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Mobilisation and the Disability Rights Movement: the Realities of Public Transport in Bangkok Lauren Joy Avery

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Mobilisation and the Disability Rights Movement: the Realities of Public Transport in Bangkok Lauren Joy Avery Mobilisation and the Disability Rights Movement: The Realities of Public Transport in Bangkok Lauren Joy Avery Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts by Research University of Leeds School of Languages, Cultures and Societies and the Centre for Disability Studies November 2017 2 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his/her/their own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The right of Lauren Joy Avery to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by Lauren Joy Avery in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 3 Acknowledgements The author would like to express the following acknowledgments for the production of this thesis. Firstly, to my supervisors; Dr Martin Seeger, for his consistent support and helpful advice in writing about all things Thai-related; and Dr Simon Prideaux, for his invaluable insight into Disability Studies and advice on structure. Secondly, to the Royal Thai Embassy, London, who provided the MAR Thai Studies scholarship via the University of Leeds. Thirdly, to the gracious academic and support staff from the Department of Rehabilitation for Persons with Disabilities at Ratchasuda College, Mahidol University, in particular Tam Jatunam, who all helped me with the practical elements of my data collection in Thailand. Also, to all the DPOs, and particularly TFA; the Thai National Associations for Persons with Disabilities in Thailand, particularly APHT, TAB and NADT; the Thai Government organisations who offered support, OTP and the Ministry of Transport; MRTA; and all of the individuals who generously gave their time to share their experiences of using public transport with me. Without this input there would be no thesis. Finally, to all of my English family, friends, housemates, other half and my Thai family and friends, for keeping me sane, giving me an amazing year and showing me great metta when things got stressful, thank you. 4 Abstract Many disabled people in Thailand face exclusion from education, employment and wider participation in society. This is exacerbated by a persistence of medical model thinking in society and lack of mobility of disabled people. Many of the public transport systems in Bangkok lack accessibility and despite campaigning by disability rights activists progress has been slow. The research explores disabled user perspectives on the physical and non-physical accessibility of public transport in Bangkok. Barriers and enablers to travel using these systems are revealed through focus groups with disabled people and carers. Secondly, the campaign to improve accessibility of public transport is examined through in-depth interviews with activists, academics and members of the Thai government. The findings show that service provider attitudes can result in barriers and enablers to travel for disabled passengers that counteract or enhance the mechanisms to equalise access for disabled people. Additionally, the campaign to improve public transport is impeded by issues mobilising disability associations and disabled individuals that stem from Thai socio-cultural conceptualisations of disability and interactions within the societal hierarchy. Further research is needed on encouraging participation in and of the disability rights movement and how to improve attitudes towards disability of public service providers. Keywords: disability, Thailand, public transport, accessibility Impact Statement The research contributes to the limited literature on disability studies in non-Western countries that is written for an international audience. Although there are a number of accessibility and transport studies, it is one of a limited number of that does not focus exclusively on physical access to public transport and includes the voices of cognitively impaired people and their carers. The research took a broader approach to the measure of accessibility, considering psychosocial barriers to using public transport, such as attitudinal barriers and the way in which they can counteract mechanisms to improve accessibility for disabled passengers. By taking a sociocultural approach, the research provides insight into the issues of implementing universal human rights policies, such as the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in real-country contexts. The findings highlight that social and cultural mechanisms, hierarchical structures and belief systems influence the disability rights movement in Thailand and the interaction between disabled people’s organisations, government bodies and the private sector. The research therefore has real-world application in that it indicates that in order for disability rights implementation to be successful, especially in countries where the approach to individual human rights may vary, these sociocultural factors cannot be considered as secondary. 5 Contents Note on translation and transliteration …7 List of acronyms …7 1. Disability and Thailand …9 1.1. Introduction…9 1.2. The Disability Discourse …10 1.3. Thailand, disability and human rights …15 1.4. Societal structure and the Thai belief System …21 2. Transport, Accessibility, Politics and Civil Society …35 2.1. Theories of accessibility …35 2.2. Politics and civil society in Thailand …37 2.3. Participation in civil society …41 2.4. The disability rights movement and change …43 2.5. Thai DPOs and Disability-related Ministries …45 2.6. Public Transport accessibility in Bangkok …47 3. Research Design …57 3.1. Aims and Objectives …57 3.2. Research Questions …58 3.3. Approaches of past research …59 3.4. Interviews and Focus Groups …62 3.5. Researcher Bias and Researcher Effect …64 3.6. Interviews …67 3.7. Focus Groups …69 3.8. Methods of data analysis …72 3.9. Ethical Considerations …72 4. Realities, Mobilisation and Interaction …74 4.1. The realities of public transport …74 4.2. Mobilising disabled people …81 4.3. Interaction and collaboration …86 4.4. Discussion …91 5. Conclusion …97 5.1. Introduction …97 5.2. Contributions and main conclusions …97 5.3. Limitations of the research …100 5.4. Recommendations for further research …101 References…102 Glossary of Thai Words and Phrases…114 6 Appendix A …115 Interview transcripts Focus group transcripts Appendix B …189 Interview questions sample Participant information sheet and advert (English) Consent form example Sample approach email Ethical approval form Risk assessment List of Figures Fig. 1. Poverty/disability cycle – Yeo and Moore (2003). Fig. 2. Model of group identification and collective action - Brewer and Silver (2000). Fig. 3. Adapted from Ståhl’s User perspective on accessible public transport (1997). List of Images (Images are author’s own unless referenced) Image. 1. Bangkok public bus. Kaaloa, C. 2017. [Photograph]. Regular (blue & white) city bus. [Online]. [22/08/2017]. Available from: http://grrrltraveler.com/sightseeing/getting- around/5-lessons-bangkok-bus/. Image. 2. Stair-lift at BTS National Stadium. Image. 3. S-guard with wheelchair logo. Chirapongse, K. 2017. TIT (This Is Thailand). [Facebook]. 12/02/2017. [14/04/2017]. Available from: https://www.facebook.com/groups/43934411488/ Image. 4. S-guard on Pahon-yothin road. Image. 5. Accessible van with wheelchair lift. Blue Rolling Dot. 2014. [Online]. [24/08/2017]. Wheelchair accessible taxi. Available from: http://www.bluerollingdot.org/articles/lifestyle/185 Image. 6, 7, 8. Photo-journey at Bang Na BTS station en route to Bangkok International Trade and Exhibition Centre, 2017. Photos provided by Ms Nunthida Chitpukdeerat, TFA. Image. 9. Communications system showing current station on the MRT, purple line, opened 2016, taken 2017. List of Tables Table 1. List of elite interview participants. 7 Note on translations and transliterations Translations from Thai to English in this piece of work are the author’s own unless stated otherwise. English transliterations of Thai words will follow the Thai- language.com enhanced phonemic transcription scheme except for people or organisation names with an already established translation. When referring to named research participants, the Thai custom of using their first name will be followed, other than when they are mentioned for the first time, when their full names will be used. List of organisational acronyms *NB obscure acronyms are the organisation’s own creation and not the researcher’s. APDC – Asia Pacific Development Centre APHT – Association of the Physically Handicapped in Thailand BTS – Bangkok Mass Transit System Public Company Limited (used as an abbreviation for the sky-train/monorail) CRPD – Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities DEP – National Office for Empowerment of People with Disabilities DTH – Disabilities Thailand Association ESCAP – Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN) MoT – Ministry of Transport (Thailand) MRT – Mass Rapid Transit (used as an abbreviation for the underground train/metro) MRTA – Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand MSDHS - Ministry of Social Development and Human Security (Thailand) NADT – National Association of the Deaf in Thailand NHRC – Thai National Human Rights Commission OTP - Office of Transport Policy and Traffic SDGs – Sustainable Development Goals TAB –Thai Association of the Blind UN – United Nations 8 List of other acronyms CSO – civil
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