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A Grid-Based Spatial Analysis for Detecting Supply–Demand Gaps of Public Transports: a Case Study of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region

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A Grid-Based Spatial Analysis for Detecting Supply–Demand Gaps of Public Transports: a Case Study of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region sustainability Article A Grid-Based Spatial Analysis for Detecting Supply–Demand Gaps of Public Transports: A Case Study of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region Apantri Peungnumsai 1,*, Hiroyuki Miyazaki 2 , Apichon Witayangkurn 2 and Sohee Minsun Kim 3 1 School of Engineering and Technology, Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand 2 Center for Spatial Information Science, The University of Tokyo, Chiba 277-8568, Japan; [email protected] (H.M.); [email protected] (A.W.) 3 School of Environment, Resources and Development, Department of Development and Sustainability, Asian Institute of Technology, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +66-83-595-4941 Received: 14 September 2020; Accepted: 8 December 2020; Published: 11 December 2020 Abstract: Public transport service has been promoted to reduce the problems of traffic congestion and environmental impacts due to car dependency. Several public transportation modes are available in Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) such as buses, heavy rails, vans, boats, taxis, and trains while in some areas have fewer modes of public transport available. The disparity of public transport service negatively impacts social equity. This study aims to identify the gaps between public transport supply and demand and to demonstrate introduced indicators to assess the public transport performance incorporating transport capacity and equilibrium access aspects. Supply index was used to evaluate the level of service, and the demand index was applied to estimate travel needs. Furthermore, the Lorenz curves and the Gini coefficients were used to measure the equity of public transport. The results highlight that more than half of the BMR population is living in low-supply high-demand areas for public transportation. Moreover, the equitable access analysis has identified that the high-income population has better access to public transport than the low-income population. The results suggest that public transport gaps and equity indicate the inclusiveness of public transportation, as well as to the areas where to improve the public transport service. Thus, the methodology used in this study can be applied to another city or region similar to BMR. Keywords: transportation performance index; public transport; public transport accessibility; supply–demand gaps; transport equity; geospatial analysis; Bangkok Metropolitan Region 1. Introduction Sustainable transportation has become a popular theme in many research studies. Several of them have identified the critical challenges of the development and planning of urban transport, concerning sustainable transport and the reduction of environmental impacts [1,2]. In creating an effective transport plan, problems need to be defined to eliminate and solve issues, such as congestion resulting from increased vehicle ownership and a reduced use of public transport found to be degrading transport efficiency [3]. The problem that remains in public transport is that the distribution of public transport operates mainly in the central business district and inner suburbs whereas other modes such as buses, vans, and trains service further to the outer suburbs. Moreover, the transit system fails to meet people who rely on public transit for daily commuting, including the mobility inequality of specific social groups, especially for people with a disability [4,5]. Furthermore, people should have equal Sustainability 2020, 12, 10382; doi:10.3390/su122410382 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020, 12, 10382 2 of 27 access to public transport resources, and to achieve equity in public transport accessibility is to provide public transport to those areas people need it most [6]. Providing public transport infrastructures and balancing the distribution of the public transportation networks allow people to access material assets, social connections, and opportunities for jobs, including enhanced quality of life in the freedom of movement [7]. For this reason, identifying equity of distribution of public transport networks is essential for improving and planning the public transport resources. In addition, the growth of population and urban sprawl creates the expansion of the road capacity and consequently induces traffic growth and congestion problems [8]. For example, in India, rapid population growth has resulted in excessive demand for transportation with limited transport infrastructure resulting in a transport crisis such as exhausting commutes to jobs using either slow, overcrowded public transport or dangerous motorcycles [9]. Additionally, previous studies have shown that the congestion problem is increasing in major cities in developing countries across the world. In Bangkok, private and other vehicles move at a speed of only 10 km/h on average during the rush hours [10]. Bangkok has gained workers from rural provinces that have caused rapid urbanization in the metropolitan areas as well as traffic congestion problems due to uncontrollable population growth [11,12]. Population growth and urban sprawl, including the expansion of road capacity due to traffic growth and congestion, can lead to energy wastage and environmental problems [13]. Previous studies also discussed the issue of the undisciplined distribution of residential, work/study, and commercial areas, including inadequate public transport and infrastructure, forcing people to travel in their vehicle, and subsequently creating more traffic problems in the urban area [14]. In Thailand, the provision of an efficient public transport system was prioritized to improve the service level and accessibility for the communities. National, metropolitan, and provincial governments have endeavored to solve the transport problems by formulating a development plan to increase the use of public transportation. For example, the government of Thailand established the strategy on the improvement of supporting factors for transportation infrastructure within the framework of the National Transport Master Plan, based on the National Plans for Social and Economic Development together with transport integration and efficiency plans for promoting public transportation. Recently, the 12th national master plan for 2011–2020 included transport in the development strategies for the further development of infrastructure and logistics with the vision “On the way to sustainable transport” (OTP, 2015). The government’s intention for sustainable transport has impacted a priority project and plan set out in the 20-year strategy for developing the Thai transport system (2017–2036), which embraces the concept of green transport, transport efficiency, and inclusive transport. The goal of the strategy is to improve people’s quality of life, support for social change, diving into business and increasing competitiveness [15]. In the short term, the government’s goal was to increase the proportion of passengers using public transport systems in urban areas and the proportion of passengers in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (BMR) using the urban transport system from 5% to 15% by 2021 [16]. Further, the Office of Transport and Transport Policy and Planning (OTP) has developed the Transport Performance Index, which contains the public transport performance indicators to assess the competitiveness of the country and is used to plan and develop suitable and effective transport and logistics [17]. However, many important questions of sustainable transport remain and are challenging for development due to the spatial distribution of public transport service and how to create a well-designed public transit network that meets the entire population’s needs [18]. For example, in the previous study for Bangkok, workers travel across the city from suburban areas to the large inner core of Bangkok, where most of the urban activity is concentrated [19]. Regarding the BMR travel mode statistic in 2017 by OTP [20], the proportion of private mode is around 69%, while the public mode is around 24%; the rest is office/school buses and walk. Some research studies for BMR have shown that increasing the share of public transport instead of private transport can lead to sustainable transport and an improvement in people’s quality of life [21,22]. According to the challenges of urban transport development and planning with a consideration of sustainable transportation concerning the reduction Sustainability 2020, 12, 10382 3 of 27 of environmental impacts, many countries around the world are also promoting the use of sustainable transport to enhance sustainable mobility. For example, the use of bike-sharing is one of the solutions for reducing environmental impacts [23–25]. Another way of promoting sustainable transport is the use of park and ride systems, which reduces the volume of the traffic and road congestion by allowing people to leave their vehicle in the parking and continue their travel by using public transport such as bus, metro, and rail system [26,27]. Additionally, many of the important issues in traffic planning are also related to the population size in which a large population leads to higher travel needs. One of the difficulties in designing an urban transportation system that meets the needs of the population is the size of the population [18,28]. In addition, the lack of existing public transport services has resulted in inefficient urban transport. Studies on transport equity have outlined the importance of the spatial gap in public transport that at
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