Notes

Introduction

1. Edward Said, Orientalism (: Penguin, 1978, 2003). 2. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992). 3. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (London: Penguin, 2001). 4. Elazar Barkan, ‘Post-Anti-Colonial Histories: Representing the Other in Imperial Britain’, Journal of British Studies, 33 (1994), 180–203. 5. Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies (London: Allen Lane, 2006), 286–288. 6. Ibn Warraq, Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said’s Orientalism (New York: Prometheus Books, 2007), 54. 7. See Martin Brauen, Traumwelt : Westliche Trugbilder (Bern: Paul Haupt, 2000), 30. 8. Herodotus, Histories (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), 3.102–3.105. 9. See G. Gispert-Sauch, ‘Desideri and Tibet’, The Tibet Journal, XV:2 (1990), 29–39; G.W. Houston, ‘Jesus and His Missionaries on Tibet’, The Tibet Journal,XVI:4 (1991), 8–27. For one of the most famous compendia resulting from this work, see Athanasius Kircher, monumentis: quà sacris quà profanis, nec non variis naturæ & artis spectaculis, aliarumque rerum memorabilium argumentis illustrata (Amstelodami: Apud Joannem Janssonium à Waesberge & Elizeum Weyerstraet, 1667) – although Kircher had not been to Tibet himself. 10. Brauen, Traumwelt Tibet, 17. 11. Kate Teltscher, The High Road to China: , the Panchen and the First British Expedition to Tibet (London: Bloomsbury, 2006); Gordon T. Stewart, Journeys to Empire: Enlightenment, Imperialism, and the British Encounter with Tibet, 1774–1904 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Kate Teltscher, ‘Writ- ing Home and Crossing Cultures: George Bogle in Bengal and Tibet, 1770–1775’, in Kathleen Wilson (ed.), A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernity in Britain and the Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 281–296. 12. While it may seem a straightforward task, the exact course of some of these rivers was not known until the second half of the twentieth century. A particularly difficult question was whether the Tsangpo turned into the Brahmaputra when traversing the . See Timothy Severin, The Oriental Adventure: Explorers of the East (London: Angus & Robertson, 1976) or Charles Allen, A Mountain in Tibet: The Search for Mount Kailas and the Sources of the Great Rivers of (London: Futura, 1982). 13. John Bray, ‘Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Missionary Images of Tibet’, in Thierry Dodin and Heinz Räther (eds.), Imagining Tibet: Perceptions, Projections, and Fantasies (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2001), 21–45. 14. Evariste Regis Huc, Recollections of a Journey Through Tartary, Thibet, and China, During the Years 1844, 1845, and 1846, trans. Mrs Percy Sinnett (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1852).

204 Notes 205

15. Frank Seeliger, “Einer prügelt uns und der andere bringt uns Religion ...” Fremdheitserfahrungen im West-Himalaya-Gebiet aus Sicht der Herrnhuter Missionare (Herrnhut: Herrnhuter Verlag, 2003); Gabriel Finkelstein, ‘Conquerors of the Künlün? The Schlagintweit Mission to High Asia, 1854–57’, History of Science, 2:120 (2000), 179–218. 16. See for instance Hagen Schulze, The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck, 1763–1867 (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1991); Jonathan Sperber, The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 17. Hermann & Adolphe Schlagintweit, Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia: Undertaken Between the Years MDCCCLIV and MDCCCLVIII, by Order of the Court of Directors of the Honorable East India Company, 4 vols. (Leipzig & London: Brockhaus, 1861–1866); Carl Friedrich Koeppen, Die lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche (: Ferdinand Schneider, 1859); Henry Savage Landor, In the Forbidden Land, 2 vols. (Long Riders Guild Press, n.d., originally published in 1898); Isabella Bird Bishop, Among the Tibetans (London: Religious Tract Society, 1894); Heinrich August Jäschke, Handwörterbuch der tibetischen Sprache (Gnadau: Unitätsbuchhandlung, 1871). 18. Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Collected Writings. The Secret Doctrine, 3 vols. (Aydar: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1978). 19. Maurice Isserman and Stewart Weaver, Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008), 45–50. 20. , Bayonets to : The First Full Account of the British Invasion of Tibet in 1904 (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1961); Parshotam Mehra, The Younghusband Expedition: An Interpretation (London: Asia Publishing House, 1968); , Younghusband: The Last Great Imperial Adventurer (London: Flamingo, 1995). 21. Melvyn C. Goldstein, A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951 (Berkeley & London: University of California Press, 1989), 816–821; Heather Spence, ‘Tsarong II, the Hero of Chaksam, and the Modernization Struggle in Tibet, 1912–1931’, The Tibet Journal, XVI:1 (1991), 34–57. 22. A. Tom Grunfeld, The Making of Modern Tibet, rev. ed. (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), 72. 23. Reuben Ellis, Vertical Margins: Mountaineering and the Landscapes of Neoimperialism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001). 24. See Alex McKay, Tibet and the : The Frontier Cadre, 1904–1947 (Richmond: Curzon, 1997). 25. See for instance British Library Oriental and India Office Collection (OIOC), IOR/L/P&S/12/4240, IOR/L/P&S/12/4263, IOR/L/P&S/12/4271, IOR/L/P&S/12/ 4290, IOR/L/P&S/12/4332, IOR/L/P&S/12/4341 for a few examples of applications to enter Tibet being considered by the India Office. 26. Ramjee P. Parajulee, The Democratic Transition in (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 10. 27. Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947 (London: Pimlico, 1999), 261. 28. Karl Maria Herrligkofer, Nanga Parbat 1953 (München: J.F. Lehmann’s Verlag, 1953). 29. M.P. Ward and P.K. Clark, ‘Everest, 1951: Cartographic and Photographic Evidence ofaNewRoutefromNepal’,The Geographical Journal, 158:1 (1992), 47–56; John 206 Notes

Hunt and Edmund Hillary, ‘The Ascent of ’, The Geographical Jour- nal, 119:4 (1953), 384–399; John Hunt, The Ascent of Everest (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1993). 30. Ardito Desio, Ascent of K2, Second Highest Peak in the World, trans. David Moore (London: Elek Books, 1955). 31. Peter Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (London: Athlone Press, 1989), 240. 32. Ibid., 245. 33. Felix Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), 4. 34. Steve J. Stern, Peru’s Indian Peoples and the Challenge of the Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Madison & London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982). 35. David Motadel, ‘State Visits of Persian Shahs to , 1873–1905’, MPhil thesis, University of Cambridge (2006). 36. See for instance G.W. Baer, The Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967). 37. John Buchan, Prester John (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Igor de Rachewiltz, Prester John and Europe’s Discovery of East Asia (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1972); Ulrich Knefelkamp, Die Suche nach dem Reich des Priesterkönigs Johannes: dargestellt anhand von Reiseberichten und anderen ethno- graphischen Quellen des 12. bis 17. Jahrhunderts (Gelsenkirchen: Verlag Andreas Müller, 1986), 69–85. 38. See for instance Ekai Kawaguchi, Three Years in Tibet (Agyar: Theosophical Publish- ing Society, 1909); , Adventures in Tibet (London, 1904); Sven Hedin, and Tibet: Towards the Holy City of Lassa (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1903); Alexandra David-Néel, My Journey to Lhasa: The Personal Story of the Only White Woman Who Succeeded in Entering the Forbidden City (London: William Heinemann, 1927). 39. See the five volumes of Wm Roger Louis (ed.), Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998–2001) – Vol. 1: The Origins of Empire, Nicholas P. Cannie and Alaine M. Low (ed.); Vol. 2: The Eighteenth Century, Peter James Marshall and Alaine M. Low (ed.); Vol. 3: The Nineteenth Century, Andrew Porter and Alaine M. Low; Vol. 4: The Twentieth Century, Judith Brown, William Roger Louis and Alaine M. Low (ed.); Vol. 5: Historiography, ed. Robin W. Winks and Alaine M. Low (ed.), P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914 (London: Longman, 1993); J.A. Hobson, Imperialism: AStudy(London: James Nisbet, 1902). 40. John Gallagher, The Decline, Revival and Fall of the British Empire, Anil Seal (ed.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore: A History of the Transportation of Convicts to Australia, 1787–1868 (London: Collins Harvill, 1986). 41. Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus (Köln & Berlin: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1969); Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, ‘Domestic Origins of Germany’s Colonial Expansion under Bismarck’, Past & Present, 42 (1969), 140–159. 42. Eric Ames, Marcia Klotz and Lora Wildenthal (eds.), Germany’s Colonial Pasts (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 2005); Susanne Zantop, Kolonialphantasien im vorkolonialen Deutschland (1770–1870) (Berlin: E. Schmidt, 1999); Jürgen Zimmerer, Deutsche Herrschaft über Afrikaner: staatlicher Machtanspruch und Wirklichkeit im kolonialen Namibia, 3rd ed. (Münster: Lit, Notes 207

2004); Birthe Kundrus, Moderne Imperialisten: das Kaiserreich im Spiegel seiner Kolonien (Köln: Böhlau, 2003); Jürgen Osterhammel and Sebastian Conrad (eds.), Kaiserreich transnational: Deutschland in der Welt, 1871–1914 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004); Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox and Susanne Zantop (eds.), The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998). 43. Torsten Altena, “Ein Häuflein Christen mitten in der Heidenwelt des dunklen Erdteils”: zum Selbst- und Fremdverständnis protestantischer Missionare im kolonialen Afrika 1884–1918 (Münster: Waxmann, 2003); Lixin Sun, Das Chinabild der deutschen protestantischen Missionare des 19. Jahrhunderts: eine Fallstudie zum Problem interkul- tureller Begegnung und Wahrnehmung (Marburg: Tectum, 2002). 44. David Thomas Murphy, German Exploration of the Polar World: A History, 1870– 1940 (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002). 45. Dietmar Kugler, Die Deutschen in Amerika: die Geschichte der deutschen Auswanderung in die USA seit 1683 (: Motorbuch Verlag, 1983); Philipp Lehzen, Die Stellung der Deutschen und die Aussichten der deutschen Auswanderung in Mexico (Berlin: H. Paetel, 1897); Grant Grams, German Emigra- tion to Canada and the Support of Its Deutschtum During the Weimar Republic: The Role of the Deutsches Ausland-Institut, Verein für das Deutschtum im Ausland and German-Canadian Organisations (Frankfurt & Oxford: Peter Lang, 2001); Alfons L. Melzer, Die deutschen Kolonien, der Congo-Staat, Australien und Amerika als Ziele der Auswanderung und Kolonisation. Ein Rathgeber für Auswanderer, Reisende und Zeitungsleser (Berlin: F.A. Follen, 1885). 46. John Ramsden, Don’t Mention the War: The British and the Germans Since 1890 (London: Little, Brown, 2006); Gerwin Strobl, The Germanic Isle: Nazi Perceptions of Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000) – Strobl, it has to be admitted, does include a chapter on the issue of colonialism. 47. Jürgen Osterhammel, ‘Transnationale Gesellschaftsgeschichte: Erweiterung oder Alternative?’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 27:3 (2001), 464–479; Michael Werner and Bénédicte Zimmermann, ‘Vergleich, Transfer, Verflechtung. Der Ansatz der Histoire Croisée und die Herausforderung des Transnationalen’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 28:4 (2002), 607–636; Kiran Klaus Patel, ‘Nach der Nationalfixiertheit: Perspektiven einer transnationalen Geschichte’, Antrittsvorle- sung, 12 January 2004, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Fakultät für Geschichtswissenschaften. 48. Grunfeld, TheMakingofModernTibet;P.N.Chopra,Social, Cultural and Political (New Delhi: Criterion Publications, 1989). This is merely to point to the limitations of these histories, not to detract from their value as general overviews of Tibetan history. 49. Goldstein, A History of Modern Tibet. 50. Shakya, TheDragonintheLandofSnows. 51. Sam van Schaik, Tibet: A History (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2011). 52. Christopher Hale, Himmler’s Crusade: The True Story of the 1938 Nazi Expedition into Tibet (London: Bantam, 2003). 53. McKay, Tibet and the British Raj; Alex McKay, ‘The Birth of a Clinic?: The IMS Dispensary in Gyantse (Tibet), 1904–1919’, Medical History, 49:2 (2005), 135–154. 54. John MacGregor, Tibet: A Chronicle of Exploration (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970). 208 Notes

55. Kate Teltscher, The High Road to China: George Bogle, the and the First British Expedition to Tibet (London: Bloomsbury, 2006); Gordon T. Stewart, Journeys to Empire: Enlightenment, Imperialism, and the British Encounter with Tibet, 1774–1904 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). 56. Peter Mierau, Die deutsche Himalaja-Stiftung: ihre Geschichte und ihre Expeditionen (München: Bergverlag Rudolf Rother, 1999); Harald Höbusch, ‘Germany’s “Moun- tain of Destiny”: Nanga Parbat and National Self-representation’, International Journal of the History of Sport, 19:4 (2002), 137–168. 57. Peter H. Hansen, ‘Confetti of Empire: The Conquest of Everest in Nepal, India, Britain and New Zealand’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 42:2 (2000), 307–332. 58. Michael McRae, In Search of Shangri-La: The Extraordinary True Story of the Quest for the Lost Horizon (London: Penguin, 2002); Allen, A Mountain in Tibet. 59. Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La. 60. E-mail correspondence with the author (2007). Thanks are due to David Motadel and Ferdinand Leikam for these contacts. See also Franziska Torma, Turkestan- Expeditionen: Zur Kulturgeschichte deutscher Forschungsreisen nach Mittelasien (1890– 1930) (Bielefeld: Transcript, 2011). 61. Thierry Dodin and Heinz Räther (eds.), Imagining Tibet: Perceptions, Projections & Fantasies (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2001). 62. Lee Feigon, Demystifying Tibet: Unlocking the Secrets of the Land of Snows (Chicago: I.R. Dee, 1996); Laurie Hovell McMillin, English in Tibet, Tibet in English: Self- presentation in Tibet and the Diaspora (New York & Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001). 63. Dawa Norbu, Red Star over Tibet (London: Collins, 1974), 9. 64. Donald Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan and the West (Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press, 1998). 65. Elliot Sperling, ‘ “Orientalism” and Aspects of Violence in the Tibetan Tradition’, in Dodin and Räther (eds.), Imagining Tibet, 327–328. 66. Graham E. Clarke, ‘Tradition, Modernity, and Environmental Change in Tibet’, in Dodin and Räther (eds.), Imagining Tibet, 340. 67. Toni Huber, ‘Shangri-La in Exile: Representations of Tibetan Identity and Transnational Culture’, in Dodin and Räther (eds.), Imagining Tibet, 368. 68. Robert Barnett, ‘ “Violated Specialness”: Western Political Representations of Tibet’, in Dodin and Räther (eds.), Imagining Tibet, 304. 69. Dibyesh Anand, Geopolitical Exotica: Tibet in Western Imagination (Minneapolis & London: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 85. 70. Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La, 13. 71. Catherine Gallagher and Stephen Greenblatt, Practising New Historicism (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 2001).

1 Lifting the Veil

1. John Powers, History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles Versus the People’s Republic of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), ix. 2. Dibyesh Anand, Geopolitical Exotica: Tibet in the Western Imagination (London & Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), esp. 76–80. See also Dawa Norbu, ‘The Europeanization of Sino-Tibetan Relations, 1775–1907: The Gene- sis of Chinese “Suzerainty” and Tibetan “Autonomy” ’, The Tibet Journal,XV:4 (1990), 28–74. Notes 209

3. Sam van Schaik, Tibet: A History (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2011), 189–190. 4. Melvyn C. Goldstein, A History of Modern Tibet. Vol.1: The Demise of the Lamaist State, 1913–1951 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, 2008), 6–20. 5. See for instance Alex McKay, Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre 1904–1947 (Dharamsala: LTWA, 2009), 123; van Schaik, Tibet, 196–206. 6. Patrick French, Younghusband: The Last Great Imperial Adventurer (London: Flamingo, 1995), Part II; Peter Fleming, Bayonets to Lhasa: The First Full Account of the British Invasion of Tibet in 1904 (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1961); Parshotam Mehra, The Younghusband Expedition: An Interpretation (London: Asia Publishing House, 1968). 7. George Kotturan, The Himalayan Gateway: History and Culture of (New Delhi: Sterling, 1983), 66. 8. J.A.H. Louis, The Gates of Thibet, 2nd ed. (Calcutta: Catholic Orphan Press, 1894), 4. 9. Ibid., 14. 10. Ibid., 22. 11. Ibid., 37. 12. Ibid., 143–144. 13. Ibid., 149. 14. Ibid. 15. Laurence Austin Waddell, Among the Himalayas (Westminster: Archibald Consta- ble & Co, 1899), viii. 16. See Hans Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, 1881–1917 (London & New York: Longman, 1983), chs 8–9. 17. John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System 1830– 1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). 18. Peter Hopkirk, TheGreatGame:OnSecretServiceinHighAsia(Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1990); Michael Edwardes, Playing : A Victorian Cold War (London: Hamilton, 1975); Edward Ingram, The Beginning of the Great Game in Asia, 1828–1834 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979). 19. Rudyard Kipling, Kim (New York: Bantam, c1901, 1983), 218. 20. Ibid., 4. 21. Ibid., 23–24. 22. Rudyard Kipling, ‘The White Man’s Burden’, McClure’s Magazine, 12 (1899). 23. Quoted in Parshotam Mehra, ‘In the Eyes of Its Beholders: The Younghusband Expedition (1903–04) and Contemporary Media’, Modern Asian Studies, 39:3 (2005), 738. 24. Peter Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (London: Athlone Press, 1989), 245. 25. Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf, A Concise History of India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 154. 26. Gordon T. Stewart, Journeys to Empire: Enlightenment, Imperialism, and the British Encounter with Tibet, 1774–1904 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 152. 27. Cited in Stewart, Journeys to Empire, 153. 28. See for instance Parshotam Mehra, ‘Kazi U-gyen: A Paid Tibetan Spy?’, Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, 51:3 (1964), 301–305; Addy Premen, Tibet on the Imperial Chessboard: The Making of British Policy Towards Lhasa, 1899–1925 (Calcutta & New Delhi: Academic Publishers, 1984), 64–65. 210 Notes

29. A. Tom Grunfeld, The Making of Modern Tibet (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), 54. 30. Hansard, House of Commons (HC) Debates Deb., 13 April 1904, 101. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid., 105. 33. Hansard, HC Deb., 27 April 1904, 1341. 34. Hansard, HC Deb., 8 March 1905, 756–757. 35. French, Younghusband, 246. 36. Hugh E. Richardson, Tibet and Its History, 2nd ed. (Boulder & London: Shambhala, 1984), 88; Nikolai S. Kuleshov, ‘The Tibet Policies of Britain and Russia, 1900– 1914’, Asian Affairs, 31:1 (2000), 47. 37. Helen Hundley, ‘Tibet’s Part in the Great Game’, History Today, 43:10 (1993), 50. 38. Addy Premen, ‘Imperial Prophet or Scaremonger? Curzon’s Tibetan Policy Recon- sidered’, Asian Affairs, 14:1 (1983), 55; Anthony Verrier, ‘ and the Great Game’, Asian Affairs, 23:1 (1992), 35. 39. French, Younghusband, 224. 40. Nils Ole Oermann, ‘The Law and the Colonial State: Legal Codification Ver- sus Practice in a German Colony’, in Geoff Eley and James Retallack (eds.), Wilhelminism and Its Legacies: German Modernities, Imperialism and the Meanings of Reform, 1890–1930 (New York & Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2003), 172. 41. Michael Carrington, ‘Officers, Gentlemen and Thieves: The Looting of Monaster- ies during the 1903/4 Younghusband Mission to Tibet’, Modern Asian Studies, 37:1 (2003), 105. 42. ‘Great Britain and Tibet’, The Times, 17 November 1903, 5. 43. W.J. Ottley, With Mounted Infantry in Tibet (London: Smith, Elder & Co, 1906), 223. 44. Glenn Wilkinson, ‘ “There Is No More Stirring Story”: The Press Depiction and Images of War During the Tibet Expedition 1903–1904’, War & Society, 9:2 (1991), 6–7. 45. Stewart, Journeys to Empire, 164–169. 46. French, Younghusband, 246. 47. Quoted in Mehra, ‘In the Eyes of Its Beholders’, 730. 48. Grunfeld, The Making of Modern Tibet, 55. 49. French, Younghusband, 256. 50. Richardson, Tibet and Its History, 94. 51. Ibid., 257. 52. Ibid. 53. Francis E. Younghusband, India and Tibet: A History of the Relations Which Have Subsisted Between the Two Countries from the Time of to 1910; with a Particular Account of the Mission to Lhasa of 1904 (London: John Murray, 1910), 416. 54. Ibid., 417–418. 55. Ibid., 418. 56. Ibid., 420. 57. Perceval Landon, Lhasa, an Account of the Country and People of Central Tibet and of the Progress of the Mission Sent There by the English Government in the Year 1903–04 (London: Hurst and Blackett Ltd., 1905), x. 58. Ibid., ix. 59. David MacDonald, Twenty years in Tibet: Intimate & Personal Experiences of the Closed Land Among All Classes of Its People from the Highest to the Lowest (London: Seeley, Service & Co, 1932), 41. Notes 211

60. Stewart, Journeys to Empire, 225. 61. ‘Deutsche Forscher im “Kleinod der Welt” ’, Münchner Neueste Nachrichten, 10 Jan- uary 1943, in Bundesarchiv (BArch), R135/84 Adolf Neß, ‘Die Engländer im Dalai-Lama-Staat’, Tremonia, 23 August 1944, in BArch, R135/87. For an account of the full complexities of National Socialist attitudes towards the British Empire, see Gerwin Strobl, The Germanic Isle: Nazi Perceptions of Britain (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ch. 3. 62. ‘Interview: British invasions probed as root cause of Tibetan separatism’, accessed on http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-04/06/content_7929882.htm.

2 Ethnography, Knowledge and Orientalism

1. Francis Younghusband, India and Tibet: A History of the Relations Which Have Subsisted Between the Two Countries from the Time of Warren Hastings to 1910; With a Particular Account of the Mission to Lhasa of 1904 (London: John Murray, 1910), 321. 2. Nicolas Tournadre and Sangda Dorje, Manual of Standard Tibetan (Ithaca & Boulder: Snow Lion Publications, 2003), 25–26. 3. Pradyumna P. Karan, The Changing Face of Tibet: The Impact of Chinese Communist Ideology on the Landscape (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1976), 7 & 13. 4. Melvyn C. Goldstein, A History of Modern Tibet, Volume I: 1913–1951, The Demise of the Lamaist State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 3–6. 5. Thomas Laird, Into Tibet: The CIA’s First Atomic Spy and His Expedition to Lhasa (New York: Grove Press, 2002), 324 (n. 223). 6. Gillian Lindt Gollin, Moravians in Two Worlds: A Study of Changing Communities (New York & London: Columbia University Press, 1967), 4–6. 7. Gisela Mettele, ‘An Imagined Community Beyond the Nation: The Moravian Brethren as a Transnational Community’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 32:1 (2006), 44–68. 8. Pagell an Reichel, 12th October 1851, Archiv der Brüdergemeine Herrnhut (EBU) R.15.U.a.1, no. 11. 9. E. Frühauf, Orenburg, 6th May 1852, EBU, R.15.U.a.1, no. l2. 10. Vortrag von Schw. Maud Ribbach zum 100-jährigen Jubiläum der West-Tibet- Mission. Handschrift, Konzept, unvollständig, EBU, NRSH Nr.56. 11. For the correspondence of these stations, see EBU, R.15.U.b.18 & 19. Also see John Bray, ‘The Moravian Church in : The First Forty Years, 1885–1925’, in D. Kantowski and R. Sander (eds.), Recent Research on Ladakh (München: Weltforum Verlag, 1983), 81. John Bray, The Himalayan Mission: Moravian Church Centenary (: Moravian Church, 1985); Frank Seeliger, ‘Einer Prügelt uns und der Andere Bringt uns Religion ...’ Fremdheitserfahrungen im West-Himalaya-Gebiet aus Sicht der Herrnhuter Missionare (Herrnhut: Herrnhuter Verlag, 2003). 12. A Frontier War, englisch, brosch., wohl Steindruck mit Handpresse, 1899, EBU, EBU, NFHePJ, No. 9, 1–2. 13. Auguste Desgodins, Essai de grammaire thibetaine pour le langage parle avec alphabet et prononciation (Hongkong: Imprimerie de Nazareth, 1899), v; Csoma de Körös, Essay Towards a Dictionary, Tibetan-English Prepared, With the Assistance of Bande Sangs-rgyas Phun-tshogs, a Learned Lama of Zangskar, by Alexander Csoma de Koros, During a Residence at Kanam, in the Himalaya Mountains, on the Confines of India and Tibet, 1827–1830 (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1834); Csoma de Körös, Grammar of the Tibetan Language in English (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1834). 212 Notes

14. Hirendranath Mukerjee, ‘Csoma de Koros: A Dedicated Life’, Presidency College Magazine, 13:1 (1926), 17; Bernard Le Calloc’h, ‘Historical Background of Csoma de Körös’s Sojourn in Ladakh (Zanskar) between 1822 and 1826’, The Tibet Jour- nal, 23:3 (1998), 50–67; Bernard Le Calloc’h, ‘Alexander Csoma de Körös: The Heroic Philologist and Founder of Tibetan Studies in Europe’, The Tibet Journal, 10:3 (1985), 30–41; Ngawang Tsering Shakspo, ‘Alexander Csoma de Körös in Ladakh’, The Tibet Journal, 10:3 (1985), 42–47. 15. Ribbach to Connor, October 1893, Archiv der Brüdergemeine Herrnhut, (EBU), R.15.U.b.14.a. 16. Peter to La Trobe, March 1899, EBU, R.15.U.b.14.a. 17. Heinrich August Jäschke, Handwörterbuch der tibetischen Sprache (Gnadau: Unitätsbuchhandlung, 1871). 18. See for instance Heinrich August Jäschke, A Short Practical Grammar of the Tibetan Language: With Special Reference to the Spoken Dialects (Kyelang, 1865), reproduced from manuscript; August Hermann Francke, The Dards at Khalatse in Western Tibet (Calcutta: Government of India Press, 1906); August Hermann Francke, AHis- tory of Western Tibet, One of the Unknown Empires (London: S.W. Partridge & Co, n.d.); for a secondary account of the missionaries’ work, see Hartmut Walravens, ‘The Moravian Mission and Its Research on the Language and Culture of Western Tibet’, Oriens Extremus, 35:1/2 (1992), 159–169. 19. Völkerkundemuseum, Goethestrasse 1, 02747 Herrnhut, Germany, www. voelkerkunde-herrnhut.de. 20. Lebenslauf Samuel Heinrich Ribbach, EBU, NRSH, No. 1. 21. See for instance Amiria J.M. Henare, Museums, Anthropology and Imperial Exchange (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). 22. Fragment, EBU, NRSH, No. 53. 23. Drawings, EBU, NJHA, No. 10 & 11. 24. For instance No. 129 ‘Eine Heiligen-Kapelle’, No. 106 ‘Eingeborenen-Häuser in Kyelang’, No. 10102 ‘Ladak. Alt syrisch-nestorianische Inschrift i. Felsen’; all part of the photographic collection of the Archiv der Brüder-Unität, Herrnhut. 25. Eleanor M. Hight and Gary D. Sampson (eds.), Colonialist Photography: Imag(in)ing Race and Place (London & New York: Routledge, 2002). 26. A.H. Francke, ‘Musikalische Studien in Westtibet’, ZDMG, 59 (1905), 91–104; A.H. Francke, ‘Kleine archäologische Erträge einer Missionsreise nach Zangskar in Westtibet’, ZDMG, 60 (1906), 645–662; A.H. Francke, ‘Das tibetische Pronominalsystem’, ZDMG, 61 (1907), 439–440. 27. Francke, A History of Western Tibet,1–6. 28. Walravens, ‘The Moravian Mission and Its Research on the Language and Culture of Western Tibet’, 161. 29. ‘The Medical Mission at Leh’, Per. Acc., I:3 (1890), 134. 30. Per. Acc., V:49 (1902), 71. 31. Bruske to LaTrobe, July 1900, EBU, R.15.U.b.17. 32. Per. Acc., V:54 (1903), 297. 33. Henry Savage Landor, In the Forbidden Land (Long Riders Guild Press, n.d., origi- nally 1898), Vol. I, 205; for an account of Landor’s travels, also see Charles Allen, A Mountain in Tibet (London: Futura Publications, 1982), 172–182. 34. Landor, In the Forbidden Land, Vol. I, 242–243. 35. Ibid., Vol. II, 99. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid., esp. Chs. XIX–XXVI. Notes 213

38. Ibid., Vol. II, 143. 39. John Philip Short, ‘Everyman’s Colonial Library: Imperialism and Working-class Readers in Leipzig, 1890–1914’, German History, 21:4 (2003), 454. 40. Henry Savage Landor, Everywhere: The Memoirs of an Explorer (London: Unwin, 1924), 13. 41. Henry Savage Landor, Alone with the Hairy Ainu, or, 3,800 Miles on a Pack Saddle in Yezo and a Cruise to the Kurile Islands (London: John Murray, 1893), 15. 42. Jose Harris, ‘Victorian Values and the Founders of the Welfare State’, in T.C. Smout (ed.), Victorian Values: A Joint Symposium of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and the British Academy, December 1990 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 182; John Saville, ‘Imperialism and the Victorians’, in Eric M. Sigsworth (ed.), In Search of Victorian Values: Aspects of Nineteenth-Century Thought and Society (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1988), 171. 43. David Foster, ‘Some Victorian Concepts of Crime’, in Sigsworth (ed.), In Search of Victorian Values, 85. 44. Isabella Bird-Bishop, Among the Tibetans (London: Religious Tract Society, 1894), 43. 45. L.A. Waddell, Among the Himalayas (Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co, 1899), 27. 46. Ibid. 47. Peter H. Hansen, ‘The Dancing of Everest: Cinema, Orientalism, and Anglo-Tibetan Relations in the 1920s’, American Historical Review, 101:3 (1996), 734. 48. Mary Procida, ‘A Tale Begun in Other Days: British Travellers in Tibet in the Late Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Social History, 30:1 (1996), 200. 49. Richard J. Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830– 1910 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), 117. 50. Ibid., 118–119. 51. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital (London: Abacus, 1975), 302; Thomas Wilson, Robert Koch, 1843 to 1910: Adventures in Science (Ashford: T. Wilson, 2000). 52. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire (London: Abacus, 1987), illustration 21. 53. Bird-Bishop, Among the Tibetans, 40–41. 54. Sir Richard Temple, Journals Kept in Hyderabad, , Sikkim, and Nepal (London: W.H. Allen Lane & Co, 1887), 162. 55. Ibid., 163. 56. See Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effemi- nate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1995); Gavin Rand, ‘ “Martial Races” and “Imperial Subjects”: Violence and Governance in Colonial India, 1857–1914’, European Review of History – Revue européene d’Histoire, 13:1 (2006), 1–20. See also Martin J. Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law and Policy in , 1830–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Paul B. Rich, ‘Social Darwinism, Anthropology and English Perspectives of the Irish, 1867–1900’, History of European Ideas, 19:4–6 (1994), 777–785. 57. See the series of volumes entitled Subaltern Studies: Writings on South Asian His- tory and Society, Ranajit Guha and others (eds.). Also see Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’, in Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 271–313. 214 Notes

58. For the development of Indian nationalism, see for instance R. Suntharalingam, Indian Nationalism: An Historical Analysis (New Delhi: Vikas, 1983), esp. ch. IV; for a description of the distinctive, and often isolated, imperial lifestyle, see Judith M. Brown, Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 98–99; Mrinalini Sinha, ‘Britishness, Clubbability and the Colonial Public Sphere: The Genealogy of an Imperial Institution in Colo- nial India’, The Journal of British Studies, 40:4, At Home in the Empire (2001), 489–521.

3 Missionaries and the Evils of ‘Lamaism’

1. Andrew Wilson, The Abode of Snow: Observations on a Journey from Chinese Tibet to the Indian , Through the Upper Valleys of the Himalaya (Wakefield & London: Moyer Bell, 1875, 1993), iv. 2. See Donald S. Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La: and the West (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 15–45. 3. Sam van Schaik, Tibet: A History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 36, 72–75, 112–115, 251. 4. Melvyn C. Goldstein, The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1007), 1–30; van Schaik, Tibet, 114–146. 5. van Schaik, Tibet, 199–200 and 222–223. 6. Ibid., 262–263. 7. Ibid., 164–169. 8. See Introduction. 9. ‘Progress of the Himalayan Mission’, Per. Acc., II:24 (1895), 608. 10. ‘The Latest News’, Per. Acc., I:7 (1891), 339. 11. Frank Seeliger, “Einer prügelt uns und der andere bringt uns Religion ...” Fremdheitserfahrungen im West-Himalaya-Gebiet aus Sicht der Herrnhuter Missionare (Herrnhut: Herrnhuter Verlag, 2003). 12. For a brief, if perhaps slightly idealistic, discussion of these ideas, see Kingsley Lewis, The Moravian Mission in Barbados 1816–1886: A Study of the Historical Con- text and the Theological Significance of a Minority Church Among an Oppressed People (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1985), 37–40. 13. Craig D. Atwood, Community of the Cross: Moravian Piety in Colonial Bethlehem (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004), 49. 14. The Moravian Missionary Manual and Directory of the Unitas Fratrum of the Moravian Church (Bethlehem: Moravian Publication Officer, 1892), 27. 15. Statistika und Kirchenbuch-notizen, 1869–1900, EBU, R.15.U.b.9. 16. Francke to La Trobe, 10 January 1901, EBU, R.15.U.b.18. 17. Einar Lund Jensen, ‘Uiarnerit. A Historical Study of Immigration from East to West Greenland in the Nineteenth Century’, Etudes Inuit/ Inuit Studies, 26:2 (2002), 23. 18. Gauri Viswanathan, Outside the Fold: Conversion, Modernity, and Belief (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Geoffrey A. Oddie, Social Protest in India: British Protestant Missionaries and Social Reforms 1850–1900 (New Delhi: Manohar, 1979); Andrew Porter, Religion Versus Empire? British Protestant Missionaries and Overseas Expansion, 1700–1914 (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 2004). 19. See Porter, Religion Versus Empire, 1–13 or Norman Etherington, ‘Missions and Empire’, in Robin W. Winks (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, Vol. V: Notes 215

Historiography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 303–314 for an overview of the connections between Empire and missionary activity. 20. Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La, 29–30. 21. Per. Acc., I:7 (1891), 339. 22. Moravian Missions, III:12 (1905), 184. 23. Per. Acc., II:13 (1893), 26. 24. Per. Acc., II:17 (1894), 233. 25. Nicholas Notovitch, The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ (London: Hutchinson & Co, 1895), 70. 26. Ibid., 138–145. 27. Ibid., 172–195. 28. Ibid., li. 29. J.A.H. Louis, The Gates of Thibet: A Bird’s Eye View of Independent Sikkim, British Bhootan and the Dooars as a Doorga Poojah Trip, 2nd ed. (Calcutta: Catholic Orphan Press, 1894), 96. 30. Chris Brooks, The Gothic Revival (London: Phaidon, 1999); Michael J. Lewis, The Gothic Revival (London: Thames & Hudson, 2002). 31. See Tom Neuhaus, ‘How Can a War Be Holy? Weimar Attitudes Toward Eastern ’, in John Alexander Williams (ed.), Weimar Culture Revisited (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 120. Cf. also Volker Zotz, Auf den glückseligen Inseln: Buddhismus in der deutschen Kultur (Berlin: Theseus, 2000), 171–181. 32. Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La, 32–35. 33. Louis, The gates of Thibet, 95. 34. L.A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, or, Lamaism, with Its Mystic Cults, Symbolism and Mythology, and in Its Relation to Indian Buddhism (London: W.H. Allen & Co, 1895). 35. Ibid., 10. 36. Ibid., 14. 37. Randall McGowen, ‘The Body and Punishment in Eighteenth-Century England’, The Journal of Modern History, 59:4 (1987), 651–679; Nicole Rafter, ‘Criminology’s Darkest Hour: Biocriminology in Nazi Germany’, The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 41:2 (2008), 287–306; Nikolaus Wachsmann, Hitler’s Pris- ons: Legal Terror in Nazi Germany (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004). 38. Sir Richard Temple, Journals kept in Hyderabad, Kashmir, Sikkim, and Nepal (London: W.H. Allen & Co, 1887), Vol. II, 170. 39. Emil Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet (Leipzig, 1863), 70. 40. Ibid. 41. Waddell, Buddhism of Tibet, 143 & 145. 42. Ibid., 151. 43. Carl Friedrich Koeppen, Die lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche (Berlin: Ferdinand Schneider, 1859), 386. 44. Ibid., 387. 45. Henry Savage Landor, Tibet & Nepal (London: A&C Black, 1905), 145. 46. Ibid. 47. Schlagintweit, Buddhism of Tibet, 104. 48. Ibid., 106. 49. Marjule Anne Drury, ‘Anti-Catholicism in Germany, Britain, and the United States: A Review and Critique of Recent Scholarship’, Church History, 70:1 (2001), 112. 50. Christopher M. Clark, Iron Kingdom (London: Penguin, 2007), 568–576. 216 Notes

51. Max Weber, Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus (Tübingen: Mohr, [1904/5], 1934); Sam Whimster, Understanding Weber (London & New York: Routledge, 2007), 48–72. 52. Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Collected Writings. The Secret Doctrine, 3 vols (Aydar: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1978), 608. 53. Ibid. 54. Wilson, Abode of Snow,xv. 55. Blavatsky, Collected Writings, xxiv (emphasis in the original). 56. For a discussion of Blavatsky, in particular, see C.E. Bechhofer-Roberts, The Mys- terious Madame: A Life of Madame Blavatsky by “Ephesian” (London: John Lane the Bodley Head Ltd., 1931); Howard Murphet, When Daylight Comes: A Biogra- phy of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (Wheaton: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1975), esp. 56–59; Jean Overton Fuller, Blavatsky and Her Teachers: An Inves- tigative Biography (London: East-West Publications, 1988); Sylvia Cranston, HPB: The Extraordinary Life and Influence of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Founder of the Modern Theosophical Movement (New York: Putnam, 1993), esp. 80–100; Russell Goldfarb, ‘Madame Blavatsky’, Journal of Popular Culture, 5:3 (1971), 660–672; Peter Washington, Madame Blavatsky’s Baboon: and the Emergence of the Western Guru (London: Secker & Warburg, 1993), esp. 33–34; Paul Roland, The Nazis and the Occult: The Dark Forces Unleashed by the Third Reich (London: Arcturus, 2007), esp. chs. 5&6; Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism: The Ariosophists of and Germany 1890–1935 (Wellingborough: Aquarian, 1985); Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity (New York & London: New York University Press, 2002). 57. Michael H. Kater, Das Ahnenerbe der SS, 1935–1945: ein Beitrag zur Kulturpolitik des Dritten Reiches (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1974), 79. 58. Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La,ch.2. 59. Per. Acc., VI:61 (1905), 12. 60. Per. Acc., VI:61 (1905), 8. 61. Barbara M. Benedict, Curiosity: A Cultural History of Early Modern Inquiry (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2001), 254.

4 Science and Exploration

1. Andrew Wilson, The Abode of Snow: Observations on a Journey from Chinese Tibet to the Indian Caucasus, Through the Upper Valleys of the Himalaya (Wakefield & London: Moyer Bell, 1993, orig. 1875), 227. 2. See the papers in R.M. Shackleton, J.F. Dewey and B.F. Windley (eds.), Tectonic Evolution of the Himalayas and Tibet (London: The Royal Society, 1988). 3. See http://www.tibet.com/glance.html, the website of the Tibetan government in exile. 4. For information on the natural environment of Tibet, and on recent envi- ronmental change, see Graham E. Clarke, ‘Tradition, Modernity, and Environ- mental Change in Tibet’, in Thierry Dodin and Heinz Räther (eds.), Imagining Tibet: Perceptions, Projections, and Fantasies (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2001), 339–356. 5. Kapil Raj, ‘Colonial Encounters and the Forging of New Knowledge and National Identities: Great Britain and India, 1760–1850’, Osiris, 15:1 (2000), 119–135. 6. Hermann and , Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia (Leipzig & London: F.A. Brockhaus, 1861–1866), Vol. I, 5. Notes 217

7. Gabriel Finkelstein, ‘Conquerors of the Künlün? The Schlagintweit Mission to High Asia, 1854–57’, HistoryofScience, 38:Part 2, No. 120 (2000), 188. 8. Ibid., 203. 9. Schlagintweit, Results,8–9. 10. Heather Pringle, The Master Plan: Himmler’s Scholars and the Holocaust (New York: Hyperion, 2006). 11. Emil Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Tibet (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1863). 12. Schlagintweit, Results, Vol. II, ix. 13. Timothy Severin, The Oriental Adventure: Explorers of the East (London: Angus & Robertson, 1976), 202. 14. Derek J. Waller, The Pundits: British Exploration of Tibet and Central Asia (Lexington University Press of Kentucky, 1990); British Library (OIOC), IOR/V/19/77 and IOR/V/19/78. 15. Kapil Raj, ‘La construction de l’Empire de la géographie: l’odyssée des arpenteurs de Sa Tres Gracieuse Majesté, la Reine Victoria, en Asie centrale’, Annales HSS, 5 (1997), 1173–1177. 16. OIOC, IOR/V/19/77, 209. 17. OIOC, IOR/V/27/69/31, 9. 18. Ibid., 22. 19. Severin, The Oriental Adventure, 212. 20. Thomas Thomson, Western Himalaya and Tibet; A Narrative of a Journey Through the Mountains of Northern India During the Years 1847–8 (London: Reeve & Co. 1852), 491. 21. Ibid., 275. 22. See for instance Helen M. Rozwadowski, ‘Internationalism, Environmental Necessity, and National Interest: Marine Science and Other Sciences’, Minerva, 42 (2004), 127–149; Kaat Schulte-Fischedick and Terry Shinn, ‘International Phytogeographical Expeditions, 1911–1923: Intellectual Convergence in Vege- tation Science’, in Elizabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn and Sverker Sörlin (eds.), Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publications, 1993), 124–125. 23. Felix Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), 56 (emphasis in original). 24. Wilson, The Abode of Snow, 246. 25. Ibid., 247. 26. Adolphe and Robert Schlagintweit, ‘Report Upon the Progress of the Mag- netic Survey of India and of the Researches Connected with It in the Himalaya Mountains, from April to October, 1855’, Journal of the Asiatic Society, XXV:II (1856), 117. 27. Hermann Schlagintweit, ‘Report on the Progress of the Magnetic Survey and the Researches Connected with It in Sikkim, the Khosia Hills and Assam, April to December, 1855’, Journal of the Asiatic Society, XXV:I (1856), 21. 28. Schlagintweit, ‘Report Upon the Progress of the Magnetic Survey, from April to October, 1855’, 123. 29. Henry Savage Landor, Everywhere: The Memoirs of an Explorer (London: Unwin, 1924), ch. 1. 30. Henry Savage Landor, In the Forbidden Land (Long Riders Guild Press, n.d., originally published in 1898), Vol. I, 147. 31. Ibid., 64. 32. Henry Savage Landor, Tibet & Nepal (London: A&C Black, 1905), 63. 218 Notes

33. Albertus Hadi Promodo, ‘Cartographic Encounters in Counter-Mapping Move- ment in Postcolonial West Kalimantan’, paper given at the German Historical Institute, Washington D.C., 6 May 2006. 34. James R. Smith, ‘Sir , F.R.S. (1790–1866)’, NotesandRecordsofthe Royal Society of London, 46:1 (1992), 100–101. 35. Landor, Tibet & Nepal, 86–89. 36. Ibid., 89. 37. Ibid., 9. 38. Ibid., 6–7. 39. Ibid., 97. 40. Tom Longstaff, This Is My Voyage (London: John Murray, 1950), 145. 41. Ibid. 42. Frederick Markham, Shooting in the Himalayas: A Journal of Sporting Adventures and Travel in Chinese Tartary, Ladac, Thibet, Cashmere, &c. (London: Richard Bentley, 1854), 278. 43. Ibid., 230. 44. Henry Rider Haggard, King Solomon’s Mines (London: Penguin, 1885, 1994), 1. 45. Markham, Shooting in the Himalayas,2. 46. Mary Procida, ‘Good Sports and Right Sorts: Guns, Gender, and Imperialism in British India’, Journal of British Studies, 40 (2001), 487. 47. Mary Procida, ‘A Tale Begun in Other Days: British Travellers in Tibet in the Late Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Social History, 30:1 (1996), 185–208. 48. Procida, ‘Good Sports’, 469. 49. Edward Said, Orientalism (London: Penguin, 1978, 2003). 50. Henry T. Prinsep, Tibet, Tartary and Mongolia, Their Social and Political Condition, and the Religion of Boodh as There Existing (London: Wm. H. Allen & Co, 1851), 84. 51. Landor, In the Forbidden Land, 167–168. 52. Landor, Tibet & Nepal, 33. 53. T.T. Cooper, ‘Travels in Western China and Eastern Thibet’, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 14:6 (1870), 339. 54. Francis E. Younghusband, Among the Celestials: A Narrative of Travels in , Across the , Through the Himalayas to India; Abridged from “The Heart of a Continent” (London: John Murray, 1898), 213. 55. Ibid., 229. 56. Ibid., 222. 57. Nigel Leask, Curiosity and the Aesthetics of Travel Writing, 1770–1840 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 20; Bruno Latour, Science in Action: How to Fol- low Scientists and Engineers Through Society (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1987). 58. Peter Hansen, ‘Albert Smith, the Alpine Club and the Invention of Mountaineering in Mid-Victorian Britain’, The Journal of British Studies, 34:3 (1995), 300–324. 59. Robert H. Bates, Mystery, Beauty, and Danger: The Literature of the Mountains and Mountain Climbing Published in English before 1946 (Portsmouth, NH: Peter E. Randall, 2000), 11–12. 60. Edward Whymper, The Ascent of the Matterhorn (London: John Murray, 1880). 61. Elaine Freegood, Victorian Writing about Risk: Imagining a Safe England in a Dangerous World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 100. Notes 219

62. Peter Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (London: Athlone Press, 1989), 103; Bates, Mystery, Beauty, and Danger, 193. 63. John Ruskin, Lectures on Architecture and Painting Delivered at Edinburgh in Novem- ber, 1853 (London: Smith, Elder, and Co, 1854), 30. 64. Sir Richard Temple, Journals Kept in Hyderabad, Kashmir, Sikkim, and Nepal (London: W.H. Allen & Co, 1887), Vol. II, 187. 65. Ibid., 190. 66. Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 215. 67. Friedrich Kallenberg, Indien, Himalaya, Tibet und Birma. Aus dem Tagebuch eines Weltreisenden (Leipzig: Baum’s Verlagbuchhandlung, 1901), 74–75. 68. J.A.H. Louis, The Gates of Thibet: A Bird’s Eye View of Independent Sikkim, British Bhootan and the Dooars as a Doorga Poojah Trip, 2nd ed. (Calcutta: Catholic Orphan Press, 1894), 3–4. 69. Cited in Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La, 45. 70. Ibid., 25. (Bishop cites Turner’s comparison of a Tibetan woman’s singing to an ‘Italian air’ as an example). 71. Isabella Bird Bishop, Among the Tibetans (London: Religious Tract Society, 1894), 26. 72. Ibid., 32. 73. Ibid., 65.

5 Developing Diplomacy

1. Hugh E. Richardson, Tibet and Its History,2nded.(Boulder,CO&London: Shambhala, 1984), 94–98; A. Tom Grunfeld, The Making of Modern Tibet (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), 58–64. 2. John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System 1830– 1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 262–267. 3. Stephen Howe, Anticolonialism in British Politics: The Left and the End of Empire 1918–1964 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). 4. A.B. Lindsay, ‘Letters from the Abor Expedition, 1911–1912’, Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research, 54:219 (1976), 149. 5. Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York & London: Norton, 1991), 267. 6. See Wendy Palace, The British Empire and Tibet, 1900–1922 (London & New York: Routledge Curzon, 2005), 92–105. See also Alastair Lamb, The McMahon Line: A Study in the Relations Between India, China and Tibet, 1904 to 1914, 2 vols. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966). 7. Melvyn C. Goldstein, A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989), 77. 8. See James E. Sheridan, ‘The Warlord Era: Politics and Militarism under the Peking Government, 1916–28’, in John K. Fairbank (ed.), The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12: Republican China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 284–321. 9. Principal of Cheltenham College to Sir Arthur Hirtzel, India Office, 25th August 1913, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/10/536, p. 189. 10. Instructions to the Holiday Tutor in charge of the four boys at Rugby, February 1914, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/10/537, Pt.2, p. 61. 220 Notes

11. The Meteor, 15 October 1914, Rugby School Archives. 12. Shuckburgh to Educational Adviser, 11 September 1914, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/10/ 539, p. 92. 13. Reference paper, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/10/538, p. 35. 14. Charles Bell, Portrait of a Dalai Lama: The Life and Times of the Great Thirteenth, Rugby School Archives, Tibetans (2). 15. A.A. David, 17 September 1913, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/10/537, p. 142. 16. Alex McKay, ‘The Other “Great Game”: Politics and Sport in Tibet, 1904–47’, International Journal of the History of Sport, 11:3 (1994), 372–386. 17. There is a large literature on imperial exhibitions. See, for instance, Daniel M. Stephen, ‘ “Brothers of the Empire?” India and the British Empire Exhibi- tion of 1924–25’, Twentieth Century British History, 22:2 (2011), 164–188; Daniel M. Stephen, ‘ “The White Man’s Grace”: British West Africa and the British Empire Exhibition of 1924–25’, Journal of British Studies, 48:1 (2009), 102–128; Kenneth Walthew, ‘The British Empire Exhibition of 1924’, History Today, 31:8 (1981), 34–39; Anne Clendinning, ‘Exhibiting a Nation: Canada at the British Empire Exhibition, 1924–1925’, Histoire Sociale: Social History, 39:77 (2006), 79–107; David Simonelli, ‘ “[L]aughing Nations of Happy Children Who Have Never grown Up”: Race, the Concept of Commonwealth and the 1924–25 British Empire Exhibition’, Journal of Colonialism & Colonial History, 10:1 (2009), 3. 18. Burton Stein, A History of India, 2nd ed. (Chichester: Blackwell, 2010), 292–305. 19. Sarah Britton, ‘ “Come and See the Empire by the All Red Route!”: Anti- Imperialism and Exhibitions in Interwar Britain’, History Workshop Journal,69 (2010), 78–84. 20. David Gladstone, The Twentieth-Century Welfare State (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), 95; W.R. Garside, ‘Declining Advantage: The British Economy’, in Keith Robbins (ed.), The British Isles 1901–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 178. 21. E.M. Forster, A Passage to India (London: E. Arnold & Co, 1924); Maurice Collis, Trials in Burma (London: Faber & Faber, 1938); Hunt Hawkins, ‘Forster’s Critique of Imperialism in “A Passage to India” ’, South Atlantic Review, 48:1 (1983), 54. 22. Britton, ‘Come and See the Empire’, 82–83. 23. Ibid., 85. See also Nicholas Owen, The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti- Imperialism, 1885–1947 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). 24. Britton, ‘Come and See the Empire’, 80. 25. Ibid., 84. 26. Gerwin Strobl, The Germanic Isle: Nazi Perceptions of Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 178–179. 27. Marcia Klotz, ‘The Weimar Republic: A Postcolonial State in a Still-Colonial World’, in Eric Ames, Marcia Klotz and Lora Wildenthal (eds.), Germany’s Colonial Past (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 141. 28. Kolonial-Informationsdienst, München, 30. April und 30. Juni 1941, Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichterfelde (Barch), NS52/37. 29. See the sections in Deutsches Lesebuch fur Oberschulen und Gymnasien, Dritter Band (Hamburg: Verlag Paul Hartung, 1939), 206–240; Deutsches Lesebuch fur höhere Lehranstalten. Ausgabe A fur Jungen. Fünfter Teil fur Klasse 5 (Leipzig und Berlin: B.G. Teubner, 1939), 127–146; Ewiges Deutschland. Deutsches Lesebuch fur höhere Schulen. Mädchenausgabe. Dritter Band, 2nd ed. (Bamberg: C.C. Buchners Verlag, 1940), 232–282. Notes 221

30. Willi Walter Puls, Der koloniale Gedanke im Unterricht der Volksschule (Leipzig: Quelle und Meyer, 1938); Konrad Olbricht, Deutschland als Kolonialmacht in Vergangenheit und Zukunft (Breslau: Heinrich Handels Verlag, 1933); Frauenbund der Deutschen Kolonialgesellschaft, Deutsche Jugend und Deutsche Kolonien: Was unsere Jugend über deutsche Arbeit in unseren Kolonien wissen muss (Aachen: Aachener Verlags- und Druckereigesellschaft, 1934); Ewald Banse, Weisse in aller Welt (Berlin u. Leipzig: Verlag von Julius Beltz, 1934). 31. Charles Alfred Bell, Manual of Colloquial Tibetan (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1905), iii; Charles Alfred Bell, Grammar of Colloquial Tibetan,2nded.(Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1919); Charles Alfred Bell, English-Tibetan Colloquial Dictio- nary (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1920). 32. Bell, Grammar of Colloquial Tibetan, 155–161, 167–169 for these specific examples. 33. Basil Gould and Hugh Edward Richardson, Tibetan Syllables (London: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1943); Basil Gould and Hugh Edward Richardson, Tibetan Sentences (London: Oxford University Press, 1943), 2, 10, 97. 34. See the files in TNA:PRO FO371. 35. Personal file of B. Gould, cited in Alex McKay, Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre 1904–1947 (New Delhi: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 2009), 89. 36. Ibid. 37. Dawson to Secretary, Services & General Department, India Office, 21 April 1933, and note dated 9 May 1933, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/12/4271. 38. Donaldson to Adams (India House), 1 December 1932, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/12/4263. 39. Minute paper, 2 February 1933, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/12/4263. 40. H.A.R., 27 April 1936, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/12/4263. 41. McKay, Tibet and the British Raj, 119. 42. 28th May 1937, Tagebuch Günther Hepp, DAV, Exp 2 SG 189. 43. ‘Die deutschen Himalaja-Unternehmungen’, Archiv des Deutschen Alpenverein (DAV), Exp 2 SG 169. 44. Paul Bauer (ed.), Himalayan Quest: The German Expedition to Siniolchum and Nanga Parbat (London: Nicholson & Watson, 1938), ix. 45. See Alexandre Andreyev, Soviet Russia and Tibet: The Debacle of Secret Diplomacy, 1918–1930s (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2003), 367–374. 46. ‘Auswärtiges Amt an den Chef des persönlichen Stabes des Reichsführer SS’, 24th April 1939, BArch, NS19/1053, Bl.2. 47. Christopher Hale, Himmler’s Crusade: The True Story of the 1938 Nazi Expedition into Tibet (London: Bantam, 2003), 220. 48. ‘Die ersten Deutschen in Lhasa’, BArch, R135/65, Bl.165576. 49. ‘Haupstadt am Dach der Welt’ BArch, R135/81. 50. ‘Dr. Schäfer’s Tibetfilm uraufgeführt’, Niedersächsische Tageszeitung, 23rd October 1939, BArch, R135/82. 51. Note on Dr. Schafer’s expedition, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/12/4343. 52. Geoffrey Betham to Aubrey Metcalfe, 18 July 1939, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/12/4346. 53. Wilhelm Filchner to Erica Schneider-Filchner, 25 August 1940, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/12/4346. 54. Tsering Shakya, ‘Cities and Thrones and Powers: The British and the Tibetans in Lhasa, 1936–1947’, in Clare Harris and Tsering Shakya (eds.), Seeing Lhasa (Chicago: Serindia, 2003), 99–101. 55. McKay, Tibet and the British Frontier Cadre, 115–134. 56. Ibid., 130–132; Alex McKay, ‘Tibet 1924: A Very British Coup Attempt?’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 7:3 (1997), 411–424. 222 Notes

57. Cited in Peter H. Hansen, ‘The Dancing Lamas of Everest: Cinema, Orientalism, and Anglo-Tibetan Relations in the 1920s’, American Historical Review, 101:3 (1996), 720. 58. Ibid. 59. Daily Chronicle, 28 November 1924, quoted in Hansen, ‘The Dancing lamas of Everest’, 729. 60. Hansen, ‘The Dancing Lamas of Everest’, 736.

6 Racial and Social Orders

1. Albert Tafel, Meine Tibetreise: eine Studienfahrt durch das nordwestliche China und durch die Innere Mongolei in das östliche Tibet, 2nd ed. (Stuttgart: Union, 1923), 212 – the first edition of Tafel’s work had been published in two volumes in 1914. 2. John Hagenbeck and Victor Ottmann, Südostasiatische Fahrten und Abenteuer. Erlebnisse in Britisch- und Holländisch-Indien und in Siam (Dresden: Verlag Deutsche Buchwerkstätten, 1924), 119. 3. Richard Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany (New York: Macmillan, 2004); Christopher M. Hutton, Race and the Third Reich: Linguistics, Racial Anthropology and Genetics in the Dialectics of Volk (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005). 4. Pascal Grosse, ‘What Does German Colonialism Have to Do with National Socialism? A Conceptual Framework’, Marcia Klotz, ‘The Weimar Republic: A Postcolonial State in a Still-Colonial World’ and Susannah Heschel, ‘Theology as a Vision for Colonialism: From Supersessionism to Dejudaization in German Protestantism’, all in Eric Ames et al. (eds.), Germany’s Colonial Pasts (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), 115–164. 5. Hutton, Race and the Third Reich, 89–94. 6. ‘Runen in Lamaklöstern’, Hannoversches Tageblatt, 18th April 1937, Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichterfelde (Barch), R135/80. 7. Canon Isaac Taylor, ‘The Origin and Primitive Seat of the Aryans’, The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 17 (1888), 239. 8. Ibid., 248. 9. Ibid., 239. 10. Karl Penka, Die Herkunft der Arier: neue Beiträge zur historischen Anthropologie der europäischen Völker (Wien: K. Prochaska, 1886). 11. Knight Dunlap, ‘The Great Aryan Myth’, The Scientific Monthly, 59:4 (October 1944), 300. 12. See docs 59, 68 and 85a in Heinrich Himmler, Reichsführer! Briefe an und von Himmler, Helmut Heiber (ed.) (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968). 13. Heather Pringle, The Master Plan: Himmler’s Scholars and the Holocaust (New York: Hyperion, 2006). 14. Christopher Hale, Himmler’s Crusade: The True Story of the 1938 Nazi Expedition into Tibet (London: Bantam, 2003). 15. Hutton, Race and the Third Reich, 36. 16. Ibid., 68–74. On the other hand, mixed race gypsies were regarded as inferior to pure gypsies and different policies were applied to them in the early 1940s. See Guenter Lewy, ‘Himmler and the “Racially Pure Gypsies” ’, Journal of Contemporary History, 34:2 (1999), 201–214. 17. Bruno Beger, Die Bevölkerung der altmärkischen Wische. Eine rassenkundliche Untersuchung, Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades genehmigt von Notes 223

der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Berlin (Promotion, 24th February 1941), 204. 18. Ibid., 169. 19. Aufstellung über die anthropologische Ausrüstung für SS-Untersturmführer Beger, BArch, R135/43, Bl.163335. 20. Aesculap-Instrumente, BArch, R135/51, Bl.162095. 21. Anthropologisches Forschungsprogramm für Osttibet, BArch, 135/43, Bl.163380. 22. Die ersten Deutschen in Lhasa, BArch, R135/65, Bl.165573. 23. Walther Wüst, ‘Uber die neuesten Ausgrabungen im nordwestlichen Indien’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 6 (1927), New Series, 271–274. 24. Pringle, The Master Plan,ch.6. 25. Ibid., 124–132. 26. BArch, R135/59. 27. Hermann and Adolphe Schlagintweit, Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia Undertaken Between the Years MDCCCLIV and MDCCCLVIII, By Order of the Court of Directors of the Honorable East India Company, 4 vols. (Leipzig & London: Brockhaus, 1861–66). 28. Hale, Himmler’s Crusade, ch. 16. 29. Lothar Mertens, ‘NS-Wissenschaftspolitik am Beispiel der DFG, 1933–1937’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 29:3 (2003), 401. 30. Ibid., 408. 31. Schäfer an das Dekanat der Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität München, 14th March 1942, BArch, R135/27, Bl.151171; Schäfer an den Dekan der Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität München, 13th June 1942, BArch, R135/27, Bl.151170. 32. Der Reichsforst- und Reichsjägermeister an Schäfer, 7th September 1939, BArch, R135/27, Bl.150977. 33. Letter to Keppler, BArch, NS19/2709, Bl.8. 34. BArch, R135/28. 35. See for instance Schäfer an die Schriftleitung der Zeitschrift „Der deutsche Jäger – das deutsche Waidwerk“, 6th July 1943, BArch, R135/28. 36. See for example BArch, R135/82 (‘Dr Schäfers Tibetfilm uraufgeführt’, Niedersächsische Tageszeitung). 37. Denkschrift über die erste SS-Tibetexpedition als Gemeinschaftsexpedition ... (1 March 1941), BArch, R135/47, Bl.164744. 38. Richtlinien für die Propaganda des Tibet-Films, BArch, R135/76, Bl.166354. 39. ‘Mit der Kamera im “Verbotenen Land” Tibet’, Der Neue Tag, 16th December 1942, BArch, R135/83. 40. ‘Geheimnis Tibet’, Münchner Neueste Nachrichten, 11th December 1942, BArch, R135/83. 41. “Für Volk und Rasse”, Anthropologische Arbeiten, BArch, R135/65, Bl.165609. 42. Andrew Zimmermann, ‘Looking Beyond History: The Optics of German Anthro- pology and the Critique of Humanism’, Studies in History and of Biology and Biomedical Sciences, 32:3 (2001), 386. 43. Ibid., 390. 44. ‘Warum heute besonders Tibetforschung?’, BArch, R135/66, Bl.165980. 45. Das Erhandeln ethnologischer Gegenstände in Tibet, BArch, R135/58, Bl.151682. 46. 26th February 1935, Archives of the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew (RBGK), FKW/1/3, p. 3. 224 Notes

47. 24th April 1935, RBGK, FKW/1/3, p. 41. 48. Frank Doggett Learner, Rusty Hinges: A Story of Closed Doors Beginning to Open in North-East Tibet (London: The China Inland Mission, 1933), 35. 49. Ibid. 50. Hans Queling, Im Lande des schwarzen Gletscher: eine Forscherfahrt nach Tibet (Frankfurt a.M.: Societäts-Verlag, 1937), 21. 51. Francis Kingdon Ward, The Loom of the East (London: Martin Hopkins Ltd., 1932), 15. 52. Hettie Dyhrenfurth, Memsahb im Himalaja (Leipzig: Verlag Deutsche Buch- werkstätten, 1931), 33. 53. Ibid., 22. 54. Entries for 22nd July and 24th August 1935, RBGK, FKW/1/4, pp. 26 & 52. 55. Entry for 17th March 1935, RBGK, FKW/1/3, p. 12. 56. Walter Boßhard, Durch Tibet und Turkistan: Reisen im unberührten Asien (Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder, 1930), 33. 57. Paul Bauer, The Siege of Nanga Parbat: 1856–1953 (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1956), 97. 58. Magnus Hirschfeld, Die Weltreise eines Sexualforschers (Brugg: Bözberg-Verlag, 1933), 222. 59. See Michael Roper and John Tosh (eds.), Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800 (London & New York: Routledge, 1991) – especially Kelly Boyd, ‘Know- ing Your Place: The Tensions of Manliness in Boys’ Story Papers, 1918–1939’, 145–167. 60. John Hanbury-Tracy, Black River of Tibet (London: Frederick Muller Ltd., 1938), 74 (see p. 7 for his mention of Hilton’s novel). 61. Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Objects (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983). 62. Roger Simpson, ‘St George and the Pendragon’, in Richard Utz and Tom Shippey (eds.), Medievalism in the Modern World. Essays in Honour of Leslie J. Workman (Turnhout: Brepols, 1998), 131–153; John Ruskin, Lectures on Architecture and Painting Delivered at Edinburgh in November, 1853 (London: Smith, Elder, and Co, 1854), 30. 63. Louis Grodecki, Gothic Architecture (London: Faber, 1978). 64. One of the few analyses is Stefan Goebel, The Great War and Medieval Memory: War, Remembrance and Medievalism in Britain and Germany, 1914–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 65. Julie Pridmore, ‘Reconstructing the Middle Ages: Some Victorian Medievalisms’, Kleio, 32 (2000), 93. 66. Dyhrenfurth, Memsahb im Himalaja, 28. 67. Rudolf Schwarzgruber, ‘The German Expedition to the Gangotri Glacier, 1938’, Himalayan Journal, 11 (1939), 144. 68. Hagenbeck and Ottmann, Südostasiatische Fahrten und Abenteuer, 125. 69. Sherry B. Ortner, Life and Death on Mt. Everest: Sherpas and Himalayan Mountaineering (Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press, 1999); Sherry B. Ortner, ‘Thick Resistance: Death and the Cultural Construction of Agency in Himalayan Mountaineering’, Representations, Special Issue: The Fate of ‘Culture’: Geertz and Beyond, 59 (1997), 135–162. 70. Ortner, Life and Death on Mt. Everest, 71. 71. 1938 Presseveröffentlichungen, Nr.1, DAV, Exp 2 SG 154. Notes 225

72. Ernst Grob, Ludwig Schmaderer and Herbert Paidar, Zwischen Kantsch und Tibet: Erstbesteigung des Tent-Peak, 7363m. Bildertagebuch einer neuen Sikkim-Kundfahrt 1939 der ‘Drei im Himalaja’ (München: Verlag F. Bruckmann, 1940), 10. 73. Manhanadur Sherpa to Paul Bauer, 20th December 1936, DAV, Exp 2 SG 179. 74. Paul Bauer, Um den Kantsch: der zweite deutsche Angriff auf den Kangchendzönga 1931 (München: Verlag Knorr & Hirth GmbH, 1933), 28. 75. Bruno Beger an Herrn Bibliotheksrat Dr. J. Schubert, 23rd June 1943, BArch, R 135/46, Bl.164458; Sven-Hedin-Institut an das Katholische Pfarramt Asperg, 7th May 1943, BArch, R 135/51, Bl.162123. 76. Bruno Beger an Herrn Bibliotheksrat Dr. J. Schubert, 23rd June 1943, BArch, R 135/46, Bl.164458. 77. Entry for 7 July 1937, Tagebuch Günther Hepp, DAV Exp 2 SG 189. 78. Alex McKay, ‘ “It Seems He Is an Enthusiast About Tibet”: Lieutenant-Colonel James Guthrie, OBE (1906–71)’, Journal of Medical Biography, 13 (2005), 134. 79. Claire Freeman, ‘Frederick Spencer Chapman’, in Clare Harris and Tsering Shakya (eds.), Seeing Lhasa (Chicago: Serindia, 2003), 144; Claire Freeman, ‘Charles Alfred Bell’, in Harris and Shakya (eds.), Seeing Lhasa, 141; Claire Freeman, ‘Hugh Edward Richardson’, in Harris and Shakya (eds.), Seeing Lhasa, 148. 80. Frederick Spencer Chapman, ‘Cabinet dinner, Dekyi Lingka’, 1998.131.414. 81. Lhasa Mission Diary for September 1939, The National Archives: Public Record Office (TNA:PRO), WO 208/1965. 82. Lhasa Mission Diary for June 1940, TNA:PRO, WO 208/1965. 83. Clare Harris, ‘Seeing Lhasa: British Photographic and Filmic Engagement with Tibet, 1936–1947’, in Harris and Shakya (eds.), Seeing Lhasa, 40; Shakya, ‘Cities and Thrones and Powers’, 89–91. See also Alex McKay, Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre 1904–1947 (New Delhi: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 2009), 83. 84. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2001). 85. Dyhrenfurth, Memsahb in Himalaja, 15.

7 From Religion to Spirituality

1. Indra Sengupta, From Salon to Discipline: State, University and Indology in Germany 1821–1914 (: Ergon, 2005). 2. Cited in , ‘Buddhism and Nineteenth-Century German Phi- losophy’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 42:3 (1981), 457. 3. B & R Hildebrandt and Christiane Knop (eds.), Gartenstadt Frohnau: Frohnauer Bürger erforschen ihren Ortsteil von der Gründung bis heute (Berlin: Haude & Spener, 1985), 31. 4. Buddhistischer Weltspiegel (1919–1920), cover. 5. Zeitschrift für Buddhismus (1921), 181. 6. Donald Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 47. 7. Sam van Schaik, Tibet: A History (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2011), 96. 8. Ibid., 59. 9. Helmut Hoffmann, ‘Zur Literatur der -po’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 19 (1940), New Series, 169. 226 Notes

10. DAAD Letter, 27:1 (2007), 14. 11. Krishna Dutta and Andrew Robinson (eds.), Selected Letters of (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 270. 12. Ibid., 271, note 2. For a more detailed exploration of Tagore’s reception, see Tom Neuhaus, ‘How Can a War Be Holy? Attitudes towards Eastern Spirituality’, in John A. Williams (ed.), Weimar Culture Revisited (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 121. 13. , Siddhartha: eine indische Dichtung (Berlin: S. Fischer, 1922). 14. Hermann Hesse, Das Glasperlenspiel: Versuch einer Lebensbeschreibung des Magister Ludi Josef Knecht samt Knechts hinterlassenen Schriften (Zürich: Fretz & Wasmuth, 1943). 15. Otfried von Hanstein, Der Klosterschüler von Taschi-Lunpo: ein mystischer Roman (Hamburg: Alster-Verlag, 1923). 16. Ibid., 149. 17. Ibid., 193. 18. Ibid., 194. 19. Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 13. 20. Ibid., 140–146; see also Rolf-Dieter Müller, ‘Total War as a Result of New Weapons? The Use of Chemical Agents in ’, in Roger Chickering and Stig Förster (eds.), Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914– 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 95–111. 21. Zara S. Steiner, The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), chs. 7 & 8. 22. Tsering Shakya, ‘Tibet and the League of Nations’, The Tibet Journal, 10:3 (1985), 48–56; Alex McKay, The History of Tibet, Vol. 3 (London: Routledge, 2003), 331. 23. Michael FitzGerald, Storm-Troopers of Satan: An Occult History of the Second World War (London: Robert Hale, 1990), 83–84. 24. Ferdinand A. Ossendowski, Beasts, Men and Gods (London: Edward Arnold, 1922, 1923), 314. 25. Ivan Narodny, ‘The Coming Golden Horde’, Asia, December 1936, 795. 26. Ibid., 798. 27. Ibid., 797. 28. Sven Hedin, Ossendowski und die Wahrheit (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1925), 3. 29. Ibid., 21. 30. Um Ferdinand Ossendowski: Ferdinand-Antoni Ossendowski, zur Authentizität, Prüfer und Zeugen, Nachwort (Frankfurt: Societäts-Verlag, 1925), 80–97. 31. Hedin, Ossendowski und die Wahrheit, 31. 32. Um Ferdinand Ossendowski, 77. 33. Alexandra David-Néel, Initiations and Initiates in Tibet (London: Rider & Co, 1931), 14. 34. Alexandra David-Néel, Magic and Mystery in Tibet (London: Souvenir Press, 1965), 200. 35. David-Néel, Initiations and Initiates, 110. 36. Ibid., 63. 37. Gustav Meyrink, Fledermäuse: Erzählungen, Fragmente, Aufsätze (München: Langen Müller, 1981), 53–67. 38. Ibid., 65. 39. Ibid., 67. Notes 227

40. Wolfgang Bohn, ‘Buddhismus und Geistes-Kultur der Gegenwart’, Zeitschrift für Buddhismus (1921), 3. 41. Patrick French, Younghusband: The Last Great Imperial Adventurer (London: Flamingo, 1995), ch. 20. 42. Francis E. Younghusband, Life in the Stars: An Exposition of the View that on Some Planets of Some Stars Exist Beings Higher Than Ourselves, and on One a World-Leader, the Supreme Embodiment of the Eternal Spirit Which Animates the Whole (London: J. Murray, 1927), 130. 43. Ibid., 4. 44. Quoted in French, Younghusband, 252. 45. Narodny, ‘The Coming Golden Horde’, 798. 46. Peter Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (London: Athlone, 1989), 211. 47. ‘The Hawthornden Prize’, The Times, 13 June 1934, 13. 48. David Stafford, Roosevelt and Churchill: Men of Secrets (London: Little, Brown and Company, 1999), 149. 49. John R. Hammond, Lost Horizon Companion: A Guide to the Novel and Its Characters, Critical Reception, Film Adaptations and Place in Popular Culture (Jefferson, NC & London: McFarland, 2008), 139. 50. Ibid., 148–149. 51. James Hilton, The Lost Horizon (Chichester, 1933, 2003), 73–74. 52. Ibid., 152. 53. Franklin D. Roosevelt, The Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt. 1937 Vol- ume: The Constitution Prevails, Samuel I. Rosenman (ed.) (London: Macmillan, 1941), 408. 54. Thomas Richards, ‘Archive and ’, Representations, 37 (1992), 130. For Richards, the novel represents ‘the end of the imperial public sphere’. 55. Hilton, The Lost Horizon, 150. 56. Ibid., 151–152. 57. Felicity Ehrlich, ‘James Hilton’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, accessed on www.odnb.co.uk. 58. Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cul- tural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Leonard V. Smith, ‘Paul Fussell’s The Great War and Modern Memory: Twenty-five Years Later’, History and Theory, 40:2 (2001), 241–260. While Fussell’s analysis of the war and ‘modern memory’ has criticized some of the more romanti- cizing elements of this myth, it has also been criticized for cementing other myths and meta-narratives about the war and for over-privileging the role of experience. 59. ‘Der Taschi Lama’, Hannoverscher Kurier, 7th December 1937, Bundesarchiv Berlin- Lichterfelde (Barch), R4902/6317. 60. ‘Tibet nach dem Tode des Dalai Lama in Erregung’, Neue Leipziger Zeitung, 22nd December 1933, BArch, R4902/3383. 61. Frank Doggett Learner, Rusty Hinges: A Story of Closed Doors Beginning to Open in North-East Tibet (London: The China Inland Mission, 1933), 54. 62. Ibid. 63. Frank Schnoor, Mathilde Ludendorff und das Christentum: eine radikale völkische Position in der Zeit der Weimarer Republik und des NS-Staates (Egelsbach: Hänsel- Hohenhausen AG, 2001). 228 Notes

64. J. Strunk, Zu Juda und Rom – Tibet. Ihr Ringen um die Weltherrschaft (München: Ludendorff-Verlag, 1937), 32. 65. Erich und Mathilde Ludendorff, Europa den Asiatenpriestern? (München: Ludendorff-Verlag, 1938), 17. 66. H. Rehwaldt, Vom Dach der Welt: Über die “Synthese aller Geisteskultur” in Ost und West (München: Ludendorff-Verlag, 1938), 38. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid., 5. 69. Ibid., 31–36. 70. Ibid., 32. 71. Strunk, Zu Juda und Rom – Tibet, 149. 72. Ibid., 40. 73. Ludendorff, Europa den Asiatenpriestern?, 31. 74. See discussion of Ferdinand Ossendowski and Hedin. 75. See for instance Gordon Osmaston, ‘Gangotri Triangulation’, Himalayan Journal, 11 (1939), 128; Geoffrey Corbett, ‘The Word Himalaya’, The Himalayan Journal,1 (1929), 84–86. 76. Theodore Illion, In Secret Tibet: In Disguise Amongst Lamas, Robbers, and Wise Men. A Key to the Mysteries of Tibet (London: Rider & Co, n.d. [1937]), 107; for com- ments on homosexuality made by the SS expedition, see ‘Homosexualität’, BArch, R135/57, Bl.151625-6. 77. Illion, In Secret Tibet, 150 – italics in original. 78. Theodore Illion, Darkness Over Tibet (London: Rider & Co, n.d. [1938]), 113. 79. Ibid., 49. 80. Rudolf Brandt to Ernst Schäfer, 10th July 1940, BArch, NS19/2709, Bl.55. 81. Illion, In Secret Tibet,ix. 82. Ibid., 178. 83. Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La, 225. 84. R. Hooykaas, Fact, Faith and Fiction in the Development of Science: The Gifford Lectures Given in the University of St Andrews 1976 (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999), 257–260. 85. F. David Peat, From Certainty to Uncertainty: The Story of Science and Ideas in the Twentieth Century (Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press, 2002), 40–42. 86. Ibid., 80–84.

8 Mountains and Men

1. John Hanbury-Tracy, Black River of Tibet (London: Frederick Muller Ltd., 1938), 1–2. 2. Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe 900–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986); Richard H. Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Eden Islands and the Origins of Environmentalism 1600–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Richard H. Grove, Ecology, Climate and Empire: Colonialism and Global Environ- mental History 1400–1940 (Cambridge: White Horse, 1997). 3. J. Gordon Hayes, The Conquest of the South Pole: Antarctic Exploration 1906–1931 (London: Thornton Butterworth Ltd., 1932), 295. 4. Archives of the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew (RBGK), FKW/2/13. 5. In addition to Kingdon Ward’s records in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, see Winifred Kingdon Ward, ‘The Flower Chief’, RBGK, FKW/2/25 and Charles Lyte, Notes 229

Frank Kingdon Ward: The Last of the Great Plant Hunters (London: J. Murray, 1989). 6. 17 June, RBGK, FKW/1/3, p. 73. 7. T.F.C., ‘The Riddle of the Tsangpo Gorges. F. Kingdon Ward. London, 1926’, The Geographical Journal, 69:2 (1927), 168. 8. R.K. ‘Plant hunter’s paradise. F. Kingdon Ward. London, 1937’, The Geographical Journal, 91:1 (1938), 70. 9. Michael McRae, In Search of Shangri-La: The Extraordinary True Story of the Quest for the Lost Horizon (London: Penguin, 2002), 35–68. 10. H.R. Davies, ‘The Tibetan Border’, The Geographical Journal, 63:3 (1924), 247. 11. T.F.C., ‘The Riddle of the Tsangpo Gorges’, 166–167. 12. Frank Doggett Learner, Rusty Hinges: A Story of Closed Doors Begin- ning to Open in North-East Tibet (London: The China Inland Mission, 1933), 155. 13. Wilhelm Filchner, : Meine China- und Tibetexpedition 1925/28 (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1929). 14. Wilhelm Filchner, Sturm über Asien: Erlebnisse eines diplomatischen Geheimagenten (Berlin: Neufeld & Henius, 1924); H. Lee Shuttleworth, ‘Wilhelm Filchner. Kumbum Dschamba Ling. Leipzig, 1933’, Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies (University of London), 7:2 (1934), 475; R.K., ‘Kartenwerk der erd- magnetischen Forschungsexpedition nach Zentral-Asien 1926–28. Zweiter Teil: Tibet II. By Wilhelm Filchner. Gotha, 1937’, The Geographical Review, 94:4 (1939), 341. 15. L.V.S.B., ‘Sturm über Asien: Erlebnisse eines diplomatischen Geheimagenten, her- ausgegeben von Wilhelm Filchner. Berlin, 1924’, The Geographical Journal, 64:5 (1924), 416; ‘Dr Wilhelm Filchner’, OIOC, IOR/L/P&S/12/4346. 16. Lewis Pyenson, Cultural Imperialism and Exact Sciences: German Expansion Overseas, 1900–1930 (New York: Peter Lang, 1985), 299. 17. Kaat Schulte-Fischedick and Terry Shinn, ‘International Phytogeographical Expe- ditions, 1911–1923: Intellectual Convergence in Vegetation Science’, in Elizabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn and Sverker Sörlin (eds.), Denationalizing Science: The Con- texts of International Scientific Practice (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publications, 1993), 124–125. 18. Andreas W. Daum, ‘Science, Politics, and Religion: Humboldtian Thinking and the Transformation of Civil Society in Germany, 1830–1870’, Osiris,17 (2002), 114. 19. Nirmolini V. Flora, ‘The Library of the Himalayan Club, a Unique Cultural Institution in Simla, 1928–1946’, Libraries & Culture, 38:4 (2003), 293. 20. Max Jones, The Last Great Quest: Captain Scott’s Antarctic Sacrifice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), chs. 1–2, esp. p. 87; Hayes, The Conquest of the South Pole, 295–302. 21. Alpine Club Library Himalayan Index, www.alpine-club.org.uk/hi/index.htm. 22. 17 March 1924, RBGK, FKW/1/1. 23. Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, In 1926: Living at the Edge of Time (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 136; René Schickele, Maria Capponi: Roman (München: Kurt Wolff Verlag, 1927), 16–33. 24. Arthur Hinks to Sir Frank Heath, 14 March 1922, The National Archives: Public Record Office (TNA: PRO), DSIR/3/254, no. 1. 25. ‘Lessons from Everest. Sir on the expedition. The last 1,000 feet’, The Times, 26 June 1934, 16. 230 Notes

26. Peter H. Hansen, ‘Vehicle Boundaries, National Identities: British Mountaineering on the Frontiers of Europe and the Empire, 1868–1914’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 24:1 (1996), 65. 27. Vibrac Steel Cylinders for the Mount Everest Committee – documents supplied by Mr P./J.H. Unna, TNA: PRO, DSIR/36/421, no. 20. 28. Arthur Hinks to DSIR, 5 May 1922, TNA: PRO, DSIR/3/254. 29. Richard Finsterwalder, Die geodätischen und photogrammetischen Aufgaben der Deutschen Himalaja-Expedition 1934 (Berlin: Wichmann, 1934), 4. 30. Ibid., 5. 31. Karl und Schneider. Erdkunde für höhere Schulen. Heft 4: Die Ostfeste (ohne Europa) (Frankfurt: Verlag Moritz Diesterweg, 1937), 74. 32. Filchner-Geistbeck. Erdkunde für höhere Schulen. Ausgabe A. Sechster Teil: Länderkunde der außereuropäischen Erdteile (Wiederholungskurs). Vergleichende Übersicht der wichi- gen Verkehrs- und Handelswege bis zur Gegenwart. Allgemeine (physische) Erdkunde (Berin & München: Verlag von R. Oldenbourg, 1911), 14–15. 33. ‘Everest Fliers Narrow Escape’, News Chronicle, London, 6 April 1933, TNA:PRO AVIA 13/309. 34. David Biggs, ‘Aerial Photography and Its Role in Shifting Colonial Discourse on Peasants and Land Management in Late-Colonial Indochina, 1930–1945’, paper given at the conference ‘Colonialism, Postcolonialism and the Environment’ at the German Historical Institute, Washington, D.C., 5th–6th May 2006. 35. David E. Omissi, Air Power and Colonial Control. The Royal Air Force 1919–1939 (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1990). 36. Finsterwalder, Die geodätischen und photogrammetischen Aufgaben der Deutschen Himalaja-Expedition 1934,8. 37. ‘Everest fliers’ narrow escape’, News Chronicle, 6 April 1933, TNA: PRO, AVIA 13/309. 38. C.J. Stewart to Air Ministry, 4th January 1933, TNA:PRO AVIA 13/309. 39. Theodore Illion, In Secret Tibet: In Disguise Amongst Lamas, Robbers, and Wise Men. A Key to the Mysteries of Tibet (London: Rider & Co, n.d. [1937]), 27. 40. Henrietta Sands Merrick, Spoken in Tibet (New York & London: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1933), v. 41. See Dea Birkett, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Travellers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989); Jane Robinson, Unsuitable for Ladies: An Anthology of Women Travellers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Karen M. Morin, ‘British Women Trav- ellers and Constructions of Racial Difference Across the Nineteenth-Century American West’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 23:3 (1998), 311–330. 42. Hettie Dyhrenfurth, Memsahb im Himalaja (Leipzig: Verlag Deutsche Buchwerk- stätten, 1931), 13. 43. Ibid., 16. 44. Ibid., 38. 45. Ibid., 42. 46. Paul Bauer, The Siege of Nanga Parbat: 1856–1953 (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1956), 36–39. 47. Elizabeth Knowlton, The Naked Mountain (New York & London: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1933), 27 & 110. 48. Sherry B. Ortner, Life and Death on Mt Everest: Sherpas and Himalayan Mountaineering (Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press, 1999), 46–49. Notes 231

49. Archiv des Deutschen Alpenverein (DAV), Exp 2 SG 156. 50. DAV Exp 2 SG 166. 51. DAV Exp 2 SG 182. 52. DAV Exp 2 SG 163. 53. Entwurf für DNB, 1st August 1938, DAV, Exp 2 SG 169. 54. Presseveröffentlichung Nr.1, DAV, Exp 2 SG 154. 55. Paul Bauer, ‘Nanga Parbat, 1937’, The Himalayan Journal, 10 (1938), 145. 56. Ute Frevert, Die kasernierte Nation: Militärdienst und Zivilgesellschaft in Deutschland (München: C.H. Beck, 2001). 57. Jay W. Baird, To Die for Germany. Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990), 4 & 40. 58. Quoted in Baird, To Die for Germany,9. 59. Hanbury-Tracy, Black River of Tibet,5. 60. Walter Boßhard, Durch Tibet und Turkistan: Reisen im unberührten Asien (Stuttgart: Strecker und Schröder, 1930), xiii. 61. Ibid., 239. 62. James Hilton, The Lost Horizon (Chichester: Summersdale, 1933, 2003), 42. 63. Ibid., 121. 64. Ibid., 66. 65. Hanbury-Tracy, Black River of Tibet, 24. 66. Entry for 11th May 1937, DAV, Exp 2 SG 189. 67. Friedrich Wilhelm Henning, ‘Stadtplanerische Uberlegungen in der Zwischen- kriegszeit – dargestellt anhand des Planes von Hans Bernhard Reichow für Stettin’, in Hans-Jürgen Teuteberg (ed.), Stadtwachstum, Industrialisierung, Sozialer Wandel: Beiträge zur Erforschung der Urbanisierung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1986), 210–215. See also Rodney Lowe, ‘Riches, Poverty, and Progress’, in Keith Robbins (ed.), The British Isles 1901–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 220; Mark Swenarton, Homes Fit for Heroes: The Politics and Architecture of Early State Housing in Britain (London: Heinemann Educational, 1981). 68. Paul Bauer (ed.), Himalayan Quest: The German Expeditions to Siniolchum and Nanga Parbat (London: Nicholson and Watson Ltd., 1938), 3. 69. This debate has been analysed in Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technol- ogy, Culture and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 1–2. 70. David Blackbourn, The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape and the Making of Modern Germany (London: Jonathan Cape, 2006), 239–249. 71. Gert Gröning, ‘Landschaftsarchitekur und Nationalsozialismus. Immer noch ein unbequemes Thema im angehenden 20. Jahrhundert’, in Werner Lorenz and Torsten Meyer (eds.), Technik und Verantwortung im Nationalsozialismus (Münster: Waxmann, 2004), 35. 72. Frank Uekoetter, The Green and the Brown: A History of Conservation in Nazi Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 169. 73. Ernst Grob and Ludwig Schmaderer, Drei im Himalaja. Die Erlebnisse einer Himalajafahrt (München: Verlag F. Bruckmann, 1938), 3. 74. Ibid., 41. 75. Frederick Smythe, The Adventure (London: Victor Gollancz, 1930), 14. 76. Abrechnung der auf der 3.Tibet-Expedition mitgeführten Devisen in Höhe von RM 70.000, BArch, R135/5, Bl.150169; Gesamt-Abrechnung: Gegenüberstellung 232 Notes

aller Einnahmen und Ausgaben der 3. Tibet-Expedition, BArch, R135/5, Bl.150165; Expeditionsausrüstungsgegenstände, BArch, R135/5, Bl.150167. 77. View along Chumbi Valley, 1998.131.121, The Tibet Album (http://tibet.prm. ox.ac.uk); Distant view of Lhasa taken from a mountain south of the city, 1998.131.224. 78. ‘View of mountains Champithang’, 1999.23.1.12.7, The Tibet Album; Heinrich Hoffmann, Hitler in seinen Bergen. 86 Bilddokumente aus der Umgebung des Führers (Berlin: Zeitgeschichte, 1935). 79. ‘View from Drepung’, BMR.86.1.65.2, The Tibet Album. 80. Heimat und Welt. Band 3: Afrika – Asien – Australien (Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner, 1940), 100–102. 81. ‘Frankfurter Kino-Chronik’, Frankfurter Zeitung, 13th February 1943, BArch, R135/85; for background information on the Frankfurter Zeitung,seeOronJ.Hale, The Captive Press in the Third Reich (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964), 289–291. 82. Illion, In Secret Tibet, 39–40. 83. Lost Horizon (Frank Capra, 1937); Giles Velarde, Designing Exhibitions: Museums, Heritage, Trade and World Fairs (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001). 84. ‘New Films in London’, The Times, 19th April, 1937, 12.

9 Coping with Loss

1. Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947 (London: Pimlico, 1999), 1. 2. Melvyn C. Goldstein, The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 47. 3. Mr James Godfrey, Virginia Water, Surrey, January 1950, TNA:PRO FO371/84451. 4. R.H. Scott, Foreign Office, ‘Communist Designs in Tibet’, TNA:PRO, FO 371/76314; Basil Gould to Blackham, Far Eastern Department, 26 September 1949, TNA:PRO, FO 371/76314. 5. Special Report No. 72, , by G.D. Addison, TNA:PRO FO371/92871. 6. J.H.S. Shattock to Commonwealth Relations Office, 10 December 1949, TNA:PRO FO371/76314. 7. Report by Mr Pilcher on his visit to Burma, Siam, Indonesia, Indochina, China, , the Philippines, the Special Commissioner’s Office at Singapore, Tibet and , TNA:PRO FO 953/320. 8. Peter Calvocoressi, World Politics 1945–2000 (Harlow: Longman, 1968, 2000), 402. 9. J.L. Taylor, ‘Arms for Tibet’, 26 January 1950, TNA:PRO FO371/84465. 10. R.H. Scott, 10 January 1950, TNA:PRO FO371/84451. 11. Ibid. 12. Shakya, Dragon in the Land of Snows, 26. 13. Tobgye to Ludlow, 12 March 1952, DF 406/8. 14. Ibid. 15. Much more significant changes occurred from the late 1950s onwards. 16. ‘Geography and the Standard of Living’, 1951, RBGK, FKW/2/27, p. 36. 17. ‘This, as the Biologist Sees It, is a Tribal War’, 2 October 1940, RBGK, FKW/2/27. 18. Günther Schulemann, Geschichte der Dalai Lamas (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1958), 8. 19. Ibid. Notes 233

20. M. Hermanns, Mythen und Mysterien. Magie und Religion der Tibeter (Köln: Verlag Balduin Pick, 1956), 8. 21. Phag Tsering, Gangtok, Sikkim to Frank Ludlow, Archives of the Natural History Museum London (NHM), DF 406/8. 22. L.H.J. Williams, ‘British Naturalists in Nepal’, The Times, 24 January 1953, NHM, DF 1004/CP/369. 23. George Taylor, Keeper of Botany, British Museum (Natural History), to Janaki Ammal, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 11 March 1954, NHM, DF 1004/CP/369. 24. Maurice Herzog, Annapurna: Conquest of the First 8000-Metre Peak (London: Jonathan Cape, 1952), 28. 25. Ibid. 26. Tenzin Norgay, Man of Everest, the Autobiography of Tenzing, Told to James Ramsey Ullmann (London: Harrap, 1955), 15. 27. Ibid., 19. 28. Ralp Izzard, The Innocent on Everest (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1954), 75. 29. Norgay, Man of Everest, 28. 30. Ibid., 187. 31. Ibid., 16. 32. Berkeley Gray, The Lost World of Everest (London & Glasgow: The Children’s Press, n.d.), 51. 33. Ibid., 146–147. 34. Ibid., 129–130. 35. Guardian, 7 July 1942; Daily Express, 1 October 1947. Thanks go to Amanda Behm (Centre for History & Economics) for these references. 36. E.M. Forster, A Passage to India (London: E. Arnold & Co, 1924). 37. Wendy Webster, ‘Domesticating the Frontier: Gender, Empire and Adventure Landscapes in British Cinema, 1945–1959’, Gender & History, 15:1 (2003), 92–94. 38. See Panikos Panayi (ed.), The Impact of Immigration: A Documentary History of the Effects and Experiences of Immigrants in Britain Since 1945 (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1999); Robert Winder, Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain (London: Little, Brown, 2004); Chris Waters, ‘ “Dark Strangers in Our Midst”: Discourses of Race and Nation in Britain, 1947–1963’, The Journal of British Studies, 36:2 (1997), 207–238. 39. Showell Styles, The Lost Glacier (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1955), 63. 40. Gray, The Lost World of Everest, 119. 41. Styles, The Lost Glacier, 19. 42. J.A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School (London: Frank Cass, 2000), 103–110. 43. Showell Styles, Kami the Sherpa (Leicester: Brockhampton Press, 1957), 65. 44. Neil Buckley, Stuart in Tibet (London: George Newnes Limited, 1949), 182. 45. Ibid., 189. 46. Ibid., 236. 47. TNA:PRO FO953/320. 48. Ibid. 49. John J. Sbrega, Anglo-American Relations and Colonialism in East Asia, 1941–1945 (New York & London: Garland Publishing Inc, 1983), 196–197. 50. Karl Maria Herrligkoffer, Nanga Parbat 1953 (München: J.F. Lehmann’s Verlag, 1953), 4. 51. Ibid., 129. 234 Notes

52. Peter H. Hansen, ‘Confetti of Empire: The Conquest of Everest in Nepal, India, Britain and New Zealand’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 42:2 (2000), 314–328. 53. Norgay, Man of Everest, 28. 54. Ibid., 277. 55. Philip Gibbs, The New Elizabethans (London: Hutchinson, 1953), 216; also see A.L. Rowse, A New Elizabeth Age?: Presidential Address 1952, The English Association (London: Oxford University Press, 1952). 56. John Colville, The New Elizabethans, 1952–1977 (London: Collins, 1977), 15. 57. Douglas Valder Duff, On the World’s Roof (London & Glasgow: Blackie & Son, n.d.), 19. 58. Bertolt Brecht, Das Leben des Galilei, 2nd ed. (London: Heinemann, 1981). 59. Ruth Brandon, The Burning Question: The Anti-Nuclear Movement Since 1945 (London: Heinemann, 1987), 17. 60. James P. Collins, ‘Evolutionary Ecology and the Use of Natural Selection in Eco- logical Theory’, Journal of the History of Biology, 19:2 (1986), 259; K.J. Korfiatis and G.P. Stamou, ‘Emergence of New Fields in Ecology: The Case of Life History Studies’, History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 16 (1994), 97; Wolfgang Rüdig, Anti-Nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy (Marlow: Longman, 1990), 114. 61. Ibid., 119. 62. Herzog, Annapurna, 287. 63. Ardito Desio, Ascent of K2, Second Highest Peak in the World, transl. David Moore (London: Elek Books, 1955), 11. 64. Ibid., 12. 65. Hermann Buhl, Nanga Parbat Pilgrimage (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1956), 12. 66. Ibid., 299. 67. Peter L. Bayers, Imperial Ascent: Mountaineering, Masculinity, and Empire (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2003), ch. 5. 68. Edmund Hillary, High Adventure (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1955), 210. 69. Buhl, Nanga Pargbat Pilgrimage, 332. 70. Norgay, Man of Everest, 270. 71. John Hunt, The Ascent of Everest (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1993), 210. 72. Hergé, Tintin au Tibet (Paris: Casterman, 1960), 57. 73. Brian Hodgson, ‘On the Mammalia of Nepal’, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1:8 (1932), 339. 74. Bernard Heuvelmans, On the Track of Unknown Animals, rev. ed. (London & New York: Kegan Paul International, 1955, 1995), 150–151. 75. Ibid., 165, 194. 76. Ibid., 188 – see also Charles Stonor, The Sherpa and the Snowman (London: Hollis & Cater, 1955). 77. Heuvelmans, On the Track of Unknown Animals, 184. 78. Ibid., 149–150. 79. NHM, DF1004/1, 3. 80. Ralph Izzard, The Abominable Snowman Adventure (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1955), 265. 81. Norgay, Man of Everest, 96. 82. Heuvelmans, On the Track of Unknown Animals, 151. 83. C.R. Cooke, ‘ Country’, Mankind Quarterly, 15:3 (1975), 185. 84. Heuvelmans, On the Track of Unknown Animals, 187. Notes 235

Conclusion and Epilogue

1. Wang Lixiong, ‘Reflections on Tibet’, in Wang Lixiong and Tsering Shakya (eds.), The Struggle for Tibet (London & New York: Verso, 2009), 53. 2. Ibid., 63. 3. Kam-yee Law, The Chinese Cultural Revolution Reconsidered: Beyond Purge and Holo- caust (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Woei Lien Chong (ed.), China’s Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution: Master Narratives and Post-Mao Counter Nar- ratives (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002); Michael Schoenhals (ed.), China’s Cultural Revolution, 1966–69: Not a Dinner Party (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996). 4. Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947 (London: Pimlico, 1999), 311–312. 5. Peter Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (London: Athlone, 1989), 240. 6. See Odd Arne Westad, Brothers in Arms: The Rise and Fall of the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1945–1963 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998); D.C. O’Brien, Zhou Enlai and Normalization of Sino-American Relations (Ft Belvoir: Defense Technical Information Centre, 1995). 7. Donald Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West (Chicago & London: Chicago University Press, 1998), 71–78. 8. Cited in Sam van Schaik, Tibet: A History (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2011), 253. 9. Ibid., 253–254. 10. Wolff-Dietrich Webler, ‘The Sixties and the Seventies: Aspects of Student Activism in West Germany’, Higher Education, 9:2 (1980), 157–158. See Timothy S. Brown, ‘AHR Forum: “1968” East and West: Divided Germany as a Case Study in Transnational History’, American Historical Review, 114:1 (2009), 75, for a more sympathetic take. 11. Shakya, TheDragonintheLandofSnows, 394–398. 12. ‘Tibet receives record number of tourists in the first nine months’, http:// news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/14/content_12231725.htm, last accessed 31 May 2011. 13. Maurice Isserman and Stewart Weaver, Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008), 398–453. 14. ‘Introducing Tibet’, on http://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/tibet, accessed 20 June 2011. 15. Ivan G. Pawson et al., ‘Growth of Tourism in Nepal’s Everest Region: Impact on the Physical Environment and Structure of Human Settlements’, Moun- tain Research and Development, 4:3 (1984), 242–244; Brent Bishop and Chris Naumann, ‘Reclamation of the World’s Highest Junk Yard’, Mountain Research and Development, 16:3 (1996), 323–327. 16. Marc Blecher, ‘China in 2008: Meeting Olympian Challenges’, Asian Survey, 49:1 (2009), 77. 17. For some background information on Annaud’s movie, see Orville Schell, Visual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2000). 18. Jon Krakauer, Into Thin Air: A Personal Account of the Mount Everest Disaster (New York: Villard, 1997). 19. ‘Mission Statement’, on www.freetibet.org/contact, accessed 30 April 2011. 236 Notes

20. ‘Fact vs Myth’, on http://www.sftuk.org/about-tibet/fact-vs-myth – last accessed 4 May 2011. 21. Martin Brauen, Traumwelt Tibet: Westliche Trugbilder (Bern: Paul Haupt, 2000), 176–217. 22. Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-La, 181–207. For a critical view of this, see John Powers, History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles Versus the People’s Republic of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 151–152. 23. Richard J. Evans has recently explored motivations amongst British historian for studying European history and found that – however anecdotal – such issues do play a role into steering scholars towards certain fields of study. See Richard J. Evans, Cosmopolitan Islanders: British Historians and the European Continent (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). 24. Dibyesh Anand, Geopolitical Exotica: Tibet in Western Imagination (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 98–102. 25. Schell, Virtual Tibet,7. 26. See also Tsering Shakya, ‘Blood in the Snows’, in Wang Lixiong and Tsering Shakya (eds.), The Struggle for Tibet (London & New York: Verso, 2009), 109. 27. See Alexandra Harney, The China Price: The True Cost of Chinese Competitive Advan- tage (New York: Penguin Press, 2008); Duncan Hewitt, Getting Rich First: Life in a Changing China (London: Vintage, 2008). 28. See for instance Magnus Fiskesjö, ‘Politics of Cultural Heritage’, in You-tien Hsing and Ching Kwan Lee (eds.), Reclaiming Chinese Society: The New Social Activism (London & New York: Routledge, 2010), 225–245; Richard Kraus, ‘The Politics of Art Repatriation: Nationalism, State Legitimation, and Beijing’s Looted Zodiac Animal Heads’, in Peter Hays Gries and Stanley Rosen (eds.), Chinese Politics: State, Society and the Market (London & New York: Routledge, 2010), 199–221; Hong Lu and Terance D. Miethe, China’s Death Penalty: History, Law, and Contemporary Practices (Abingdon & New York, 2007), esp. 1–3. 29. Shakya, ‘Blood in the Snows’, 112. 30. Warren W. Smith Jr., China’s Tibet: Autonomy or Assimilation (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 291. 31. ‘The Dalai Lama Resigns: So Long, Farewell’, The Economist, 14 March 2011. 32. Blecher, ‘China in 2008’, 77. See also Ye Jun, ‘Lhasa Riot Reports Show Media Bias in West’, China Daily, 22 March 2008, accessed at http://www.chinadaily.com. cn/china/v2008-03/22/content_6557738.html; Christian Stöcker, ‘Tibet-Debatte im Internet: Schlachtfeld der tausend Wahrheiten’, Der Spiegel, 20 March 2008, accessed at http://www.spiegel.de/netwelt/web/0,1518,druck-542545,00.html. 33. See for instance Erik Lundsgaarde, Christian Breunig and Aseem Prakash, ‘Trade Versus Aid: Donor Generosity in an Era of Globalization’, Policy Sciences, 40:2 (2007), 169. Bibliography

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Articles B., L.V.S., ‘Sturm über Asien: Erlebnisse eines diplomatischen Geheimagenten, heraus- gegeben von Wilhelm Filchner. Berlin, 1924’, The Geographical Journal, 64:5 (1924), 415–416. Bauer, Paul, ‘Nanga Parbat, 1937’, The Himalayan Journal, 10 (1938), 145–158. Bohn, Wolfgang, ‘Buddhismus und Geistes-Kultur der Gegenwart’, Zeitschrift für Buddhismus (1921). C., T.F., ‘The Riddle of the Tsangpo Gorges. F Kingdon Ward. London, 1926’, The Geographical Journal, 69:2 (1927), 166–168. Cooke, C.R., ‘Yeti Country’, Mankind Quarterly, 15:3 (1975), 178–192. Cooper, T.T., ‘Travels in Western China and Eastern Thibet’, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 14:6 (1870), 335–346. Corbett, Geoffrey, ‘The Word Himalaya’, The Himalayan Journal, 1 (1929), 84–86. Davies, H.R., ‘The Tibetan Border’, The Geographical Journal, 63:3 (1924), 247–249. Dunlap, Knight, ‘The Great Aryan Myth’, The Scientific Monthly, 59:4 (1944), 296–300. Francke, AuGust Hermann, ‘Das tibetische Pronominalsystem’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 61 (1907), 439–440. ———, ‘Kleine archäologische Erträge einer Missionsreise nach Zangskar in Westtibet’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 60 (1906), 645–662. ———, ‘Musikalische Studien in Westtibet’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 59 (1905), 91–104. Hodgson, Brian, ‘On the Mammalia of Nepal’, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1:8 (1932). Hoffmann, Helmut, ‘Zur Literatur der Bon-po’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 19 (1940), 169–188. Hunt, John and Hillary, Edmund, ‘The Ascent of Mount Everest’, The Geographical Journal, 119:4 (1953), 384–399. K., R., ‘Kartenwerk der erdmagnetischen Forschungsexpedition nach Zentral-Asien 1926–28. Zweiter Teil: Tibet II. By Wilhelm Filchner. Gotha, 1937’, The Geographical Review, 94:4 (1939), 341–342. 246 Bibliography

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Films 2012 (Roland Emmerich, 2009). Batman Begins (Christopher Nolan, 2005). Black Narcissus (Michael Powell & Emeric Pressburger, 1947). Himalaya: l’enfance d’un chef (Eric Valli, 1999). Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (Steven Spielberg, 1984). Kundun (Martin Scorsese, 1997). Lost Horizon (Frank Capra, 1937). Lost Horizon (Charles Jarrott, 1973). Samsara (Pan Nalin, 2000). Seven Years in Tibet (Jean-Jacques Annaud, 1997).

Website www.alpine-club.org.uk/hi/index.htm (Alpine Club Library Himalayan Index). www.buddhistisches-haus.de (Buddhistisches House, Berlin-Frohnau). www.prm.ox.ac.uk/tvh.html (Pitt Rivers Museum – Tibet Visual History Online). www.studentsforafreetibet.org (Students for a Free Tibet, UK). www.tibet.com (Tibetan Government-in-Exile). www.tibet.org (Tibet Support Group). www.voelkerkunde-herrnhut.de (Völkerkundemuseum Herrnhut). www.xinhuanet.com (Xinhua News). www.wilsoncenter.org (Cold War International History Project).

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Altena, Torsten, ‘Ein Häuflein Christen mitten in der Heidenwelt des dunklen Erdteils’: Zum Selbst- und Fremdverständnis protestantischer Missionare im kolonialen Afrika 1884–1918 (Münster: Waxmann, 2003). Ames, Eric, Klotz, Marcia and Wildenthal, Lora (eds.), Germany’s Colonial Pasts (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 2005). Anand, Dibyesh, Geopolitical Exotica: Tibet in the Western Imagination (Minneapolis & London: University of Minnesota Press, 2007). Andreyev, Alexandre, Soviet Russia and Tibet: The Debacle of Secret Diplomacy, 1918– 1930s (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2003). Atwood, Craig D., Community of the Cross: Moravian Piety in Colonial Bethlehem (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004). Baer, G.W., The Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967). Baird, Jay W., To Die for Germany. Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). Bates, Robert H., Mystery, Beauty, and Danger:The Literature of the Mountains and Moun- tain Climbing Published in English Before 1946 (Portsmouth, NH: Peter E. Randall, 2000). Bayers, Peter L., Imperial Ascent: Mountaineering, Masculinity, and Empire (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2003). Bechhofer-Roberts, C.E., The Mysterious Madame: A Life of Madame Blavatsky by ‘Ephesian’ (London: John Lane the Bodley Head Ltd., 1931). Benedict, Barbara M., Curiosity: A Cultural History of Early Modern Inquiry (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2001). Birkett, Dea, Spinsters Abroad: Victorian Lady Travellers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989). Bishop, Peter, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (London: Athlone Press, 1989). Blackbourn, David, The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape and the Making of Modern Germany (London: Jonathan Cape, 2006). Brandon, Ruth, The Burning Question: The Anti-Nuclear Movement Since 1945 (London: Heinemann, 1987). Brantlinger, Patrick, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism 1830–1914 (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press, 1988). Brauen, Martin, Traumwelt Tibet: Westliche Trugbilder (Bern: Paul Haupt, 2000). Bray, John, The Himalayan Mission: Moravian Church Centenary (Leh: Moravian Church, 1985). Brooks, Chris, The Gothic Revival (London: Phaidon, 1999). Brown, Judith M., Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). Cain, P.J. and Hopkins, A.G., British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914 (London: Longman, 1993). Calvocoressi, Peter, World Politics 1945–2000 (Harlow: Longman, 1968, 2000). Cannadine, David, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (London: Penguin, 2001). Castle, Cathryn, Britannias’s Children: Reading Colonialism Through Children’s Books and Magazines (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 1996). Chickering, Roger, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). Chong, Woei Lien (ed.), China’s Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution: Master Nar- ratives and Post-Mao Counternarratives (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002). 248 Bibliography

Chopra, P.N., Social, Cultural and Political History of Tibet (New Delhi: Criterion Publications, 1989). Colville, John, The New Elizabethans, 1952–1977 (London: Collins, 1977). Cranston, Sylvia, HPB: The Extraordinary Life and Influence of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Founder of the Modern Theosophical Movement (New York: Putnam, 1993). Crosby, Alfred W., Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe 900–1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). Darwin, John, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System 1830–1970 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). de Rachewiltz, Igor, Prester John and Discovery of East Asia (Canberra: Australian National University Press Europe’s, 1972). Dodin, Thierry and Räther, Heinz (eds.), Imagining Tibet: Perceptions, Projections and Fantasies (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2001). Douglas, Ed., Chomolungma Sings the Blues: Travels Round Everest (London: Constable, 1997). Driver, Felix, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001). Edwardes, Michael, Playing the Great Game: A Victorian Cold War (London: Hamilton, 1975). Ellis, Reuben, Vertical Margins: Mountaineering and the Landscapes of Neoimperialism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001). Evans, Richard J., Cosmopolitan Islanders: British Historians and the European Continent (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009). ———, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830–1910 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987). Fabian, Johannes, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes Its Objects (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983). Feigon, Lee, Demystifying Tibet: Unlocking the Secrets of the Land of Snows (Chicago: I.R. Dee, 1996). FitzGerald, Michael, Storm-troopers of Satan: An Occult History of the Second World War (London: Robert Hale, 1990). Fleming, Peter, Bayonets to Lhasa: The First Full Account of the British Invasion of Tibet in 1904 (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1961). Freegood, Elaine, Victorian Writing about Risk: Imagining a Safe England in a Dangerous World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). French, Patrick, Younghusband: The Last Great Imperial Adventurer (London: Flamingo, 1995). Frevert, Ute, Die kasernierte Nation: Militärdienst und Zivilgesellschaft in Deutschland (München: C.H. Beck, 2001). Friedrichsmeyer, Sara, Lennox, Sara and Zantop, Susanne (eds.), The Imperialist Imagi- nation: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998). Fuller, Jean Overton, Blavatsky and Her Teachers: An Investigative Biography (London: East-West Publications, 1988). Fussell, Paul, The Great War and Modern Memory, 25th Anniversary Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). Gallagher, Christine and Greenblatt, Stephen, Practising New Historicism (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 2001). Gallagher, John, The Decline, Revival and Fall of the British Empire ed. Anil Seal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982) Bibliography 249

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Note: The letter ‘n’ followed by the locator represents note numbers.

Abominable snowman, see Yeti Chumbi Valley, 33–5, 161 Abor expedition, 86 Cold War, 167–8, 200, 202 Ankenbrand, Ludwig, 122 Cooke, C.R., 187 Anthropology, 39, 42, 69, 70, 103, Curzon, George Nathaniel, 31–4, 85, 92 105–8, 110–13, 119, 120, 138, 144, 173, 176 Dahlke, Ernst, 121–2 Aryan race theory, 63, 72, 103–8, Dalai Lama, 8, 24–5, 31–2, 34, 37, 53–4, 112, 138 86, 87, 93, 98, 99, 135, 143, 171, 172, 178, 193–6, 201 Batman Begins (film), 197 , 3, 28, 80, 99, 114 Bauer, Paul, 95, 114, 117, 153, 154, David-Néel, Alexandra, 129, 137, 139 157, 182 Decolonization, 10, 18, 167, 171, Bavaria, 94, 118, 181, 190 176–81, 188 Beger, Bruno, 7, 96, 99, 105–8, 111, 117 Deng Xiaoping, 195, 201 Beijing, 54, 196, 200, 201 Desio, Ardito, 182 Bell, Charles A., 89–90, 92, 100, 118 Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, 108 Betham, Geoffrey, 97 Dharamsala, 53 Bhutan, 2, 26, 31, 58, 168 Dorjeff, Agvan, 31 Bista, Major (Nepalese Resident), 119 Duff, Douglas Valder, 181 Blavatsky, H.P., 6, 63–5, 104, 122, 189, Dyhrenfurth, Hettie, 113, 119, 152–3 197 Boßhard, Walter, 114, 156 Evans-Wentz, Walter Yeeling, 122 Bogle, George, 4, 12, 34, 36 Everest, Sir George, 73 Bohmers, Assien, 108 Bohn, Wolfgang, 122 Bordjal, 117 Feudalism, allegations of, 39, 61, 101, Botanical Survey of India, 173 115, 143, 178, 189, 190, 198 Botany, 7, 16, 69, 79, 94, 110, 112, Filchner, Wilhelm, 7, 97–8, 147–8, 149, 145–7, 170, 173, 197 150, 151 Brahmaputra, see Tsangpo Finsterwalder, Richard, 150–1 Brandt, Rudolf, 140 First World War, 42, 88–90, 91, 130–4, British Museum (Natural History), 173 159, 192 Buddhistischer Weltspiegel, 122 Francke, August Hermann, 42–3, 56 Buhl, Hermann, 180, 182–3 Free Tibet, 197 Burma, 91, 145, 157 Frohnau, 121–2

Campbell-Bannerman, Henry, 32 Gabet, Joseph, 5 Catholicism, 56–7, 59, 62–3, 67, 81, Geer, Edmund, 105 135, 191 Gould, Sir Basil, 7, 93, 119 Cawdor, Lord, 147 Gray, Berkeley, 175, 177 Chapman, Frederick Spencer, 118, 161 Great Game, 29–33, 109 China Inland Mission, 112, 135, 147 Grimm, Georg, 122 Chomolungma, see Mt. Everest Grob, Ernst, 117, 158

261 262 Index

Gueth, Anton Walter Florus, see Kangchenjunga, 68, 73, 79, 95, 113, 152, 158 Gyantse, 3, 32–3, 85, 90, 100 , 3 Kaulback, Ronald, 94, 114 Hagenbeck, John, 103, 116 Kazi U-gyen, 31 Hanbury-Tracy, John, 114, 143, 155, 157 Keyserling, Count Hermann, 123 Hanstein, Otfried von, 125, 130 Kim (book), 17, 30, 137 Hardinge, Charles (Viceroy of India), 31 Kingdon Ward, Frank, 7, 16, 94, 112–13, Harrer, Heinrich, 196, 200 134, 145–7, 149, 171–2, 197 Hedin, Sven, 37, 98, 127–9, 139, 150 Kipling, Rudyard, 17, 30–1, 137, 179 Hepp, Günther, 94, 118, 157 Kircher, Athanasius, 5, 55 Hermanns, M., 172 Kissinger, Henry, 194 Herodotus, 4 Knowlton, Elizabeth, 152–3 Herrligkoffer, Karl Maria, 8 Koeppen, Friedrich, 6, 60–1 Herrnhut, see Moravian mission Körös, Csoma de, 41 Herzog, Maurice, 8, 173–4, 182 Krakauer, John, 196 Hesse, Hermann, 124–5 Krause, Ernst, 7, 96, 105, 106, 107, 159, Heuvelmans, Bernard, 187 160 Heyde, August Wilhelm, 40–1 Kundun (film), 196 Hillary, Edmund, 8, 174, 180, 183–4 Kyelang, 40–1, 55–6 Hilton, James, 17, 114, 132–5, 139, 156–7, 162, 172 Lachenal, Louis, 8 Himalaya, l’enfance d’un chef (film), 197 Ladakh, 2, 3, 5, 9, 39, 40–4, 49, 55–6, 57, Himalayan Club, 148, 152 65, 114, 156, 197 Himmler, Heinrich, 65, 95, 105, 109, 140 Laden La, 99 Hirschfeld, Magnus, 114, 152 Landor, Henry Savage, 6, 44–7, 61–2, Hodgson, Brian, 185 72–7 Homosexuality, 139, 228 n76 League of Nations, 91, 125 Huc, Evariste-Régis, 5, 55 Leh, 4, 40, 43 Humboldt, Alexander von, 69, 151 Lhasa, 2, 3, 7, 8, 18, 24, 26, 31–5, 53, 70, Hunting, 75–6 90, 92–3, 94, 97, 98, 100, 101, 106, Hunt, John, 180, 184 118–19, 132, 143, 159, 161, 167, 201 Hu Yaobang, 195 Lonely Planet, 195–6, 199 Hygiene, 38, 44, 48, 112, 113–14, 143 Longstaff, Tom, 74–5 Lost Glacier, The (book), 176–7 Illion, Theodore, 139–40, 141, 151–2, Lost Horizon, The (book), 7, 132–4, 156 161 Lost Horizon, The (film), 132–3, 162 Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom Lost World of Everest, The (book), (film), 197 175–7 Into Thin Air (book), 196 Louis, J.A.H., 26–8, 58, 59, 80 Irvine, Andrew, 7 Ludendorff, Erich and Mathilde, Izzard, Ralph, 174–5, 186 136–42, 189 Ludlow, Frank, 90, 99–100, 170–1, 173 Jäschke, Heinrich August, 6, 41–3 Jesuits, 4, 55, 71 Mallory, George, 7 , 52, 60, 195 K2, 8, 68, 73, 79, 182 Maoism, 193–4 Kaiser, 97 Mao Zedong, 8, 167, 171, 194 Kallenberg, Friedrich, 79 Markham, Frederick, 75–6 Kami the Sherpa, 177–8 Marquès-Rivière, Jean, 185, 187 Index 263

Masculinity, 18, 47, 75–6, 93, 143–4, Rawicz, Slavomir, 186 155, 183, 191, 192 Rehwaldt, H., 137 McGovern, William, 94 Richardson, Hugh, 33, 89, 93, 97, 118 Merkl, Willy, 8 Riots (2008), 201–2 Meyrink, Gustav, 129–30 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 133 Moravian mission, 40–4, 51, 55–7, 65–6, Royal Geographical Society, 70, 77, 145, 70, 92, 191 149–50, 186 Mountaineering, 6, 8, 74, 78, 95, 116–17, Rugby School, 87–90, 95 117–18, 120, 146, 148–58, 173–7, Ruskin, John, 78, 115 180, 181–5, 188, 190, 191, 195, 196 Rust, Bernhard, 108 Mt. Everest, 2, 7, 8, 12, 48, 68, 73, 79, 100, 116, 147, 149–51, 155, 174–7, Sagarmatha, see Mt. Everest 180–4, 195, 196 Said, Edward, 1–2, 76 Mt. Godwin Austen, see K2 Samsara (film), 197 Myanmar, see Burma Sands Merrick, Henrietta, 152 Schäfer, Ernst, 95–7, 105, 108–11, 120, Nanga Parbat, 6, 8, 12, 68, 94–5, 136, 140, 160 114, 117, 150, 152–5, 157, 180, Schlagintweit, Adolphe, Hermann & 182–3 Robert, 6, 69–70, 72, 108, Nepal, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 47, 49, 70, 73–4, 147, 151 79, 80, 97–8, 112, 116, 117, 119, Schlagintweit, Emil, 59–60, 61, 70 170–1, 173, 175, 176, 180–1, 185, Schmaderer, Ludwig, 117, 158 195, 198 Schubert, Johannes, 117 Nixon, Richard, 194 Schulemann, Günther, 172 Norgay, Tenzing, 8, 174–5, 180, 184, Scotland, 72, 118, 190 186–7 Scott, R.H., 170 Notovitch, Nicholas, 57–8 Second World War, 92, 145, 147, Nursang, 153 179, 180 Nyanatiloka, 59 Seventeen-Point Agreement, 167, 171 Seven Years in Tibet (film), 196 Shangri-La, see Lost Horizon, The (book) Olympics (2008), 196 Shattock, J.H.S., 169 On the World’s Roof, 178, 181 Shigatse, 3, 4, 34, 53–4 Orientalism, 1–2, 43, 51, 117, 120, 123, Shipton, Eric, 8 175, 192, 199 Sievers, Wolfram, 108 Ornamentalism, 119 Sikkim, 2, 3, 9, 26–8, 32, 49, 58–9, 79, Ossendowski, Ferdinand, 126–9, 80, 95, 97, 106, 110, 149, 160, 138–40, 142 186, 187 Ottmann, Victor, 103, 116 Simla, 41, 85–7, 148 Simla Convention, 85–7 Paidar, Herbert, 117 Smythe, Frederick, 119, 158–9, 182 Panchen Lama, 34, 53–4, 135 Soviet Union, 95, 168, 170, 172, 179 Phag Tsering, 173 SS Ahnenerbe / SS Ancestral Heritage, Picturesque, 80–1 7, 12, 65, 70, 95–6, 99, 103–11, Polgasduwa, 58 117, 120, 138, 151, 159–60, Polyandry, 114, 190 161, 180 Potala, 7 Stonor, Charles, 185 Prinsep, Henry, 76–7 Strunk, J., 136–8 Styles, Showell, 176–8 Queling, Hans, 113 Swabia, 94, 118, 190 264 Index

Superstition, accusations of, 8, 55, 60, Ullmann, James Ramsey, 174–5 66, 67, 100, 102–3, 114, 125, 130, United Nations, 167 131, 135, 189, 191 Urbanization, 15, 18, 115, 144, 157, 163, Survey of India, 69, 70–1, 73, 109, 190, 191, 192 147, 151 Suzerainty, 24–5, 86–7 Waddell, Laurence A., 28, 47–8, 59–60, 185 Tafel, Albert, 102, 117, 151 Whymper, Edward, 78 Tagore, Rabindranath, 123–4 Wienert, Karl, 105, 154 Tantrism, 59–60 Wilson, Andrew, 52, 63, 68, 72 Tashilunpo monastery, 53, 125 Wirth, Hermann, 108 Temple, Sir Richard, 49, 59, 79 Women, 76, 151–2, 153, 190, 195 Tiananmen Square, 200 Tibetan Book of the Dead, 14, 122–3, Yeti, 177, 185–7 137, 194 Younghusband, Francis, 6, 12, 18, 26, Tintin in Tibet, 185 29–37, 38, 51, 65, 78, 79, 81, 85, 86, Tombazi, N.A., 186 88, 90, 95, 131–2, 134 Trinkler, Emil, 150 Yuan Shikai, 87 Tsangpo, 5, 12, 146–7, 159, 204 n12 Zeitschrift für Buddhismus, 122 Turner, Samuel, 80 Zhou Enlai, 194 2012 (film), 197 Zoology, 69, 70, 105, 110, 145, 173, 185