The Threat of Nuclear War and the Nature of the Ruling Class

Charity and the Summer 1982 Number 18 State by Robert Briffault Quarterly Journal of the Marxist-Leninist League $1.00 Contents

The Threat of Nuclear War and the Nature of the Ruling Class. • • • • • • • • • • 3

Charity and the State by Robert Briffault ••••••• • • • • • • • 58

Science, Class, and Politics A quarterly theoretical journal published by Marxist-Leninist League

We encourage the submission of articles. Manuscripts should be double-spaced, typewritten on 8~ x 11 paper with headings underscored and pages numbered. Please send two copies. If you wish one of the copies return­ ed, enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope.

yearly subscription rate $6.00 includes postage

single issues $1.00 plus 50~ postage

make checks payable to Science, Class, ~ Politics

Send submissions and/or subscriptions to Science, Class, ~Politics, P.O. Box 19074, Sacramento, calif., 95819. The Threat of Nuclear War and the Nature of the Ruling Class

Everyone is aware of the increasing threat of nuclear war. How seriously are we to take the war­ like stance of the current administration? Is this hoopla merely meant to frighten the Soviet Union, or is the ad~inistration in earnest? Nuclear weapons are in themselves merely things. In order to really understand the problem of the threat of nuclear war, one has to understand the people who control them--the U.S. ruling ~lass. Nuclear weapons are a particular expression of the nature of the ruling class in the U.S. Since nuclear weapons are designed primarily to kill non-combatants, they are by definition, a war crime. Their very existence reflects the criminal intentions of the U.S. govern­ ment. Any analysis of the threat and probability of nuclear war must be primarily an analysis of the class that threatens to use them. Such an analysis is at­ tempted here. A complete description and analysis of the U.S. ruling class is not attempted. Only those aspects of this class that bear directly on the actual and potential use of nuclear weapons is touched upon. Theoretically, the general nature of capitalist ruling classes is known. Nevertheless, how they will act under particular situations depends on a host of circumstances, past and present. Therefore, it is necessary to know and take into account the influence of each of these more important factors, in so far as they are known. It is impossible to get inside the heads of the leaders of the U.S. ruling class. But they do reveal their thoughts through their actions.

3 It is the actions of these people since World War I Alexander M. Haig said Friday that the best that we will follow. This will giv~ us an insight as deterrent to war is to demonstrate to the to why they used nuclear weapons in the first place Soviet Union "our willingness to do whatever against Japan, as well as why they have been relying is necessary--including the use of nuclear on them ever since. It may also give us an idea as weapons--to protect America ' s v i ta1 1nteres . t s. " to whether they really mean to use nuclear weapons (Sacramento Bee, 1/10/81) in the near future. Further, the government is now busy circulating instructions to the civilian population on how to pro­ Part I tect itself in case of a nuclear war, supposedly so that it can have a good chance of survival. Hospitals The U.S. government is now openly talking about throughout the country have been solicited by the the possibility of all-out nuclear war. More than government to adopt programs for processing casualties this, it is talking and thinking about initiating such from such a war. This type of activity on the part of a war. Even though it is hard to believe that any the u.s. government implies to people that a signif­ sane person could consider such a possibility, the icant proportion of the population will survive a evidence that the U.S. government is doing just that nuclear war. It also has the effect of getting the is fairly conclusive. The government has not kept population accustomed to the idea that a nuclear war its plans a secret: various members of the administra­ is a definite possibility at the present time and tion talk about this possibility (and for the record) probably unavoidable in the long run. It is the opin­ as if nuclear war were a foregone conclusion. For ion of Physicians for Social Responsibility that any example, General Bernard Rogers, NATO commander, in physician that participates 9r cooperates in these February of this year stated that, "We shQuld not be government sponsored programs is guilty of actions so weak in other types of forces that we are forced that are "profoundly unethical", since these actions to resort to nuclear weapons first." (Sacramenta Bee, would contribute to the population's acceptance and 2/27/82) In other words, the U.S. would immediately support of nuclear war. . resort to first-strike use of nuclear weapons any Of'course it is not possible to survive a nuclear time the U.S. found itself losing a war with its war. Such an ~ssertion by the government is a false­ conventional forces. hood, pure and simple. And it has been known to be The open discussion of the possibility of a first­ false for a very long time. For instance, in an earlier strike nuclear attack on the Soviet Union by highly period (over 20 years ago on Dec. 19, 1961) when the placed U.S. government officials has been an on-and-off U.S. government began recklessly talking about getting occurrence, particularly since 1960. There was very into a nuclear war: serious talk of this during the Kennedy administra­ tion. Under Carter this discussion again became very 800 faculty members of universities in the earnest. It has intensified greatly since Reagan New York area published in the New York Times took office. In fact, the U.S. has been talking so an open letter to President Kennedy and Gov­ aggressively, it is beginning to look as if it were ernor Rockefeller which stated: searching for an excuse to use these weapons. Haig "We are now in the era of 50 to 100 mega­ began talking right from the beginning about using ton bombs. According to the AEC (Atomic nuclear weapons against the Soviet Union, even for Energy Commission) estimates of October 1, a relatively frivolous reasons. one hundred megaton bomb, exploded in the

4 5 air, would have an 18 mile radius of total shelters are either cremated or, if the shel­ destruction of ordinary structures and ignite ter is deep enough to withstand the fire, are most wooden buildings in a radius of 60 miles. suffocated because of the lack of oxygen. Within that area a large proportion of the (Ibid., p. 8) population would be suffocated by lack of oxygen or poisoned by carbon monoxide. Base­ As before, scientists tell us now that it is not pos­ ment shelters under burning buildings would sible to survive a nuclear war. Any survivors would be useless." be wiped out by epidemics, radiation, lack of medical Scientists who signed this statement in­ attention, and a lack of food. All the croplands will cluded experts in chemistry, physics, medi­ be hopelessly and irrevocably poisoned (Ibid., p. 15). cine ••. nearly every branch of engineering; Of course, the number, accuracy, and effectiveness in short, practically every science which is of nuclear weapons have increased tremendously since involved in the problem as well as profes­ then. Conservative estimates place the number of large sors in the social sciences and the human­ nuclear weapons at 9000 for the U.S. and 7000 for the ities. Soviet Union. (Marzani, et al., The Shelter Hoax and Foreign Given these facts, why would anyone advocate Policy, pp. 8-9) ---- nuclear war? It is quite obvious that no sane person would do so. Once nuclear weapons came into existence In line with this information, it was pointed out that: and their devastating effects became clear, any govern­ ment run by sane people would have negotiated their One single bomb of 100 megatons exploded at total abolition. As we know, the Soviet Union for the proper altitude over Newark would burn years tried to get the U.S4 to agree to total abolition, out the whole vast area from Philadelphia on but the U.S. government refused. (F. Cook, The War­ the south, to Bridgeport, Connecticut, on fare State; J.P. Morray, From Yalta to Disarmament) the north and reach into Pennsylvania on the Why is the U.S. government waving nuclear weapons west. Five such bombs would burn out the about .today? To begin with, the conventional U.S. entire east coast from Boston to Washington, military forces have always been significantly infer­ with nearly one quarter of the U.S. popula­ ior to those of the Soviet Union. In case there are tion. (Ibid., p. 11) people around who believe the Fourth of July speeches about the U.S. being the most powerful country in the Thus with a limited number of such bombs, almost the world militarily, then some documentation may be entire U.S. population could be wiped out and the Soviet necessary in order to demonstrate that this is not Union had more than enough for that purpose in 1962. the fact. Four famous ex-officials of the U.S. have The principal killing mechanism of nuclear weapons come out for an agreement banning the first-strike use is the firestorm. of nuclear weapons. They are former Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, former national security advisor A firestorm is not just a fire or a series McGeorge Bundy, former strategic arms negotiator Gerard of fires. It is a conflagration so huge, so Smith, and former U.S. Ambassador to the U.S.S.R. gigantic, that it becomes a meteorological George Kennan. They pointed out that this agreement event, sucking in enormous columns of air "would have to be followed by a large buildup of U.S. which feed and intensify the blaze so that and NATO conventional forces." (Sacramento Bee, 4/8/82) all oxygen in the area is used up and people in They would have to do this to match or exceed the con­ ventional forces of the Soviet Union. In passing, they 6 7 do point. out that the Soviet Union had been trying to coming" scenes were false. get the U.S. to agree for 25 years to a no-first-strike Historian Herbert Aptheker lists some instances treaty. But the U.S. always turned it down because of this from the pre-1958 period. it would mean "accepting defeat from superior Soviet conventional forces." (Sacramento Bee, 4/8/82) As Thus, despite the enormous and insistent proof that this superiority has not been recent, here propaganda here to the effect that the Soviet is a quote from a 1974 article by Drew Middleton, the Union threatens war and aggression, it is a New York Times military correspondent. fact that leading figures repeatedly have admitted, to their confidants and under pri­ The prevailing view among senior American vate circumstances, that this was not true. and allied commanders is that the East's Forrestal, for example, before madness befell quantitative and qualitative superiority him, confided to his diary in June, 1946, over NATO is so great that the West would be that he did not believe the USSR would attack forced to use tactical nuclear weapons to "at any time." In June, 1948, General Walter prevent the quick conquest of West Germany, Bedell Smith reported to the Security Council France, the Netherlands, and Belgium. (New that "the Russians do not want war"; a York Times, 3/31/74) - military report to the NATO Council in 1951 found that there were "no serious indications And this substantial superiority in conventional that the Soviet Union is preparing for military forces on the part of the Soviet Union has hostilities"; Eisenhower's Chief of Staff in been the case since 1943. 1952, General Gruenther, reported to him he This superiority is not based on technology or saw no such preparations and felt certain quantity of men or equipment, as usual official capi­ the Russians were not going to war. talist sources indicate, but on the superior qual- (Aptheker, American Foreign Policy and the Cold ity and morale of the Soviet forces. Part of this War, pp. 26-7) superiority is based on the fact that the war envi­ sioned by the U.S. is a war of aggression against the D.F. Fleming in his famous The Cold War and Its Soviet Union. Troops defending their homeland generally Origins said "It is difficult to find evidence of any have a superior morale compared to those who are waging desire on the part of the Soviets to plunge into con­ a war of aggression. Consequently, the U.S. business flict with the West" (p. 1060). Fleming quotes George community feels that if it is to successfully wage a Kennan, chief cold-war advisor to the U.S. government, war of aggression against the Soviet Union, it must to the same effect. rely on nuclear weapons. All the propaganda about the Soviet Union being George Kennan, who made the most formal aggressive and U.S. military preparations being nec­ statement of the containment doctrine, said essitated by this, is just that--propaganda. False in 1954 that he had never seen any evidence propaganda. This red herring has been dragged out that the Soviet leaders at any time "desired every time the U.S. wanted to increase military ex­ a general war between the Soviet Union and penditures or attack civil rights in the U.S. (as the major capitalist powers, or looked upon in the "McCarthy" period). The U.S. government, and such a war as a likely means of achieving particularly some retired officials, have always their objectives." eventually admitted that previous "the Russians are ( Ib id • , p. 106 3)

8 9 Felix Greene, the British journalist, points out that our government in Washington was Com­ the same thing with the help of some interesting quo­ munist riddled. So widespread was this cam­ tations. This is no surprise since all upper class paign that it seemed no one would be safe from politicians and knowledgeable journalists were well attack. This was the tragedy and shame of our aware of the mythical basis of the threat of "Soviet time." aggression". Writing some years afterwards it was easy for Truman to blame the "demagogues" and As for American fears of attack by the "crackpots," ignoring altogether the fact Soviet Union, this is what George F. Kennan that he was himself greatly responsible for (former U..S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union) initiating this national hysteria ••• wrote in 1956: (Greene, The Enemy, pp. 231-2) "The iiinllage of a Stali~ist Russia poised and yearning to attack the West, and deterred only Also, many recent officials confirm this fact in by our possession of atomic weapons, was the process of arguing for something else. For example, largely a creation of the Western imagination, the NATO commander General Bernard Rogers quoted ear­ against which some of us who were familiar lier justifying the first-strike use of nuclear weap­ with Russian .matters tried in vain, over the ons by the U.S., admitted in that same interview that course of years, to make our voices heard." the Soviet Union would never resort to nuclear weap­ This "creation of the Western imagination" ons first. He said, "The idea is to force the other did not arise spontaneously. It was quite side into the alternative of using theatre nuclear clearly in the interests of those who felt weapons or withdrawing. I believe there is no Soviet it was essential to launch the United States leader, present or of th~ foreseeable future, who upon a large military expenditure program to wishes to expose his nation to the risk of nuclear establish an adequate justification. It would war." (Sacramento Bee, 2/27/82) In other words, the be difficult to persuade a skeptical American Soviet Union, if faced with defeat with conventional people to support a global extension of mili­ weapons, will not have recourse to nuclear weapons. tary power to keep the world safe for American However, as General Rogers confirmed in this inter­ investors. It was therefore necessary to con­ view, it is U.S. policy to use nuclear weapons in such vince the American people that they were in a situation. danger, that a devilish external enemy was-out General Rogers also stated that the Soviet Union to overthrow the United States. And not only was unlikely to start a war in Europe. He was quoted the United States--but the whole Western as "predicting that there is little chance of a Soviet world. The destiny of the United States was surprise attack in Europe for the forseeable future." to save civilization. (Sacramento Bee, 2/27/82) So the war situation ~ic­ To make people afraid is always easy. tured by Gen:-iogers would have to be the result of President Truman in his Memoirs was later U.S. aggression or that of one of its allies. Even to write: though these high-placed officials are inveterate "The demago~ues, crackpots and professional dissimulators, they occasionally let slip the truth patriots had a field day pumping fear into in these little asides. the American people ••.• Many good people actu­ Immediately after the Second World War, the U.S. ally believed that we were in imminent dan~ built thousands of military bases around the periphery ger of being taken over by the Coiinllunists and of the Soviet Union so that it could launch an attack

10 11 if ev~r the government thought it had achieved a in the Soviet Union. -3.) Right after the failure of sufficient position of military superiority. The U.S. their first invasion of 1918-22 they began planning is still waiting. the next invasion. This invasion plan led to World Why does the U.S. business community and hence War II. However, this invasion plan did not turn out the U.S. government feel that it has to wage a war of the way they planned it--some of the "allies" ended aggression against the Soviet Union? Because the up on the side of the U.S.S.R., "opposing" their former Soviet Union is the symbol of socialism (regardless eo-conspirators. After the war, they quickly got of the reality), the state that is controlled by wage back together. And they got together on the basis of and salary earners. In a truly socialist society, one thing only--to plan for the destruction of social­ capitalists, as well as all other exploiters of labor, ism in the Soviet Union and the other states that were will sooner or later be abolished. They will be con­ trying to implement a socialist system. verted into wage and salary earners. To the business For example, once it became clear that the Soviet community, such a development seems like the end of the Union was not going to be crushed and the "spectre of world. Evidently a part of this business community communism exorcised", then even though WWII was still thinks that the end of the world through nuclear holo­ going on, the U.S. began planning its next campaign. caust would be preferable to becoming a worker. The old We have the testimony of General Leslie Groves, head slogan "Better dead than Red" from the McCarthy Era of the Manhattan Project to build the atomic bomb: epitomizes this attitude. In the view of the U.S. business community, the continued existence of the I think it important to state--I think it Soviet Union will act as a beacon of hope and an is well known--that there was never from about example to working classes all over the world to try two weeks from the time I took charge of the to establish socialist societies in their own coun­ project any illusion on ~y part but that tries, including the U.S. The real threat of the Russia was the enemy _and that the project was Soviet Union to the U.S. business community is not a conducted on that basis. military one, but an ideological one. Our old stand­ (Quoted in, Aptheker, American Foreign Policy by, NATO commander General Rogers confirmed this point and the Cold War, pp. 15-16)

when he said in the previously quoted talk, "The I Soviets believe that if they are patient, they can The principal goal of U.S. foreign policy since 1918, dominate Western Europe without firing a shot." as well as all other capitalist states, has been to Capitalism is dying and socialism is the system crush the Soviet Union and hence socialism. Their of the future. Socialism does not need foreign mili­ actions leave no doubt of this. (See Sayers and Kahn, tary conquest in order to triumph. So it is clear to The Great Conspiracy.) the U.S. business community that the Soviet Union must So, in its desperation, the U.S. government has either be destroyed or totally discredited--preferably clung to nuclear war, or its threat, as its only weap­ the former. on. Consequently, it has been the U.S. government that If there is any doubt that this is the way the has started the nuclear arms race and has kept acceler­ ruling circles in the capitalist world feel, just ating it ever since. remember their actions since November 1917. 1.) After all that slaughter, they called off World War I and all It has been we Americans who, at almost every the Allies and all the Central Powers invaded the step of the road, have taken the lead in the Soviet Union. 2.) Failing, they spent most of their development of nuclear weaponry. It was time organizing subversion, opposition, and sabotage we who first produced and tes~ed such a device;

12 reality of these fantasies. we who were the first to raise its destructive­ In 1980, certain sections of President Harry ness to a new level with the hydrogen bomb; Truman's private journal were made public. By the end we who introduced the multiple warhead; we who of 1951 it was pretty clear that the U.S. had been have declined every proposal for the renunci­ defeated in their war of aggression against North ation of the principle of "first use"; and we Korea. Foaming at the mouth because of his failure alone so help us God, who have used the weap­ to crush socialism in North Korea, Truman began to on in,anger against others, and against tens fantasize in his journal entries. of thousands of helpless noncombatants at that. In an entry dated Jan. 27, 1952, Truman (Kennan, former U.S. Ambassador to Soviet Union, wrote "the proper approach now would be an May 19, 1981, quoted in Political Affairs, ultimatum ••• informing Moscow that we intended Feb., 1982, p. 26) to blockade the China coast from the Korean border to Indochina" and that "if there is If it abandons nuclear weapons, it abandons its hopes further interference we shall eliminate any of banishing the "spectre o f conmun i sm " • Th us, as it ports or cities necessary to accomplish our clings to this weapon with the desperation of a drownd­ peaceful purposes." ing man, it fantasizes about the possibility.of sur­ "This means all-out war", Truman wrote. viving a nuclear holocaust. The government ~ fanta- 11 "It means that Moscow, St. Peterburg (Lenin­ sizing about " wi nning a nuc 1 ear war. It 1s· b eg 1'n - grad), Mukden, Vladivostok, Peking, Shanghai, ning more and more to think of this fantasy as reality. Port Arthur, Dairen, Odessa, Stalingrad and A few of the wealthiest families along with their every manufacturing plant in China and the top echelon business, government, and military officials, Soviet Union will be eliminated. have hollowed-out mountains at their disposal; this "This is the final chance for the Soviet probably contributes toward this illusion of the sur­ government to decide whether it desires to vivability of the few. They seem to believe that these survive or not.' .. 11 fortunate few, along with their Accounts Receivable, The journal does not specifically refer can come out of their mountains after a decent inter­ ,to nuclear weapons, though it says the com­ val and resume their dominant position in society, munist countries would be "completely des­ only in the Southern Hemisphere. Presumably, they troyed." think they could use nuclear weapons to blackmail the Charles Burton Marshal!, a member of the peoples of the Southern Hemisphere to accept them as State Department policy planning staff at the their sovereigns. But it is clear they will never time, said Saturday that the journal reflected make it out of the Northern Hemisphere alive. And Truman's "reveries." the probability is high that the Southern Hemisphere Marshal! said that the United States did will be poisoned to an unlivable extent. Wishful not have the nuclear capability to carry out thinking for a dying ruling class is a powerful thing. Truman's threat, even if it had been consid­ This is the basis of the old saying, "those whom the ered seriously ••• gods would destroy, they first make mad." (Sacramento Bee, 8/3/80) This theory about the fantasies of this section of the U.S. business community and the U.S. govern­ Truman, the president when the decision to drop the ment may seem a little fantastic. However, let us atomic bomb on Japanese civilians was made, fantasized bring in some documentary evidence to prove the

14 15 what he would like to do to the populations of China "I want to make it clear that I am not and the Soviet Union--wipe them out. But he didn't advocating· a preventive war; however, I believe have the power to do so. And his fantasies could not that if the United States is pushed in the be too different from those that put him in that office, corner far enough we would not hesitate to since they kept him there after Hiroshima. strike first." (Sacramenta Bee, 2/15/82) And Harry Truman was not the only highly placed official whose fantasies of nuclear holocaust have The thing to notice about this fantasy is its become public. It seems that the Strategic Air Command criminal nature and goals--the mass murder of hundreds Chief, General Curtis LeMay, had this same fantasy. of millions of defenseless people. But it was more In fact, it turns out the U.S. government's military than a fantasy. It was a fantasy that had become a plans for a war with the Soviet Union was based on this part of basic U.S. planning. It was already noted in same fantasy of Curtis LeMay's. the previous quotations from Truman that the U.S. did not have the capacity to deliver an effective atomic The United States had a strategic plan if war attack in 1952. It did not have the capacity for an broke out with the Soviet Union during the effective one in 1954 either. Even though the U.S. 1950's to strike a single, massive blow that may have increased the number of bombs and the number would leave the Conununist nation a "smoking, of bombers, it still could not have delivered a suf­ radiating ruin at the end of two hours," ficient number of bombs to the target. The Soviet declassified secret documents show. Union, with the most effective fighter force around, The documents were released recently under would have destroyed most of the bombers before they the Freedom of Information Act to author could have gotten very far. So the plans to leave David Alan Rosenberg, who reproduced them in the Soviet Union "a smoking, radiating ruin at the the current issue of International Security, end of two hours" was only a fantasy, but a fantasy a foreign affairs quarterly published by that reveals what the U.S. ruling class is capable of. Harvard University ... Something else should be noted. Curtis LeMay stated The declassified documents about nuclear that the U.S. very well might launch a "preventive" war strategy consists of notes taken by U.S. (i.e., aggressive) war, and use nuclear weapons in Navy Capt. W.B. Moore during a top-secret th~t war. briefing by officers of the Strategic Air Another important point should be made. The U.S. Command in 1954, including its commander Gen. public has been told for a long time that the only Curtis LeMay. reason the U.S. has nuclear weapons is to deter the According to Rosenberg, LeMay reviewed Soviet Union from using them. This is false, of course. Moore's notes, once they were declassified, But here again is the official U.S. information media, and pronounced them generally accurate. admitting, in an aside, that the U.S. propaganda was In the notes the SAC briefer said, "The false. Here was the U.S. planning to leave the Soviet exact manner in which SAC will fight the Union "a smoking, radiating ruin" when the Soviet Union war (with the Soviets) is known only to General could not threaten the U.S. with nuclear weapons. This LeMay and he will decide at the moment, depending same article states that, on the existing conditions ••• Although the decision was not his to make, Althgugh the Soviet Union had nuclear weapons LeMay makes it clear in the briefing notes at the time of the 1954 briefing, it had a that he believed the United States would hit bomber force that was vastly inferior to the first, under certain conditions ••• United States' and possessed no missiles 16 17 capable to reaching this country. (Sacramento tions. And if it were aggressive, which it is not, it Bee, 2/15/82) would be foolish to use nuclear weapons rather than conventional forces since it would contaminate the There is another form of madness than fantasies land it intended to use and/or wipe out the population to which ruling classes are subject. This second form it intended to exploit. So if the U.S. and its allies of madness is usually the result of despair. This undertook nuclear disarmament, that would be the end of form of madness consists of trying to destroy the world the world being threatened with extermination. The they cannot have. The Nazis in the last stages of the Soviet Union would immediately follow suit. It would Second World War gave us many instances of this. When have no motive to do anything else. they were forced to leave the Soviet Union they des­ With each expansion of the nuclear arsenal and troyed every building, factory, or home; flooded every each policy decision to threaten to use the bomb any mine; killed every piece of livestock they could lay time the U.S. government feels "its interests are their hands on. Even on their own territory they threatened", these madmen are inching closer to the flooded the subways to drown their own people; they mass murder of the entire populations of North America, ordered the destruction of all their productive facil­ Europe and Asia. The greater the number of weapons, ities--factories and mines. Goebbels, in the last the greater the chance of "accidental" war. And days of the war, called on all Germans to commit mass further, the more "powerful" the U.S. government feels suicide--which some even did. Some of them even itself, the greater the illusion of being all-powerful attempted to destroy their own art works. They just and hence using its weapons. Make no mistake about it. went on an orgy of spite and vindictiveness. These people are homicidal maniacs and potential mass In one of his last articles published in the murderers to the nth degree. Volkischer Beobachter Joseph Goebbels summarized the German government's attitude to the world it failed to conquer. Part 11 I. "If we are obliged to leave, we will slam the door with such a crash that it will shake Many citizens of the United States have illusions about the character of their ruling class, the big mankind to the end of its days." business families, and their representatives in govern­ (Quoted in Leonid Volynsky, Seven Days, p. 66) ment. They believe that they are not very much dif­ ferent than themselves, except for being more talented There is the danger that a section of the U.S. and intelligent. These naive citizens believe that ruling class may also, because of despair, choose to the labels of "mass murderer", "war criminal", "war depart this earth with a bang. Thus leaving nothing monger", etc. have no basis in fact. Certain evil worth using to any successors. policies may have been pursued in the past (e.g., the Given these facts, certain important conclusions Indo-China War) but those were as much a matter of logically follow. In order for complete nuclear dis­ accident as of design. And what design there was, came armament to occur, only the U.S. and its allies need from a few bad apples such as Johnson or Nixon. By-and­ to get rid of their nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union, large big business families are as nice as your next­ which has conventional military superiority, does not door nei~hbors. They would never plan to murder the need to use nuclear weapons to defend itself. It only population of three continents, just to protect their built or expanded its nuclear arsenal in response to own individual economic interests. Only communists U.S. nuclear armament, expansions, and aggressive inten- are evil by nature.

18 19 The overwhelming majority of U.S. citizens have of foreign peoples. This was obviously an intolerable these illusion~ This is not so surprizing considering constraint for any civilized country. For example, the fact that the ruling class has control of almost the Republican leader in the U.S. Senate, Senator Taft all of the communications media. What is surprizing warned "that the Nuremberg principles have undermined is that the great majority of "leftists" and "Marxists" the fundamental principles of law in the United in this country have these same illusions, though to States ••• and that in these trials we have adopted the a slightly less extent. As far as most U.S. leftists Soviet ideas of justice ••• " (Sawicki, From Nuremberg are concerned, "American exceptionalism" still lives. to the New Wehrmacht, pp. 184-186). In other words, these illusions aren't as strong where -- ~e Nuremberg trials were also attacked by pres­ foreigners (e.g., Nazis) are concerned. So even in a tigous representatives of the U.S. press. Fortune, leftist journal, it is necessary to spend some time representative of big business, attacked them, as undercutting these illusions. To do this, we will expected. · And, also as expected, the liberal Atlantic follow some of the activities of the U.S. ruling class Monthly and The Nation followed suit. The "liberal" from the period before World War II to the present. and "democratic socialist" publications are always As we shall see, the homicidal, war-criminal found supporting big business on important issues. attitudes and actions of the U.S. big business com­ After being maneuvered into a corner by the Soviet munity is no recent development. It has left a trail Union with the help of an outraged world opinion, the of criminal actions a mile wide on every level over u.s., Britain, and France were forced to participate this period. Its anti-human, selfish conduct has been in the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi War Criminals. They single-minded and undeviating. The U.S. ruling class soon saw their mistake and brought them to a premature has planned war crimes, committed them, and then par­ end. They followed this up with an all-out attack on ticipated in their cover-up. It can justly be said the principles established at·Nuremberg. that war crimes have been a way of life for the last And what were these principles? The first prin­ half century for the U.S. big business community. First ciple is that there are such things as "war crimes" for we will take up what constitutes a war crime, then we which the "war criminals" should be punished. Pro­ shall follow the trail of war crimes left by U.S. big fessor Trainin* summarizes the two main groups of war businessmen. crimes that had been established more or less even before Nuremberg, along with some of the Conventions 2. and Treaties that established them. What is a war crime? The U.S. government now The basic presumption of any international thinks that even the term war crime is just a form of communion is the existence of peaceful rela­ communist propaganda, and consequently should not even tions between states. Peace is a very great be discussed. social value, and therefore offences against At Nuremberg, definitions were made and convic­ peace represent the first group, the first tions were obtained for war crimes. This sent a shud­ der through the u.s. ruling class. Consequently, a *The judges at the Nuremberg trials "unanimously voted whole chorus of critics led by U.S. and British pro­ for a motion of thanks to A.N. Trainin ••• for his great fessors in effect made the point that if the Nuremberg contribution." His book, quoted from here, brought principles were allowed to stand, this would inhibit together and provided the principal theoretical basis aggressors in the future from doing what they felt for the trials. (A. Poltarak, The Nuremberg Epilogue, was necessary to facilitate the conquest and domination pp. 157-158)

20 21 species of international crime ••• (There ment and care, without distinction of follows quotes from various Congresses on nationality, on the part of the belligerent this type of international crime. Then under whose authority they may find them­ Trainin introduces material on crimes of selves." "After every battle," said Article the second type--M-LL) 3 of this Convention, "the side occupying the battlefield will take steps to discover In this connection there exist and function the wounded and dead and to protect them from international agreements (the Hague and Geneva looting and ill-treatment." Conventions and others) which represent an Striving to make use of the peaceful popu­ attempt to bridle the elemental force of war, lation in order to ensure appropriate help to direct it into the channel of some restric­ for sick and wounded soldiers, the States tive rules, to lay down provisions ·for the which concluded the Geneva Convention of treatment of the peaceful population, prisoners 1929 laid it down in Article 5: "The Mili­ of war and wounded. tary Command may appeal to the humanity of The Geneva Convention concluded on July 6, the local population in order that, under 1906, binds belligerents to treat sick and its control, the sick and wounded belonging wounded soldiers with humanity. Article 1 of to the armies should be brought in, and that this Convention declares: "Soldiers and they should be cared for: affording particu­ other persons officially attached to armies lar protection and some facilities to the shall be respected and taken care of when persons responding to such an appeal." wounded or sick, by the belligerent in whose The Hague Convention concluded on October power they may be, without distinction of 18, 1907, regulates the attitude of bellig­ nationality." According to Article 3: "After erent countries to prisoners of war and the each engagement the Commander in possession civilian population. Article 6 of the Special of the field shall take measures to search Annex to that Convention, entitled "Regula­ for the wounded and to insure protection tions respecting the Laws and Customs of War against pillage and mal-treatment both for on Land," declares: "The State may utilize the wounded and the dead." the labour of prisoners of war, other than Article 6 of the Geneva Convention pro­ officers, according to their rank and capa­ vided for the protection of hospital insti­ cities. Their tasks shall have nothing to tutions: "Mobile medical units (that is to do with the operations of the war." say, those which are intended to accompany The Hague Convention dwells particularly armies into the field) and the fixed estab­ on regulations for the protection of the lishments of the medical service shall be welfare of peaceful citizens and cultural respected and protected by belligerents." treasures. The Geneva Convention of July 27, 1929, Articles 46 and 47 of the Regulations confirmed and partly developed these pro­ respecting the Laws and Customs of War on visions. Thus, Article 1 of the Convention Land, lay it down: "Family honour and rights, of 1929 lays it down: "Soldiers and others the lives of individuals and private property •.• officially connected with armies, in the must be respected. Private property cannot event of their being wounded or falling sick, be confiscated ••• Pillage is formally prohibited." must enjoy protection and defence in all Article 27 of the same "Regulations" speaks circumstances; they will enjoy humane treat-

22 23 of the protection of public buildings and .cul­ this is true, we will draw on the testimony of an tural treasures: "In sieges and bombardments arch-reactionary, a Nazi. Admiral Canaris, head all necessary steps should be taken to spare of the Nazi's Military Intelligence Service as far as possible buildings devoted to reli­ (Abwehr), became upset when Field Marshal! Keitel gion, art, science, and charity, historic ordered the mass murder of Soviet POWs. He was monuments, hospitals and places where the afraid that the Soviets might retaliate in kind. sick and wounded are collected." Consequently, he wrote to Keitel hoping to dis­ As we see, some barriers, very limited it suade him from this course of action. In this is true, have been raised in the way of un­ note he gives a clear non-legal summary of what trammelled licence in war-time. The infringe­ had come to be accepted as the rights of civil­ ment of these laws and usages of warfare, the ians and POWs. Any violation of these rights con­ transformation of war into organized State stitutes a "war crime". Canaris informed Keitel banditry, constitutes the second group, the that: second species of international crimes, di­ rectly connected with war. since the 18th century the general prin­ In this way it is possible to outline the ciples of international law on the treat­ following system of international crimes: ment of prisoners of war "have gradually The first group is composed of offences been established along the lines that against peaceful relations between the peoples-­ war captivity is neither revenge nor (i) aggressive actions; (ii) propaganda of punishment, but solely protective cus­ aggression; (iii) conclusion of agreements tody, the only purpose of which is to with the object of aggression; (iv) infringe­ prevent the prisoners of war from fur­ ment of treaties serving the cause of peace; ther participation in the war. This (v) provocations with the object of interrupt­ principle was developed in accordance ing peaceful relations between States; (vi) ter­ with the view held by all armies that rorism; (vii) support of armed bands ("Fifth it is contrary to military tradition Columns"). to kill or injure harmless people ••. The second group is composed of offences (Quote taken from A. Poltarak, Nuremberg connected with war--(i) offences against Epilogue, p. 295) prisoners, wounded and sick soldiers; (ii) offences against the life, health, honour Therefore it is generally considered to be a war and property of peaceful citizens; (iii) the crime to deliberately kill, injure, or humiliate an destruction of cities and other inhabited unarmed civilian or POW. Even Admiral Canaris who places; (iv) the destruction and looting of normally had no compunctions about the mass murder of material and cultural values. defenseless people was aware of this. All the officials (A.N. Trainin, Hitlerite Responsibility Under of all nation states are aware of this as well. An­ Criminal Law, pp. 37 and 39-41) other proof of this general knowledge is the following.

Professor Trainin draws mostly on treaties, In 1902 the German General Staff published etc., primarily from the twentieth century. But a Handbook entitled Usages of War in Land these principles had begun to be accepted over a Warfare in which the treatment of war prisoners much longer period. In order to demonstrate that was dealt with as follows: "The sole purpose

24 25 of the taking of prisoners of war is to pre­ vent their further participation in the war. 3. A State can do everything that may prove nec­ essary to detain the prisonerst but nothing more ••• War prisoners may be put to moderate Beginning in 1918-1922 with the failure of the workt appropriate to their position in society. invading forces of the principal capitalist powers Work is a protection against excessest and (including the U.S.) to put down the Bolsheviks in is valuable from the health point of view. the Soviet Union, the U.S. government became involved In any caset it must not be hurtful to the in an unending stream of war crimes. Having failed healtht and must not be of a degrading char­ to destroy the first socialist state, the U.S. govern­ acter. Likewise it must not directly serve ment in conjunction with other capitalist powers, military operations against the country of planned a war of aggression against the Soviet Union. the prisoners ••• Although war prisoners lose their libertyt they do not lose their rights. Before WWI, diplomacy and war centered on In other wordst ·war captivity is no longer an holding colonies already acquired or attempting act of mercy on the part of the conqueror--it to acquire those of others. Now interest in is the right of the disarmed man." coloniest though still there, had become sec­ That was the teaching of the German General ondary. What had become primary for all capi­ Stafft basing itself on the decisions of the talist governments was the problem of how to Hague Convention of 1899. The new Hague Con­ exorcise the spectre of socialism. The con­ vention concluded in 1907 still more under­ tinued existence of the Bolshevik regime repre­ lined the significance of the principles of sented a threat of extinction for the ruling a humane attitude to prisoners and wounded classes (as ruling classes) of these countries. soldiers. How were they to get rid of it? (A.N. Trainin, Hitierite Responsibility Under A general plant informally agreed to by Criminal Lawt pp. 46-47) most of the leading capitalist powerst took shape fairly quickly. It had the virtue of To sum up this section thent it is a war crime solving two problems at once, apparently. The to injuret killt or humiliate a defenseless person, plan was to have those capitalist powers whether a POW or a civilian. It is permissable to do which possessed little or nothing in the way so if civilians are in an area where a battle is being of colonies (the so-called "have-not" powers) fought, and their death or injury is unavoidable. But attack and crush the Soviet regime. The "have­ it is impermissable to deliberately attack or harm not" powers included Germany, Japan, and Italy, defenseless civilians or POWs. Secondly, it is a war while the "have" powers included England, crime to plan a war of aggressiont to propagandize France, and the United States. They would your population to accept and support a war of aggres­ receive direct and indirect assistance from sion, to violate treaties that support peaceful rela­ the "have" powers in the prosecution of their tionst to engage in provocations that could lead to enterprise. And once the "have-nots" had war, etc. crushed the Soviet regime and split up its territory among themselves, they would also have their share of the raw materials of the world in their newly acquired colonies. Con-

28 27 sequently~ they would then stop lusting after soviet Union. Whether it weakened the USSR or not, we the colonial possessions of the "have" powers. do not know, but it did lead to many innocent people ("The Super Powers," Science, Class, and Pol­ being killed, and millions of extra casualties. Con­ itics; Fall, 1978, No. 3, p. 5) sequently this was a very serious war crime. The next major war crime came soon after the U.S. As part of their agreement, the U.S. and Britain entered the war. First Britain, and then the U.S. poured funds into German and Japanese heavy industry decided on a policy of deliberately attacking prac­ in order to build up their military capacity for the tically defenseless German and Japanese civilians. impending aggressive war. (See R. Palme Dutt, World The policy was not to attack the factories particularly, Politics, 1918-1936 and M. Sayers and A. Kahn, The but to attack and bomb the civilian population. If a Great Conspiracy) As we know capitalist rivalries bomb happened to hit a factory, so much the better. split this alliance at the last minute. For example, But that was not the principal purpose of the U.S. and the U.S. was supplying Japan with scrap metal almost British air raids on German and Japanese cities. The up to Pearl Harbor in 1941. The alliance held up with purpose was the mass murder of defenseless civilians, Germany until 1940 when Germany converted the "phoney" the commission of war crimes on a truly mass scale. war into a real one. They weren't going to let the Nazis, with their concen­ Nevertheless, we saw that the U.S. was not only tration camps, etc., get away with all the glory. Mil­ one of the planners and organizers of aggressive war, lions of defenseless civilians were murdered in these but was the principal planner and organizer of Ger­ criminal raids. Since then, the U.S. media has bragged many's attack on the Soviet Union during WWII. Both that the air war (war crime) was one of the principal of these acts were war crimes of the first type. These U.S. contributions towards the winning of WWII. war crimes followed hard on the war crime of aggressive As we know, the U.S. capped off their "contribu­ war waged on the Soviet Union between 1918-1922. tion" to the winning of the war with the creation of In the pursuance of the war crimes of planning a fire storm in Dresden (killing 300,000 defenseless and organizing the attack on the Soviet Union, the U.S. civilians), the fire bombing of Tokyo, and the atomic government (along wlth the U.S. business community) bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. With this track also committed a number of other war crimes of which record (considering the small part it played in WWII), a few are listed below. 1.)It participated in the the U.S. let the world and the Nazis know, that when attack on Spain, along with Germany, Italy, France, it came to the willingness and ability of commit war and Britain. 2.)It cooperated with England, Germany, crimes, the U.S. business community and their govern­ France, and Italy, in the dismantling of the Czecho­ ment were second to none. It is important to notice slovak state. 3.)It, along with the U.S. business and remember that the U.S. had established this reputa­ community, financed Mussolini's takeover in Italy in tion before the end of WWII. For instance, Hansen . 1922, helped finance the Nazi Party in the early days Baldwin, the New York Times military observer, wrote, as well as helping to facilitate its subsequent take­ "The use of the atomic bomb cost us dearly; we are over in 1933. now branded with the mark of the beast." (Quoted in Once the war started, and in a dumb-founding rever­ G. Deborin, Secrets of the Second World War, p. 256) sal of intentions, the U.S. found itself opposed to This deserved reputation acted as an irresistable the Nazis and "allied" with the Soviet Union. Britain attraction to every war criminal of the Axis' side. and the U.S. refused to open a second front for three The last d~s of the war in Europe saw the flight of years. They did this in the hope that the prolonged innumerable war criminals to the U. ·s. and British zones war and increased casualties would lead to a weak of occupation. This led to a whole series of other

28 29 war crimes. The U.S. gave asylum to the overwhelming a man found guilty of murdering 300 people majority. A few (Himmler, Boering, Frank, etc.) had was sentenced to several years imprisonment. to be sacrificed for appearances sake. But by-and­ Account was taken of the period he was kept large, as we shall shortly document, the U.S. success­ in detention, and he left the court a free fully defended these war criminals, and hence, in man and went to his textile mill. effect, participated (i.e., collaborated) in their (Bezymensky, Tracing Martin Bormann, p. 115). war crimes. Among the generals sentenced to life im­ 4. prisonment or to death, the following are at present [ 1959--M-LL) already released from In both the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences, the prison: Field Marshal Kesselring, generals: U.S., Britain, and the USSR agreed "that the war crim­ Mackensen, Henrici, Falkenhorst, and top ech­ inals would be arrested and put before the court of elon SS conunanders: Meyer, Sommer, Loerner and that country where they had committed their crimes." Ehrenschmalz. It is common knowledge that (Sawicki, From Nuremberg to the New Wehrmacht, p. 102) Kesselring had bombed the houses of Warsaw Initially the U.S. was reluctant to fulfil! this in 1939, Henrici was commander of the Wehr­ obligation, and beginning in 1947 the U.S. government macht in Cracow, Falkenhorst was the hang- issued orders to the effect that war criminals would man of Norway. At liberty, in addition to no longer be extradited (Ibid., p. 106). This action, these, are Marshal Milch--Goring's right of course, was a violation of all the international hand in the Luftwaffe, Marshal List who com­ agreements on the subject. Instead, Britain and the mitted many crimes in Greece, General Andreas-­ U.S. organized their own trials for many of the war the hangman of the inhabitants of Crete, SS criminals. Some they found innocent. Some they found General Prince zu Waldeck--Himmler's head of guilty but gave them their freedom after only a very concentration camps, General Falkenhausen-­ short jail term. Some they didn't bring to trial at Governor of Belgium, General Rendulic--the all. Later, the U.S. turned over responsibility for butcher of Yugoslavia, General Ramcke--the trying these war criminals to the West German courts hangman of the residents of Brest in France, which were more often that not presided over by ex- ' Field Marshal von Manstein--the murderer of Nazi judges. Since that development, prosecutions, the population of the Crimea and the Ukraine, convictions, and length of sentences have declined General Gallenkamp, who shot British prisoners even more. Oscar Muller, retired minister and Chair­ of war, SS General Gottlob Berger--chief of man of the Association of Victims of Nazism described Hilnmler's staff and creator of the "European" the resulting situation in these words. Waffen SS detachments. This list is, of course, incomplete. We have calculated that under the present (Sawicki, From Nuremberg to the New Wehrmacht, practice in the Federal Republic of Germany, pp. 111-112) the sentences passed by the courts amount to from one hour to one day of imprisonment per Thus the criminals who had not been extra­ murder. There have been many cases of a dited by the American authorities ••• became defendant leaving the courtroom a free man the first nucleus of the general staff which after the court had passed sentence on him. was later considerably expanded by officers That is what happened recently in Kiel, when released from prison on the basis of amnesty. (Ibid., p. 118) 30 31 Civilian war criminals were treated much the same Italian aristocrats, prelates, and even of­ way. These war criminals, whom the U.S. authorities ficials of the U.S. intelligence service. considered "our type· of people," were used as the prin­ These were reliable people, who had already cipal officials of the newly and illegally created West taken good care of Bormann's family. By this German state and West German military establishment. time, Bormann's eldest son, Adolf Martin, had Many of these war criminals turned up as the principal taken monastic vows and following a "prelim­ officials in NATO. For example, General Heusinger was inary course" in the Federaun Monastery near made head of NATO forces, and General Speidal head of Villach, Austria, was under the patronage of German forces in NATO. Bishop Hudal, head of the Christian Charity It is clear that the U.S. government protected Fund in Rome. As for Bormann's eldest daugh­ Nazi war criminals because they wanted to use them for ter, Ute Eva, she had taken the veil in Santa­ their own criminal purposes. After all, experience Giulia Monastery ••• counts in any occupation. Thus, the U.S. government On the other side of the border he (Bormann by saying, in effect, that war criminals are the most M-LL) was met by Italian friends. They offered valuable collaborators of U.S. policy in Europe and him the safest means for going into hiding-­ Asia openly confessed their own criminal plans. the protection of the Holy Church. The offer The U.S. government also became involved in smug­ was accepted •.. gling war criminals out of Europe and Asia. As the He met Bishop Hudal in Rome in Via della war was ending, the U.S. in collaboration with the Pace. Hudal was the guardian not only of Vatican, the Italian Fascists, and various Nazi organ­ Brother Martin (Adolf Martin Bormann to the izations began a war criminal smuggling operation. laity), but also of another monk Brother Avery, There were a number of such smuggling organizations. John Foster Dulles's son. There was ODESSA (Organization of Persons Belonging to (L. Bezymensky, Tracing Martin Bormann, p. 93) the SS), EP (Edelweis-Piraten), and Spinne, among others. These organizations smuggled war criminals into Brother Avery's uncle, Allen Dulles, was head of Italy, from where they would go on to Spain or South the U.S. intelligence organization in Europe at this America. Many famous and thousands of not-so-famous time. Once in Rome the Church offered Bormann his felons traveled this underground pipeline. Martin choice of where to go. He could go to Spain where Bormann and his family; Adolf Eichmann and his family; Skorzeny and Degrelle were holed-up or he could go to Otto Skorzeny; SS Colonel Leon Degrelle, the butcher South America where Eichmann and Mengele had settled. of Belgium; SS Auschwitz doctor, Josef Mengele; Ausch­ The weight of the evidence is that he chose the latter. witz doctor Dr. Klingerfuss; Vice-Regent of Slovakia, Once in Latin American, most of these war criminals Jan Durcamsky; the designer of a mobile gas chamber, could not have stayed there without the cooper... tion of SS Colonel Waiter Rauff are a few of the more famous the U. S. This much is clear. At that time, wi .:h the war criminals who have made use of these organizations. exception of Mexico, all of LaLin America were nee­ In tracing the probable escape route of Martin Bormann, colonies of the U.S. journalist L. Bezymensky gives an accurate description In Asia the U.S.'s policy concerning war criminals of how the ODESSA organization worked at that time. and war crimes at the end of WWII followed the same path. There were some interesting variations however. One of The ODESSA organization functioned smoothly. them is the following. The Japanese government put a No wonder--in addition to former SS high-rank­ lot of effort into developing biological warfare. Gen­ ing officials its members included influential eral Ishii Shiro, a long-time advocate of biological

32 33 warfare, was put in charge of the research. General Shiro used human beings as guinea pigs, murdering over 5. 3000 people in the process. The Japanese used biolog­ By defending and protecting war criminals, the ical warfare against the Chinese and planned to use it against the Allies in the latter stages of the u.s. government showed that it wanted the freedom to commit war crimes in the future. But evidently, it war. The Soviet Union's lightning crushing of Japan's Kwantung Army frustrated these plans. The U.S. govern­ felt this was insufficient. There was the Nuremberg ment rushed forward and gave General Ishii Shiro and trials which confirmed the earlier principles estab­ as many of his cohorts as could make it to U.S. juris­ lishing and expanding the culpability of war criminals. diction protection from war criminal prosecution. In This expansion primarily applied to war criminals com­ exchange, the Japanese were to turn over the results mitting the first type (listed above) of war crimes-­ the planning of aggressive wars, the launching of of their biological warfare "so that America could aggressive wars, the propaganda of aggression, the make use of the results from the gruesome tests. 11 infringement of treaties serving the cause of peace (Sacramenta Bee, 11/1/81) The U.S. immediately launched (e.g., the Yalta and Potsdam agreements), etc. into further research in biological warfare at Fort These precedents were intolerable for a government Dietrich with the obvious intention of committing this such as the U.S. whose goals were to be achieved type of war crime in the future. This intention was by aggression and other types of war crimes. Another obvious from the means used to obtain the results of type of legal precedent had to be set. The U.S. the Japanese research. Of course, we have the advan­ government, therefore, decided to engineer such a tage of hindsight. We will point out later several precedent. And since the U.S. government was staging instances of when the U.S. committed this particular trials of Nazi war criminals so they could prevent type of war crime. their punishment, why not use those so-called "trials" The Soviet Union, being against war crimes, to set legal precedents that were the exact opposite brought to trial all the Japanese biological war crim­ of Nuremberg's? A trial of 12 German Generals was inals they could lay their hands on. The results of taken for establishing the "new precedents". this trial, describing the activities of the infamous General Ishii Shiro, are contained in the book Mater­ On February 19, 1948, Tribunal V--with ials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Judge C.H. Wennerstrum of the Supreme Court Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Bacteri­ of the State of Iowa presiding and with Judge ological Weapons . E. Carter of Nebraska and G. Burke of Michigan The U.S. military also recruited SS and Gestapo also participating--brought a decision in the specialists to teach appropriate members of the U.S. case involving Field Marshal Wilhelm List military their advanced techniques of torture. From and another 11 generals accused of having this date, torture became a regular part of U.S. mili­ committed war crimes and crimes against man­ tary operations. Remember some of those exciting kind. scenes on T.V. during the Vietnamese war showing U.S. Of the accused, Wilhelm List was in direct or U.S. puppet troops throwing POWs from helicopters, applying the water torture to civilians, or throwing command of the invasion of Yugoslavia and lye on POWs or civilians in "tiger cages"? Greece, Field Marshal Maximilian von Weichs commanded the occupation troops in those countries, General Lothar Rendulic directed the retreat of the 20th German Army from Finland through the northern zone of Norway

36 37 where he completely destroyed the province .•• in the eyes of the enemy they (partisans-­ of Finnmark. The defendent Ernst Dehner M-LL) remain criminals and may be treated as stood at the head of a military group fighting such. An occupation army has no other way to the partisans in Croatia, the accused Ernst defend itself. von Leyser commanded the German division in .•• The court declared further that though Albanip. The defendants were also active in the war launched by the Germans against Y~go­ other countries of Eastern Europe. The slavia and Greece violates international overwhelming majority of their criminal acts treaties and is of a criminal character, this were, however, committed in the Balkan coun­ does not yet mean that each act committed by tries, which is the reason why this case was the German occupying authorities in regard commonly referred to as the "Balkan Case" to the people and the property of occupied or the "South-eastern Case." Since the countries constitutes a crime, that each act charges to a great extent concerned the by which the population opposed the occupying illegal shooting of hostages, it is also power, should be accepted as a legally permis­ called the "Hostages Case." The indictment sible inevitable defensive measure. That is against the generals contained three main why, in the opinion of the court, whatever charges: the reason for the outbreak of war and ir­ a) that they tortured and shot Greek and respective of the fact whether it may be con­ Yugoslav partisans instead of treating them sidered as justified or not, the defeated as war prisoners, nation has to observe the severest regula­ b) that they took hostages on a mass scale tions introduced .!?z the occupying power." from among the civilian population in the (emphasis ours--M-LL~ Balkan countries and shot them, Hostages. During World War I even German c) that impermissible reprisals were used scholars questioned the right to shoot hos­ in regard to the peaceful population of oc­ tages. The American tribual, however, was cupied territories. of the opinion that, on the basis . of the The judges, bringing in a decision in present state of international law, each their own court, resolved to change the occupying power is entitled, in order to recently laid down legal principles in favour defend its interests, to take hostages and of future aggressors. In theory, their judg­ in case the conditions for the fulfilment ment meant the acceptance ·of all the conse­ of which hostages were taken, are not sat­ quences resulting from aggression. The Amer­ isfied, to shoot them; that it is the duty ican military .tribunal was undoubtedly aware of the occupying power to maintain peace of the path it had chosen, that is to say, and order in occupied territories ••• the capitulation of law to the forces inter­ Should circumstances point to the fact that ested in aggression •.. the inhabitants of a certain settlement Partisans. The American military tribunal actively or passively participate in hostile states that a "partisan" who in the course of steps directed against the occupant, nothing battle against an occupying power does not can prevent him from "taking hostages." The openly carry arms as well as insignia where­ occupant is also entitled--according to the by he could be recognized from afar, should opinion of the American tribunal--to shoot be treated as an ordinary spy .•• them, even if they are personally innocent.

38 39 Efforts should, however, be made to take to aggressors and aggressive wars, but in particular only such hostages to be shot that do not to aggression against colonies and neo-colonies. Since live too far ·from the settlement where the wars of national liberation against highly industri­ act against the occupant actually took place alized capitalist states depend primarily on guerilla and that these should be people "of a na­ (partisan) warfare, these decisions state that it is tionality close to that of the occupied pop­ permissible (nay, obligatory) to commit any war crime ulation." ••. (as defined at Nuremberg) to suppress it. The only Reprisal. Reprisals are the answer to a crime the U.S. court recognizes is the resistance of violation of law on the part of the enemy. A colonial populations to foreign domination. Again, reprisal is permitted if it does not surpass the U.S. business community's post-WWII intentions the dimensions of the act which the occupant were visible--namely a whole series of wars of counter­ wants to avenge. According to the interpreta­ insurgency to hold on to and expand its colonies. tion of the law by the Tribunal it is also permitted to arrest innocent people and to 6. kill them as an act of retaliation for a previous violation of the regulations passed Having set the stage, legally, the U.S. government by the occupying power, even if it was com­ was off and running on a whole series of war crimes. . mitted by other people. Though the killing Just a few of the more spectacular and well-known ones of an innocent person for the act of another will be mentioned. The first was to violate the Yalta is something repulsive from the moral point and Potsdam agreements again and combine the U.S., of view, the Tribunal nevertheless is of British and French zones of occupation illegally in the opinion that nothing can be done in this order to create the West Ger~an state. The reason for case •.• this was to create an aggressive militarist ally for In such a way the Polish people learned future U.S. aggressions against the socialist states. from the decision of the American court that Once these governments did this, they had no legal the Polish judge illegally sentenced to death right to have a presence in Berlin. When the Soviet police chief Daume who, for one killed C~r­ Union rightly demanded that they leave, the U.S. man, ordered more than a hundred people to threatened to nuclear bomb a number of Soviet cities. be shot in Wawer. On the other hand Daume, (Daniel Ellsberg, Protest and Survive, ed. by E.P. on the basis of inte rnational law, was en­ Thompson, p. v) And since the U.S. had a long record titled to shoot the Poles! Thus, not only of committing war crimes including the use of the atom­ did the Polish court act illegally, but ic bomb, the Soviet Union could only assume that the also the International Commission in London U.S. would commit this war crime as well. The U.S. which considered Daume a war criminal, stating then used their base inside East Germany to infiltrate that he should be extradited to Poland. the area with spies and saboteurs, as well as engaging (Sawicki, From Nuremberg to the New Wehrmacht, · in all sorts of provocations calculated to endanger pp. 176-181)" the peace and destabilize the East German regime. These activities are all defined as war crimes. These decisions in the areas covered represented When in 1950 the U.S. saw that its control of a complete rejection of all principles developed over. South Korea was coming to an end, it and its puppet the past two centuries to control international crim­ regime in South Korea launched an attack on North Korea. inal activity of the part of the military of nation This criminal aggression was planned for a long time. states. These decisions not only gave the green light 40 41 (See I.F. Stone, The Hidden History of the Korean War) into two categories, the killing of the in­ Even though this war of aggression was launched only habitants of a locality, and the killing of three years after Nuremberg, the U.S. government made refugees. use of a greater variety of war crimes than the world As to the former, it was established that had ever seen in one war before. The Nazis had been on entering a locality the American troops put in the shade. First there was the bombing of either alone or using for their purpose Syng­ defenseless civilians. Almost every building in North man Rhee auxiliaries or also using Japanese Korea was leveled. The war crimes became so extensive agents rounded up the families of all men that North Korea asked for an unbiased (not controlled serving in the Korean People's Army or of by the U.S.) committee be formed to investigate and men who worked in state enterprises or report on the situation there. The International As­ government, or who were active in the Workers' sociation of Democratic Lawyers, whose headquarters Party or leading movement of women's league. is in Brussels, Belgium agreed to undertake the task. In many cases this meant in practice ~he Several excerpts from their report follows. seizure of all families in which no young men were present. In nearly every case those In this section of the report, the Commis­ seized included men, women and children of sion has confined itself to a statement of all ages. In some cases all the civilian in­ those facts which were proved by direct evi­ habitants of a locality were seized. In ad­ dence which in the opinion of the Commission dition, in many villages, peasants and their was corroborated and established beyond doubt. families were taken when they refused to hand A considerable volume of written statements over grain and livestock without any requis­ was submitted to the Commission, which have itioning authority being produced, and without been taken into account only by way of cor­ any receipt being rendered or compensation roboration of facts proved by primary evidence. offered. We were invited to investigate many similar While the group killings continued in each cases to those stated above in various parts area throughout the period of occupation, it of the country, and it was time alone that would appear that the greatest number of prevented this from being done. those killed were exterminated, either with~n The members of the Commission were espec­ the first few days of the occupation, or im­ ially concerned to be satisfied in each case mediately before withdrawal from the area. that the victims were indisputably civilians, In every town visited, it was clear that the and entitled to be treated as such; that they occupation troops had on the day before, or were given no trial, or even advised of any on the day of retreat, taken the people in offence against the occupying power. detention for whatever cause and deliberately The circumstances surrounding the detention exterminated them. or mass murder of people reveal certain com­ As to the killing of refugees, this falls mon features at all the major places which into two periods:-- the Commission visited, and cannot, therefore, (a) When the American troops were advan­ in the opinion of the Commission, be treated cing northwards in September and October 1950, simply as cases of excesses committed by large numbers of refugees fleeing northwards individual soldiers or units. were cut off by the advancing ·troops partic­ The wholesale killings fall substantially uarly in the areas of Sinchon and Anak. These

42 43 refugees were clearly distinguishable as less civilians. The use of torture was systematic and refugees (whole families including women and obviously a matter of policy. It was also obviously children. The men wearing the traditional policy to circulate flyers threatening to use the atomic Korean white clothes, and the women long bomb in order to panic the population into fleeing. skirts in color) who were not at the time Then the air force would bomb and machine gun them intermingled with troops of the Korean People's when they became concentrated on the roads. The U.S. Army. It was these groups which were sys­ government lied in order to save labor in its campaign tematically exterminated as related above. of terror through the mass murder of defenseless civ­ (b) When the American troops retreated ilians. in November-December 1950, it is established The Commission's conclusion is business-like, that large numbers of the inhabitants of the thorgugh, and unemotional. major cities were induced by leaflets and threats to believe that the atom bomb would CONCLUSIONS be dropped and that they should move south with the American troops. These refugees The Commission has given very careful con­ were deliberately exterminated in their thou­ sideration to the facts disclosed in this sands by American forces. Report, to which it has applied the principles The tortures and bestialities committed of international law universally accepted by against individuals again reveal a common civilised states. pattern of behavior throughout the area vis­ It is not the function of this Commission ited, and cannot be passed over as the sad­ to pass a final judgment. It is not a Tri­ istic excesses of individuals. bunal that is competent to do so. Its duty The whole series of cases cited in this is limited to an investigation of the facts, chapter of the report must not be taken as and to indicate the offences against inter­ the whole evidence of cases committed but as national law which, in its opinion, these typical of a vast number of similar cases facts disclose. If there be a defence to brought to the attention of the Commission the crimes this Report discloses, that defence for examination. The torturing of people by must be heard by an appropriate international beating, kicking, electric shocks, pouring Tribunal before final judgment can be passed. water in the nose and throat to excess, cut­ On this footing the Commission reaches the ting off various parts of the body, mutila­ following conclusions:-- tion and the killing by shooting, bayoneting, 1. By the deliberate dispersion of flies suffocation, blowing up, burning alive and and other insects artifically infected with burying alive could be repeated again and bacteria against the Korean People's Army and again in sickening detail. among the civilian population of North Korea, The Commission draws conclusions from with the intention of spreading death and these established facts which are set disease, a most grave and horrible crime has out later. been perpetrated by U.S. forces in Korea, (Facts Tell, pp. 227-8) contrary to the provisions of the Hague Con­ vention concerning the laws and customs of This. section of the report describes the commis­ war on land of 1907, and to the universally sion of the war crimes of torture and murder of defense- accepted law prohibiting bacteriological war-

44 45 fare which was re-stated 1n the Geneva Protocol 7. By the deliberate destruction by fire of 1925. and explosive of public buildings of a civil 2. By the use of poison gas bombs, and or non-military character when such destruc­ other chemical substances among the civilian tion was not imperatively demanded by the exi­ population of North Korea, the U.S. forces gencies of war, the American forces are in are guilty of a planned and deliberate breach breach of the Hague Regulations and in partic­ of the Hague Regulations of 1907, Article 23 uar of Articles SS and 56. (a) and (e) and of the Geneva Protocol of 1925. 8. By the confiscation without requisitioning 3. By the murder en masse of civilians or authority, and without compensation or receipt, of individuals without charge, without trial, or by the deliberate destruction of foodstuffs including many women and children throughout and the private property of civilians, not the areas occupied by them the United States necessary for the maintenance of the occupying forces and Syngman Rhee soldiers under their forces, the American troops have again broken command have acted in defiance of the express the Hague Regulations and in particular Articles provisions of the Hague Regulations of 1907 46 and 52. (Art. 46) imposing a duty on the o~cupying 9. By the murder of prisoners of war, Amer­ power to protect the lives of inhabitants. ican troops have been guilty of a breach of 4. By the wrongful seizure and imprison­ the Conventions of 1929 and 1949 concerning ment, ill-treatment and tortures of the civ­ the treatment of Prisoners of War. ilian inhabitants in the areas occupied, the 10. By the pillage of historic works of U.S. forces and Syngman Rhee soldiers under art, and of private property, the American their command have again broken the express forces have been guilty of offences against provisions of the Hague Regulations of 1907. Hague Regulations (Art. 47). 5. By the bombardment of undefended towns In the opinion of the Commission all the and villages far from the front and the above constitute war crimes as defined by indiscriminate destruction from the air of Article 6 of the Charter of the International non-military objectives, the American forces Military Tribunal of Nuremberg. have again acted in defiance of the accepted Having regard to the extent and character laws and customs of war, and in particular of the crimes revealed, the Commission is of in breach of the Hague Regulations. the opinion that the American forces in Korea 6. By the destruction of protected buildings, have been guilty of crimes against humanity such as buildings dedicated to public worship, as defined by the Nuremberg Charter, as art, science, historic monuments and hospitals, follows:-- in some cases in the indiscriminate bombard­ 1. By the wholesale destruction or exter­ ment of undefended towns and villages, and in mination of sections of the civilian inhab­ others by deliberate attack on these protected itants, and in particular of refugees without buildings, when they were being used solely any attempt to bring any to trial for any of­ for the purpose for which they were intended, fence, and by the terroristic methods adopted and where necessary, marked with appropriate against whole sections of the Korean people, signs. The American forces have again broken and since 28th January 1952 by the use on a the Hague Regulations of 1907 and in particu­ large scale of the bacteriological weapons lar Article 27. against civilians;

46 47 2. By the destruction or attempted destruc­ terrible facts established in this Report. We tion of the way of life of the people of Horth therefore solemnly pledge our honour as law­ Korea, by the destruction of its schools, uni­ yers and as ordinary men and women to the versity, museums, its historic monuments and truth of the facts disclosed. We have come cultural objects, by the destruction of the from different countries, we do not share a organs of government and the murder of its common religion, a common political outlook, officials. or even a c.onnnon tongue. We have endeavoured Taking the view that the extensive murders to perform our task conscientiously and with are not the result of individual excesses, full regard to our responsibilities as lawyers. but indicate a pattern of behavior by the U.S. This Report, the result of our labours, forces throughout the areas occupied by them, is unanimous. and taking into account that the employment We believe that those who read it will of bacteriological and chemical weapons over share our horror and detestation of the crimes extensive areas of the country must constitute and criminals. an attempt to destroy a whole people or part We ourselves are determined that the rule of a people, the Commission is of the opinion of law shall be upheld in the world, that no that the American forces are guilty of the state, individual, however mighty, shall es­ crime of Genocide as defined by the Genocide cape the consequences of their crtme. Convention of 1948. (Facts 1ell, pp. 239-242) In light of these conclusicns, the Commis­ sion must name those who should be brought to This report is reprinted in its entirety in Science, the bar of world justice to answer for these Class, and Politics, No. 15; Fall 1981. crimes. The Commission has no hesitation in Concerning the use of biological weapons during saying that many of these crimes could not the Korean War, an interesting coincidence occurred. have been committed without the fullest know­ Just as the U.S. military was preparing to launch their ledge of and planning by the leaders of the biological weapons attack, who should show up in South government of the U.S.A. and of the High Com­ Korea but our old acquaintance, the biological war mand of the U.S. Forces. It therefore indicts criminal, General Ishii Shiro. these people and all officers commanding in the field who are responsible for these crimes Reuter reported that a certain General Shiro together with all individual soldiers who ac­ Ishii arrived in South Korea at the end of cepted and carried out orders contrary to December 1951. international law. The American germ warfare bombs consisted With these conclusions we have completed of various insects carrying different types the task that was imposed upon us by the Inter­ of bacteria like cholera and bubonic plague. national Association of Democratic Lawyers. Anthrax was carried by infested tarantula We feel bound to say that our experiences spiders and fowl mites were used for spread­ in Korea, in the conduct of our investigation ing encephalitis. have filled us with horror and dismay at the The container was usually a refinement savagery revealed. We know that there are of the Ishii porcelain bomb. Called the many, who, like some of ourselves before our "eggshell" bomb, and about the size of a journey, will find it difficult to accept the small football, it consisted of a porous

48 49 shell, allowing the infected carriers to When the U.S. government chose to respond to the breathe, brittle enough to shatter into a findings_ of this Tribunal, its answer was revealing of thousand fragments on impact ••• its attitude. It just lied brazenly to an organization ••. only 2 world powers had refused to that it knew would realize it was lying. Thus it ratify the 1925 Geneva Protocols outlawing showed its contempt for the Tribunal as well as itself. germ warfare--Japan and the USA. (The Worker, published by Communist Party At this reference to conventional inter­ of Britain (M-L), April 22, 1982) national law the State Department objected (April 5, 1965) that "the United States Sen­ Having horrified the world by its criminal exper­ ate never ratified the Geneva Protocol of tise and dedication, the U.S. government emphasized its 1925" and that thus "the United States of unprincipled, contemptible character by bragging loudly America is not bound by this protocol." about its honorable behavior and concern for human wel­ The International War Crimes Tribunal did fare. It even had the temerity to suggest that maybe not consider this response significant because the U.S. POWs were not treated as well as they might the principles of immunity of the civilian have been. To the hardened criminal, hypocracy and population, the prohibition of the use of sanctimoniousness are two of the principle virtues. poison, and the prohibition of weapons adapted Blifil (of Tom Jones) is the role model of all U.S. to cause useless suffering are rules of com­ politicians and substantial businessmen. mon law mentioned in the Hague Conventions The next orgy of war crimes indulged in by the of 1907 to which the United States is a sig­ U.S. government occurred in Indochina. Since this natory and are taken up in war manuals in­ war was relatively recent, people are more familiar cluding the 1956 American manual "The Law of with some of the crimes committed there. Once again, Land Warfare." · the defenseless civilian population became the prin­ (Sartre, On Genocide, p. 27) cipal object of the U.S. airforce and its aerial bomb­ ing. Besides purposely bombing civilian housing, hos­ pitals, schools, old people's homes, etc., it shot farm The horrors of Vietnam could be presented at animals, destroyed irrigation works and dams, used length. But the reader should have the idea by now. poison gas purposefully against civilians, etc. All The U.S. business community views mass murder and of those acts are obviously considered serious war other types of war crimes merely as tools of personnel crimes. In fact, the U.S.'s military activities in management and public relations. In dealing with any Indochina were just one long series of war crimes. opponent, whether capitalist or socialist, or with a This was all documented by the Bertrand Russell War liberation movement in a neo-colony, the threat or the Crimes Tribunal. (A handy summary of the findings of active commission of a massacre of a selected portion this Tribunal is contained in Jean-Paul Sartre, On of the population can convey convincingly the media Genocide.) The torture of civilians and prisoners of message. And that message is: submit or face annihila­ war by U.S. or U.S.-supported military forces was pre­ tion. Evidently it is felt that the more horrible and sented daily on T.V. during the Indochina war (e.g., indiscriminate the massacre, the more effective the POWs thrown out of helicopters, etc.). All of this message. The use of this tool by the U.S. government helped to condition and corrupt a large part of the has been ipcreasingly imbedded in tradition and honored population and hence give the ruling businessmen a respectability. It is resorted to now almost without freer hand to develop and execute their criminal plans. thought. War crimes have become institutionalized.

50 51 So we have arrived at our present predicament. abandon this longtime policy, which, despite state­ The U.S. government and military take it for ~ranted ments to the contrary made from time-to-time, the that they will use nuclear weapons, the ultimate in u.s. has always adhered to? These four ex-officials war crimes, whenever they find it convenient. As we supported this old policy at a time when it was equally have already seen, their whole basic military and dip­ dangerous. Further, all these people were famous for lomatic policy is based on their use. Naturally! What being hard-liners. Why the change in position? It is else could be expected given this background. General possible that what they really object to is the·osten­ Eisenhower's attitude to the use of atomic weapons, has tatious way the administration is waving the bomb and been the dominant one since nuclear weapons were in­ threatening first-strike. This activity is obviously vented. stirring up increased opposition on the part of the population. Maybe what they are really advocating is To my mind the use of the atomic bomb the more covert pursuit of the old policy. So it is would be on this basis. Does it advantage hard to tell from our vantage point the dominant senti­ me or does it not, when I get into a war? ment among the rulin~ class. ••• If I thought the net was on my side, I But because of the seriousness of the situation would use it instantly. we have to assume that the maniacs are in control. (Quoted in Wells, Pragmatism, p. 13) They certainly appear to be. This is the impression they appear to want to create. So given this background, it is up to us to con­ What tactics are available? There are the old vince these war criminals and homicidal maniacs that standbys of signing petitions, writing your congress­ using nuclear weapons does not "advantage" them. men, and of demonstrations. These have been almost totally ineffective in the past. Maybe if they were much larger in scale, they might have some effect. But knowing the character of such ruling classes, this Conclusion is very unlikely. The probable outcome of such tactics would be concessions that looked good but would amount Given all the information outlined above, how to very little, plus a great increase in deception and does one go about convincing these people (sic?) not covert activity. But in order to get mass support for to use or retain nuclear weapons? In general given more radical actions, it may be necessary to go through the extreme seriousness of the problem, the answer these preliminary steps :i.f people are to see that lib­ has to be--by any means necessary (excluding, of course, eral actions will not produce the necessary results. such senseless tactics as individual terrorism, assas­ It is the duty of Marxist-Leninists to point out why sination, etc.). But what about the specifics? This these tactics won't work and to point toward tactics depends to a great extent on what the nature of the that will. ruling class in the U.S. is like. Are they unified Since .it is clear that no one else will or can do behind this suicidal policy? Apparently not. How it, it is essential for the u.s. working class to pre­ great and determined is this opposition? We don't know. vent the U.S. capitalist ruling class from attempting For example, we have the article that appeared in to start a nuclear war. The only long run solution, the Sacramenta Bee (already referred to) by four of of course, is throwing the U.S. ruling class out of the most prestigious representatives of the ruling power and the wage and salary earners, a basically class, opposing the current U.S. policy of nuclear humane and rational class, seizing control of the first-strike. Are they really serious in wanting to government. Until that day comes, it must be made

52 53 clear to the U.S. ruling class and its cronies in the government and the military that if a nuclear war starts (i.e., even if only one or a few tactical nu­ References clear weapons are used), the workers will hunt them down no matter where they hide, and give these mass Aptheker, Herbert, American Foreign Policy and the Cold murderers what they deserve. These homicidal maniacs War, (New York, New Century Publishers), 1962. must be stopped and eventually deposed before they kill us all. • Bernstein, Victor, Final Judgment, (New York, Boni & Gaer), 1947.

Bezymensky, L., Tracing Martin Bormann, (Moscow, Progress Publishers), 1966.

Cherednichenko, V., Collaborationists, (Kiev, Politvidav Ukraini), 1975.

Deborin, G., The Second World War, (Moscow, Progress Publishers), 1963.

Deborin, G., Secrets of the Second World War, (Moscow, Progress Publishersr:-1971. ---

Facts Tell, (Pyongyang, FOreign Languages Publishing House), 1960.

Fleming, D.F., The Cold War and Its Origins, (New York, Doubleday), 1961, 2 volumes.

Greene, Felix, The Enemy, (New York, Random Hou~e), 1970.

Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the Japanese--- Army Charged with Manufacturing---- and Employing Bacteriological Weapons, . (Moscow, Foreign Languages Publishing House), 1950.

Morray, J.P., From Yalta to Disarmament, (New York, Monthly Review Press~ 1961.

~People's Verdict: ! Full Report~ the Krasnodav and Kharkov German Atrocity Trials, (London, Hutchinson & Co. Ltd.), 1944.

54 55 Political Affairs, Feb. 1982.

Poltorak, A., The Nuremberg Epilogue, (Moscow, Progress Publishers), 1971.

Poltorak, A., and Zaitsev, Y., Remember Nuremberg, (Moscow, Foreign Languages Publishing House), 1961.

Sayers, M., and Kahn, A., The Great Conspiracy, (Boston, Little, Brown & Co.), 1946.

Sawicki, George, From Nuremberg to the New Wehrmacht, (Warsaw, Polonia Publishing House), 1957.

Trainin, A.N., Hitlerite Responsibility Under Criminal Law, (London, Hutchinson & Co. Ltd.), 1945.

Volynsky, Leonid, Seven Days, (Moscow, Progress Pub­ lishers), 1979.

The Worker (Published by the Communist Party of Britain (M-L)).

56