropy (Albany, 1983); Parmar, American Century; Grubbs, Secular Missionaries. 34. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University; A.M. Carr-Saunders, New Universities Overseas (London, 1961); I.C.M. Maxwell, Universities in Partnership: The Inter-University Council and the Growth of Higher Education in Developing Countries 1946–70 (Edinburgh, 1980). NOTES 187

35. O. Adewoye, ‘The antecedents’, in Ajayi and Tamuno (eds.), University of Ibadan; A.B. Fafunwa, A History of Nigerian Higher Education (Lagos, 1971); Otonti Nduka, Western Education and the Nigerian Cultural Background (Ibadan, 1964); Festus O. Ogunlade, ‘Yaba Higher College and the formation of an intellectual elite’, Unpublished MA Dissertation, University of Ibadan (1970). 36. Apollos O. Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe and Nationalism: Britain and University Education for Africans, 1860–1960 (London, 1997), 116, also see 160. 37. J.F. Ade Ajayi, ‘The development of secondary grammar school education in Nigeria’, Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (hereafter JHSN) 2:4 (1963); J.D.Y. Peel, ‘Olaju: a Yoruba concept of development’, Journal of Development Studies 14:2 (1978). 38. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincialising Europe (Princeton, 2008); S.N. Eisenstadt, ‘Multiple modernities’, Daedalus 129:1 (2000). Also see Jean Allman’s use of the term ‘vernacular modernities’: Jean Allman, ‘Fashioning Africa: power and the politics of dress’, in Jean Allman (ed.), Fashioning Africa,1–10. 39. For example see Chakrabarty, Provincialising Europe; A.G. Hopkins (ed.), Globalization in World History (London, 2002); Alan Lester, Imperial Networks: Creating Identities in Nineteenth Century South Africa and Britain (London, 2001). 40. Monica M. van Beusekom, Negotiating Development: African Farmers and Colonial Experts at the Ofﬁce du Niger, 1920–1960 (Portsmouth, NH, 2002). 41. Hodge, Triumph of the Expert; Julia Tischler, Light and Power for a Multiracial Nation: The Kariba Dam Scheme in the Central African Federation (Basingstoke, 2013). 42. Ronald Robinson, ‘Non-European foundations of European imperialism: sketch for a theory of collaboration’, in Roger Owen and Bob Sutcliffe (eds.), Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London, 1972); P.F. de Moraes Farias and Karin Barber (eds.), Self-Assertion and Brokerage: Early Cultural Nationalism in West Africa (Birmingham, 1990); Jean-François Bayart, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly, trans. Stephen Ellis, Mary Harper, Christopher Harrison and Elizabeth Harrison (Cambridge, 2009); Jost Dülffer and Marc Frey (eds.), Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century (Basingstoke, 2011). 43. Sebastian Conrad, ‘“The colonial ties are liquidated”:modernization theory, post-war Japan and the global Cold War’, Past and Present 216 (2012), 213–4. 44. Marc Frey and Sönke Kunkel, ‘Writing the history of development: a review of the recent literature’, Contemporary European History 20:2 (2011), 229. 188 NOTES

45. Richard Drayton, ‘Secondary decolonisation: the Black Power moment in Barbados, c. 1970’, in Kate Quinn (ed.), Black Power in the Caribbean (Gainesville, 2014), 117–18. 46. Recent calls for more intensive study of the cultural dimensions of empire and decolonisation have been expressed, for example, in commentaries on the work of John Darwin. See Bill Schwartz, ‘An unsentimental education. John Darwin’s empire’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (hereafter JICH) 43:1 (2015), 126–7, 133; Antoinette Burton, ‘Roundtable: imperial history by the book: a roundtable on John Darwin’s The Empire Project. Introduction: empire of the book’, Journal of British Studies 55:4 (2015), 973, 975. On the reconciliation of ‘top down’ and ‘bottom up’ views of decolonisation, see Martin Shipway, Decolonization and its Impact: A Comparative Approach to the End of Colonial Empires (Malden, 2008), 8; James D. le Sueur, ‘An introduction: reading decolonisation’, in James D. le Sueur (ed.), The Decolonisation Reader (New York, 2003), 2–4. 47. For a classic account see A.H.M. Kirk-Greene, ‘The thin white line: the size of the British colonial service in Africa’, African Affairs 79:314 (1980), 26–9. 48. Cooper, Africa Since 1940,5. 49. Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven, 1994), 211–15. 50. Low and Lonsdale, ‘Introduction’,12–15. 51. See for example accounts which stress the impact of indirect rule over decolonisation-era state-building: Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, 1996), 22–6; Olufemi Taiwo, How Colonialism Preempted Modernity in Africa (Bloomington, 2010), 13–14. 52. There was a very close relationship between universities and the state in many territories, with a variety of systems of government, during this period. On Britain, see W.A.C. Stewart, Higher Education in Postwar Britain (Basingstoke, 2009), 46–9, 65. For an interpretation of colonial universities stressing their autonomy, see Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 157. 53. For another study of a British colonial university and decolonisation, see A.J. Stockwell, ‘“The crucible of the Malayan nation”: the university and the making of a new Malaya, 1938–62’, Modern Asian Studies 43:5 (2009), 1149–87. 54. On the openness of late colonial states, see Young, African Colonial State, 201; John Darwin, ‘What was the late colonial state?’, Itinerario 23:3/4 (1999), 80–1. 55. Darwin, ‘Late colonial state’, 75. 56. Wole Ogundele, Omoluabi: Ulli Beier, Yoruba Society and Culture (Bayreuth, 2003), 38–45; Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 212, 218–19. NOTES 189

57. Drayton, ‘Secondary decolonisation’, 117–18. 58. Although Pietsch argues that the ‘British academic world’ started to break up after 1919: Tamson Pietsch, Empire of Scholars: Universities, Networks and the British Academic World, 1850–1939 (Manchester 2013), 171–93. 59. University Archive and Record Services Project, University of Ibadan (hereafter UARSP); Research and Bibliographic Department (Ghandi Library), University of Lagos Library (hereafter GL); Africana Collection, Kenneth Dike Library, University of Ibadan (hereafter KDL) Yaba Papers. 60. Senate House Library Special Collections, University of London (hereafter SHLSC) series AC11/11. The Inter-University Council was incorporated into the British Council in 1981, and the records of both were deposited at the National Archive, London (hereafter TNA) series BW 90. Michigan State University Archives and Historical Collections (hereafter MSUAHC) series UA 2.9.5.4. 61. RIBA Library Drawings and Archives Collection series F&D. 62. Novels include Chinua Achebe, No Longer at Ease (London, 2010 [1963]); Chinua Achebe, A Man of the People (Harlow, 1966); Chukwuemeka Ike, Toads for Supper (London, 1965); Chukwuemeka Ike, The Naked Gods (London, 1970); Wole Soyinka, The Interpreters (London, 1970 [1965]). 63. For photographs of buildings see the Inter-University Council’s photograph collection, now part of the Royal Commonwealth Society collection held at the Cambridge University Library series RCS. 64. Unpublished papers include Jadeas Library, Ibadan (hereafter JLI) Ajayi Papers; KDL Obisesan Papers. For unpublished memoirs, mostly by British university staff, see Library of Commonwealth and African Studies at Rhodes House, Oxford (hereafter RHL) series Mss. Afr. s. 1825. Unpublished diaries of Rockefeller Foundation representatives can be found at Rockefeller Archives Center (hereafter RAC) Rockefeller Foundation Records (hereafter RF) RG 12. Published memoirs and diaries include Saburi O. Biobaku, When We Were Young (Ibadan, 1992); Saburi O. Biobaku, When We Were No Longer Young (Ibadan, 1999); Titus Ejiwunmi, Full Colours (Ibadan, 1996); John Hanson, Education, Nsukka: A Study in Institution Building Among the Modern Ibo, with Magnus Adiele, Pius Igboko and Charles Okpala (East Lansing, 1968); Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University; Wole Soyinka, Ibadan: The Penkelemes Years. A Memoir: 1946–65 (London, 1994); Wolfgang Stolper, Inside Independent Nigeria: Diaries of Wolfgang Stolper, 1960–1962, edited by Clive S. Gray (Aldershot, 2003); Tekena N. Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices: Ibadan University in Transition (Ibadan, 1981); Lewis Zerby and Margaret Zerby, If I Should Die Before I Wake: The Nsukka Dream (East Lansing, 1971). 65. For published interviews with staff and students see Bunmi Salako, Our UI (Lagos, 1990); Robert M. Wren, Those Magical Years: The Making of Nigerian Literature at Ibadan: 1948–1966 (Boulder, 1990). For an 190 NOTES

introduction to oral history, see Valerie R. Yow, Recording Oral History: A Guide for the Humanities and Social Sciences (Walnut Creek, 2005). 66. Pierre L. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege at an African University (London, 1973); H.H. Smythe and M.M. Smythe, The New Nigerian Elite (Stanford, 1960). 67. Major collections at the National Archive, Ibadan (hereafter NAI) and the British Library were consulted. 68. Elliot report; Report of the Commission on Higher Education in the Colonies, Cmd. 6647 (1945) (hereafter Asquith report); Nigeria, Investment in Education: The Report of the Commission on Post-School Certificate and Higher Education in Nigeria (Lagos, 1960) (hereafter Ashby report); UNESCO, The Development of Higher Education in Africa: Report on the Conference on the Development of Higher Education in Africa. Tananarive, 3–12 September 1962 (Paris, 1962) (hereafter UNESCO report). On inter- pretative approaches to government enquiries and reports, see Adam Ashforth, The Politics of Official Discourse in Twentieth-Century South Africa (Oxford, 1990), 3–10. For personal papers relevant to the drafting of the Elliot report, see Durham University Library Special Collections (hereafter DULSC) Duff Papers; KDL Kuti Papers. 69. NAI, especially series CSO 26; TNA, especially series CO 583. Records of the Nigerian colonial government that were ‘migrated’ to Britain during decolonisation are classified FCO 141. For an edited selection of TNA documents on Nigerian decolonisation see Martin Lynn (ed.), British Documents on the End of Empire, Series B Vol. VII: Nigeria 2 parts (Norwich, 2001). 70. Antoinette Burton, ‘Introduction: archive fever, archive stories’ in Antoinette Burton (ed.), Archive Stories: Facts, Fictions, and the Writing of History (Durham, NC, 2005), 6–7. 71. National Archives at College Park, Maryland (hereafter NACP). 72. Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library Carnegie Corporation of New York Records (hereafter CURBML CCNY); Rockefeller Foundation and Ford Foundation archives are held at the RAC. 73. A name conventionally given to the period despite Nigeria formally becom- ing a republic only in 1963.

CHAPTER 2 1. Chinua Achebe, The Education of a British-Protected Child: Essays (London, 2009), 21. For the schedule of the Elliot Commission in Nigeria, see Chief Secretary to Provincial Secretaries, 8 February 1944, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. II. 2. Chinua Achebe, Hopes and Impediments: Selected Essays (New York, 1990), 33. 3. For example see Adewoye, ‘The antecedents’,17–21; Ashby, Universities, 212–22; Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 116, but also see 160. NOTES 191

4. James Duff, ‘Memoir of visit to Africa’, n.d., Papers of Sir James Fitzjames Duff, DULSC DUF 3B/136. 5. Elliot report, 74. 6. van Beusekom, Negotiating Development; Hodge, Triumph of the Expert; Tischler, Light and Power. 7. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (London, 1993), 12, 15–16. 8. T.C. McCaskie, ‘Cultural encounters: Britain and Africa in the nineteenth century’, in Philip D. Morgan and Sean Hawkins (eds.), Black Experience and the Empire (Oxford, 2004), 168–72; John Illife, Honour in African History (Cambridge, 2005), 246–54; Richard Rathbone, ‘West Africa: modernity and modernisation’, in Jan-Georg Deutsch, Peter Probst and Heike Schmidt (eds.), African Modernities (Oxford, 2002), 20-5. 9. Liora Bigon, A History of Urban Planning in Two West African Colonial Capitals: Residential Segregation in British Lagos and French Dakar (1850–1930) (Lewiston, 2009), 291–2. 10. J.D.Y. Peel, Religious Encounter and the Making of the Yoruba (Bloomington, 2000), 8. 11. Zachernuk, Colonial Subjects,27–33, 42–5; Echeruo, Victorian Lagos,109–12. 12. Ajayi, ‘Development of secondary grammar school education’,519–23. Macaulay was a Saro, educated at Fourah Bay College in Sierra Leone. 13. David B. Abernethy, The Political Dilemma of Popular Education: An African Case (Stanford, 1969), 34; Echeruo, Victorian Lagos, 30, 42. 14. Richard Wilk, Home Cooking in the Global Village: Caribbean Food from Buccaneers to Ecotourists (Oxford, 2006), 70. 15. Agneta Pallinder, ‘Adegboyega Edun: black Englishman and Yoruba cultural patriot’, in de Moraes Farias and Barber (eds.), Self-Assertion and Brokerage, 13. 16. Peel, ‘Olaju’, 140, 147–51. 17. F.D. Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa (Edinburgh, 1922), 197–9. 18. Falola and Heaton, History of Nigeria, 110–16. 19. National Congress of British West Africa, ‘Resolutions of the conference of Africans of British West Africa held at Accra, Gold Coast, from 11th to 29th March, 1920’, transcribed in Ashby, Universities, 474–5, quotation at 474. 20. Seth, Subject Lessons, 160–2; Ashby, Universities, 142–3. 21. Hodge, Triumph of the Expert, 129–43. 22. Nigeria, Annual Reports on the Education Departments (Lagos, 1927), part 2, 23. 23. Festus O. Ogunlade, ‘Education and politics in colonial Nigeria: the case of King’s College, Lagos (1906–1911)’, JHSN 7:2 (1974), 340–2. 192 NOTES

24. Hakim Adi, West Africans in Britain, 1900–1960: Nationalism, Pan- Africanism and Communism (London, 1998), 32–46. 25. Although this chapter focuses on southern Nigeria, new institutions of higher learning were also established in the north in the 1930s. They included Katsina Higher College and Kano Law School. The latter, more enduring, institution sought to modernise Islamic education. Tibenderana, Education and Cultural Change, 106–111; Fafunwa, History of Education, 209–10. 26. Nigerian government revenue in 1928 was £9.5m. It had declined to £7.6m by 1934. See Robert Shenton, The Development of Capitalism in Northern Nigeria (London, 1986), 101–3; A.G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1973), 260–7. 27. E.R.J. Hussey, Tropical Africa 1908–1944: Memoirs of a Period (London, 1959), 91–3. 28. ‘Speech made by the Governor’, 19 January 1934, TNA CO 583/197/4. 29. ‘Note by E.R.J. Hussey, Director of Education, Nigeria’, n.d. [1935], 3–4, NAI CSO26 29724. 30. ‘Speech made by the Governor’, 19 January 1934, TNA CO 583/197/4. Note ‘himself’: all Yaba students were male until the Higher College’s ﬁnal years. Adetowun Ogunsheye (alumnus of Yaba Higher College and Ibadan, and retired professor), interview with the author, September 2010. 31. Ogunlade, ‘Yaba Higher College’, 83. 32. Ogunlade, ‘Yaba Higher College’, 83. 33. Nigerian Daily Times, 23 January 1934. It was edited by a Nigerian, A.A.C. Titcombe, but owned by a consortium of British commercial interests. See Fred I.A. Omu, Press and Politics in Nigeria, 1880–1939 (London, 1978), 63, 253, 263. 34. Nigerian Observer, 3 February 1934. 35. Nigerian Daily Times, 19 March 1934. The rally became a milestone in nationalist history. It was seen retrospectively as the ﬁrst meeting of the Lagos Youth Movement, the pioneering nationalist organisation later renamed the Nigerian Youth Movement. See James S. Coleman, Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (Berkeley, 1958), 218. 36. Nigeria Gazette, 8 February 1934, 14 June 1934. 37. Legislative Council Minutes, 10 July 1939, NAI CSO26 24121 Vol. III. Four seats for educated Nigerians were introduced on the Legislative Council in 1923, a further example of the inconsistent application of indirect rule principles. See S.J.S. Cookey, ‘Sir Hugh Clifford as governor of Nigeria: an evaluation’, African Affairs 79:317 (1980), 540–4. 38. Nigerian Daily Times, 30 January 1934, 31 January 1934. 39. This is clear, for example, in the debates of the West African Students’ Union. See also the discussion of issues including the Yoruba language in NOTES 193

the magazine WASU 6:3 (December 1937); Zachernuk, Colonial Subjects, 119. 40. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Renascent Africa (Accra, n.d. [1937]), 17–18. Also see Elizabeth Tonkin, ‘Zik’s story: autobiography as political exemplar’,inde Moraes Farias and Barber (eds.), Self-Assertion and Brokerage,35–6, 39. 41. Fafunwa, Nigerian Higher Education,32–54; Okafor, Development of Universities, 79. 42. Douglas M. Haynes, ‘The persistence of privilege: British medical qualifica- tions and the practice of medicine in the empire’, in Kevin Grant, Philippa Levine and Frank Trentmann (eds.), Beyond Sovereignty: Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, c. 1880–1950 (Basingstoke, 2007), 223. 43. Michael E. Okorodudu, ‘Life at the Higher College’, The Nigerian Teacher 2:6 (1936), 37. 44. For example see Ogunlade, ‘Yaba Higher College’, 234–70. 45. Biobaku, When We Were Young, 76. 46. Alagoa to Okorodudu, 19 June 1935, KDL Yaba Papers HC77 (Vol. 1). 47. The Ex-Student. The Organ of the Higher College (Yaba) Ex-Students’ Union, 1:1 (1936). 48. Board of Advisers Minutes, 29 January 1935, 12 June 1935, 7 January 1936, KDL Yaba Papers 99A. 49. Bourdillon to Secretary of State, 7 October 1937, TNA CO 583/217/5. 50. Thorp’s undated reply to Duckworth’s Memorandum of 14 June 1939, TNA CO 583/257/6. 51. Ejiwunmi, Full Colours, 12. 52. Duckworth to Chief Secretary, 31 March 1941, TNA CO 583/257/6. 53. West African Governors’ Conference minutes, August 1939, NAI CSO26 24121 Vol. IV. 54. Ashton and Stockwell, ‘Introduction’, lxvi, lxxxv; Hopkins, Economic History, 256–8. 55. Havinden and Meredith, Colonialism and Development, 199–204; Suke Wolton, Lord Hailey, the Colonial Office and the Politics of Race and Empire in the Second World War (Basingstoke, 2000), 94–112. 56. Lee and Petter, Colonial Office, 16, 148–9. 57. Picture Post, 4 January 1941. 58. For an exception see J.E. Lewis, ‘“Tropical East Ends” and the Second World War: some contradictions in Colonial Office welfare initiatives’, JICH 28:2 (2000), 42–5. 59. ‘ACEC 32/40. Higher Education in West Africa. Report of the sub- committee on the recommendations of the Governors’ Conference’, 4 December 1940, 4, 8, 11–12, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. I. 60. Adi, West Africans,96–8. 61. WASU 10:1 (May 1943). 194 NOTES

62. WASU 10:1 (May 1943). 63. Fewzi Borsali, ‘British colonial policy towards higher education in West Africa and the foundation of the university institutions 1939–51’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Aberdeen University (1983), 185. 64. ‘ACEC 7/43. Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies. Report of the sub-committee on higher education’, May 1943, transcribed in Ashby, Universities, 492–524, quotations at 495, 502. 65. Parliamentary Debates, Commons, Vol. 391 (1943), col. 52. 66. Ashton and Stockwell, ‘Introduction’, lxxx. Other accounts that stress the Asquith Commission include Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 134–56; Ashby, Universities, 212–20. 67. For example see ‘Higher Education. Interim Report of the Sub- Committee’, presented to the ACEC 25 March 1943, TNA CO 987/1; ‘Report of the Sub-Committee on Higher Education’, 15 May 1943, TNA CO 885/106. 68. Stanley to West African Governors, 12 May 1943, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. I. 69. Robert Olby, ‘Huxley, Sir Julian Sorell (1887–1975)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Sept 2012 (www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31271, accessed 19 Jan 2016). 70. Elliot report, ii. Further study of the contribution of Eveline Martin and Margaret Read would be of interest. I have not been able to locate their personal papers relating to the Commission. 71. Stanley to West African Governors, 12 May 1943, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. I. 72. Ofﬁcer Administering Government, Accra to Governor of Nigeria, 7 December 1943; Governor of Sierra Leone to Governor of Nigeria, 7 December 1943, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. II. 73. Borsali, ‘British colonial policy’, 186. 74. Elliot report, vi; Elliot Commission minutes, 10 December 1943, KDL Kuti Papers box 23. 75. Omu, Press and Politics in Nigeria, 264. 76. WAP, 18 February 1944. 77. On government commissions as performance, see Ashforth, Politics of Ofﬁcial Discourse,7–8. 78. Daily Service, 15 February 1944. 79. Daily Service, 14 February 1944. 80. WAP, 21 February 1944. 81. SND, 3 January 1944. 82. Nigerian Observer, 25 February 1944. 83. WAP, 27 January 1944. 84. The Comet, 19 February 1944. NOTES 195

85. WAP, 21 February 1944. 86. J.E. Flint, ‘“Managing nationalism”: the Colonial Office and Nnamdi Azikiwe, 1932–43’, JICH 27:2 (1999), 155. 87. WAP, 15 February 1944. 88. Daily Service, 14 February 1944. 89. ‘First draft Chapter VI’, n.d. [1944], KDL Kuti Papers box 24. 90. Elliot report, 96. 91. Elliot report, 91. 92. ‘Second draft Chapter VII’, n.d. [1944], KDL Kuti Papers box 24. 93. ‘Amendments to the second draft of Chapters VI and VII (Medical Education and Agriculture, Forestry and Animal Health) put forward by the African members of the Commission’, n.d. [1944], KDL Kuti Papers box 24. 94. Elliot report, 108. 95. Clive Whitehead, ‘The “two-way pull” and the establishment of university education in British West Africa’, History of Education 16:2 (1987), 123–31; Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe,163–5. 96. Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 129. 97. Duff to Cox, 9 April 1945, DULSC Durham University Records UND/ CCI/C6. 98. Truman to Duff, 8 September 1944, DULSC Durham University Records UND/CCI/C6. 99. Mouat Jones to Duff, 21 June 1945, DULSC Duff Papers DUF 3E/91. 100. Duff to Mouat Jones, 5 July 1944, DULSC Durham University Records UND/CCI/C6. 101. Borsali stressed potential student numbers and the level of training needed for Africans involved in development projects: Borsali, ‘British colonial policy’, 100. Nwauwa at times suggested the split was over how far colonial reform should go, and at others stressed quality and standards: for example, see Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 121. For Ashby, the key issue was standards: Ashby, Universities, 219–20. 102. Elliot report, 60. 103. ‘Minutes of meeting between drafting sub committee of the Asquith Commission and five members of the Elliot Commission’, 13 October 1944, KDL Kuti Papers box 23. 104. ‘Minutes of meeting between drafting sub committee of the Asquith Commission and five members of the Elliot Commission’, 13 October 1944, KDL Kuti Papers box 23. 105. Elliot report, 146. 106. Elliot report, 29. 107. Elliot report, 181. 108. Elliot report, 55–7. 196 NOTES

109. Elliot report, 74. 110. Whitehead, ‘Two-way pull’, 124–32. 111. Asquith report, 30–3. 112. ‘Inter-University Council for Higher Education in the Colonies. Report of delegation to West Africa’, 21 December 1946 to 15 January 1947 (hereafter Hamilton Fyfe report), 7, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. IV. 113. Hamilton Fyfe report, 4. 114. Hamilton Fyfe report, 9–10. 115. Elliot report, 18. 116. West Africa, 8 January 1944. 117. Achebe, British-Protected Child, 22.

CHAPTER 3 1. The 1945 Colonial Development and Welfare Act allocated £6m, from the total British colonial development fund of £120m, for higher education. However, colonial universities do not receive much coverage in classic histories of colonial development. See Constantine, Colonial Development Policy; Havinden and Meredith, Colonialism and Development; Hodge, Triumph of the Expert. The fullest treatment, that sees universities as part of broader colonial development, is in older work. See Lee and Petter, Colonial Office, 161–3, 200–1; D.J. Morgan, The Official History of Colonial Development, Vol. I: The Origins of British Aid Policy, 1924–45 (London, 1980), 107–17. 2. Nigerian state revenues, buoyed by economic growth and booming exports, increased from £7m in 1937, to £17m in 1948, and £71m by 1957. Young, African Colonial State, 213. 3. On colonial university autonomy see Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 157. On the growth of the late colonial state see Young, African Colonial State, 211–16; Darwin, ‘Late colonial state’,75–9. 4. This chapter distinguishes between the colonial government, the small executive controlled by British members of the Colonial Service, and the colonial state, which comprised a larger arena including the colonial government, the new legislatures, and ‘semi-state’ organisations that included University College Ibadan, the marketing boards, and state corporations. The terms ‘semi-state’ and ‘parastatal’ are here used interchangeably. See Darwin, ‘Late colonial state’,75–6. 5. John Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World (Basingstoke, 1988), 329–30. 6. Low and Lonsdale, ‘Introduction’,12–15. 7. Helen Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory: Empire, Development and the Problem of Scientific Knowledge, 1870–1950 (Chicago, 2011), 335. NOTES 197

8. T.N. Tamuno, ‘The formative years, 1947–56’, in Ajayi and Tamuno (eds.), University of Ibadan, 39. 9. Pietsch, Empire of Scholars,2–8. 10. D.J. Morgan, The Official History of Colonial Development, Vol. III: A Reassessment of British Aid Policy, 1951–65 (London, 1980), 74. 11. P.F. Vowles, ‘Staff recruitment for the colonial university institutions 1948– 51’, 1983, 3, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/119. 12. An alternative argument, stressing the dissolution of the British academic world from the interwar years, is advanced in Pietsch, Empire of Scholars, 171, 189. 13. I.C.M. Maxwell, ‘Recruitment through the Inter-University Council’, n.d. [c. 1982], 5, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/77. 14. Paul Weindling, ‘Mellanby, Kenneth (1908–1993)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 (www.oxforddnb.com/ view/article/52284, accessed 19 Jan 2016). 15. Wren, Those Magical Years, 20. 16. Maxwell, ‘Recruitment through the Inter-University Council’,2,RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/77. 17. ‘University College, Ibadan, Nigeria’, 1950, NAI CSO26 41978/S.15/T. 18. During late colonialism a wider range of posts were open to British women. See Helen Callaway, Gender, Culture and Empire: European Women in Colonial Nigeria (Basingstoke, 1987), 101, 140–4. 19. Lalage Bown interview by Alison Smith, 1983, 2, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/11. 20. For example, see Mellanby to Phillipson, 5 January 1952, UARSP ‘Correspondence between the principal and chairman of the council – Sir Sydney Phillipson (1952–55)’ folder. 21. J.D. Omer-Cooper, ‘Reminiscences of service at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria, 1955–1965’, 1982, 3, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/84. 22. Monica Plumptre to ‘My dearest family’, 1 November 1948, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/48. Plumptre seems to have modified her views after some years at Ibadan. For example see the memoir written under her married name: Monica Herrington, ‘Theplaceofthesenior staff school at University College, Ibadan, Nigeria, n.d. [c.1983],7, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/48. 23. Ulli Beier, ‘In a colonial university’, in Ulli Beier, The Hunter Thinks the Monkey Is Not Wise ... The Monkey Is Wise, But He Has His Own Logic: A Selection of Essays, edited by Wole Ogundele (Bayreuth, 2001), 204. 24. I have been unable to find Nigerian lecturers’ reflections on this subject, a silence perhaps related to its sensitivity. Elgood memoir, 1982, 3, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/29. 25. C.C. Wrigley, ‘Memories of Ibadan’, 1982, 2, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133. 26. Jack Hirst, ‘Reminiscences of Ibadan’, 1982, 1, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/50. 198 NOTES

27. J.H. Elgood memoir, 1, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/29. 28. J.C. Pugh, ‘Memoir’, 1983, 5–7, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/92. Even today the Kenneth Dike Library at Ibadan is particularly well stocked with books published in communist nations during the 1950s and 1960s. 29. Lalage Bown, interview by Alison Smith, 1983, 2, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/ 11. 30. H. Preston, ‘My era at Ibadan: experience, recollections and views’, in T.N. Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices, 36. 31. Vowles, ‘Staff recruitment’, 3, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/119. 32. Whitney H. Shepardson, ‘Visit to Nigeria and Gold Coast’, diary entry for 24 July 1950, CURBML CCNY series VIIIA box 4. 33. Pugh, ‘Memoir’,4–5, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/92. 34. Pugh, ‘Memoir’, 32, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/92. 35. M. Power and J.D. Sidaway, ‘The degeneration of tropical geography’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 94:3 (2004), 589–92. 36. Geoffrey Parrinder, ‘Religious Foundations at Ibadan’, in Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices, 103–4; Pugh, ‘Memoir’,7–8, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/92. On the groundnut scheme generally, see Hodge, Triumph of the Expert, 209–13. 37. Beier, ‘In a colonial university’, 208. 38. Ogundele, Omoluabi,11–13. 39. Wren, Those Magical Years, 45. 40. Alan Ryder, ‘Memoir’, 1982, 3, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/101. 41. Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 157. 42. Similar considerations informed the contemporary formation of the Colonial Research Council. See Sabine Clarke, ‘A technocratic imperial state? The Colonial Office and scientific research, 1940–1960’, Twentieth Century British History 18:4 (2007), 466–7. 43. Creech Jones to Macpherson, 29 September 1948, NAI CSO26 41978/ S.22. 44. ‘Speech made by Hugh Foot, Acting Governor, at Foundation Day, 17 November 1950’, NAI CSO26 41978/S.18. 45. Nigerian Statesman, 2 July 1949. There was not unanimity amongst the press, though. The SND argued that UCI merely ‘claims and is supposed to be autonomous’: SND, 16 June 1949. 46. F.J. Ellah, ‘My era at Ibadan’, in Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices, 15. 47. Vincent Chukwuemeka Ike, University Development in Africa (Ibadan, 1976), 169–71; Stewart, Higher Education,47–9, 65. 48. Christopher Cox, the Colonial Office’s Education Adviser, was an important intermediary between the Colonial Office and the Inter-University Council. See Clive Whitehead, Colonial Educators: The British Indian and Colonial Education Service 1858–1983 (London, 2003), 198. NOTES 199

49. P.F. Vowles, ‘Staff recruitment’, 4, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/119. See also the more oblique recollections of I.C.M. Maxwell, ‘Recruitment through the Inter-University Council’, 4, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/77. 50. See the Hamilton Fyfe delegation recommendations at the ‘Meeting held at Government House on 30.12.46’,2–3, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. IV; echoed in the Hamilton Fyfe report, 6. For Colonial Development and Welfare fund requirements see ‘Grants from the higher education allowance under the Colonial Development and Welfare Act’, July 1948, NAI CSO26 41978/S.22. 51. Phillipson to Civil Service Commissioner, 5 September 1951, NAI CSO26 41978/S.62. 52. Nigeria, University College, Ibadan Ordinance (Lagos, 1954), 11. 53. The 1952 creation of a Council of Ministers saw Nigerians take ministerial positions. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. Third Session, 6th to 25th March 1954 (Lagos, 1954), 657. 54. Phillipson to Mellanby, 8 August 1952, UARSP ‘Correspondences between Mellanby and Phillipson’ folder. 55. Pugh memoir, 57–8, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/92. 56. Noted in Hatch minute, 22 December 1949; Acting Secretary Northern Provinces to Chief Secretary, 2 June 1951, NAI CSO26 41978/S.41. 57. Legislative Council Question, 1 March 1951, NAI CSO26 41978/S.13 Vol. I. See also ‘Extract from minutes of Standing Committee on Finance of the Legislative Council’, 19 January 1951, NAI CSO26 41978/S.18. 58. Ebun O. Omoyele, The Civil Service in Nigeria: Evolution and Challenges (Lagos, 2012), 27–9; G.O. Olusanya, The Evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service 1861–1960: The Problems of Nigerianization (Yaba, 1975), 29–35. Previously only a very small number of Nigerians had been appointed to senior state posts. 59. Mellanby to Azikiwe, 21 October 1947, UARSP ‘Correspondence between Dr Azikiwe and Dr Mellanby on the latter’s assumption of ofﬁce as Principal, UCI, 1947’ folder. 60. Minute by W.D. Spence, 10 April 1948, NAI CSO26 41978/S13 Vol. 1. 61. Creech Jones to Macpherson, 17 February 1948, NAI CSO26 41978/S13 Vol. 1. 62. Tamuno, ‘Formative years’, 39. 63. Nigerian Spokesman, 14 June 1948. 64. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 40; Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 251–2; O. Ikejiani and J.O. Anowi, ‘Nigerian universities’,in Okechukwu Ikejiani (ed.), Nigerian Education (Ikeja, 1964), 147–8. 65. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session, 22. Titus Ejiwunmi later suggested that he left because of what he saw as lax discipline at the university compared with his experience of teaching at Yaba Higher College: Ejiwunmi, Full Colours,38–9. 200 NOTES

66. WAP, 24 November 1952. 67. Asquith report, 22. 68. John Flint, ‘Scandal at the Bristol Hotel: some thoughts on racial discrimination in Britain and West Africa and its relationship to the planning of decolonisation, 1939–47’, JICH 12:1 (1983), 85; Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge, 1996), 444–5. 69. Kenneth Mellanby declined his expatriation allowance of £650. Finance and General Purpose Committee Minutes, 29 April 1949, 16 November 1949, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/78. 70. Finance and General Purpose Committee Minutes, 2 January 1950, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/78. 71. Nigerian Spokesman, 12 June 1950. 72. SND, 18 June 1949. See also SND, 14 May 1949. 73. Nigerian Statesman, 24 September 1949. 74. Finance and General Purpose Committee Minutes, 1 June 1950, 15 November 1950, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/78. 75. For the cost see Allport, Bursar, to Phillipson, 14 May 1956, UARSP ‘Correspondence between Sir Phillipson [sic] and Dr Biobaku’ folder; for the quotation see Allport to Baker, Sales Manager, BOAC, Lagos, 8 October 1957, UARSP ‘F8A Principal’soffice finance (correspondence only)’ folder. 76. Tamuno, ‘Formative years’, 39. 77. Maxwell, Universities in Partnership, 35. Generally, see Bruce Pattinson, Special Relations: The University of London and New Universities Overseas, 1947–1970 (London, 1984). 78. In the faculty of arts it was possible to study ancient history, classical Greek, English, geography, history, Latin, mathematics and religious studies; and in the faculty of science biology, botany, chemistry, geography, geology, mathematics, physics and zoology. University College Ibadan, Calendar, 1958–59 (Ibadan, 1958), 59–61. 79. Tamuno, ‘Formative years’, 30. 80. Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 210; Fafunwa, History of Nigerian Education, 100. 81. Ike, University Development,1;Nigerian Tribune, 15 August 1952. For more details about the women students, see Chapter 5. 82. Special relations formed new links between colonial university colleges and the University of London. The first lecturer in African history at a British university, for example, was appointed at the University of London in 1948 to evaluate adapted history courses proposed by the new African universities: Jan Vansina, Living With Africa (Madison, 1994), 46–7. 83. J.D. Omer-Cooper, ‘The contribution of the University of Ibadan to the spread of the study and teaching of African history within Africa’, n.d., 2, 5; Omer- NOTES 201

Cooper, ‘Reminiscences’, 5, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/84; Roland Oliver, ‘African history: SOAS and beyond’, in A.H.M. Kirk-Greene (ed.), The Emergence of African History at British Universities (Oxford, 1995), 13, 19. 84. J.F. Ade Ajayi, ‘African history at Ibadan’, in Kirk-Greene (ed.), Emergence of African History, 93. 85. Ellah, ‘My era’,21–2. 86. There was some Nigerian demand to study Latin and Greek, which were considered prestigious subjects amongst the intelligentsia. Fafunwa, History of Nigerian Education, 104–5; Minutes of meeting between Mellanby and University of London Special Committee of the Senate on Higher Education in the Colonies, 21 October 1947, SHLSC AC11/11/1. 87. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 252–3. 88. WAP, 24 February 1948. 89. SND, 15 June 1948. 90. SND, 28 June 1949. 91. Ashby, Universities, 236; Tamuno, ‘Formative years’, 37. 92. ‘Report of visitors to University College, Ibadan, January 1952’, TNA BW 90/1035. 93. J.F. Ade Ajayi, ‘Postgraduate studies and staff development’, in Ajayi and Tamuno (eds.), University of Ibadan, 153. 94. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 164–5. 95. Western News, 17 April 1957. 96. WAP, 9 March 1948. 97. SND, 23 April 1949. 98. Hamilton Fyfe report, 9; Nigeria, Report on a Technical College Organisation for Nigeria by W.H. Thorp and F.J. Harlow (1950). See also ‘Report of a visit to Nigeria by Professor C.A. Hart in connection with training in Civil Engineering and Land Surveying’, 20 April 1949, 4; A.L. Mellanby, ‘Notes on the proposal to establish a Faculty of Engineering in University College, Ibadan’, n.d. [c. 1950], NAI CSO26 41978/S.51. 99. ‘Inter-University Council for Higher Education Overseas. Conference of vice-chancellors and principals minutes’, August 1958, UARSP ‘17.02 Association of Commonwealth Universities (Correspondence) Vol. I’ folder; I. Iweibo and Olusoji Oﬁ, ‘Science and technology’, in Moujetan (ed.), Ibadan at Fifty, 100. 100. Hamilton Fyfe report, 7; Nigeria, Ten-Year Plan of Development and Welfare for Nigeria, 1946 (Lagos, 1946), 16. 101. J.T. Saunders, University College Ibadan (Cambridge, 1960), 93, 165–6; Woodward, Colonial Educators, 236–7; Stewart, Higher Education,27–8, 41, 69–70. 102. Michael Omolewa, ‘An overview of the faculty of education’, in Mojuetan (ed.), Ibadan at Fifty, 53. 202 NOTES

103. Haslewood to Secretary, Senate Committee on Colleges Overseas in Special Relation, 29 February 1956, SHLSC AC 11/11/3. 104. It was not used at the British ‘new universities’ of the late 1950s and early 1960s, which awarded their own degrees from the outset. For example see Asa Briggs, ‘Drawing a new map of learning’, in David Daiches (ed.), The Idea of a New University: An Experiment in Sussex (London, 1964), 60–1. 105. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session. 14th to 22nd August 1952 (Lagos, 1953), 17. 106. In 1952, 1957, 1958 and 1959. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 103–6; Phillipson to Worsley, 17 May 1958; Fenton, Central Bank of Nigeria, to Bursar, University College Ibadan, 28 February 1959; Allport to Preston, 6 April 1959, UARSP ‘F8A Principal’soffice finance (correspondence only)’ folder. 107. Elliot report, 77–8, 173–4. 108. UCI, The University College Ibadan Report for 1948 to 1953 (Ibadan, 1955), 11. 109. WAP, 6 April 1951; Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 109, 248. 110. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 109. 111. Minutes of Executive Council, 11 November 1950; speech made by Foot, Acting Governor, at Foundation Day, 17 November 1950, NAI CSO26 41978/S.18. 112. On autonomy see ‘Grants from Colonial Development and Welfare vote to colonial universities and university colleges’, 27 October 1948, NAI CSO26 41978/S.16. 113. Phillipson to Parry, 24 June 1957, UARSP ‘F8A Principal’soffice finance (correspondence only)’ folder; Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 112. 114. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session, 13. 115. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session, 19. 116. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session, 14. 117. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session, 13, 14. 118. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session, 17. 119. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session, 27. 120. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. First Session, 16. 121. Phillipson to Barns, 16 June 1952, UARSP ‘Correspondence between the principal and chairman of the council – Sir Sydney Phillipson (1952–55)’ folder. 122. Nigeria, White Paper on Financing of University College, Ibadan (Lagos, 1954), 3–4, quotations at 4. 123. The government had slightly trimmed the capital grant to £1.08m. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. Third Session. 13th to 23rd August 1954 (Lagos, 1955), 261. 124. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. Third Session, 265. 125. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. Third Session, 263–5. NOTES 203

126. Catherine Gwin, ‘U.S. relations with the World Bank, 1945–1992’,in Devesh Kapur, John P. Lewis and Richard Webb (eds.), The World Bank: Its First Half Century, Vol. II: Perspectives (Washington, 1992), 195–8. 127. University College Ibadan, Principal’s Report for 1953–54 (Ibadan, 1956), 7; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The Economic Development of Nigeria (Lagos, 1954), 383. 128. IBRD, Economic Development, 384–5. 129. UCI, Report of Visitation to University College, Ibadan. January, 1957 (Ibadan, 1957) (hereafter 1957 visitation), 16. 130. 1957 visitation, 11, 17–18. 131. University College Ibadan, Principal’s Report for 1954–55 (Ibadan, 1956), 1. 132. 1957 visitation, 16, 17. 133. ‘Estimates 1958/59. Memorandum by the bursar’, 13 February 1958, UARSP ‘F8A Principal’soffice finance (correspondence only)’ folder. 134. ‘Minutes of a meeting between the federal ministers of finance and education, and representatives of the University College, Ibadan, 12 June 1959’, 2, UARSP ‘F8A Principal’soffice finance (correspondence only)’ folder. 135. For example see Phillipson to Federal Financial Secretary, 5 April 1957, UARSP ‘F8A Principal’soffice finance (correspondence only)’ folder. 136. James S. Coleman, University Development in the Third World: The Rockefeller Foundation Experience, with David Court (Oxford, 1993), 89. 137. On ‘high modernism’ see Scott, Seeing Like a State,93–102.

CHAPTER 4 1. Cooper, Colonialism in Question, 115; Ferguson, Expectations of Modernity, 13–14. 2. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. D. Nicholson-Smith (Oxford, 1991), 33–46. 3. This is probably Jacob F. Ade Ajayi, who became a celebrated historian. This attribution is not deﬁnitive, though, as he published other articles in the UH as ‘J.F. Ade Ajayi’, and it is not out of the question that there was another student called J. Ajayi who did not graduate, especially given ‘the mass kick- out’ of 1949 (discussed in Chapter 3). 4. UH 2:3 (1949). 5. Tom Avermaete, Serhat Karakayali and Marion von Osten (eds.), Colonial Modern: Aesthetics of the Past – Rebellions for the Future (London, 2010). See also F. Demissie (ed.), Colonial Architecture and Urbanism in Africa: Intertwined and Contested Histories (Farnham, 2012). 6. Hannah le Roux, ‘Thenetworksoftropicalarchitecture’, Journal of Architecture 8:3 (2003), 338–9, 347–9, 350–2; Hannah le Roux, ‘Building 204 NOTES

on the boundary – modern architecture in the tropics’, Social Identities 10:4 (2004), 439, 441–2; Rhodri Windsor-Liscombe, ‘Modernism in late imperial British West Africa: the work of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, 1946–56’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 65:2 (2006), 188, 194; Rhodri Windsor-Liscombe, ‘Refabricating the imperial image on the Isle of Dogs: modernist design, British state exhibitions and colonial policy 1924– 1951’, Architectural History 49 (2006), 319, 333. 7. Ferguson, Expectations of Modernity,1–4. 8. Soyinka, Ibadan, 173. 9. Baker to Mellanby, 11 July 1950, UARSP ‘Building Committee’ folder. 10. Preston, ‘My era at Ibadan’, 37. 11. UH 3:2 (1950). 12. Gilroy, Black Atlantic, 12, 15–16. 13. J.M. Vlach, ‘The Brazilian house in Nigeria: the emergence of a 20th- century vernacular house type’, The Journal of American Folklore 97:383 (1984), 6–8; Bigon, History of Urban Planning, 291–2. 14. A.I.I. Ette (Ibadan alumnus, physicist, and professor), interview with the author, February 2012; Peel, Religious Encounter,8. 15. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, The History of African Cities South of the Sahara: From the Origins to Colonization, trans. M. Baker (Princeton, 2005), 252–3. 16. For the medieval Europe comparison, see A.L. Mabogunje, ‘The morphology of Ibadan’, in P.C. Lloyd, A.L. Mabogunje and B. Awe (eds.), The City of Ibadan (Cambridge, 1967), 35. For the shanty town comparison, see Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 37; Iris Omer-Cooper, ‘Memoir’, 1983, 4, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/83. 17. On the transnational interactions involved in Ibadan’s growth, see Coquery- Vidrovitch, History of African Cities, 328–30; Catherine Coquery- Vidrovitch, ‘Introduction: African urban spaces: history and culture’,in Steven J. Salm and Toyin Falola (eds.), African Urban Spaces in Historical Perspective (Rochester, NY, 2005), xxix–xxx. 18. Plan of Town of Ibadan and Its Environs (n.p. [London], 1909). 19. Anthony King, The Bungalow: The Production of a Global Culture (New York, 1995), 215–21; P.D. Curtin, ‘Medical knowledge and urban planning in tropical Africa’, American Historical Review 90:3 (1985), 607. 20. See my chapter ‘Grave reservations: Nigerian literature and “European Reservations” during decolonisation’, in Nina Berre, Paul Wenzel Geissler, Nina Frang Høyum and Johan Lagae (eds.), Forms of Freedom: Legacies of African Modernism (forthcoming). 21. For an earlier case see Coleman, Nigeria, 180–1. NOTES 205

22. Watson, ‘Civil Disorder’, 127–30; Olufunke Adeboye, ‘Elite lifestyle and consumption in colonial Ibadan’, in Adebayo Oyebade (ed.), The Foundations of Nigeria: Essays in Honor of Toyin Falola (Trenton, 2003), 286–7, 296–8. 23. Nigeria, The Nigeria Handbook: Containing Statistical and General Information Respecting the Colony and Protectorate (Lagos, 1933), 179–80. 24. Nigerian Daily Times, 13 February 1934. 25. WAP, 29 February 1944. 26. Elliot report, 75. 27. Elliot report, 171. 28. Noted in Governor of Nigeria to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 2 January 1947, TNA BW 90/309. Also see Acting Secretary Western Provinces to Chief Secretary, 27 December 1945, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. III; Governor of Nigeria to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 11 June 1946, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. IV. 29. SND, 26 February 1948. 30. SND, 17 May 1948. 31. SND, 22 February 1949. On this point see Leif Jerram, Streetlife: The Untold History of Europe’s Twentieth Century (Oxford, 2011), 10. 32. Olusanya, Nigerian Civil Service,28–35; Flint, ‘Scandal at the Bristol Hotel’,87–8. 33. King, Bungalow, 221; Mabogunje, ‘Morphology of Ibadan’, 54. Now known as ‘Government Reserved Areas’, some are still in use. 34. Although these innovations were not without their attendant difﬁculties, some of which are discussed in Chapter 5. 35. UH 4:3 (1951). 36. Fafunwa, History of Nigerian Education, 79. 37. For the former see the front cover of J.M. Richards, An Introduction to Modern Architecture (Harmondsworth, 1940); for the latter Catherine Moriarty, ‘Abram Games: an essay on his work and its context’,inN. Games, C. Moriarty and J. Rose (eds.), Abram Games, Graphic Designer: Maximum Meaning, Minimum Means (Aldershot, 2003), 65–9. 38. H. Brockman, ‘Introduction’, in S. Hitchens (ed.), Fry Drew Knight Creamer Architecture (London, 1978), 6–8. On their career in general see Iain Jackson and Jessica Holland, The Architecture of Edwin Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew: Twentieth Century Architecture, Pioneer Modernism and the Tropics (Farnham, 2014). 39. Mark Crinson, Modern Architecture and the End of Empire (Aldershot, 2003), 16; Liscombe, ‘Modernism in late imperial British West Africa’, 204. 40. Robinson to Fry and Drew, 3 October 1947, TNA BW 90/309. 41. Reddaway minute, 22 October 1947, TNA BW 90/309. 42. See what appear to be notes from the interviews taken by Walter Adams, secretary of the Inter-University Council, TNA BW 90/309. 206 NOTES

43. Carr-Saunders, New Universities Overseas,82–3; Crinson, Modern Architecture, 141–3. 44. Crinson, Modern Architecture, xii–xiii, 4; Windsor-Liscombe, ‘Modernism in late imperial British West Africa’, 188; le Roux, ‘Networks of tropical architecture’, 338, 350. 45. Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, Tropical Architecture in the Humid Zone (London, 1956), 29. 46. Robinson to Fry and Drew, 3 October 1947, TNA BW 90/309. 47. J.B. Drew, ‘Introduction’, Architectural Design 25 (1955), 139. 48. Fry and Drew, Tropical Architecture, 190. 49. Iain Jackson, ‘Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew’s early housing and neighbourhood planning in sector-22, Chandigarh’, Planning Perspectives 28:1 (2013), 10–11, 15–16. 50. By the 1960s the Mbari arts group, associated with the university, preferred to hold performances outside, in the courtyard of a Lebanese restaurant in the city, rather than at Fry and Drew’s theatre. Wren, Those Magical Years, 27, 40–1. 51. Fry and Drew, Tropical Architecture, 28. On this topic in general, see D. Arnold, ‘“Illusory riches”: representations of the tropical world, 1840– 1940’, Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 21:1 (2000). 52. Drew, ‘Introduction’, 137, 139. 53. Fry and Drew, Tropical Architecture, 195. 54. For example, see Lewis, Empire State-Building, 300–6. 55. Elliot report, 63, 65–6. 56. Elliot report, 155; Carr-Saunders, New Universities, 77. 57. Hamilton Fyfe report, 12. 58. Bowman to Cappa and D’Alberto, 2 February 1951, UARSP ‘Cappa and D’Alberto’ folder. 59. Elliot report, 65. 60. Minute, initials unclear, 10 September 1945, NAI CSO26 41978 Vol. III. 61. Hamilton Fyfe report, 11. 62. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 67. 63. Acting Secretary Western Provinces to Chief Secretary, 17 June 1947, NAI CSO26 41978/S.12 Vol. I. 64. Olufemi Vaughan, Nigerian Chiefs: Traditional Power in Modern Politics (Rochester, NY, 2000), 34–41. 65. Ibadan Native Authority Council minutes, 5 March 1945, 17 September 1945, NAI Oyoprof1 3972. 66. Obisesan’s diary, 15 August 1945, KDL Obisesan Papers box 50. 67. Ibadan Native Authority Council minutes, 17 November 1947; Acting District Ofﬁcer Ibadan to Senior Resident Oyo, 10 May 1948, NAI Oyoprof1 4379 Vol. I. NOTES 207

68. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 73. 69. S.O. Biobaku and P. Lloyd, ‘The site before the college arrived’,inK. Mellanby (ed.), University College, Ibadan: The Site and Its Acquisition (Ibadan, 1954), 16. Attempts to secure a further tranche of land in the 1950s were more contested. See L. Ometa, ‘Inter-group relations in Ibadan: University of Ibadan – Ajibode relations, 1948–1997’, Unpublished BA Long Essay, University of Ibadan (1999). 70. On this point see Hodge, Triumph of the Expert,14–15. 71. Fry and Drew, Tropical Architecture, 202. 72. UH 1:3 (1948). 73. Finance and General Purposes Committee minutes, 29 April 1949, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/78. 74. Fry to Drew, 5 October 1949, RIBA Library Drawings and Archives Collection, F&D/18/10. 75. Mellanby to Adams, 30 January 1950, TNA BW 90/312. 76. Ola Uduku, ‘Modernist architecture and “the tropical” in West Africa: the tropical architecture movement in West Africa, 1948–1970’, Habitat International 30:3 (2006), 404; Kenneth Mellanby, ‘Memorandum to members of the provisional council. Layout plan of permanent buildings’, 6 August 1949; Mellanby to Hetherington, 19 July 1949, TNA BW 90/ 311. 77. Mellanby to Hetherington, 24 August 1950, TNA BW 90/314. 78. Note here Fry’s implied racialised hierarchy of expectations regarding built environments. Fry to Drew, 2 October 1949, RIBA Library Drawings and Archives Collection F&D/18/10. 79. Mellanby to Adams, 8 October 1949, TNA BW 90/311. 80. Mellanby to Adams, 2 May 1950; Mellanby to Hetherington, 24 May 1950, TNA BW 90/312. 81. Drew to Mellanby, 5 April 1950, TNA BW 90/312. 82. Mellanby to Adams, 2 May 1950, TNA BW 90/312. 83. Colonial Ofﬁce to Mellanby, 19 May 1950, TNA BW 90/312. 84. Daily Times, 3 January 1953. 85. On elite educational institutions and expectations of behaviour see Nirmal Puwar, Space Invaders: Race, Gender and Bodies Out of Place (Oxford, 2004), 109–10. 86. On spaces of eating, see Thomas A. Markus, Buildings and Power: Freedom and Control in the Origin of Modern Building Types (London, 1993), 29–30. 87. David Kynaston, Austerity Britain, 1945–51 (London, 2007), 20, 101–2. 88. Mabey minute, 29 October 1955, NAI MED(FED) 2nd acc. 1/19 SAF60/ S.14. 89. Western News, 7 November 1956. 208 NOTES

90. UH 2:3 (1949). 91. Director of Public Works to Cappa and D’Alberto, 17 November 1947, UARSP ‘Cappa and D’Alberto’ folder. Only a few staff, often members of the small extra-mural department, lived outside of the university. 92. Mellanby to Adams, 23 June 1948, TNA BW 90/310. On this point see King, Bungalow, 221. 93. Allport to Federal Financial Secretary, 1 April 1957, NAI MED(FED) 2nd acc. 1/19 SAF65/S.4. Ensuing correspondence shows that this was not intended as a joke. 94. Williams to Registrar, n.d. [1957 or 1958], UARSP ‘The university sites and buildings’ folder. 95. Lefebvre, Production of Space,33–46. 96. Archives are replete with annoyed correspondence about water supply and telephones. For example, see NAI CSO26 41978/S.65. 97. ‘Rules of residence’, September 1961, UARSP ‘Hall lists’ folder. 98. Elgood memoir, 4, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/29. 99. Soyinka, Ibadan, 177. 100. Beier, ‘In a colonial university’, 210–11; Wren, Those Magical Years, 77. 101. Nigeria, House of Representatives Debates. Third Session, 265. 102. Western News, 31 August 1955. 103. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 105–6, 119. 104. IBRD, Economic Development, 383, 384. 105. 1957 visitation, 17. 106. Stefan Muthesius, The Postwar University: Utopianist Campus and College (New Haven, 2000), 76–83; Robert Proctor, ‘Social structures: Gillespie, Kidd & Coia’s halls of residence at the University of Hull, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 67:1 (2008), 116–17. 107. Stolper, Inside Independent Nigeria,8. 108. UNESCO report, 38. 109. J. Timbergen et al., ‘The financing of higher education in Africa’,in UNESCO report, 186. 110. UNESCO report, 48. 111. Parry to Ibiam, 10 October 1958, UARSP ‘Dr Dike’s correspondence with the Chairman Sir Francis Ibiam’ folder. 112. Allport to Atkinson, 19 November 1958; Allport to Halliday, 22 December 1958, UARSP ‘The university sites and buildings’ folder. 113. Allport to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 13 February 1959, UARSP ‘F8A Principal’soffice finance (correspondence only)’ folder. 114. Adamolekun to Howarth, 17 May 1961, UARSP ‘M11 Principal’soffice miscellaneous 1 October 1960–’ folder. 115. K.O. Dike, ‘Development of UCI’ (1963), UARSP ‘Development of UCI by K.O. Dike 12 Jan 63’ folder. NOTES 209

116. ‘An address by the Vice-Chancellor Dr K.O. Dike to congregation on graduation day 29th June 1966’, UARSP ‘Orientation souvenir articles (drafts) 1’ folder. 117. Mabogunje, ‘Morphology of Ibadan’,54–5. 118. P.O. Esedebe and J.O. Ijoma, ‘Early history of the university’, in Obiechina, Ike and Umeh (eds.), University of Nigeria, 14. 119. Ashby report, 28. 120. UNESCO, Report of the UNESCO Advisory Commission for the Establishment of the University of Lagos (n.p., 1961), 18. 121. Quoted in J.D. Odufalu, ‘The long-run marginal cost of providing halls of residence to university students: a University of Ibadan case study’, Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Studies 11:3 (1969), 255. 122. Odufalu, ‘Long-run marginal cost’, 255–6.

CHAPTER 5 1. Eni Njoku, ‘Non-academic aims at University College Ibadan’, Ibadan 2 (1958), 9. 2. On culture and empire, see Edward Said, Orientalism: Western Concepts of the Orient (Harmondsworth, 1991); Nicholas B. Dirks (ed.), Colonialism and Culture (Ann Arbor, 1992); Barbra Bush, Imperialism and Postcolonialism (Harlow, 2006); Jeremy Prestholdt, Domesticating the World: African Consumerism and the Genealogies of Globalization (Berkeley, 2008). On decolonisation, see Ruth Craggs and Claire Wintle (eds.), Cultures of Decolonisation: Transnational Productions and Practices, 1945–70 (Manchester, 2016). 3. For example see Allman (ed.), Fashioning Africa; Karin Barber (ed.), Readings in African Popular Culture (Bloomington, 1997); Okwui Enwezor (ed.), The Short Century: Independence and Liberation Movements in Africa 1945–1994 (Munich, 2001); Andrew Ivaska, Cultured States: Youth, Gender and Modern Style in 1960s Dar es Salaam (Durham, NC, 2011); Nate Plageman, Highlife Saturday Night: Popular Music and Social Change in Urban Ghana (Bloomington, 2013); Terrence Ranger, Dance and Society in Eastern Africa 1890–1970: The Beni Ngoma (London, 1975); Christopher Alan Waterman, Juju: A Social History and Ethnography of an African Popular Music (Chicago, 1990). 4. For an exception, see the argument about emerging elites and their distinctive ‘styles’ in Kenneth Post and Michael Vickers, Structure and Conﬂict in Nigeria 1960–1966 (London, 1973), 40. 5. On this, see Puwar, Space Invaders,1–8. 6. Achebe, No Longer at Ease, 73. 7. Critiques of student culture as imitative are discussed later in the chapter. 210 NOTES

8. Thomas Hodgkin, ‘The idea of an African university’, Ibadan 4 (1958), 5. 9. IBRD, Economic Development, 363, 367, 374; E.I. Oliver, Nigeria: Economic and Commercial Conditions in Nigeria (London, 1957), 172–3. 10. Ajayi, ‘Development of secondary grammar school education’, 519–23; Ogunlade, ‘Education and politics’, 332–43; J.D.Y. Peel, Ijeshas and Nigerians: The Incorporation of a Yoruba Kingdom 1890s–1970s (Cambridge, 1983), 175–9. 11. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 148. 12. Salako, Our UI, 67. 13. Tony Marinho (Ibadan alumnus, doctor and writer), interview with the author, February 2012. 14. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 151. 15. Peel, Religious Encounter, 281–95, 304. 16. Creech Jones to Grace, 20 May 1949, School of Oriental and African Studies Library Archives and Special Collections, Conference of British Missionary Societies Papers CBMS 307. 17. Monica Plumptre to ‘My dear family’, 10 October 1948, 1 November 1948, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/48. 18. UH 1:1 (1948); UH 1:2 (1948); Salako, Our UI, 71. 19. J.T. Okedara, Employment Status of University of Ibadan Graduates, 1950–1971 (Ibadan, 1984), 52–3; van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 152–3. 20. This was true, for example, of Chinua Achebe, Ayo Bamgbose, Christopher Okigbo, and Wole Soyinka. Ezenwa-Ohaeto, Chinua Achebe: A Biography (Oxford, 1997), 2–3; Obi Nwakanma, Christopher Okigbo 1930–67: Thirsting for Sunlight (Woodbridge, 2010), 6–7; Wole Soyinka, Ake: The Years of Childhood (London, 2007), 14, 19–21; Ayo Bamgbose (Ibadan alumnus and professor emeritus), interview with the author, February 2012. On African catechists and school teachers generally, see David Maxwell, ‘Christianity’, in John Parker and Richard Reid (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Modern African History (Oxford, 2013), 275. 21. Monica Plumptre to ‘My dear family’, 10 October 1948, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/48. 22. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege,152;CharmainePereira,Gender in the Making of the Nigerian University System (Oxford, 2007), 29. Queen’s College, Lagos was such an exception: Bimpe Aboyade (Ibadan alumnus and retired professor), interview with the author, February 2012. 23. From 1948 to 1952, 45 percent of Ibadan students qualiﬁed for some kind of government support, a ﬁgure that had declined to 17 percent in the period 1963 to 1966: van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 166. NOTES 211

24. Zachernuk, Colonial Subjects, 51, 83; Adi, West Africans, 186; Peel, ‘Olaju’, 150–8. 25. Echeruo, Victorian Lagos, 30. 26. The photograph was also reproduced in Kenneth Mellanby’s memoir. UH 5:2 (1952); Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, facing 160; Nigeria Magazine 56 (1958). 27. There was a similar situation at the University College, Dar es Saalam: Ivaska, Cultured States, 131. 28. Salako, Our UI, 135. 29. Salako, Our UI, 117. 30. On the unclear boundaries of youth in decolonisation-era Ghana, see Plageman, Highlife Saturday Night,9–10. 31. Salako, Our UI, 117. 32. Emmanuel Ayotunde Yoloye, ‘Reminiscences of an Ibadan alumnus’,in Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices, 61; Olumuyiwa Awe, ‘Ibadan: recollections and reﬂections’, in Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices,70–1, 75. 33. Salako, Our UI, 46. 34. Adetowun Ogunsheye, ‘Reminiscences of a foundation student/foundation staff of a department’, in Mojuetan (ed.), Ibadan at Fifty, 373. 35. ‘University College, Ibadan – Mosque’, West African Builder and Architect 2:2 (1962), 24–5; J.D.Y. Peel, Christianity, Islam and Orisa Religion: Three Traditions in Comparison and Interaction (Oakland, 2016), 147. 36. Salako, Our UI,76–7. 37. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 211. 38. Martin Lynn, ‘“We cannot let the North down”: British policy and Nigeria in the 1950s’, in Lynn (ed.), British Empire, 145–7; Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 27, 32, 60. 39. Lynn, ‘We cannot let the North down’, 159. 40. Lynn, ‘We cannot let the North down’, 146–7. 41. Salako, Our UI, 60. 42. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 59. Emphasis in original. 43. Wren, Those Magical Years, 32. 44. E.A. Ayandele, The Educated Elite in the Nigerian Society (Ibadan, 1974), 145. 45. Zachernuk, Colonial Subjects, 135. Here Zachernuk is quoting accusations noted in Smythe and Smythe, New Nigerian Elite, 64. 46. Ogundele, Omoluabi, 44. 47. Elliot report, 54. 48. UH 1:2 (1948). 49. Ogunsheye, ‘Reminiscences of a foundation student’, 372. 50. Salako, Our UI, 10. 51. Salako, Our UI, 45. 52. ’Bola Ige, The Discovery of Nigeria: Text of the University of Ibadan 1994 Alumni Lecture (Ibadan, 1994), 4. 212 NOTES

53. Salako, Our UI, 50. 54. UH 4:1 (1951). 55. Salako, Our UI, 35. 56. Salako, Our UI, 119. 57. Beier, ‘In a colonial university’, 212. 58. Salako, Our UI, 105. 59. Salako, Our UI, 51. 60. Salako, Our UI, 30. 61. UH 4:3 (1952). 62. Salako, Our UI, 73. 63. On dress in particular, see Helen Callaway, ‘Dressing for dinner in the bush: rituals of self-deﬁnition and British imperial authority’,inRuthBarnesand Joanne B. Eicher (eds.), Dress and Gender: Making and Meaning (Oxford, 1992), 239. 64. Everill, Abolition and Empire, 48; P.F. de Moraes Farias and Karin Barber, ‘Introduction’, in de Moraes Farias and Barber (eds.), Self-Assertion and Brokerage,2–7. 65. Ikejiani and Anowi, ‘Nigerian universities’, 130. 66. Waterman, Juju,14–16, 43–4. 67. Ette, interview. 68. Salako, Our UI, 51. 69. For example see Pallinder, ‘Adegboyega Edun’, 13. 70. Pugh, ‘Memoir’, 4, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/92. 71. Ogunsheye, ‘Reminiscences of a foundation student’, 369. 72. Mellanby, Birth of Nigeria’s University, 228. 73. UH 3:1 (1950). 74. Salako, Our UI, 51. 75. Note the ‘he’ here. Salako, Our UI, 51. 76. Elgood memoir, 5, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/29. 77. UH 1:2 (1948); The University Hansard, 1:1 (1952). 78. Bamgbose, interview with the author. Similarly, young elite characters in Achebe’s novels exhibit weariness with boiled potatoes: Achebe, No Longer at Ease,27–8. 79. Salako, Our UI, 61. 80. SND, 12 April 1949. 81. Nwakanma, Christopher Okigbo, 76; Daniel A. Ofﬁong, Secret Cults in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions (Enugu, 2003), 3, 51. 82. Salako, Our UI, 60, 61. 83. It is important to distinguish the Pyrates of the 1950s and 1960s from the violent turn taken by the confraternity in the 1970s and 1980s. See Mobolaji Ogunsanya, ‘Impact of campus secret cult organisations on university administration: a case study of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria’,in NOTES 213

Yann Lebeau and Mobolaji Ogunsanya (eds.), The Dilemma of Post-Colonial Universities (Ibadan, 2000), 75–6. 84. Salako, Our UI, 80. 85. Salako, Our UI, 111. 86. Saunders, University College Ibadan, 142; Biobaku, When We Were No Longer Young, 27. 87. UH 1:1 (1948). 88. UH 1:1 (1948). 89. Nwakanma, Christopher Okigbo, 90. Also see Joyce Cary, Mister Johnson (London, 1975 [1939]). 90. Achebe, Hopes and Impediments, 38; Ezenwa-Ohaeto, Chinua Achebe, 44. 91. Abiola Irele, ‘Introduction’, in J.P. Clark-Bekederemo, Collected Poems, 1958–1988, with an introduction by Abiola Irele (Washington, DC, 1991), xxi. 92. UH 3:2 (1950). 93. Nwakanma, Christopher Okigbo,64–5, 90. 94. John Ferguson, ‘Ibadan, 1956–66’, in Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices, 118. 95. Wolfgang Bender, ‘Independence, highlife, liberation wars: Lagos 1950s and 1960s’, in Enwezor (ed.), Short Century, 281. 96. John Collins, E.T. Mensah: King of Highlife (London, 1988), 5–7; Waterman, Juju, 112–13. 97. Segun Ojo, ‘Introduction’, in Paul Wale Ademowo, The Highlife Years: A History of Highlife Music in Nigeria, with an introduction by Segun Ojo (Ibadan, 1995), x. 98. Aboyade, interview; Chief M.A. Adesiyan (Ibadan alumnus and retired senior civil servant), interview with the author, February 2012. 99. Ette, interview. 100. Victor Treadwell, ‘The Magic Flute’, Ibadan 3 (1958), 27. 101. UH 5:2 (1952). 102. UH 3:3 (1950). 103. Salako, Our UI, 50. 104. Ette, interview. 105. UH 4:3 (1951); UH 5:2 (1952). 106. Ette, interview; John Collins, Highlife Time (Accra, 1994), 48. 107. UH 4:3 (1951). 108. UH 4:1 (1951). 109. Nwakanma, Christopher Okigbo, 73. 110. UH 2:3 (1949). 111. James McCann, Stirring the Pot: A History of African Cuisine (Athens, OH, 2009), 109. 112. Mabel Segun, ‘Reminiscences about the University of Ibadan’, in B.A. Mojuetan (ed.), Ibadan At Fifty, 409. 214 NOTES

113. Bamgbose, interview. 114. Salako, Our UI, 89. 115. UH 3:3 (1950). 116. UH 4:3 (1951). 117. Andrew Apter, The Pan-African Nation: Oil and the Spectacle of Culture in Nigeria (Chicago, 2005), 109–18. 118. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 148. 119. Salako, Our UI, 4. On the Enugu shootings see Coleman, Nigeria, 299– 300; G.O. Olusanya, The Second World War and Politics in Nigeria, 1939– 53 (Lagos, 1973), 118–20. 120. Salako, Our UI, 46. 121. Pugh, ‘Memoir’, 44, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/92. 122. J.D. Ojo, Students’ Unrest in Nigerian Universities: A Legal and Historical Approach (Ibadan, 1995), 43. 123. Obaro Ikime, ‘Problems of student welfare’, in Ajayi and Tamuno (eds.), University of Ibadan, 257. 124. Adeniyi Williams, ‘My era at Ibadan’, in Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices, 148. 125. Williams, ‘My era at Ibadan’, 148. 126. Salako, Our UI, 90. 127. Bamgbose, interview. Bamgbose was an observer of the incident. 128. WAP, 20 November 1957. 129. Daily Service, 22 November 1957. 130. Daily Service, 11 November 1957, 6 November 1957. See also the letter by ‘Affected’: WAP, 21 November 1957. 131. Preston, ‘My era’, 48. 132. WAP, 13 November 1957; Nigerian Tribune, 2 January 1958. 133. Nigerian Tribune, 2 January 1958. 134. WAP, 23 December 1957. 135. Salako, Our UI, 78; Aboyade, interview. 136. Daily Service, 11 January 1958. 137. Ojo, Students’ Unrest, 44. The fences are still in place today. 138. Daily Times, 9 November 1962. This is discussed further in Chapter 7.On similar disturbances in Tanzania, see Ivaska, Cultured States, 127–8, 136–7. 139. Ike, University Development, 17; van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 172. 140. Salako, Our UI, 113–14. 141. Awe, ‘Ibadan’, 90. 142. Bode Lucas (Ibadan alumnus and professor) and Femi Osoﬁsan (Ibadan alumnus, playwright and professor), interview with the author, February 2012. 143. Emmanuel Maduagwu (Ibadan alumnus and professor), interview with the author, February 2012. NOTES 215

144. Salako, Our UI, 96. On Macmillan’s tour, see Sarah Stockwell and L.J. Butler, ‘Introduction’, in L.J. Butler and Sarah Stockwell (eds.), The Wind of Change: Harold Macmillan and British Decolonisation (Basingstoke, 2013), 1–12. 145. Salako, Our UI, 96. 146. Gordon J. Idang, ‘The politics of Nigerian foreign policy: the ratification and renunciation of the Anglo-Nigerian Defence Agreement’, African Studies Review 13:2 (1970), 231–6. 147. Salako, Our UI, 132–3. 148. Salako, Our UI, 97. 149. Salako, Our UI, 76. 150. Salako, Our UI, 124. 151. Ayandele, Educated Elite, 112. 152. Salako, Our UI, 142. 153. Wolfgang Bender, Sweet Mother: Modern African Music, trans. Wolfgang Freis (London, 1991), 94. 154. Waterman, Juju,88–9. 155. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 148. 156. Lucas, interview. 157. Bender, ‘Independence, highlife’, 280–1. 158. Waterman, Juju, 101–2. 159. Soyinka, Ibadan, 196; Waterman, Juju, 111–12. 160. Osofisan, interview; Maduagwu, interview. 161. Marinho, interview. 162. Marinho, interview; Waterman, Juju, 113. 163. Maduagwu, interview. 164. Elgood, memoir, 5, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/29; van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 173. 165. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 174–5. 166. Raphel Ukoh, ‘Towards a better use of our libraries’, n.d. [c. 1965]; Wally Jibunoh, ‘Freshmen, take my word for it!’, n.d. [c. 1965], UARSP ‘Orientation souvenir articles (drafts) 1’ file. 167. Maduagwu, interview; UI, Calendar, 1963–4, 151. 168. UI Students’ Union, ‘Freshers’ orientation week “souvenir”’, 1963, UARSP ‘Welcome week traditional dance 1965’ file. 169. Salako, Our UI, 143–4.

CHAPTER 6 1. Robert B. Shepard, Nigeria, Africa and the United States: From Kennedy to Reagan (Bloomington, 1991), 7. 216 NOTES

2. Jeffrey James Byrne, ‘Africa’s Cold War’, in Robert J. McMahon (ed.), The Cold War in the Third World (New York, 2013), 112–13; Robert B. Rakove, Kennedy, Johnson and the Nonaligned World (Cambridge, 2013), 176–9; Elizabeth Schmidt, ‘Africa’, in Richard H. Immerman and Petra Goedde (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Cold War (Oxford, 2013), 265– 6; Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Intervention and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge, 2007), 131–43. 3. For exceptions see Rakove, Kennedy, Johnson and the Nonaligned World, 139; Grubbs, Secular Missionaries, 101. 4. Dungan to Kennedy, 6 March 1963, in Nina Davis Howland (ed.), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, Vol. XXI: Africa (Washington, DC, 1995), 329–30. AID and its predecessor ICA ran 12 projects in Nigeria compared with eight in Vietnam, six in Ethiopia, and ﬁve each in Brazil and Columbia. ‘A survey of AID educational cooperation with developing countries’, June 1970, NACP RG286 P825 box 56, ‘Education CY1970’ folder. 5. Leslie James and Elisabeth Leake, ‘Introduction’, in Leslie James and Elisabeth Leake (eds.), Decolonization and the Cold War: Negotiating Independence (London, 2015), 1–9. 6. James P. Hubbard, The United States and the End of British Colonial Rule in Africa, 1941–1968 (Jefferson, NC, 2011), 198; Maxim Matusevich, No Easy Row for a Russian Hoe: Ideology and Pragmatism in Nigerian-Soviet Relations, 1960–1991 (Trenton, 2003), 43–5. 7. Nigerian Tribune, 22 February 1962; Andreas Hilger, ‘Building a socialist elite? Khrushchev’s Soviet Union and elite formation in India’, in Dülffer and Frey (eds.), Elites and Decolonization, 264. 8. On the idea of ‘moderate’ politicians, see Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, 248–9, 256–60. 9. Nigeria was repeatedly described as a ‘bellwether’ or in similar terms. For example see Bernstein to Gordon, 11 November 1959, NACP RG 286 P822 box 1, ‘Administration’ folder; ‘Priority African issues’, n.d. [c. 1962], NACP RG 59 A1(719-E) box 24, ‘General policy’ folder. 10. Matusevich, No Easy Row,74–82, 85–9. 11. The periodisiation of American development efforts around United States presidencies implies the importance of American policy-making at the expense of African initiatives that cut across these temporal boundaries. The approaches of the Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson administrations to overseas development have often been contrasted in ways which stress the primary importance of policy-making in Washington. For example see Philip E. Muehlenbeck, Betting on the Africans: John F. Kennedy’s Courting of African Nationalist Leaders (Oxford, 2012). Similarly, work on modernisation theory can stresses its American roots at the expense of exploring the NOTES 217

ways in which these ideas were put to work by people in other global regions. For example see Rist, History of Development,71–5, 85, 94–6. 12. W.R. Louis and R. Robinson, ‘The imperialism of decolonization’, JICH 22:3 (1994), 473. 13. The phrase was coined by Freud: Sigmund Freud, On Sexuality: Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality and Other Works, edited by Angela Richards, trans. James Strachey (London, 1977), 272. 14. The foundations play a very marginal role in Shepard, Nigeria, Africa and the United States; Ebere Nwaubani, The United States and Decolonization in West Africa (Rochester, NY, 2001); Bassey E. Ate, Decolonization and Dependence: The Development of Nigerian-U.S. Relations, 1960–1984 (Boulder, 1987). 15. Coleman, University Development, 270, 323–33. For the classic account of informal empire, see R.J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, ‘The imperialism of free trade’, Economic History Review Second Series 6:1 (1953). See also interpretations of the interaction between the state, scholarly institutions, and academic knowledge in nineteenth-century British imperialism, for example Felix Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire (Oxford, 2001), 73–86. 16. Parmar, American Century, 170, 179. 17. Muehlenbeck, Betting on the Africans, 48. 18. Ijomah, ‘Origins and philosophy’,3,8–9; J.F. Ade Ajayi, Lameck K.H. Goma and G. Ampah Johnson, The African Experience with Higher Education (Accra, 1996), 76. 19. Azikiwe, Renascent Africa,17–18. 20. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Zik: A Selection from the Speeches of Nnamdi Azikiwe (Cambridge, 1961), 282. 21. Azikiwe, Zik, 284. 22. Eastern Nigeria, ‘University of Nigeria Law’ (Enugu, 1955), 10, 13–14. 23. Andrus to Hannah, 6 November 1957, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 69. 24. The Western Region introduction of universal primary education in January 1955 contributed to a perception that the East was falling behind in a race for development. The project may also have been intended to consolidate Azikiwe’s leadership of the NCNC after the 1953 challenge from one of his ministers in the Eastern House of Assembly. Martin Lynn, ‘The “Eastern crisis” of 1955–57, the Colonial Ofﬁce, and Nigerian decolonisation’, JICH 30:3 (2002), 97–9; Abernethy, Political Dilemma, 141–3. 25. West Africa, 23 July 1955. 26. West Africa, 30 July 1955. 27. West Africa, 9 July 1955. 28. West Africa, 11 June 1955. 218 NOTES

29. West Africa, 16 July 1955. 30. Lynn, ‘Eastern crisis’,99–103. 31. Lynn, ‘We cannot let the North down’, 147–53; J.F. Ade Ajayi and A.E. Ekoko, ‘Transfer of power in Nigeria: its origins and consequences’,in Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis (eds.), Decolonization and African Independence: The Transfers of Power, 1960–1980 (New Haven, 1988), 260. On the university see Lynn, ‘Eastern crisis’,96–7, 100–2. 32. Timms to Worsley, 8 September 1955, TNA BW 90/603. 33. Minute by R.J. Hervey, 3 September 1954, CO 859/627, in D. Goldsworthy (ed.), British Documents on the End of Empire, Series A Vol. III: The Conservative Government and the End of Empire 1951–1957, pt. 3: Economic and Social Policies (London, 1994), 348. 34. The university project does not seem to have further exacerbated relations between Azikiwe and the British, as has been suggested: Lynn, ‘Eastern crisis’,96–7, 100–2. 35. ‘Inter-University Council executive committee conference with Dr Azikiwe and the Eastern Nigeria minister of education’, 15 November 1955, TNA BW 90/603. 36. Lockwood to Carr-Saunders, 12 September 1957, TNA BW 90/603. 37. Ashby, Universities, 267–8. Also see Okafor, Development of Universities, 172. 38. Andrus to Hannah, 6 November 1957, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 69. 39. Azikiwe to Hannah, 17 September 1959, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 74. 40. John Kent, ‘Bevin’s imperialism and the idea of Euro-Africa, 1945–49’,in Michael Dockrill and John W. Young (eds.), British Foreign Policy, 1945–56 (London, 1989), 49. 41. On American economic involvement see Hakeem I. Tijani, Britain, Leftist Nationalists and the Transfer of Power in Nigeria, 1945–1965 (New York, 2006), 78–81. On UCI see Kuykendall (US Consul General) to Mellanby, 18 May 1949, UARSP ‘Correspondences on areas of co-operation between UCI and the USIS 1951–56’ folder. 42. Hubbard, United States, 157. 43. NSC 5719/1, 23 August 1957, in Stanley Shaloff (ed.), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–57, Vol. XVII: Africa (Washington, DC, 1989), quotations at 77, 79, see also 83–4. 44. ‘Exhibit B’, undated, prepared by ICA ofﬁcials for an August 1958 meeting between American and British ofﬁcials on ‘Science and the underdeveloped areas’, NACP RG 286 P822 box 1, ‘Education’ folder. NOTES 219

45. Taggart reported that Duggan, the State Department desk ofﬁcer on West Africa, expressed these reservations: Taggart to Hannah, 8 April 1958, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 71. 46. ICA to Colonial Ofﬁce, 19 November 1957, TNA BW 90/603. 47. Andrus to Hannah, 6 November 1957, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 69. On MSU’s global role see John Ernst, Forging a Fateful Alliance: Michigan State University and the Vietnam War (East Lansing, 1998), 1–8. 48. Taggart to Andrus, 26 November 1957, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 69. 49. For a summation of the land-grant philosophy by Michigan State University’s long-serving president, see John A. Hannah, A Memoir (n.p. [East Lansing], 1980), 36–8. 50. Andrus to Taggart, 29 November 1957, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 69. 51. J.W. Cook, ‘Report on visit to Eastern Nigeria’, April 1958, TNA BW 90/ 604. 52. The commission consisted of J.W. Cook representing the Inter-University Council, and John A. Hannah and Glen Taggart representing Michigan State University. ‘Report to the government of the Eastern Region of Nigeria concerning the development of a university’, 7 July 1958 (hereafter Cook-Hannah-Taggart report), 9–11, TNA BW 90/604. 53. Cook-Hannah-Taggart report, 8; Zerby and Zerby, If I Should Die, 54. 54. This was Francis Sutton of the Ford Foundation, which itself nursed a growing interest in Nigerian universities. Sutton to Tyler, 28 August 1958, RAC Ford Foundation records (hereafter FF) reel 766 PA 59–91. 55. Berryhill to Taggart, 10 September 1958, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 72. 56. ‘Ministerial statement in the House of Assembly by the premier’,13 December 1958, TNA CO 1045/803. 57. Rakove, Kennedy, Johnson and the Nonaligned World, 26. For an overview of American projects in Nigeria see AID, ‘A survey of AID educational cooperation with developing countries’, June 1970, 56–67, NACP RG 286 P825 Box 56, ‘Education’ folder. 58. Anyanwu, Politics of Access, 48. 59. Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy and Public Policy (Middletown, 1989), 3; Stephen H. Stackpole, Carnegie Corporation: Commonwealth Program 1911–1961 (New York, 1963), 3–4. 60. ‘Lagos, Nigeria, library development’, n.d. [1932], CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 274 folder 4; Lord Hailey, An African Survey: A Study of Problems Arising in Africa South of the Sahara (Oxford, 1938), v. On An African Survey in general see Tilley, Africa as a Living Laboratory,74–111; John W. 220 NOTES

Cell, Hailey: A Study in British Imperialism, 1872–1969 (Cambridge, 1992), 217–34. 61. Whitney H. Shepardson, ‘Visit to Nigeria and Gold Coast’, diary entry for 24 July 1950, CURBML CCNY series VIIIA box 4. 62. Shepardson to Jeffries, 17 November 1952, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 176 folder 2. 63. Alan Pifer interview by Barbara Hearing, 15 January 1997, quotation at 8, see also 9–12, 16, CURBML Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, Carnegie Corporation Project, Alan Pifer, Vol. 1 PRCQ 2158. 64. Alan Pifer interview by Isobel Grossner, 22 August 1967, 53–4, CURBML Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, Carnegie Corporation Project, Alan Pifer, Vol. 1 PRCQ 663. 65. ‘Excerpt from AP’s letter of November 28, 1958’, 2, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 746 folder 2. 66. On the views of the Department of State Desk Officer on West Africa, see Taggart to Hannah, 8 April 1958, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 71. 67. John K. Emmerson, ‘Memorandum of conversation’, 12 November 1958, NACP RG 286 P822 box 1, ‘Education’ folder. 68. See McKay to Pifer, 9 March 1958, 1, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 849 folder 7. 69. Parmar, American Century, 156–7. 70. See McKay to Pifer, 9 March 1958, 2, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 849 folder 7. 71. ‘Report on the Greenbrier meeting’, n.d. [1958], 2, 3, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 849 folder 7. 72. ‘Report on the Greenbrier meeting’, n.d. [1958], 3, 21, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 849 folder 7. 73. John K. Emmerson, ‘Memorandum of conversation’, 12 November 1958, NACP RG 286 P822 box 1, ‘Education’ folder. 74. Ashby report, v. 75. Parmar, American Century, 170. 76. Alan Pifer interview by Isobel Grossner, 23 August 1967, 68, Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, Carnegie Corporation Project, Alan Pifer Vol. 2 PRCQ 663. 77. ‘Notes of a meeting of the Commission on post-secondary and higher education in Nigeria’, 4 January 1960, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 745 folder 12. 78. Pifer to Gustavson, Hannah and Keppel, 21 April 1960, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 745 folder 12. 79. Oliver, Nigeria,6. 80. Pifer to Gustavson, Hannah and Keppel, 21 April 1960, CURBML series CCNY IIIA box 745 folder 12. NOTES 221

81. Onabamiro was recruited to its planning committee: Western Nigeria, White Paper on the Establishment of a University in Western Nigeria (Ibadan, 1960), 1, 2. 82. Onabamiro to Secretary, Ashby Commission, 26 August 1960; Onabamiro to Ashby, 27 August 1960, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 745 folder 10. 83. Bernstein to Gordon, 11 November 1959, NACP RG 286 P822 box 1, ‘Administration’ folder. 84. Gordon to Saccio, 17 December 1959, NACP RG 286 P822 box 3, ‘Program – special program for tropical Africa folder 1’ folder. 85. Africa (Ofﬁcial) Committee minutes, 14 January 1959, 1, TNA CAB 134/ 1353. 86. John Kent, ‘The United States and the decolonization of black Africa, 1945– 63’, in David Ryan and Victor Pungong (eds.), The United States and Decolonization: Power and Freedom (Basingstoke, 2000), 175, 185 n 27. 87. Thompson to Eastwood, 20 February 1959, TNA CO 1045/803. 88. Reported in Pifer to Stackpole, 6 January 1960, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 745 folder 11. 89. Penson to Taggart, 25 May 1960, TNA BW 90/606. 90. Maxwell to Moynihan, 27 September 1960, TNA BW 90/607; Ijomah, ‘Origins and philosophy’,6. 91. Taggart to Johnson, 15 March 1960, 2, 3, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 74. 92. Taggart to Smuckler, 19 August 1960, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 183 folder 73. 93. Hanson to Taggart, 4 October 1960, 1, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 183 folder 73. 94. Taggart to Cook, 25 September 1959, 1, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 208 folder 37. 95. Taggart to Johnson, 15 March 1960, 2, 3, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 185 folder 74. 96. Ralph H. Smuckler, ‘Notes on meeting of February 23rd [1960] – Kellogg Center’, 2, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 186 folder 18; ‘Summary of discussion on University of Nigeria’,23–24 February 1960, TNA BW 90/606. 97. Esedebe and Ijoma, ‘Early history’, 14. 98. Daily Times, 15 October 1960; Esedebe and Ijoma, ‘Early history’, 14. 99. Quoted in George M. Johnson, ‘The University of Nigeria as I see it’, Insight: Quarterly Review of Current Affairs 2:2 (1963), 14. 100. Ashby report, 3. 101. Ashby report, quotation at 22, see also 22–24. 102. Ashby report, quotation at 3, see also 36–40. 103. Low and Lonsdale, ‘Introduction’,12–15. 104. Nigerian Citizen, 8 October 1960. 222 NOTES

105. Ashby report, 22; Elliot report, 61, 63. 106. West Africa, 22 October 1960. 107. The Times, 4 October 1960. 108. Ashby report, 48. 109. ‘Nigeria. Current economic situation and problems’, n.d. [c. 1961], 1, NACP RG 59 A1(719-E) box 22, ‘Gov. Williams AFW book’. 110. Rakove, Kennedy, Johnson and the Nonaligned World, 139. See also Grubbs, Secular Missionaries, 100–14. 111. When this AID programme peaked in 1965, 74 universities in 31 countries were assisted thorough contracts with 72 American universities worth $122m. Coleman, University Development, 15. 112. AID, ‘A survey of AID educational cooperation with developing countries’, 1967, 115–35, NACP RG 286 P825 box 26, ‘Education FY 1967’ folder. 113. Williams to Secretary of State, 30 October 1962, 1, NACP RG 59 A1(719- E) box 22, ‘US, Europe and Africa’ folder. On Williams, see Rakove, Kennedy, Johnson and the Nonaligned World, 29, 48–51. 114. AID, ‘Review of co-operative program for economic development in Nigeria’, October 1962, UARSP ‘P/A 30 V. Chancellor’sOfﬁce AID (formerly ICA)’ folder. 115. Department of State to Lagos embassy, 11 May 1961, NACP RG 286 P822 box 4, ‘Economic survey – Rivkin FY 61’ folder. 116. ‘Memorandum of guidance and terms of reference for the Special Development Mission’, 12 May 1961, NACP RG 286 P822 box 4, ‘Economic survey – Rivkin FY 61’ folder. 117. Greene to the Secretary of State, 5 June 1961, 1–2, NACP RG 286 P822 box 4, ‘Economic survey – Rivkin FY 61’ folder. 118. ‘Report of the second special U.S. economic mission to Nigeria’, October 1961, 3, 50, NACP RG 286 P824 box 3, ‘PRM1-3 Programs – Rivkin survey FY 1962’ folder. 119. ‘Report of the special U.S. economic mission to Nigeria’, 17 June 1961, 3, NACP RG 286 P822 box 6, ‘Programs – Rivkin survey (reports) FY 61 folder 1’. Also see Bernstein to all American AID personnel in Nigeria, 7 February 1962, NACP RG 286 P824 box 3, ‘Programs FY 1962 folder 2’. 120. K.O. Dike, ‘Ibadan and the universities of Nigeria’, n.d. [c. April 1964], UARSP ‘Correspondence between UI and the UK High Commission in Lagos’ folder; University College Ibadan, ‘Documents supporting a request for massive ﬁnancial aid from America’s great foundations’, May 1962, 2, 3, CURBML series IIIA box 615 folder 8. 121. K.O. Dike, ‘Ibadan and the universities of Nigeria’, n.d. [c. April 1964], UARSP ‘Correspondence between UI and the UK High Commission in Lagos’ folder. NOTES 223

122. K.O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta 1830–1885 (Oxford, 1956). Also see Ajayi, ‘African History’, 97; Oliver, ‘African History’, 19. On the Ibadan school generally see Caroline Neale, Writing ‘Independent’ History: African Historiography, 1960–1980 (Westport, 1985), 9–14. Also see Peel, Ijeshas and Nigerians, 11; Vansina, Living with Africa, 57; Paul E. Lovejoy, ‘Nigeria: the Ibadan school and its critics’, in Bogumil Jewsiewicki and David Newbury (eds.), African Historiographies: What Story for Which Africa? (Beverley Hills, 1986), 198. 123. See for example Bevan to Maxwell, 6 June 1962, 2 July 1962; ‘Overseas Development Institute. Stafﬁng universities overseas, Meeting at the DTC [the British Department of Technical Cooperation], 6 December 1962’, UARSP ‘P/L 7/7 London University: secondment of academic staff’ folder; Maxwell, Universities in Partnership, 443. 124. ‘Report of the committee for the review of the educational system in Eastern Nigeria’, 5 August 1959, RAC FF reel 766 PA59-61. 125. Sonny Oti, ‘Father of the Unibadan Voices’, n.d. [c. 1963], UARSP ‘Orientation souvenir articles (drafts) 1’ folder. 126. University College Ibadan, ‘Documents supporting a request for massive ﬁnancial aid from America’s great foundations’, May 1962, 2, 3, CURBML series IIIA box 615 folder 8. 127. Dean Rusk, ‘Background of proposal of increased program in non-western underdeveloped areas. Memorandum to trustees’, 29 November 1955, 3, RAC RF RG 3.2 series 900 box 63 folder 349, 900 Pro Unar-6. 128. Coleman, University Development,38–43. 129. J. George Harrar, ‘Proposed university development program’,13 November 1961, 3, RAC RF RG 3.2 series 900 box 63 folder 349, 900 Pro Unar-9. 130. Joseph E. Black, ‘Education for development. Cooperative program with University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 1962–1979. A review. Draft’, September 1979, 30, RAC RF RG 3.2 series 900 box 70 folder 381, 900 Pro Unar-CS14. 131. Coleman, University Development,89–91, 219. 132. ‘Strengthening emerging centres of learning’, December 1963, 19, RAC RF RG 3.2 series 900 box 63 folder 349, 900 Pro Unar-9a. 133. Wrigley, ‘Memories’, 11, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133. 134. Cranford Pratt, John E. Swanson and Ross E. Bigelow, ‘An evaluation of the general development grant and the staff development grants of the Ford Foundation to the University of Ibadan 1958–1972’, September 1973, 14, RAC FF reports 2325 box 97. 135. ‘Request for grant action’, 14 November 1958, 1, RAC FF reel 766 PA 59- 35; Francis X. Sutton, ‘Overseas development program – Africa. Recent grants’, 15 April 1959, 1–2, RAC FF reel 766 PA 59-91. 224 NOTES

136. They had already worked together on the Eastern Nigeria commission. Pratt, Swanson and Bigelow, ‘An evaluation of the general development grant’, 15, RAC FF reports 2325 box 97. 137. Pratt, Swanson and Bigelow, ‘An evaluation of the general development grant’,15–18, RAC FF reports 2325 box 97. 138. Black, ‘Education for development. Cooperative program with University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 1962–1979’, 24, RAC RF series 900 box 70 folder 381. Also see Pratt, Swanson and Bigelow, ‘An evaluation of the general development grant’, 14, RAC FF reports 2325 box 97. 139. The Carnegie Corporation did support relatively small projects at Ibadan that included the Benin History project, a new institute of librarianship, and workshops on African history teaching in schools. For example, on history teaching, see CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 615 folder 8. 140. Reported in Ralph K. Davidson, ‘Ibadan trip diary’, February 1964, 72, 73, RAC RF RG 1.2 series 497 box 1 folder 2. 141. Bevin was the British deputy principal. Sutton to Ward, 24 October 1962, 2, RAC FF reel 1342 grant 63–132. 142. Fox to Edwards, 13 June 1975, RAC FF reel 1342 grant 63–132. 143. UNESCO report, 13. 144. UNESCO report, 17. 145. UNESCO report, 22, 34, quotation at 68, 65. 146. On the global expansion of higher education, see Ashby, Universities, 233– 89; Wittrock, ‘The modern university’, 334–47; Muthesius, Postwar University,1–7. On Britain, see H.J. Perkin, New Universities in the United Kingdom (Paris, 1969). 147. On debate at the conference see Ralph K. Davidson, ‘UNECSO Conference on the development of higher education in Africa’, September 1962, RAC RF RG12 Box 99, ‘905 DAV-2 1962’ volume. 148. The delegates are listed in UNESCO report, 84–7. 149. Parmar, American Century, 156–7, 170.

CHAPTER 7 1. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 262. 2. On the ‘hackneyed phrase “national cake”’, see Achebe, Man of the People, 12. It has intrigued scholars: for example, see Bayart, The State in Africa, lxxxiv. 3. Diamond, Class, Ethnicity,16–17. 4. Cooper, Africa Since 1940,5. 5. Even these ‘domestic’ factors were produced through the negotiation of decolonisation, which involved Nigerians, the British, and international institutions. For accounts stressing the domestic dynamics of the 1960s NOTES 225

Nigerian crises see Olayemi Akinwunmi, Crises and Conflicts in Nigeria: A Political History Since 1960 (Münster, 2004), 67–8; Diamond, Class, Ethnicity,25–63; Eghosa E. Osaghae, Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence (London, 1998), 31; Post and Vickers, Structure and Conflict,6–8, 40–4. For an account stressing foreign assistance to universities, see Parmar, American Century, 150, 170–1, 177. 6. This analysis draws on Bayart’s concept of ‘extraversion’: Bayart, The State in Africa, xvii–xix, xlvii–li, 21–2, 235–6. 7. Parmar, American Century, 170. 8. Ashby report, 27–8. 9. Daily Times, 24 November 1960. 10. ‘Minute of the first meeting of an ad hoc committee of intellectuals on education in Western Nigeria held at the Premier’s Lodge’, 8 April 1961, JLI Ajayi Papers AJA box 3. 11. Dike to Pifer, 23 March 1961, 1, CURBML series IIIA box 746 folder 4. 12. Ashby to Pifer, 19 April 1963, 1, CURBML series IIIA box 723 folder 6. 13. For example, new medical faculties were planned at the University of Ife, the University of Lagos, and the University of Nigeria. 14. Nigeria, Educational Development in Nigeria 1961–70 (Lagos, 1961), 4. 15. ‘Extract from Ibadan Despatch No 2(64)’, 5 July 1964, TNA DO 195/ 309. 16. For example, see Jasper to Dike, 27 August 1962; Bass to Dike, 12 February 1965, UARSP ‘Correspondence between UI and the UK High Commission in Lagos’ folder. 17. ‘Extract from Ibadan Despatch No 2(64)’, 5 July 1964, TNA DO 195/ 309. A fictionalised but recognisable representation of this relationship based on personal experience of the University of Ibadan can be found in William Boyd, A Good Man in Africa (London, 2010 [1981]). 18. The last British governor-general was Sir James Roberston, who relin- quished the post in November 1960. Nigeria, University College, Ibadan Ordinance, 11. 19. An incident detailed in Chapter 3. 20. Soyinka, Ibadan, 193. 21. WAP, 22 June 1961. Also see Daily Express, 19 June 1961; ‘Excerpt from Chadbourne Gilpatric West Africa trip diary’, 25 October 1962, RAC RF RG 1.2 series 497 box 3 folder 20. 22. On Dafe see Daily Times, 14 October 1960, 4 November 1960. 23. Omer-Cooper, ‘Reminiscences’, 10, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/84. 24. ‘Independent status’, Ibadan 13 (1961), 4. 25. WAP, 20 November 1961. 26. Ryder, ‘Memoir’, 23, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/101. 27. Wrigley, ‘Memories’, 9, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133. 226 NOTES

28. Daily Service, 20 November 1961. 29. WAP, 24 November 1961. 30. R.A. Adeleye, ‘The independent university, 1962–68’, in Ajayi and Tamuno (eds.), University of Ibadan,81–3. 31. For example see Daily Times, 27 November 1961. 32. J.F. Ade Ajayi, ‘K.O. Dike. Pioneer scholar and administrator’, 1980, JLI Ajayi Papers EDU box 50. 33. Ferguson and Ferguson to ‘Friends’, April 1962, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/ 34. 34. John M. Weir, ‘Interviews’, March to April 1962, 91, RAC RF RG 12 box 511. 35. Wrigley, ‘Memories’, 9, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133. 36. Ike, University Development, 81. 37. Vaughan, Nigerian Chiefs,96–109. 38. On the student AG branch see Daily Times, 5 March 1964, 18 November 1965; Morning Post, 15 December 1964. On the National Reconstruction Group, see Post and Vickers, Structure and Conﬂict, 75; Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 332 n 3. 39. Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 103–4. 40. The NNDP was formed in March 1964 from Akintola’s earlier party the United Peoples’ Party. For clarity, the UPP is referred to here as the NNDP. 41. Akinjide Osuntokun, Chief S. Ladoke Akintola: His Life and Times (Ibadan, 2010), 130–3. 42. On the complex issue of the AG’s relationship with the city of Ibadan, see J. Labinjoh, Modernity and Tradition in the Politics of Ibadan: 1900–1975 (Ibadan, 1991), 56–7; Vaughan, Nigerian Chiefs,69–73. 43. Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 105, 110–11, 273. 44. William E. Reid, ‘Memorandum of conversation’, 18 November 1964, NACP RG 286 P823 box 1, ‘Education FY 65’ folder. 45. Wrigley, ‘Memories’, 14, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133. 46. N.K. Adamolekun, untitled account of the dispute with Dike, n.d. [c. 1964], 12, JLI Ajayi Papers EDU box 64. 47. Adeleye, ‘The independent university’, 90. 48. NNDP, ‘A rejoinder to Dr Ikejiani’s statement on recent accusations of tribalism in the University of Ibadan’, 1964, 1, Institute of Commonwealth Studies Library, PP.NR.NNDP.1. 49. NNDP, ‘A rejoinder’,4. 50. ‘Ibadan Fortnightly Summary 12(66)’, 5 June 1966, TNA DO 195/309; van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 32. 51. Wrigley, ‘Memories’, 11, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133. Also see John A. Ramsarian memoir, n.d. [c. 1982], 35, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/93. NOTES 227

52. ‘Extract from Ibadan Despatch No. 2(64)’, 5 July 1964, TNA DO 195/309. 53. van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 220–1, 265–6; Crawford Young, ‘The African university: universalism, development and ethnicity’, Comparative Education Review 25:2 (1981), 149, 162–3. 54. C. William Kontos, ‘Memorandum of conversation’,3–4, 22 September 1961, NACP RG 286 MCR822 box 7, ‘Education FY 1962’ folder. 55. ‘University of Ife building program (revised)’, n.d., NACP RG 286 P825, ‘Education FY 1964 – FY 1965 folder 1’; University of Ife, Ibadan Bulletin 1:1 (1966), 5. 56. Ralph K. Davidson, ‘Interviews’, May to June 1963, 48, RAC RF RG 12 box 99, ‘905 DAV-2 1963’ volume; Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 107. 57. Daily Times, 26 November 1963. 58. S.O. Arifalo and V.O. Oshin, ‘Early years at Ibadan: the period of teething problems, 1962–1966’, in Omosini and Adediran (eds.), Great Ife, 26. 59. Biobaku, When We Were No Longer Young, 97. 60. Shotunde to Oyenuga, 3 February 1964, JLI Ajayi Papers EDU box 64; Biobaku, When We Were No Longer Young,96–7; Daily Times, 17 March 1964; Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 107; Ajayi, Goma and Johnson, African Experience, 83; Ike, University Development, 191–4. 61. Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 206, 214–5, 244; Post and Vickers, Structure and Conﬂict, 172. 62. Ejiwunmi to Meagher, 29 November 1963, NACP RG 286 P825 box 13, ‘Education FY 1964 – FY 1965 folder 1’. 63. Construction began in 1965, and the university eventually moved into the new buildings at Ife in 1967. Arieh Sharon, Kibbutz + Bauhaus: An Architect’s Way in a New Land (Stuttgart, 1976), 127–8, 140–1. On the move see A. Babs Fafunwa, Up and On! A Nigerian Teacher’s Odyssey (Lagos, 1990), 258, 262. 64. Although the reception of this aspect of the design was mixed, it is improb- able that it was not approved by the Western Region government, given the government’s close interest in the university project. For a contrasting argument see Ayala Levin, ‘Exporting architectural national expertise: Arieh Sharon’s Ife University campus in West-Nigeria (1962–1976)’,in Raymond Quek, Darren Deane and Sarah Butler (eds.), Nationalism and Architecture (Farnham, 2012), 61–2. 65. Gitler, ‘Campus architecture’, 133. 66. There were however voices in the regional government that called for economy: T.M. Aluko, The Story of My Life (Ibadan, 2006), 218–19, 221. 67. AID, Educational and Economic Feasibility Study of the University of Ife, Nigeria (n.p., 1964), 71, 82. 68. Ajayi, Goma and Johnson, African Experience, 81. 228 NOTES

69. Taggart to Hannah, 5 May 1961, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 183 folder 77. 70. Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 222, 225. 71. Stolper, Inside Independent Nigeria, 108; Axinn to Hannah, 30 November 1962, 5, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 177A folder 42. 72. Ajayi, Goma and Johnson, African Experience, 81; Hanson, Education, Nsukka,24–5, 30. 73. John K. Emmerson, ‘Memorandum of conversation’, 12 November 1958, NACP RG 286 P822 box 1, ‘Education’ folder. 74. J.M. Baba, ‘The physical development of ABU, 1962–1987’, in Mahadi (ed.), History of Ahmadu Bello University, 221–2, 244–5. As elsewhere, the January 1966 coup was disruptive at ABU: Y.T. Gella, ‘Academic and administrative pioneers and their successors, 1962–1987’, in Mahadi (ed.), History of Ahmadu Bello University,77–8. 75. WAP, 1 March 1965. 76. Ashby to Maxwell, 11 March 1965, 2, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 467 folder 6. 77. Untitled report, n.d. [1965], 2, NACP RG 59 S235 67D27 box 78, ‘Education & culture Nigeria 1965 EDU 9’ folder. 78. Cumming-Bruce to Commonwealth Relations Office, 6 March 1965, TNA DO 195/310. 79. The Inspired Crisis over the Appointment of Vice-Chancellor of the University of Lagos by the Other Senior Members of Staff (Lagos, 1965), 3. Other pamphlets included University of Lagos, Change in Vice- Chancellorship. An Official Publication (Lagos, n.d. [1965]); G.K Berrie, C. Fielstra, T.F. Nicholson, P.O. Nsugbe, B.O. Nwabueze and A. Nwaefuna, University of Lagos. The Truth About the Change in Vice- Chancellorship (Yaba, n.d. [1965]). 80. Nigerian Outlook, 9 June 1965; Biobaku, When We Were No Longer Young, 113. 81. Nigerian Daily Sketch, 8 June 1965, 9 June 1965. The word ‘Igbo’ is now usually used in preference to ‘Ibo’, but the latter has been retained here in fidelity to the original text. 82. Untitled report, n.d. [1965], 3, 4, NACP RG 59 S235 67D27 box 78, ‘Education & culture Nigeria 1965 EDU 9’ folder. 83. USINFO report, 15 June 1965, NACP RG 59 S235 67D27 box 78, ‘Education & culture Nigeria 1965 EDU 9’ folder. 84. Pamphlets published during the crisis offered detailed interpretations of how the University of Lagos Act supported their contentions. For example see University of Lagos, Change in Vice-Chancellorship,3–7. 85. ‘The Lagos University crisis’, n.d. [September 1965], TNA DO 195/310. 86. van Oss to Trimble, 18 June 1965, NACP RG 59 S235 67D27 box 78, ‘Education & culture Nigeria 1965 EDU 9’ folder. NOTES 229

87. A.B. Aderibigbe, ‘The emergence of the university, 1962–67’, in Aderibigbe and Gbadamosi (eds.), History of the University of Lagos, 14. 88. Untitled report, n.d. [1965], 3, 4, NACP RG 59 S235 67D27 box 78, ‘Education & culture Nigeria 1965 EDU 9’ folder. 89. van Oss to Trimble, 18 June 1965; Untitled report, n.d. [1965], 3, NACP RG 59 S235 67D27 box 78, ‘Education & culture Nigeria 1965 EDU 9’ folder. 90. Daily Telegraph, 16 June 1965; George H. Axinn, ‘End of tour report’, n.d. [c. June 1967], 4, MSUAHC U.A. 2.9.5.4 box 216 folder 23; Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 249–51; B. Olatunji Oloruntimehin, ‘The university in the era of the Civil War and reconstruction’, in Ajayi and Tamuno (eds.), University of Ibadan, 104–5. 91. Ashby to Pifer, 19 March 1965, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 647 folder 6. 92. Troxel to Williams, 24 November 1961, NACP RG 59 A1(719-E) box 29, ‘AID’ folder. 93. Muehlenbeck, Betting on the Africans, 49. On the Peace Corps generally, see Elizabeth Cobbs Hoffman, All You Need Is Love: The Peace Corps and the Spirit of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA, 1998). 94. AID Nigeria team, ‘Peace Corps potential for Nigeria’, 19 April 1961, NACP RG 286 MCR822 box 5, ‘Peace Corps FY 1961’ folder. 95. Palmer, ‘Memorandum of conversation’, 27 September 1961, NACP RG 286 MCR822 box 7, ‘Education FY 1962’ ﬁle. 96. ‘United States activities especially aimed at offsetting or precluding Sino- Soviet efforts in Nigeria’, 1 February 1965, 2, NACP RG 59 67D27 box 79, ‘CSM 9 Communist activities’ folder. 97. Ebernezer Babatope, A Decade of Student Power in Nigeria (1960–1970) (A Documentary Sourcebook of Student Militancy in Nigeria) (Yaba, 1974), 29. Also see Ferguson and Ferguson to ‘Friends’, November 1961, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/34. 98. Daily Times, 16 October 1961. 99. American Embassy-USIS-Peace Corps, Lagos to Secretary of State, 17 October 1961, 1, 2; American Embassy-USIS-Peace Corps, Lagos to Secretary of State, 20 October 1961, 2, NACP RG 286 P824 box 3, ‘Peace Corps FY 1962’ folder. 100. Palmer to Secretary of State, 18 October 1961, NACP RG 286 P824 box 3, ‘Peace Corps FY 1962’ folder. 101. New York Times, 19 March 1962. 102. AID Lagos to AID Washington, 20 April 1962, 5, NACP RG 286 MCR822 box 7, ‘Education FY 1962’ ﬁle. 103. George M. Johnson, ‘End of tour report’, n.d. [c. June 1964], 28, MSUAHC U.A. 2.9.5.4 box 217 folder 26; Nigerian Outlook,22 November 1962. 230 NOTES

104. Sunday Express, 11 November 1962. 105. New York Times, 19 March 1962. 106. Johnson to Taggart, 14 February 1961, 2, 3, MSUAHC U.A. 2.9.5.4 box 179 folder 30. 107. AID Lagos to AID Washington, 20 April 1962, 5, NACP RG 286 MCR822 box 7, ‘Education FY 1962’ file. 108. ‘News about the University of Nigeria, Nsukka for the months of February and March, 1961’, April 1961, 3, MSUAHC U.A. 2.9.5.4 box 186 folder 6; George M. Johnson, ‘End of tour report’, n.d. [c. June 1964], 17–18, MSUAHC U.A. 2.9.5.4 box 217 folder 26. 109. Azikiwe to Hannah, 13 March 1964; Hannah to Taggart, 13 March 1964, MSUAHC U.A. 2.9.5.4 box 177A folder 51. 110. Lalage Bown (former deputy director of extra-mural studies at Ibadan), interview with author, February 2015. 111. Bown received Soviet offers of ‘a young man – which again didn’t do much good’: Bown, interview. 112. Trimble to Williams, 8 January 1963, 7, NACP RG 59 A1(719-E) box 28, ‘Nigeria’ folder. 113. Robert W. July, ‘Interviews’, 23 April 1964, 2, 3, RAC RF RG 1.2 series 497 box 1 folder 8. 114. Pratt, Swanson and Bigelow, ‘An evaluation of the general development grant’, 20, 22, RAC FF reports 2325 box 97. 115. Heaps to Dike, 7 June 1966, RAC FF reel 1342 grant 63–132. 116. Aboyade to Dike, 14 March 1963, UARSP ‘University College Ibadan, a request for financial aid from America’s great foundations’ file. 117. Omer-Cooper, ‘Reminiscences’, 17, 18, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/84. Also see Barbour, ‘Further thoughts’, 8, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/4; Ryder, ‘Memoir’, 10, 13, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/101. 118. O. Aboyade, ‘Ford Foundation general development grant 1962–68 with special reference to capital works’, n.d. [c. 1968?], 3, RAC FF reel 1342 grant 63–132. 119. Coleman, University Development, 275. Both Rockefeller and Ford Foundations built houses for their staff on the UI compound that passed to the university after their assistance programmes were wound up: Ayo Banjo (Ibadan professor emeritus and former vice-chancellor), interview with the author, February 2012. 120. Wilton S. Dillon, ‘Universities and nation-building in Africa’, Journal of Modern African Studies 1:1 (1963), 47, 45. 121. Ayo Ogunsheye, ‘Nigeria’, in J.S. Coleman (ed.), Education and Political Development (Princeton, 1965), 123. 122. Akin L. Mabogunje, ‘Some thoughts on being “underdeveloped”’, Ibadan 15 (1963), 22–6. NOTES 231

123. ‘Framework for analysis: education and training in relation to Nigeria’s national development’, 3 March 1965, 1, NACP RG 286 P825 box 13, ‘Edu FY 1965 folder 2’. 124. Ralph K. Davidson, ‘Nigeria diary’, October to March 1963, 17, RAC RF RG 1.2 series 497 box 1 folder 1. 125. ‘Framework for analysis: education and training in relation to Nigeria’s national development’, 3 March 1965, 7, NACP RG 286 P825 box 13, ‘Edu FY 1965 folder 2’. 126. Wolfgang Stolper, Planning Without Facts: Lessons in Resource Allocation from Nigeria’s Development (Cambridge, MA, 1966), 15–16. 127. ‘Summary of meeting with EWA committee on education and human development’, 22 January 1965, 1, 4, NACP RG 286 P825 box 13, ‘Edu FY 1965 folder 2’. 128. Palmer to Williams, 16 December 1963, 2, 3, NACP RG 59 A1(719-E) box 28, ‘Nigeria’ folder. 129. Trimble to Williams, 8 January 1963, 2, NACP RG 59 A1(719-E) box 28, ‘Nigeria’ folder. 130. Matthews to Williams, 10 February 1966, 1, NACP RG 59 A1(719-E) box 28, ‘Nigeria’ folder. 131. Omer-Cooper, ‘Reminiscences’, 26, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/84. 132. F.A. Ogunsheye, ‘Eye witness account of police attack on the university’, n.d. [October 1965], 1, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1877/11. 133. Omer-Cooper, ‘Reminiscences’, 24, 25, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/84. 134. University of Ibadan Students’ Union, ‘Press release. Protest against the violation of our liberty’, 18 October 1965, UARSP ‘XVII Students’ folder. For other accounts see RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1877/11. 135. Daily Sketch, 30 October 1965; ‘Ibadan Fortnightly Summary No. 25(65)’, 5 December 1965, TNA DO 195/309. 136. Daily Times, 18 November 1965. 137. David B. Bolen, ‘Memorandum of conversation’, 3 December 1965, NACP RG 59 68D27 63D33 box 80, ‘POL 18–2 Western Region (Ibadan)’ folder. For a succinct summary of the incident, see Biodun Jeyifo (ed.), Conversations with Wole Soyinka (Jackson, 2001), xxii. 138. Nigerian Opinion, 1:12 (1965). Also see Daily Times, 17 November 1965. 139. Wrigley, ‘Memories’, 15, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133. 140. Omer-Cooper, ‘Reminiscences’, 27, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/84. 141. Adeleye, ‘The independent university’,96–7; van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 202–3. 142. John Iliffe, Obasanjo, Nigeria and the World (Woodbridge, 2011), 21. 143. Ferguson and Ferguson to ‘Friends’,[c. April] 1966, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/34. Also see Diamond, Class, Ethnicity, 266–7, 269–72. 232 NOTES

144. Wrigley, ‘Memories’, 15, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133; Nigerian Outlook, 19 January 1966. 145. Wrigley, ‘Memories’, 16, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/133. The Mid-Western Region was created in 1963 as a result of the Western Region crisis. See Falola and Heaton, History of Nigeria, 167–8. 146. WAP, 31 May 1966; Obi and Malo to the Disciplinary Committee, University of Ibadan, 15 May 1966, JLI Ajayi Papers AJA box 5; ‘Ibadan Fortnightly Summary No. 12(66)’, 5 June 1966, TNA DO 195/309. 147. Daily Sketch, 12 August 1966. 148. Nigerian Tribune, 25 August 1966. 149. For an Eastern Region perspective, see A.H.M. Kirk-Greene, Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Sourcebook 1966–69, Vol. I: January 1966–July 1967 (London, 1971), 179–80, 198–9, 258–66. 150. Alexander Brown, ‘Notes on recent events’, December 1966, 1, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 615 folder 1. 151. Nigerian Outlook, 18 October 1966. 152. J.B. Lawson, ‘Message to members of staff and students of the University of Ibadan’, August 1966, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/54. 153. Ajayi to Jolaoso, 17 August 1966, JLI Ajayi Papers AJA box 5. 154. University of Ibadan, ‘Official bulletin’, 11 February 1967, 2, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 615 folder 1. 155. Dike to Pifer, 15 December 1966, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 615 folder 1. 156. Coleman, University Development, 93; K.M. Barbour, ‘Further thoughts on the development of the University of Ibadan up to 1973’, n.d. [c. 1982], 8, RHL Mss. Afr. s. 1825/4. 157. Oloruntimehin, ‘The university in the era of the Civil War’, 119. 158. Coleman, University Development, 93; Ike, University Development, 211; van den Berghe, Power and Privilege, 43. 159. University of Ibadan, ‘Official bulletin’, 22 August 1967, 1, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 615 folder 1; Oloruntimehin, ‘The university in the era of the Civil War’, 110–18; Coleman, University Development,92–3. 160. George H. Axinn, ‘End of tour report’, n.d. [c. August 1967], 3, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 216 folder 23. 161. George H. Axinn, ‘End of tour report’, n.d. [c. August 1967], 6, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 216 folder 23. Emphasis in original. 162. Wyeth to Hannah, 19 October 1966, MUSAUC UA 2.9.5.4 box 177A folder 59. 163. Wyeth to Hannah, 6 September 1966, 2, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 177A folder 59. 164. Wyeth to Hannah, 6 September 1966, 2, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 177A folder 59. NOTES 233

165. Wyeth to Hannah, 19 July 1967, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 177A folder 59. 166. George H. Axinn, ‘End of tour report’, n.d. [c. August 1967], 17, MSUAHC UA 2.9.5.4 box 216 folder 23. 167. V. Chukwuemeka Ike, ‘The university and the Nigerian crises: 1966–70’,in Obiechina, Ike and Umeh (eds.), University of Nigeria, 41, 47. 168. Davis to Adler, 4 April 1969, 2, NACP RG 286 P825 box 40, ‘Education field trip reports CY ’68-CY ’69’ folder. 169. Davis to Adler, 4 April 1969, 2, NACP RG 286 P825 box 40, ‘Education field trip reports CY ’68-CY ’69’ folder. 170. University of Nigeria, Reconstructing the University (n.p., 1970), 9; M.S.O. Olisa and O.O. Enekwe, ‘Period of reconstruction, 1970–1985’,in Obiechina, Ike and Umeh (eds.), University of Nigeria, 54. 171. Ike, ‘The university and the Nigerian crises’,45–6. 172. Davis to Adler, 4 April 1969, 6, NACP RG 286 P825 box 40, ‘Education field trip reports CY ’68-CY ’69’ folder. 173. University of Nigeria, Reconstructing the University,3. 174. Ajayi, Goma and Johnson, African Experience, 95; Young, African Colonial State,3–4; James Ferguson, ‘Anthropology and its evil twin: “development” in the constitution of a discipline’, in Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard (eds.), International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge (Berkeley, 1997), 162–3.

CHAPTER 8 1. Until a new generation of British universities was designed towards the end of the decade: Muthesius, Postwar University,94–170. 2. For an overview of the creation of new states see Falola and Heaton, History of Nigeria, 192–3. 3. Fela Kuti, ‘Mister Follow Follow’, from ‘Zombie’, Coconut Records (1976). Fela Kuti was the son of Israel Ransome-Kuti, of the Elliot Commission, and Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti, the noted pioneer of women’s rights and reputedly the ﬁrst Nigerian woman to drive a car. 4. For example see Ekbladah, Great American Mission, 227–51. 5. Stolper, Inside Independent Nigeria, 302. 6. Ike, University Development, 225; Hanson, Education, Nsukka,22–3; Nwauwa, Imperialism, Academe, 215–16. 7. AID Lagos to AID Washington, 30 October 1969, 6, NACP RG 286 P825 box 40, ‘EDU-6 higher education Nigeria CY 1969’ folder. 8. Pratt, Swanson and Bigelow, ‘An evaluation of the general development grant’, 27, RAC FF reports 2325 box 97. Coleman too came to feel that Dike had enlisted foundation support to defend Ibadan’s primacy against 234 NOTES

the new generation of Nigerian universities: Coleman, University Development,99–100. 9. Parmar, American Century,3. 10. For example see Knapp to Federal Minister of Education, 23 May 1990, CURBML CCNY series IIIA box 746 folder 4. 11. Megan Grace (school teacher and wife of Dr. John Grace, history lecturer at the University of Jos), interview with the author, October 2014. 12. Parliamentary Debates, Commons, Vol. 971 (1979), col. 372–3. Also see Parliamentary Debates, Lords, Vol. 427 (1982), col. 1369–70. 13. Ikime, ‘Problems of student welfare’, 258. 14. Ike, University Development, 175. 15. Coleman, University Development, 93. 16. Ajayi, Goma and Johnson, African Experience, 139–41. 17. S.J. Okudu, ‘Diary of an alumnus registrar’, in Tamuno (ed.), Ibadan Voices, 195. 18. Achebe, British-Protected Child, 145, 148. 19. Although the cults had roots in the 1970s, and earlier: Stephen Ellis, This Present Darkness: A History of Nigerian Organised Crime (London, 2016), 112–13, 142–3; Ogunsanya, ‘Impact of campus secret cult organisations’,77. 20. For example, see IBRD, World Development Report 2011: Conﬂict, Security and Development (Washington, DC, 2011), 263, 283–4, 290. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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BW 90 Inter-University Council for Higher Education Overseas: Correspondence and Papers (1945–60). CAB 134 Cabinet: Miscellaneous Committees: Minutes and Papers (General Series) (1957–60). CO 554 Colonial Office: West Africa Original Correspondence (1938–52). CO 583 Colonial Office: Nigeria: Original Correspondence (1924– 45). CO 657 Colonial Office: Nigeria: Sessional Papers (1928–50). CO 885 War and Colonial Department and Colonial Office: Subjects Affecting Colonies Generally, Confidential Print (1943). CO 987 Colonial Office: Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies: Papers and Minutes (1944–5). BIBLIOGRAPHY 237

CO 1045 Colonial Office and Other Departments: Papers of Sir Christopher Cox, Educational Adviser (1943–4, 1958–9). DO 195 Commonwealth Relations Office and Commonwealth Office: West and General Africa Department and Successors: Registered Files (1964–6). FD1 Medical Research Committee and Medical Research Council: Files (1938–42). FCO 141 Foreign and Commonwealth Office and Predecessors: Records of Former Colonial Administrations: Migrated Archives (1954–60). INF 6 Central Office of Information and Predecessors: Film Production Documents (1950).

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CSO 26 Chief Secretary’sOfﬁce (1933–53). MED(FED) Federal Ministry of Education (1952–62). Oyoprof Oyo Province (1937–56). Univ Universities (1951, 1963–4). Uncatalogued Materials (1964–5).

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INTERVIEWS Professor Bimpe Aboyade, interview with the author, Ibadan, 21 February 2012. Chief M.A. Adesiyan, interview with the author, Ibadan, 24 February 2012. Professor J.F. Ade Ajayi, interview with the author, Ibadan, 2 March 2012. Professor Michael Aken’Ova, Professor Bode Lucas, and Professor Femi Osoﬁsan interview with the author, Ibadan, 17 February 2012. Mrs. Dorcas A. Aseda, interview with the author, Ibadan, 14 February 2012. Professor Ayo Bamgbose, interview with the author, Ibadan, 15 February 2012. Professor Ayo Banjo, interview with the author, Ibadan, 1 March 2012. Professor Lalage Bown, interview with the author, London, 3 February 2015. Mrs. Evelyn Boyd, interview with the author, Edinburgh, 15 April 2015. Professor A.I.I. Ette, interview with the author, Ibadan, 23 February 2012. Mrs. Megan Grace, interview with the author, Maidenhead, 30 October 2014. Professor Murray Last, interview with the author, London, 9 April 2013. Professor Emmanuel Maduagwu, interview with the author, Ibadan, 23 February 2012. Dr. Tony Marinho, interview with the author, Ibadan, 23 February 2012. Professor Adetowun Ogunsheye, interview with the author, Ibadan, 23 September 2010. Professor Michael Omolewa, interview with the author, London, 21 June 2012. Professor Tekena N. Tamuno, interview with the author, Ibadan, 20 February 2012. BIBLIOGRAPHY 239

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United Nations Educational, Scientiﬁc and Cultural Organisation, Report of the UNESCO Advisory Commission for the Establishment of the University of Lagos (n.p., 1961). University College Ibadan, Calendar (Liverpool, n.d. [1951]). University College Ibadan, Calendar (Ibadan, 1958–1962). University College Ibadan, Principal’s Report for 1953–54 (Ibadan, 1956). University College Ibadan, Principal’s Report for 1954–55 (Ibadan, 1956). University College Ibadan, Report of Visitation to University College, Ibadan. January, 1957 (Ibadan, 1957). University College Ibadan, The University College Ibadan Report for 1948 to 1953 (Ibadan, 1955). University of Ibadan, Calendar, 1963–4 (Ibadan, 1964). University of Lagos, Change in Vice-Chancellorship. An Ofﬁcial Publication (Lagos, n.d. [1965]). University of Nigeria, Reconstructing the University (n.p., 1970). Western Nigeria, White Paper on the Establishment of a University in Western Nigeria (Ibadan, 1960).

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES The Comet, Lagos Daily Express, Lagos Daily Service, Lagos Daily Telegraph, Lagos Daily Times, Lagos Eastern Nigeria Guardian, Port Harcourt The Economist, London TheEx-Student.TheOrganoftheHigher College (Yaba) Ex-Students’ Union, Lagos Lagos Daily News Morning Post, Lagos Nigeria Gazette, Lagos New York Times Nigeria Magazine, Lagos Nigerian Citizen, Zaria Nigerian Daily Echo, Port Harcourt Nigerian Daily Sketch, Ibadan Nigerian Daily Times, Lagos Nigerian Observer, Port Harcourt Nigerian Opinion, Ibadan Nigerian Outlook, Enugu Nigerian Pioneer, Lagos Nigerian Spokesman, Onitsha BIBLIOGRAPHY 241

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ONLINE RESOURCES The Encyclopedia of Empire: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/ 9781118455074 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: www.oxforddnb.com Peace Corps Writers: www.peacecorpswriters.org INDEX

A and the University of Nigeria, 136, Abayomi, Kofo, 130 161–162, 169–170 Aboyade, Bimpe, 112 Ahmadu Bello University, 146, 157, Aboyade, Ojetunji, 163–164 228n74 Achebe, Chinua, 19, 39–40, 105, 179, American assistance to, 136 212n78 founding of, 5 Achimota College, 36 Ajaegbu-Mgbakor, Chuma, 81 Action Group, 5, 145 Ajayi, J.F.A. split in party, 151–152 and American education, 140 and the University of Ife, 131, and built environments, 65–66, 68, 147–148, 153–154 81, 87, 203n3 Adamolekun, N.K., 85, 152, 166, historical work, 10, 105, 140 167, 168 and honours degrees, 56 Adeniyi-Jones, C.C., 24 Ajose, Oladele A., 51, 154 Adepeju, Adekunle, 179 Akinjide, Richard, 158, 159, 166 Adesiyan, M.A., 107 Akintola, Samuel Ladoke, 152, 153, African Continental Bank, 154, 166, 167 124, 125 Akogun, Babatunde, 114, 116–117, 118 ‘Africanisation’, 13, 89 Alexandra, Princess, 134 See also Nigerianisation Ali, Amadu, 97, 112 Afro-Brazilians, 68, 69 Anglo-Nigerian Defence Pact, 114 Agency for International Anowi, J.O., 102 Development, 16, 136 Anti-colonialism, 47, 106, 113–114, formation of, 136 122, 127 and Nigeria, 136–137, 155, Architecture, see Buildings 160–162, 164–165, 178 Ashby Commission and the University of Ife, negotiation of, 127–132 154, 155 reception of report, 134–135, and the University of Lagos, 159 147–148

Ashby Commission (cont.) Bevin, C.W.L., 140, 151 report of, 18, 131, 132, 136, 137, Biafra, 168–170, 177 140, 141, 156, 164, 171 secession of, 168, 177 Ashby, Eric, 130, 158, 159–160 Biobaku, Saburi O. Asquith Commission, 30, 37, 141 as pro-vice-chancellor of the Australia, 43 University of Ife, 154 Awolowo, Obafemi registrar of University College and the Action Group, 151–152 Ibadan, 81 imprisonment, 152 student at Yaba Higher College, 25 support for at UI, 151, 165–166 vice-chancellor of the University of and University of Ife, 5, 148, 154 Lagos, 157 Awomolo, Olu, 123 Bisham, Bill, 164 Axinn, George, 156, 169 Black Orpheus, 47 Ayandele, E.A., 98, 114 Blyden, Edward, 3 Azikiwe, Nnamdi Bourdillon, Bernard, 26, 27 and development, 56 Bowman, Ian, 47 and education, 25 Bown, Lalage, 44–45, 46–47, 163 governor-general, later Britain president, 149, 156, 171 and colonial development, 12, newspapers of, 32 19–20, 27–28, 29–30 and UCI/UI, 51, 60–61, 62–63, colonisation of Nigeria, 3, 69 83, 86, 149–151 forms of education associated and the University of Nigeria, 5, 86, with, 21, 22, 24, 27, 32–34, 121–125, 126–127, 133–134, 36–39, 44, 53–58, 63–64, 142, 151, 155–156, 161, 162, 124–125, 132–133, 142, 169, 175, 217n24 174–175 and modernist planning, 8, 28–29, 72–73 B relations with Nigeria after Balewa, Abubakar Tafawa, 147–148, independence, 113–114, 149, 151, 166, 167 159, 178–179 Bamgbose, Ayo, 104, 108 relations with the US, 120–121, Banham, Martin, 98 125–126, 137, 142, 162–163 Banjo, Kunle, 111 urban infrastructure, 81 Beier, Ulli, 47–48, 83, 100, 106 See also Colonial Ofﬁce Bell, Gawain, 157 Brown, Alexander, 168 Bello, Ahmadu, 5, 114, 167 Brown, James, 115 Bello, Mohammed, 100 Buchanan, Keith, 47 Benson, Bobby, 107, 108 Buildings Berghe, Pierre van den, 97, 98, 145 and Ahmadu Bello University, 157 Bernstein, Joel, 132 ‘Brazilian’ houses, 68 Berryhill, John, 127 and British colonial universities, 4 INDEX 275

and decolonisation, 13, 72 Clark-Bekederemo, J.P., 83 and ‘European Reservations’, 70, Clothing, see Dress 71–72, 80, 81 Cocoa Marketing Board, 41, 49, 59 and expertise, 76–80 Cold War, 2 and Ibadan city, 65–66, 69–70, 71, and development, 8 77, 78 and Nigeria, 5, 13, 17–18, 119–143, and the UCI permanent site, 14, 15, 160–163, 170, 172, 176 17, 65–67, 72–86, 87–88, 100, Coleman, James S., 164 110, 163–164, 175 Colonial Development and Welfare funding of, 56, 58, 59, 61, 83–84, Acts, 28, 196n1 139, 163 Colonial Development and Welfare and the UCI temporary site, 1, 68, fund, 49, 58, 80 72, 83, 85 Colonial Ofﬁce and the University of Ife, 154, 155 Advisory Committee for Education and the University of Lagos, 86, 160 in the Colonies, 27, 28 and the University of Nigeria, 86, Advisory Committee for Native 126, 127, 134, 170 Education in Tropical Africa, 22 archive, 15–16 C and the Ashby Commission, 130 – Cameron, Donald, 23 and development, 28, 29 30, 52 Canada, 43 and modernist architecture, 73, 74 Carnegie, Andrew, 128 and the UNESCO conference Carnegie Corporation of New (1962), 141 York, 122 and universities, 9, 198n48 and the Ashby and the University of Nigeria, 124 Commission, 127–132, Colonial state, 196n4 134–135, 138, 147–148 and the 1930s, 12, 174 attempts to recover missing and built environments, 70, 82 funds, 178 and cultural history, 89 – – early engagement with Africa, 128 and decolonisation, 12 13, 41 64, – and grants to Nigerian 103, 174 176 universities, 128, 139, and development, 8, 72, 174 224n139 Commission on Higher Education in See also Pifer, Alan the Colonies, see Asquith Carr-Saunders, Alexander, 141 Commission Cary, Joyce, 105 Commission on Higher Education in Casson, Hugh, 74 West Africa, see Elliot Channon, H.J., 29, 31, 33, 34–35 Commission Christianity, 3, 21, 92–93, 106 Commission on Post-School ﬁ Church Missionary Society, 21, 31 Certi cate and Higher Education Ciroma, Adamu, 100 in Nigeria, see Ashby Commission 276 INDEX

Communism, 46, 125, 132, 136 Development Conference on the Development of breakdown of development Higher Education in Africa, see consensus, 8, 147, 160, UNESCO 170–172, 177 Coups colonial development, 9, 10, 16, January 1966, 167, 169 19–40, 56, 62, 64, 73, 76, 78, July 1966, 168 80, 120, 196n1 Cox, Christopher, 130, 141 ‘development era’, 8 Creech Jones, Arthur, 31, 34–36, 37, expertise, 8, 10, 76–80 48, 51, 92 frames for, 5–7, 9, 11, 20, 23, 25, Cultural nationalism, 21, 33, 38, 39, 42–43, 54, 57–58, 102, 153 61, 62–64, 67, 72, 91, 113, 123, 125, 131, 135, 143, 153, 154, 157, 159, 160, 170, D 173–174, 179 Dafe, O.I., 149 historiography of, 8–10 Dairo, I.K., 115 multilateral negotiations of, 10, Dance 119–143, 162, 174 and nineteenth-century West as a practice, 7–8, 11, 76, Africa, 21, 103 80, 121 and UCI, 91, 95, 98–100, Dike, Kenneth Onwuka 102–103, 106–108, 109, 113, and African history teaching at 115, 116, 117, 150 UCI, 55 Davies, H.O., 70 and American Decolonisation foundations, 137–139, 140, and built environments, 17, 80, 82 142, 163, 171–172 cultures of, 89–118 and the Ashby Commission, 130, and the growth of the colonial state, 148 and the, 41–43, 63–64 and Britain, 137–138, 149 high politics of, 11–12, 13, 15, 118 and the National Universities and the openness of the late colonial Commission, 148 state, 13, 17, 42, 61, 107, 117, and the Peace Corps, 160 175 principal of UCI/UI, 4, 85–86, paradoxes of, 41–64, 117 122, 137, 149–151, 152–153, Department of State 166, 167, 168 and Britain, 163 Dillon, Wilton S., 164 and Nigeria, 136–137 Dosekun, F.O., 51, 158 and the University of Nigeria, 126, Dress 129 evidence about, 15, 91 Department for Technical and highlife music, 106 Cooperation (British), 138 and nineteenth-century West Depression (1930s), 8, 23, 27 Africa, 21, 103 INDEX 277

of students, 89, 96, 100–101, 104, Elites 107, 115, 116–117, 118 and academic qualiﬁcations, 22–23, Drew, Jane, 65, 66, 67, 72–76, 78–82, 64 85, 86, 87, 110 and built environments, 67, 70–71 and cultures of everyday life, 102, 103 E and decolonisation, 2, 109–110, 115 – Education and development, 142, 164 165, 177 African systems of, 2 and the Elliot Commission, 30 – American models of, 24–25, and music, 106 107, 115 119–143, 162, 178 and nineteenth-century West and the Cold War, 119–143, Africa, 3, 21, 102, 103, 173 160–163 Elizabeth II, Queen, 105 colonial policy on, 22–23, 27–40, Ellah, F.J., 49, 55 49, 53–58 Elliot Commission – and decolonisation, 41–64, 90–91, deliberations, 33 36, 77 117, 176 formation of, 16, 30 and development, 56, 134–135, membership of, 19, 28, 29, 31, 138–139, 140–141, 145, 194n70 164–165, 171 public hearings, 32, 33 literary styles of, 21–23 See also Elliot report – – Nigerian demand for, 8, 10, 15, 16, Elliot report, 4, 35 37, 38 39, 58, 98, 20–24, 29, 32–34, 43, 56–57, 135 60, 78, 120, 123–124 and the built environment, 71 – secondary education, 21, 22, 36, 55, implementation of, 37 38 – 92, 93 Majority report, 34 39, 71 – and ‘standards’, 7, 21, 22, 24, 28, Minority report, 35 37, 39, 71 29, 31–32, 34, 35–36, 39, Ememe, C., 162 42–43, 46, 48, 54–58, 62, Emerole, Ohuawunwa, 124 63–64, 97, 123–124, 135, 179, Emmerson, John K., 129 181 Enugu shootings (1949), 110 vocational, 22, 23, 24, 123, 125, Ette, A.I.I., 102, 108 ‘ ’ 126 European Reservations , 70, 71, 72, See also Asquith report, Elliot report, 87, 89 ‘ ’ University College Ibadan, Government Reservations , 72, 80, – University of Ibadan, Yaba 81 82 Higher College Eisenhower, Dwight, 125, 127, 136 Ejiwunmi, Titus, 26, 51, 52, 155 F Eke, A.Y., 154 Fafunwa, Babs, 25, 54, 72, 123 Electricity Corporation of Nigeria, 41 Falae, Olu, 95, 114 Elgood, J.H., 46, 83, 103 Ferguson, John, 106, 151 278 INDEX

Festac (1977), 177 Hannah, John, 162, 219n49, 219n52 Food and eating, 81, 100, 104, Hanson, John W., 133 108–109, 212n78 Harbison, Frederick, 134, 164–165 Foot, Hugh, 48, 51 Harlow, Vincent, 54 Ford Foundation, 130 Harragin, Walter, 52 archives, 190n72 Harrar, George, 139 and Nigeria, 119, 138–140, 142, Harris, John, 46, 168 219n54 Harrison, Austin, 74 and UCI/UI, 122, 139–140, 163, Harvey, R.J., 124 164, 178 Hausa, 96, 146 Fourah Bay College, 3, 31, 36, language, 108 191n12 Haynes, Douglas, 25 Frodin, Reuben, 139, 140 Head, Lord, 137 Fry, Maxwell, 28, 65, 66, 67, 72–76, Highlife music, 83, 106–107, 108, 78–82, 87 114, 115, 117 Funding of universities, 58–62, 119, Hirst, Jack, 46 140, 142, 179, 180 Hodgkin, Thomas, 91 House of Representatives and the late colonial state, 41, G 60–61 Gender, 17, 92–93, 95–96, 97, and student protests, 114 110–112, 113 and UCI, 52, 58, 59–61, 62, 63, 83 General Medical Council, 33–34 Houses of Assembly, 41 Ghana, 4, 20, 31, 35, 36, 37–38, 39, Eastern Region, 123, 217n24 41, 51, 57, 76, 106, 108, 119, Hussey, E.R.J., 23 127, 141 Huxley, Julian, 19, 20, 28, 31, 38 Gitler, Inbal Ben-Ashler, 155 Giwa-Amu, Idowu, 124 Gordon, Marcus J., 132 I Government College Umuahia, 19 Ibadan, city of Gower, L.C.B., 159 ‘Native Authority’, 78, 87 Gowon, Yakubu, 168 nineteenth–century history Greenbrier conference (1958), 129, of, 68–69 131 perceptions of built Gustavson, R.G., 130 environment, 65–66, 69, 71, 77, 81, 83 selection as site for university, 76–77 H and Western Region politics, 152, Hailey, Malcom, 31, 128 165–167 Hall, George, 37 Ibiam, Francis, 62 Hamilton Fyfe, William, 37–38, 49, Igbo 56, 57, 58, 71, 77 and dance, 109 INDEX 279

and ethno-politics at UCI/ Inter-University Council for UI, 109–110, 149–150, Higher Education in the Colonies 152–153 Irele, Abiola, 105–106 and ethno-politics at the University of Lagos, 157–159, 171 language, 108 J ’ Ige, Bola, 98 Jaja, Adafe, 98 Ighodaro, Irene B., 112 James Cubitt & Partners, 127 Ikejiani, Okechukwu, 52, 102, Johnson, George, 162 – 149 150, 151, 152, 153 Joly, Beatrice, 45 Ike, Vincent Chukwuemeka, 54, 100, Juju music, 114–115 170, 179 July, Robert, 140, 163 Ikoli, Ernest, 23 Imoukhuede, Mabel, see Segun, Mabel Indirect rule, 12, 22, 23, 27–28, 70, K 176, 192n37 Kashim, Shettima, 49–50, 130 International Bank of Reconstruction Kennedy administration, 119, 122, and Development, 13, 42, 61, 62, 136–137, 161, 216n11 84, 175, 180 Kennedy, John F., 136, 138, 160 International Cooperation Keppel, Francis, 129–130 Administration, 121, 126, 127, King’s College Lagos, 22 132, 216n4 Korsah, K.A., 31, 33, 35 See also Agency for International Kuti, Fela, 177, 233n3 Development Inter-University Council for Higher Education in the Colonies, 37, L 43–44, 49 Lagos archives, 14, 189n60, 189n63 annexation of (1861), 3, 20, 68 and the British government, 49, colonial-era social life of, 103 198n48 Elliot Commission hearings, 32 and the Elliot report, 37–38 and Government Reservations, 81 and UCI/UI, 37, 43–44, 56, 61, and independence (1960), 132 62, 63, 71, 79, 84, 138 library in, 128 and university autonomy, 48 nineteenth-century elites of, 21, 68, and the University College of the 102 Gold Coast, 77 and protests, 24, 114 and the University of site of colonial government, 42, 51 Nigeria, 124–125, 126, 127 site of university, 77, 131 Inter University Council for Higher site of Yaba Higher College, 70–71 Education Overseas, see Lapai, M.M., 60 280 INDEX

Latin, 21, 55, 100, 116 Matthews, Elbert, 165 Lecturers Maxwell, I.C.M., 44 and adaptation of courses at Mbadiwe, K.O., 59–60 UCI, 54–55 Medical Research Council, 43 and British colonial universities, 4, 39 Mellanby, Edward, 43 and UCI/UI: daily life of, 98–100, Mellanby, Kenneth 102–103, 115; foreign appointment as principal of UCI, 43 lecturers, 43–48, 91, 97, and the Carnegie Corporation, 128 98–100, 102–103, 105, 117, dress of, 100, 103 150–151, 152–153; marrying policies as principal of UCI, 4, 44, students, 95; Nigerian 53, 59, 61, 78–79, 81–82 lecturers, 13, 51–53, 82, 83, social life, 45, 47 110, 175; and the permanent Mensah, E.T., 106 site, 81–83, 87; and the Michigan State University temporary site, 68 archives, 14–15 and the University of Ife, 154 and the University of London, 126, and the University of 133, 142, 162 Lagos, 158–159 and the University of and the University of Nigeria, 157, Nigeria, 126–127, 128–129, 161–162, 169 133–134, 155–156, 162–163, and Yaba Higher College, 23, 25 169 Lefebvre, Henri, 65, 82 Missionaries, 3, 20, 21, 68 Legislative Council, 24, 26, 27, 50, Moore, Alex, 102 62, 192n37 Mouat Jones, Bernard, 28, 29, 31, 32, Lloyd, P.C., 50 34 Lockwood, John, 125, 130 Muehlenbeck, Philip, 122, 160 Lord Kitchener (calypso Musa, Shehu, 108, 110 musician), 108 Music, 83, 98, 100, 106, 107, 113, Louis, Wm. Roger, 121 114–115, 117 Lucas, Bode, 113, 115 classical, 98 Lugard, Frederick, 22, 70 and formal dance, 107, 108, 113, 116 Lumumba, Patrice, 113, 120 jazz, 108 of Victor Sylvester, 100 M See also Highlife music, juju music Muslim students, 96–97 Mabogunje, Akin, 164 Macmillan, Harold, 113–114, 118, 125–126 Madagwu, Emmanuel, 116 N Mahood, Molly, 45 National Congress of British West Malawi, 141 Africa, 22, 27, 39 Mali, 141 National Council for Nigeria and the Marinho, Tony, 92, 115 Cameroons INDEX 281

and the 1959 federal elections, 131, education policy of, 157; 145–146 students at UCI/UI, 60, and the Eastern Region 96–97 government, 145 Ten-Year Plan of Development and UCI/UI, 149, 151, 152, 154 (1946), 57 and the University of Ife, 131, 154 Western Region: and the Ashby and the University of Lagos, 157, Commission, 130, 131, 135, 158 142, 147–148; chief and the University of Nigeria, 5, commissioner of the, 1; and 156, 162, 217n24 ethno-politics, 149–150, and the Western Region crisis 151–152, 153–154, 157, (1962-3), 151–152 166–168; government of, 5, Nationalism, 21, 33, 39, 102, 153, 145, 166; higher education 155, 161 policy of, 130, 141, 147–148, National Security Council (United 165; primary education policy States), 126 of, 92; and the University of National Universities Nigeria, 126, 127 Commission, 135, 147, 148 See also Decolonisation, Ndiomu, Charles, 95, 100 Development Netherlands, the, 162 Nigerian College of Arts, Science and New Zealand, 43, 46, 98 Technology, 56–57 Nigeria Nigerian Festival of Arts 1951 constitution (implemented (1950), 106 1952), 5, 50, 130 ‘Nigerianisation’, 42, 63, 175 1954 constitution, 5, and the built environment, 72, 122–123, 130 90–91 constitutional change, 97, 109–110, and the civil service, 72, 90 130–131, 145–146 and UCI/UI lecturers, 51–53, Eastern Region: and the Ashby 150–151 Commission, 130; government and UCI/UI students, 91, 97, 102, of, 5, 145, 155–156; higher 103, 105, 107, 112, 117 education policy of, 121, See also ‘Africanisation’ 122–127, 129, 155–156; Nigerian National Democratic primary education policy of, 92; Party, 152 secession of (1967), 168, 169 formation of, 152, 226n40 National Development Plan and UCI/UI, 152, 165–166, 171 (1962), 164 and the University of Ife, 154, Northern Region: and the Ashby 170–171 Commission, 130; and and the University of decolonisation, 96–97; ethnic Lagos, 157–159, 171 violence in, 168, 169; Nigerian Union of Great Britain and government of, 5, 145; higher Ireland, 83–84 282 INDEX

Njoku, Eni Osoﬁsan, Femi, 113, 115 lecturer at UCI, 51, 89, 98 Ovaltine, 95 member of House of Oyenuga, V.A., 154 Representatives, 59 vice-chancellor of the University of Lagos, 157–159 P ’ Northern People s Congress, 5, 114, Palmer, Joseph, 160, 165 – 131, 145 146 Pan-Africanism, 7, 17, 20, 21, Nwauwa, Apollos, 10, 34, 48, 54 105–106, 113 Parastatal/semi-state institutions, 13, 41–42, 43, 48, 49, 63, 176, 196n4 O Parmar, Inderjeet, 121, 129, 130, Obafemi Awolowo University, see 146, 147, 185n22, 224n5 University of Ife Parry, J.H., 4, 61–62, 85, 104, Obisesan, Akinpelu, 78 111–112 Obumselu, Benedict, 100, 102, 103, Peace Corps, 160–161, 162 107 Penson, Lillian, 54, 133 Odufalu, J.D., 86–87 Peoples’ Friendship Oforiokuma, Donald, 107 University, 119–120 Ogunade, Doyin, 111 Philanthropic foundations, 16, 119, Ogundele, Wole, 98 121, 128, 163–164, 178 Ogunsheye, Adetowun, 95–96, 98, See also Carnegie Corporation of 103, 166 New York, Ford Foundation, Ogunsheye, Ayo, 164 Rockefeller Foundation Ohiwerei, Felix, 114 Phillipson, Sydney, 49, 50, 59, 60 Ojo-Cole, Julius, 24 Pifer, Alan Ojukwu, Chukwuemeka, 169 and the Ashby Okafor, Nduka, 25 Commission, 128–132, 135, Okigbo, Christopher, 108, 210n20 142, 147 Okorodudu, Michael, 25 background of, 128, 129 Okpara, Michael, 154, 156 and the UNESCO Conference Okunnu, Latifat, 105, 113 (1962), 141 Olorun-Nimbe, I., 60 Plumptre, Monica, 46, 93, 197n22 Omer-Cooper, J.D., 46, 150, 164, Preston, Harold, 47, 68, 111 166, 167 Pugh, J.C., 47, 110 Onabamiro, S.D., 130, 131, 132, 135, Pyrates Confraternity, 97–98, 142, 147 104–105 Onafowokan, Victoria, 92, 95, 98 Onasode, Gamale, 101 Opa Oranmiyan, 155 R Osadebay, D.C., 52 Race, 3, 21, 22, 31, 185n19 Osinulu, S.A., 105 and everyday life, 91, 102 INDEX 283

and space, 66, 70, 76, 87, 207n78 and the Pyrates and UCI, 51, 57, 58–59 Confraternity, 97–98, 104 Ransome-Kuti, Israel, 31, 33–34, 35, and UCI buildings, 68, 83 39, 233n3 UCI student, 175 Ribadu, Mohammed, 59 UCI/UI staff member, 149, 166 Rivkin, Arnold, 137 Spence, W.D., 51 Robisnon, Eric, 105 Stanley, Oliver, 29–30, 31 Rockefeller Foundation State, see Colonial state archives, 189n64, 190n72 Stolper, Wolfgang, 84, 156, 164, 178, and University College Ibadan/ 189n64 University of Ibadan, 122, Students 137–140, 142, 149, 163–164, and colonial universities, 9–10 168, 178 and the Elliot Commission, 34, University Development 36, 37 Programme, 138–139 Nigerian students at British Ros, Edmundo, 107 universities, 21, 23, 29 Royal Geographical Society, 121 and secondary schools, 36 Royal Institute of British and the Soviet Union, 120 Architects, 80 and UCI/UI, 49, 91–97: and Rusk, Dean, 138 adaptation, 55–56; and anti- Ryder, Alan, 48, 150 Americanism, 160–161;and decolonisation, 13, 64, S 109–110; departure of Igbo – Saunders, J.T., 4, 61 students, 168 169;and – Secondary education, see Education everyday life, 17, 89 118;and – – ‘Second colonial occupation’, 9, 12, gender, 93, 95 96, 111 112; 16–17, 42, 43–48, 53, 117, 135 and the January 1966 Segun, Mabel (née Imoukhuede), 100, coup, 167;policeviolence 106, 108, 109 against, 145, 166, 179;political Senghor, Léopold, 106 views of, 114, 150, 151, 152, Sharon, Arieh and Eldah, 155 166; residence of, 61, 68, 71, – ’ Sharpeville massacre (1960), 113 74, 81 87, 175; students Shepard, Robert, 119, 217n14 union, 104, 109, 110, 112, 114, Shepardson, Whitney H., 47, 128 125, 150, 151, 161, 166, 168 Sierra Leone and the University of Ife, 154 and the Elliot Commission, 20, 31, and the University of Lagos, 158 35, 36, 37, 39 and the University of Nigeria, 112, and the nineteenth century, 3, 21, 69 123, 134, 162 Sir Aston Webb & Son, 74 and Yaba Higher College, 23, 24, – Soviet Union, 8, 119, 120, 125, 132, 25, 26 27, 32 141, 163, 230n111 Suez Crisis (1956), 125 Soyinka, Wole Sutton, Francis, 140, 219n54 parents, 210n20 Sylvester, Victor, 100 284 INDEX

T becomes degree-awarding university Taggart, Glen, 126, 133, 155, (1962), 4, 138 162–163, 219n52 endowment fund, 58–59 Tamuno, T.N., 54, 57 establishment of, 1–2, 41 Taylor-Cummings, E.H., 31, 35 and the federal government, 146, Thomas, H.O., 51 149–150 Timms, D.S., 124 fence incident (1957), 110–112, 118 Transnational history, 2 ﬁnance, 50, 58–63 See also Development, frames for See also buildings, lecturers, Trend, Burke, 132 students, University of Ibadan University College Ibadan Ordinance (1954), 49 U University College of the West Udoma, E.U., 58, 60 Indies, 4, 41 Ukeje, Onyerisara, 123, 124 University of Ibadan, 14, 138, 154, underdevelopment, 9, 177, 180 158, 165–169, 178, 179 UNESCO See also University College Ibadan and the University of Lagos, 86, 159 University of Ife, 5, 146, 147–148, Conference on Higher Education in 153–155, 171, 177 Africa (1962), 84, 140–141 American assistance to, 136, 154–155 United States buildings, 156 archives in, 14–15, 16 political interference in, 154 and Nigeria, 119–143, 160–165, University of Jos, 177 176, 178 University of Lagos and state planning, 8 American assistance to, 136 and student culture in Nigeria, 105, archive, 14 107, 108, 115 crisis (1965), 157–160, 171 See also Agency for International establishment of, 86, 131, 157 Development, Philanthropic and the federal government, 146, 157 foundations student accommodation, 86 University of Benin, 177 University of London University College of East Africa, 4, archive, 14 41, 79 curricula of, 28, 54, 56, 130 University College of the Gold degrees of, 4, 20, 26–27, 32, 33, 34, Coast, 35, 37–38, 45, 51, 74 37, 41, 53–54, 56–58, 64, 130, University College Hospital, 133 Ibadan, 56, 130, 153 and Michigan State University, 126, University College Ibadan 133, 142, 162 archives, 14 ‘special relations’ with, 43, 53–58, ‘autonomy’ of, 41–42, 48–51, 59, 63, 123–125, 127, 133, 134, 62, 149, 188n52 138, 142 INDEX 285

University of Malaya, 4, 41 West African Students’ Union, 23, 29 University of Nigeria, Nsukka Williams, Adeniyi, 82, 110 American assistance, 121, 122, 123, Williams, Mennen, 136 125–127, 132–134, 136, World Bank, see International Bank of 155–156, 161–163 Reconstruction and Development and Azikiwe, 122–127, 133–134, Wright, John, 98, 149 151, 155–157 Wrigley, C.C., 46, 139, 153, 167 and the civil war, 169–170, 177 constitution of, 133, 178 and Igbo staff, 159, 168 Y student accommodation, 86 Yaba Higher College student protests, 112, 162 archive, 14 University of Wisconsin, 155 establishment of, 3–4, 23 USSR, see Soviet Union objections to, 1–2, 16, 23–25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 34, 39, 42, 48–49, 54, 55–56, 64, 70–71, V 72, 87, 102, 130 Violence, 111, 114, 158, 164, 166, reforms to, 25–27 167, 168 Yoruba Vowles, P.F., 43, 47 conceptions of modernity, 10, 21–22 and ethno-politics, 115, 151–152, W 153, 155, 157–158, 168–169, Wachuku, Jaja, 130, 135 179 Wali, Alfa, 114 language, 108 Welch, James, 40, 46, 47 students at UCI/UI, 109–110, 115 Wellesley Cole, Robert, 29, 69 and the University of Nigeria, 123, West African Governors’ Conference 168 (1939), 27, 28, 29, 30 Yoruba Wars, 68–69