Notes Introduction 1. Edward Said, Orientalism (London: Penguin, 1978, 2003). 2. Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992). 3. David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (London: Penguin, 2001). 4. Elazar Barkan, ‘Post-Anti-Colonial Histories: Representing the Other in Imperial Britain’, Journal of British Studies, 33 (1994), 180–203. 5. Robert Irwin, For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies (London: Allen Lane, 2006), 286–288. 6. Ibn Warraq, Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said’s Orientalism (New York: Prometheus Books, 2007), 54. 7. See Martin Brauen, Traumwelt Tibet: Westliche Trugbilder (Bern: Paul Haupt, 2000), 30. 8. Herodotus, Histories (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), 3.102–3.105. 9. See G. Gispert-Sauch, ‘Desideri and Tibet’, The Tibet Journal, XV:2 (1990), 29–39; G.W. Houston, ‘Jesus and His Missionaries on Tibet’, The Tibet Journal,XVI:4 (1991), 8–27. For one of the most famous compendia resulting from this work, see Athanasius Kircher, China monumentis: quà sacris quà profanis, nec non variis naturæ & artis spectaculis, aliarumque rerum memorabilium argumentis illustrata (Amstelodami: Apud Joannem Janssonium à Waesberge & Elizeum Weyerstraet, 1667) – although Kircher had not been to Tibet himself. 10. Brauen, Traumwelt Tibet, 17. 11. Kate Teltscher, The High Road to China: George Bogle, the Panchen Lama and the First British Expedition to Tibet (London: Bloomsbury, 2006); Gordon T. Stewart, Journeys to Empire: Enlightenment, Imperialism, and the British Encounter with Tibet, 1774–1904 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Kate Teltscher, ‘Writ- ing Home and Crossing Cultures: George Bogle in Bengal and Tibet, 1770–1775’, in Kathleen Wilson (ed.), A New Imperial History: Culture, Identity and Modernity in Britain and the Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 281–296. 12. While it may seem a straightforward task, the exact course of some of these rivers was not known until the second half of the twentieth century. A particularly difficult question was whether the Tsangpo turned into the Brahmaputra when traversing the Himalayas. See Timothy Severin, The Oriental Adventure: Explorers of the East (London: Angus & Robertson, 1976) or Charles Allen, A Mountain in Tibet: The Search for Mount Kailas and the Sources of the Great Rivers of India (London: Futura, 1982). 13. John Bray, ‘Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Missionary Images of Tibet’, in Thierry Dodin and Heinz Räther (eds.), Imagining Tibet: Perceptions, Projections, and Fantasies (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2001), 21–45. 14. Evariste Regis Huc, Recollections of a Journey Through Tartary, Thibet, and China, During the Years 1844, 1845, and 1846, trans. Mrs Percy Sinnett (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1852). 204 Notes 205 15. Frank Seeliger, “Einer prügelt uns und der andere bringt uns Religion ...” Fremdheitserfahrungen im West-Himalaya-Gebiet aus Sicht der Herrnhuter Missionare (Herrnhut: Herrnhuter Verlag, 2003); Gabriel Finkelstein, ‘Conquerors of the Künlün? The Schlagintweit Mission to High Asia, 1854–57’, History of Science, 2:120 (2000), 179–218. 16. See for instance Hagen Schulze, The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck, 1763–1867 (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1991); Jonathan Sperber, The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 17. Hermann & Adolphe Schlagintweit, Results of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia: Undertaken Between the Years MDCCCLIV and MDCCCLVIII, by Order of the Court of Directors of the Honorable East India Company, 4 vols. (Leipzig & London: Brockhaus, 1861–1866); Carl Friedrich Koeppen, Die lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche (Berlin: Ferdinand Schneider, 1859); Henry Savage Landor, In the Forbidden Land, 2 vols. (Long Riders Guild Press, n.d., originally published in 1898); Isabella Bird Bishop, Among the Tibetans (London: Religious Tract Society, 1894); Heinrich August Jäschke, Handwörterbuch der tibetischen Sprache (Gnadau: Unitätsbuchhandlung, 1871). 18. Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Collected Writings. The Secret Doctrine, 3 vols. (Aydar: The Theosophical Publishing House, 1978). 19. Maurice Isserman and Stewart Weaver, Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2008), 45–50. 20. Peter Fleming, Bayonets to Lhasa: The First Full Account of the British Invasion of Tibet in 1904 (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1961); Parshotam Mehra, The Younghusband Expedition: An Interpretation (London: Asia Publishing House, 1968); Patrick French, Younghusband: The Last Great Imperial Adventurer (London: Flamingo, 1995). 21. Melvyn C. Goldstein, A History of Modern Tibet, 1913–1951 (Berkeley & London: University of California Press, 1989), 816–821; Heather Spence, ‘Tsarong II, the Hero of Chaksam, and the Modernization Struggle in Tibet, 1912–1931’, The Tibet Journal, XVI:1 (1991), 34–57. 22. A. Tom Grunfeld, The Making of Modern Tibet, rev. ed. (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), 72. 23. Reuben Ellis, Vertical Margins: Mountaineering and the Landscapes of Neoimperialism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001). 24. See Alex McKay, Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre, 1904–1947 (Richmond: Curzon, 1997). 25. See for instance British Library Oriental and India Office Collection (OIOC), IOR/L/P&S/12/4240, IOR/L/P&S/12/4263, IOR/L/P&S/12/4271, IOR/L/P&S/12/ 4290, IOR/L/P&S/12/4332, IOR/L/P&S/12/4341 for a few examples of applications to enter Tibet being considered by the India Office. 26. Ramjee P. Parajulee, The Democratic Transition in Nepal (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 10. 27. Tsering Shakya, The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947 (London: Pimlico, 1999), 261. 28. Karl Maria Herrligkofer, Nanga Parbat 1953 (München: J.F. Lehmann’s Verlag, 1953). 29. M.P. Ward and P.K. Clark, ‘Everest, 1951: Cartographic and Photographic Evidence ofaNewRoutefromNepal’,The Geographical Journal, 158:1 (1992), 47–56; John 206 Notes Hunt and Edmund Hillary, ‘The Ascent of Mount Everest’, The Geographical Jour- nal, 119:4 (1953), 384–399; John Hunt, The Ascent of Everest (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1993). 30. Ardito Desio, Ascent of K2, Second Highest Peak in the World, trans. David Moore (London: Elek Books, 1955). 31. Peter Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (London: Athlone Press, 1989), 240. 32. Ibid., 245. 33. Felix Driver, Geography Militant: Cultures of Exploration and Empire (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), 4. 34. Steve J. Stern, Peru’s Indian Peoples and the Challenge of the Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Madison & London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982). 35. David Motadel, ‘State Visits of Persian Shahs to Germany, 1873–1905’, MPhil thesis, University of Cambridge (2006). 36. See for instance G.W. Baer, The Coming of the Italian-Ethiopian War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967). 37. John Buchan, Prester John (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Igor de Rachewiltz, Prester John and Europe’s Discovery of East Asia (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1972); Ulrich Knefelkamp, Die Suche nach dem Reich des Priesterkönigs Johannes: dargestellt anhand von Reiseberichten und anderen ethno- graphischen Quellen des 12. bis 17. Jahrhunderts (Gelsenkirchen: Verlag Andreas Müller, 1986), 69–85. 38. See for instance Ekai Kawaguchi, Three Years in Tibet (Agyar: Theosophical Publish- ing Society, 1909); Sven Hedin, Adventures in Tibet (London, 1904); Sven Hedin, Central Asia and Tibet: Towards the Holy City of Lassa (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1903); Alexandra David-Néel, My Journey to Lhasa: The Personal Story of the Only White Woman Who Succeeded in Entering the Forbidden City (London: William Heinemann, 1927). 39. See the five volumes of Wm Roger Louis (ed.), Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998–2001) – Vol. 1: The Origins of Empire, Nicholas P. Cannie and Alaine M. Low (ed.); Vol. 2: The Eighteenth Century, Peter James Marshall and Alaine M. Low (ed.); Vol. 3: The Nineteenth Century, Andrew Porter and Alaine M. Low; Vol. 4: The Twentieth Century, Judith Brown, William Roger Louis and Alaine M. Low (ed.); Vol. 5: Historiography, ed. Robin W. Winks and Alaine M. Low (ed.), P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion, 1688–1914 (London: Longman, 1993); J.A. Hobson, Imperialism: AStudy(London: James Nisbet, 1902). 40. John Gallagher, The Decline, Revival and Fall of the British Empire, Anil Seal (ed.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Robert Hughes, The Fatal Shore: A History of the Transportation of Convicts to Australia, 1787–1868 (London: Collins Harvill, 1986). 41. Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Bismarck und der Imperialismus (Köln & Berlin: Kiepenheuer und Witsch, 1969); Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, ‘Domestic Origins of Germany’s Colonial Expansion under Bismarck’, Past & Present, 42 (1969), 140–159. 42. Eric Ames, Marcia Klotz and Lora Wildenthal (eds.), Germany’s Colonial Pasts (Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press, 2005); Susanne Zantop, Kolonialphantasien im vorkolonialen Deutschland (1770–1870) (Berlin: E. Schmidt, 1999); Jürgen Zimmerer, Deutsche Herrschaft über Afrikaner: staatlicher Machtanspruch und Wirklichkeit im kolonialen Namibia, 3rd ed. (Münster: Lit, Notes 207 2004); Birthe Kundrus, Moderne