The theory of mitigating risk: Information and language-learning in transition

Skrifter från Valfrid, 66

The theory of mitigating risk:

Information literacy and language-learning in transition

Alison Hicks

2018

The theory of mitigating risk: and language-learning in transition Copyright 2018 © Alison Hicks Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Swedish school of library and information science, University of Borås

Cover photo: Suss Wilén Printed in Sweden by Stema Series: Skrifter från Valfrid, no. 66

ISBN 978-91-983398-0-2 (Print) NMÄ NE RK A E V T ISBN 978-91-983397-1-9 (Digital PDF) S ISSN 1103-6990

Trycksak Available at http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hb:diva-15000 3041 0234

Table of Contents

List of tables ...... 4 Dedicated to the memory of List of figures ...... 4 Nigel Graham Hicks (1958-2011) Abstract ...... 5 Acknowledgements ...... 6 Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 7 1.1 Research problem and background ...... 8 1.2 Research aim and questions ...... 12 1.2.1 Research aim ...... 12 1.2.2 Research questions ...... 12 1.3 Significance of the study ...... 13 1.4 Thesis structure ...... 15 Chapter 2: Literature review ...... 17 2.1 Chapter overview ...... 17 2.2 Information literacy ...... 17 2.2.1 Behaviourist approaches to information literacy...... 18 2.2.2 Cognitive constructivist approaches to information literacy ...... 19 2.2.3 Social constructivist approaches to information literacy ...... 21 2.2.3.1 New literacy studies ...... 24 2.2.3.2 New literacy studies and information literacy ...... 26 2.3 Information behaviour ...... 27 2.3.1 Cognitive approaches to information behaviour ...... 29 2.3.2 Social approaches to information behaviour ...... 29 2.4 Second-language acquisition studies ...... 32 2.5 Chapter conclusion ...... 34 Chapter 3: Theoretical framework ...... 35 3.1 Chapter overview ...... 35 3.2 Symbolic interactionism ...... 36 3.3 Constructionism ...... 37 3.4 Transitions theory ...... 39 3.4.1 Approaches to transitions theory ...... 40 3.4.2 Change and time within transitions theory ...... 41 3.4.3 Personal meaning within transitions theory ...... 42 3.4.4 Social and community conditions within transitions theory ...... 43 3.4.5 Human development within transitions theory ...... 44 3.4.6 Transitions theory and information research ...... 45 3.5 Practice theory ...... 46 3.5.1 Approaches to practice theory ...... 47 3.5.2 Practice ...... 48 3.5.3 Activity and its organisation within practice theory...... 49 3.5.4 The body and knowledge within practice theory ...... 50 3.5.5 Materiality within practice theory ...... 51 3.5.6 Agency and power within practice theory ...... 52 3.5.7 Practice theory and information research ...... 53 3.6 Chapter conclusion ...... 54

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Chapter 4: Methodology and methods ...... 56 7.1 Chapter overview ...... 154 4.1 Chapter overview ...... 56 7.2 How do language-students enact information literacy practices during residence 4.2 Methodological framing ...... 56 abroad? ...... 154 4.3 Research methods ...... 59 7.2.1 What shapes language-student information landscapes within a new setting? .... 157 4.3.1 Interviews ...... 60 7.2.2 What role do information literacy practices play during students’ intensive periods 4.3.2 Photo-elicitation ...... 62 of language-learning abroad?...... 159 4.3.3 Incentives ...... 66 7.3 How do language-students make sense of, transition into and come to know their 4.4 Participants ...... 67 new information landscapes? ...... 160 4.4.1 Sampling ...... 67 7.3.1 What enables and constrains the ways in which language-students construct their 4.4.2 Inclusion criteria ...... 68 information landscapes? ...... 162 4.4.3 Recruitment ...... 68 7.3.2 In what ways does the enactment of information literacy practices shape language- 4.4.4 Demographics...... 69 student subjectivity? ...... 164 4.5 Data analysis ...... 71 7.4 Chapter conclusion ...... 165 4.5.1 Constructivist grounded theory analysis ...... 71 Chapter 8: Conclusion ...... 166 4.5.2 Situational analysis ...... 72 8.1 Chapter overview ...... 166 4.6 Credibility in qualitative research ...... 76 8.2 Theoretical contributions ...... 166 4.7 Ethics ...... 77 8.2.1 Information literacy ...... 168 4.8 Limitations ...... 79 8.3 Methodological contributions ...... 170 4.9 Chapter conclusion ...... 81 8.4 Societal contributions ...... 171 Chapter 5: Findings ...... 82 8.5 Contributions to language-learning research ...... 171 5.1 Chapter overview ...... 82 8.6 Contributions to transitions theory ...... 172 5.2 The information environment ...... 83 8.7 Limitations ...... 172 5.3 Calibrating ...... 83 8.8 Practical recommendations ...... 173 5.3.1 Sifting ...... 87 8.9 Future research ...... 174 5.3.2 Observing ...... 92 8.9.1 Information literacy ...... 175 5.3.2.a Observing of others ...... 93 8.10 Chapter conclusion ...... 176 5.3.2.b Self-observing ...... 96 References ...... 177 5.3.3 Checking ...... 99 5.3.4 Noting ...... 102 Appendix 1: Recruitment information ...... 213 5.4 Repositioning ...... 105 Appendix 2: Semi-structured interview guide (indicative)...... 216 5.4.1 Triaging ...... 109 5.4.2 Mediating ...... 113 Appendix 3: Photo-elicitation discussion and training ...... 217 5.4.3 Archiving ...... 118 Appendix 4: EthOS training ...... 218 5.5 Mitigating risk ...... 121 5.6 Chapter conclusion ...... 127 Appendix 5: EthOS security policy ...... 219

Chapter 6: A grounded theory of mitigating risk ...... 128 6.1 Chapter overview ...... 128 6.2 Mitigating risk: A grounded theory ...... 129 6.2.1 Risk ...... 130 6.2.2 Uncertainty ...... 133 6.2.3 Time and temporality ...... 135 6.3 Information literacy practices...... 139 6.3.1 Cognitive authority ...... 142 6.3.2 Affordance ...... 145 6.4 Transition ...... 148 6.4.1 Acting and becoming ...... 151 6.5 Chapter conclusion ...... 153 Chapter 7: Discussion of research questions...... 154 2 3

List of tables Abstract Table 1: Overview of the theoretical framework ...... 35 Table 2: Overview of research methods...... 59 This qualitative study explores the information literacy practices of students who were Table 3: Participant data ...... 70 learning a language overseas as part of their undergraduate degree. Constructivist grounded List of figures theory and situational analysis were used to examine the information activities of 26 English- Figure 1: Abstract situational map ...... 74 speakers from Australia, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. Students were Figure 2: Relational map ...... 75 learning one of eight languages in 14 different American, Asian and European countries for a Figure 3: Social world map ...... 76 Figure 4: Calibrating, repositioning and mitigating risk ...... 82 period of between four and 12 months overseas. Semi-structured interviews and photo- Figure 5: “That was in my guidebook again, literally it's been my main source of information elicitation method were used to give each participant the opportunity to present an since I've been here.” (Laura) ...... 90 Figure 6: James’ image of food options ...... 94 explanatory narrative of their time overseas and to explicate nuanced and contextual Figure 7: The landmark in relation to which Kamila positions her own body ...... 98 information that is hard to verbalise. The study is informed by a theoretical framework that Figure 8: Luan’s image of a bus timetable ...... 101 Figure 9: Fiona’s image of a travel app ...... 101 includes practice theory and transitions theory. Figure 10: Helen’s annotated list of transport options ...... 103 The theory of mitigating risk emerges from the study’s analysis and provides a rich Figure 11: Helen’s retreat ...... 111 Figure 12: Jemma’s FaceTime with family ...... 114 explanation of how an engagement with information supports language-student transition to Figure 13: Genevieve’s souvenirs...... 120 new and culturally unfamiliar information environments. The theory illustrates how Figure 14: Calibrating, repositioning and mitigating risk ...... 122 Figure 15: The grounded theory of mitigating risk...... 129 academic, physical and financial stress that is produced through participation within a new Figure 16: Mitigating risk during residence abroad...... 130 setting catalyses the enactment of information literacy practices that subsequently mediate Figure 17: Language-student information literacy practice during residence abroad ...... 140 Figure 18: Transition during residence abroad ...... 149 student transition from acting like a language-learner to becoming a language-learner during

their time overseas. From an educational perspective, the theory of mitigating risk broadens

understanding about the shape that information literacy takes within transition to a new intercultural context while setting the scene for the design of educational interventions that recognise the fluid and generative possibilities of this period. From a broader social perspective, the theory of mitigating risk contributes to research that explores how businesses and communities can respond to and prepare for increasingly flexible global movement.

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Acknowledgements Chapter 1: Introduction

First and foremost, my most heartfelt thanks go to my primary supervisor, Professor “I wanted to go out and explore a bit so my host mum was like, ‘Oh you can go out and get some keys cut…’ and she drew me a little map and she was like, ‘Oh yeah it'll be fine, go on to this road and Annemaree Lloyd, whose pioneering scholarship inspired me to start this PhD, and whose then you have to take this bus in that direction,’ and I was like, ‘Yeah, yeah, it'll be fine,’ and I was trying to find where the buses were and literally, it was so confusing because there's no bus stops and generous encouragement, patience and friendship have enabled me to finish it. they follow set routes, but you have to know the route and literally there's hardly any street names either so I couldn't work out what street I was on or what bus I was meant to take, so I was just getting on random buses and asking ‘Do you go to this random place?’ which I couldn't pronounce I am also very grateful for Dr Ola Pilerot and Professor Lisa Given, who served as my either…and eventually…I found the right bus, but he was like ‘Oh no, it's this bus, but you need to take it from the other direction,’ so he pointed to another street, so I went on this different street and secondary supervisor in the latter and former stages of this research respectively, and whose waited and then I saw another bus…and I was like ‘Oh yes, finally,’ and I got on the bus, and it was attention to detail and insight broadened my horizons in so many ways. the same bus, it had just gone round the corner, it was so embarrassing…” Laura, Bolivia

In this quote, Laura, who is learning Spanish in Bolivia as part of her undergraduate degree, Thank you to the institutions that have supported me, especially the Swedish School of paints a vivid picture of the confusion and uncertainty that is created when she enters a new Library and Information Science, University of Borås, Sweden, who hospitably welcomed information environment. Informational signs and markers are not located where she expects me as a transfer student, as well as Charles Sturt University, Australia; the University of and even simple goals such as catching a bus are structured by nuanced conventions that may Colorado, Boulder, USA; and, most recently, University College, London, UK. My thanks be obvious to her local host mother, yet which are not immediately apparent to her as a also to the Borås PhD students, who organised vital online groups and carried out the newcomer. Gradually, however, as she uses the hand-drawn map that represents local final thesis spiking for me, Dr Åsa Söderlind, who provided so much valuable assistance in understanding and asks for assistance from knowledgeable people, Laura is able to mitigate her role as Director of Studies, and colleagues who helped me to improve earlier drafts of this the risk of getting lost within her new neighbourhood. In short, Laura’s attempts to get her work, including Professor Olof Sundin, Dr Helena Francke and Professor Louise Limberg. keys cut demonstrate how, even for language-students, a sojourn abroad creates a number of unexpected, everyday issues. More importantly for this research, her anecdote also illustrates During the course of this PhD, I visited 24 countries, lived in three, and sailed around the the vital role that information sources and tools play in helping her to mediate the challenges world once. I'd like to thank my friends and family who supported me during this time, that are produced through her engagement within a new and unfamiliar context. Enabling her especially those who helped me to shift a lot of books… Special thanks to my mum, Carol to build an initial understanding of her new setting as well as to participate in its structures Hicks, who was also proof-reader extraordinaire. I'm also particularly grateful for Jesús and systems, Laura’s engagement with information facilitates her transition from the Alonso-Regalado, Jorge Ricardo López-McKnight and Lomi Christiansen, who alternately language-learning classroom to the wider world. cheered me on and distracted me, as needed. Caroline Sinkinson deserves a whole page's This thesis uses an information lens to explore the activities of language-students who worth of acknowledgements for not only being the best friend and colleague, but also for are spending an intensive period of time overseas. Residence abroad, which refers to “a sending me the article that started me down this track in the first place. temporary sojourn of pre-defined duration, undertaken for educational purposes” (Kinginger, 2009, p.11), forms a significant period of change for language-students as they move from Lastly, and most importantly, to Adrian Howkins, who has believed in me since even before the classroom to a target linguistic community and adapt from learning about to practising a my own undergraduate year abroad. ¡Sos groso! language. Given the intensity of these changes, how do students recognise and learn to connect with information that will support this intensive period of language-learning abroad? A question such as this highlights the ways in which language-students build meaning about information, including why it is valued and how it is legitimised within everyday settings. It

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moves the focus of student information activities from academic regulations to an emphasis In focusing on student relocation, the research draws attention to the concept of on transition, which refers to the creation of a “sustainable fit” (Hviid & Zittoun, 2008, transition. Transition has not been addressed in great detail within information literacy p.123) within a new context. This question also leads to an interrogation of the role that research, despite the centrality of change and development to the field. However, given the information literacy, which refers to a “way of knowing the many environments that changing nature and increased insecurity of the workplace as well as the continued need to constitute an individual's being in the world” (Lloyd, 2007a, p.182), plays in structuring this migrate or to seek sanctuary, there is a growing call to address how individuals rebuild period of change and upheaval. Centring attention on how transition is constrained and understanding within new information environments. Linked to questions of social and enabled as well as the ways in which students reshape their language-learning identity within digital inclusion as well as to resettlement issues (Lloyd, Kennan, Thompson & Qayyum, a new setting, these questions will form the guiding focus of the study, which reframes 2013), transition is also increasingly important within a variety of everyday and academic residence abroad as an information problem rather than purely as a language-learning issue. scenarios as the practices that hold social life together unfold (Schatzki, 2002, p.72) and new In responding to these questions, the research introduces the theory of mitigating risk, inter-disciplinary traditions that depend upon indigenous or transnational ways of knowing which provides a rich explanation of the ways in which student engagement with information emerge (Fenwick, 2013, p.356). In providing detailed insight into how language-students helps them to mediate their transition into culturally unfamiliar contexts. The theory of construct meaning within a new social and material environment, the research has a number mitigating risk illustrates how academic, financial and physical stress that is produced of implications for thinking about transition within academic and everyday settings, including through student engagement overseas catalyses the enactment of information literacy in the workplace as well as in relation to an individual’s health and wellbeing. practices that mediate student transition from acting like a language-learner to becoming a Residence abroad forms a major component of undergraduate modern language study. language-learner within the structure of their new setting. The theory subsequently positions More commonly known as the ‘Year Abroad’ in the United Kingdom and ‘Study Abroad’ or transition as a period of transformative change while further drawing attention to the complex ‘International Exchange’ in the United States, Australia and Canada, residence abroad dynamics of this time. programmes tend to last from six weeks to a year and encompass academic, workplace and The chapter situates the research by establishing the background for the study as well volunteer opportunities (Coleman, 1997). These interludes, which are distinguished from as the research aim and questions. An overview of the significance of the study and the thesis general study abroad and European Union Erasmus programmes by the focus on language- structure concludes the chapter. learning, are driven by assumptions that a period of time overseas will improve language proficiency due to “the sheer number of hours students spend simply exposed” (Pellegrino- 1.1 Research problem and background Aveni, 1998, p.96) to the target language and culture. In this respect, language is understood The research explores the information literacy practices of language-students who are to form an “ever occurring part of the social experience of life” (Gilhooly & Lee, 2014, engaging in work or study abroad as part of their undergraduate degree. Residence abroad is p.389) and language-learning is recognised as occurring through a person’s participation often interpreted as a highlight of the modern language degree, a chance to connect the within sociocultural contexts rather than in isolation from a community’s activities. These classroom with ‘authentic’ activity. Yet, despite the acknowledgement that language-learning ideas also position language-learning as a complex process of meaning-making that forms an during this time is intricately linked to the development and modification of knowledge integral part of a person’s construction of self and subjectivity (Kramsch, 2009, p.2). (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006, p.5), the role that information plays in helping students to mediate Social and educational interest in residence abroad arises from the move to these changes in educational circumstances has rarely been considered. Insights from the internationalise higher education, as well as in response to the growth of multicultural research provide practical advice for educators working with students within intercultural societies. Internationalisation, which refers to the incorporation of “global perspectives into settings, which refer to contexts where people from different cultures interact (Baldwin & teaching, learning, and research” (American Council on Education, 2012, p.3), is of Hunt, 2002). increasing importance on higher education campuses (Ryan & Tilbury, 2013). While it is not 8 9

a new concept, an upsurge in travel opportunities as well as advances in communication information resources, information environment is thereby used in the research to refer to the technologies mean that ideas, students and scholars are increasingly mobile (Hudzik, 2011). extent of potential information sources with which students could engage while they are Societies, too, are growing more diverse and multicultural. 60 million people (21%) in the overseas. As students start to interact with and draw upon these local ways of knowing, they U.S. (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013) and 4.2 million people (8%) in the U.K. (Office for start to build their information landscapes, which are defined as “intersubjectively created National Statistics, 2011) speak a first language that is not English. Increasing rates of spaces that have resulted from human interaction, in which information is created and shared transnational movement, whether for political, economic or environmental reasons, mean that and eventually sediments as knowledge” (Lloyd, 2010a, p.9). Shaped by a person’s roughly 200 million people live outside their country of birth (Caidi, Allard & Quirke, 2010, increasingly situated understandings of the forms of information that reflect these stable sites p.483). The growth in global commerce means that many more people work within of knowledge (Lloyd, 2017, p.94), information landscape is consequently used in the study to international teams, for international companies or under international conventions and refer to the sources of information that are recognised as valued and relevant by students. agreements (Hudzik, 2011, p.7). As a fluidity of language and culture becomes increasingly In turn, language-students construct their information landscapes through the common within society (Canagarajah, 2005, p.xxiii), interest in how English-speakers adjust enactment of information literacy practices. Information literacy has been interpreted in many to non-English language contexts is important on educational, social and industry levels. different ways (see 2.2) but is most simply understood as focused upon the interactions Information plays a key role in structuring the ways in which people build meaning between learning, information and knowledge. In framing information literacy as a practice, within these new contexts. A complex concept, information has a number of different the study purposefully builds upon these understandings to centre attention on the broader meanings depending on the context and the research approach through which it is theorised social context in which language-students find themselves as well as the material and (e.g. Bates, 2006; Buckland, 1991). The everyday focus of overseas language-learning as embodied ways in which they develop connections to the information sources that are well as the emphasis on the ways in which students make meaning within their new context legitimised within a setting (Lloyd, 2011). Drawing upon practice theory (see 3.5), the means that the study will draw upon the work of Bateson (1972, p.459) who uses ecological positioning of information literacy as a practice facilitates a complex understanding of its theory to define information as “any difference which makes a difference.” Bateson’s shape within contested and complex social settings as well as its centrality to social life. definition, which echoes Case and Given’s (2016, p.6) recognition that information can be The emphasis on the production of shared understandings also focuses attention upon “any difference you perceive in your environment or within yourself”, positions information information activities that, from a practice theoretical perspective, combine or hang together as constituted by whatever differences are perceived as meaningful by language-students as (cf. Schatzki, 1996, p.188) to constitute information literacy practice. Comprising socially well as by their recognition of what difference this makes to their understanding of residence organised ways of doing things (Lloyd, 2010a, p.171), information activities refer, in the abroad. This definition of information further highlights that while information can be both study, to the ways in which information is created, valued and organised within a specific tangible and intangible, it must always be recognised as subjective and situated rather than as context (Bonner & Lloyd, 2011, p.1218). A focus on activity emphasises how information forming an objective entity (Bateson, 1972, p.458). While this understanding of information literacy is shaped rather than how it is achieved as well as illustrating the purposeful role that may seem very broad, Bateson’s definition is expansive enough to align with the purposes students play in mediating their new information environments. and structure of the study while also resonating with both Bates’ (2006, p.1033-1034) and The focus on human development further foregrounds the idea of transition. Buckland’s (1991, p.357) acknowledgement that almost anything can be understood as Transition is another deceptively complex concept that has traditionally referred to a passage informative. from one life phase, place or situation to another (Schumacher, Jones & Meleis, 1999, p.2). More specifically, the study recognises that language-students are engaging in new Within the study, transition could thereby refer to students’ physical moves from the information environments, which are constituted by the “stable and established knowledge language classroom to the language community, which is an event that brings the need for a domains of a social site” (Lloyd, 2017, p.94). Shaped and constituted by a broad range of new set of information activities. More subtly, however, and from a sociocultural perspective 10 11

(e.g. Rogoff, 2003), transition centres on how learners build meaning within a new context or centres more specifically on exploring the shape that students’ information literacy practices engage in processes of re-equilibration and restoration (Hviid & Zittoun, 2008, p.123). Seen take within residence abroad. Its sub-questions are designed to examine these practices in in this way, transition becomes focused upon the ways in which language-students build what more detail, including how students establish meaning from the ways in which they engage Wenger (1998, p.56) refers to as an “identity of participation” within their new setting. At the with information as well as the ensuing impact on student immersion within their target same time, the recognition that students build this sense of self and identity in relation to the language and context. The second research question explicitly spotlights the question of shared meanings of a community highlights how student subjectivity is constituted through transition and how students mediate the changes and upheavals of this time. Its sub-questions intersubjective understandings of practice rather than uniquely through a person’s self- aim to unpack the broader shape of these transitional processes, including the influences that determining agency (Fenwick, 2013, p.359). Accordingly, the study positions transition as the social structures of a community have on student activity during this period as well as on mediated through language-students’ increasingly knowledgeable participation in the the subsequent shaping of their language-learning identity. information environments of their new community (c.f. Rogoff, 2003). 1.3 Significance of the study 1.2 Research aim and questions The study develops research within library and information science by broadening understandings of both the shape that information literacy practices take within a time of 1.2.1 Research aim transition and the role they play in helping to mediate complex processes of change. The The aim of the study, which will be achieved through outlining and analysing the information study’s focus on addressing international educational imperatives that are related to the activities in which students engage, is to develop knowledge about language-student increasingly globalised nature of campus means that it also contributes to the field of second- information literacy practices during residence abroad. Situated within an interpretivist language acquisition and international education as well as demonstrating broader societal framework, the research is informed by a theoretical framework that includes practice theory relevance. and transitions theory and applies constructivist grounded theory as a method of inquiry. From an information literacy perspective, the study advances theory by expanding the 1.2.2 Research questions scope of research within intercultural contexts. Existing information literacy research (see, The research aim is addressed through two major research questions as well as several sub- for example, Peters, 2010) has tended to focus almost exclusively on the activities of questions, which are listed below: international students, refugees and immigrants within English-speaking countries, which 1. How do language-students enact information literacy practices during residence means that the topic has become inextricably tied up with political questions of assimilation abroad? and socialisation. The research extends knowledge of intercultural information activities (cf. a. What shapes language-student information landscapes within a new setting? b. What role do information literacy practices play during students’ intensive Bruce, Somerville, Stoodley & Partridge, 2013, p.225) by broadening research to examine the periods of language-learning abroad? perspectives of English-speakers abroad. The emphasis on language-students further focuses 2. How do language-students make sense of, transition into and come to know their new attention on language, which tends to be perceived as a have/have not binary that must be information landscapes? a. What enables and constrains the ways in which language-students construct internalised before a person can interact with the community rather than an ongoing process their information landscapes? of meaning-making. b. In what ways does the enactment of information literacy practices shape More generally, the study advances information literacy research by exploring the language-student subjectivity? These research questions, which serve to both focus and guide the study, were designed to concept of transition in more detail. While transfer forms a common topic within information provide qualitative insight into how English-speaking language-learners engage with and literacy research (e.g. Herring, 2011), transition has tended to form the context of research mediate their stay overseas. Given the sociocultural emphasis of the study, the first question rather than the object of the study’s focus (e.g. Allard, 2015; Stutzman, 2011; Yeoman,

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2009). Willson’s (2016) doctoral research on transitions to the workplace forms one of the opportunities for the future. The study will also be of interest to student exchange services sole exceptions. In extending theories of transition to information literacy research, the and language education industries. Together, these industries form part of a market that has research provides a rich empirical picture of how people build understanding within new been valued at over $2 billion in the United States alone and which has recently been buoyed information environments, while further contributing to the ongoing theorisation of by a growth in student numbers, a recovering world economy and, in some settings, the information literacy itself. The study’s detailed examination of how newcomers mediate implementation of residence abroad as a required component for graduation (Son, 2013; transition to a culturally unfamiliar setting also has societal relevance. While acknowledging Witter, 2014). The study will help these companies to enhance their programming as well as that a period of temporary residence abroad is very different from more permanent forced or staff training and support structures by providing a greater understanding of student activities economic migration, the emphasis on how people rebuild meaning overseas contributes to during their time overseas. research that examines how international businesses as well as individual communities can 1.4 Thesis structure respond to and prepare for changing global movement patterns. Following the introductory chapter, Chapter 2 sets the context for the study through an From a practical perspective, the research will inform the provision of information investigation of relevant literature. The review takes a thematic approach to examine how literacy instruction and educational programming. As Cope and Kalantzis (2000, p.6) point behaviourist, cognitive constructivist and social constructivist approaches to information out, the ability to deal with linguistic and cultural differences should be considered “central to literacy have characterised intercultural activities to date. Information behaviour literature the pragmatics of our working, civic and private lives” and the need to develop theories and that centres on intercultural contexts forms the secondary area of focus. The chapter educational opportunities that respond to the increasingly diverse nature of society provides concludes with a review of information-related studies from the field of second-language evidence of both the importance of the study and the timeliness. At the same time, acquisition. internationalisation is not just limited to the development of intercultural awareness. Instead, Chapter 3 outlines the study’s theoretical framework. The chapter begins by providing educators and organisations must also examine (and deconstruct) dominant pedagogical and an overview of symbolic interactionism, which forms the ontological framing for the societal frameworks that promote “singular worldviews” (Ryan & Tilbury, 2013, p.20). In research, and constructionism, which provides its overarching epistemological structure. It other words, if librarians and the field of library and information science are to engage more then explores transitions theory and practice theory, which form two of the sensitising than superficially with the internationalisation of higher education, there must be a detailed theories through which the findings of the study are analysed and explained. interrogation of existing educational practices and the values or traditions that are transmitted Chapter 4 focuses on the research design of the study. The chapter starts by outlining through them. The study provides a comparative perspective to existing research to facilitate the study’s constructivist grounded theory methodological framework, before presenting the an examination of current librarian practices and the implications of the beliefs that are interview and photo-elicitation research methods that were used to generate and collect data. embedded within these approaches. The need to submit information literacy practice to this It then summarises the constructivist grounded theory and situational analysis analytic type of examination provides further rationale for the research. methods that were employed concurrently with data generation and collection to explore Lastly, from an international education perspective, the study offers new, qualitative findings from the research. The chapter finishes by demonstrating how credibility was knowledge about student activities during residence abroad. While some language-students ascertained and ethical standards were maintained in this qualitative study before reflecting find residence abroad to be enriching, others find it hard to adjust to the significant changes on the limitations of this methodology. in role and status that they experience within a community, as well as to the practices of daily Chapter 5 outlines the findings of the study. Examining how information literacy life (cf. Dockett & Perry, 2007, p.2). The intensity of these immersion experiences and the practices are made manifest during residence abroad, the chapter presents the two major important role that they play within language-learning demonstrates the importance of categories and the overarching category that are produced through the grounded theory and understanding the perspectives of language-students as educators design meaningful learning 14 15

situational analysis of the study. The chapter starts by exploring the category of Calibrating, Chapter 2: Literature review which is structured by four activities: sifting, observing, checking and noting. The chapter continues by exploring the category of Repositioning, which is constituted by the activities 2.1 Chapter overview of: triaging, mediating and archiving. The chapter ends by sketching the overarching theme When people enter a new intercultural information environment they are faced with of Mitigating Risk, which forms the grounded theory of the study. numerous challenges, including the need to access and interpret different forms of Chapter 6 explores the emergent theory of mitigating risk in relation to the theoretical information as well as to build an understanding of the activities that will help them to framework as well as literature from within and outside of library and information science. develop knowing within a new context. Recognising the intensity of these experiences, The chapter starts by unpacking the theory of mitigating risk through risk theory and the researchers have employed a variety of research methods and paradigms to examine how theoretical constructs of uncertainty and time before using practice theory as well as the adjustment to a new setting is mediated through a person’s engagement with information. theoretical constructs of affordance and cognitive authority as a lens through which to The chapter reviews research that has been published within library and information science examine how information literacy practices unfold during residence abroad. The chapter ends and second-language acquisition to situate the study. Literature related to the theoretical by using transitions theory to explore the complex processes of transition in which language- framework will be reviewed within Chapter 3. students are engaged while they are overseas. 2.2 Information literacy Chapter 7 discusses the study’s research questions through the theory of mitigating Information literacy, which falls under what Bates (1999, p.1048) refers to as the social risk. The chapter starts by exploring the theory of mitigating risk through the ways in which question within the field of Information Science or how people relate to, seek and use students establish meaning from information and mediate their immersion overseas to information, is a complex phenomenon that is further complicated by the array of examine how information literacy practices are enacted during residence abroad. The second understandings that scholars and librarians have used to conceptualise theory and practice in half of the chapter centres on transition with an emphasis on how social structures shape the the field. Information literacy constitutes a field of research that centres on “theoretical ways in which students mediate change and the development of their language-learning understandings of information, learning and knowledge” (Limberg, Sundin & Talja, 2012, identity. p.95) and is related to the areas of information behaviour (see 2.3), information seeking Chapter 8 forms the conclusion of the study. The chapter examines the contributions (Limberg & Sundin, 2006), and most recently, information practices (Lloyd, 2010b), rather of the research to library and information science as well as to language-learning research than forming its own discipline. Within these parameters, information literacy has been and transitions theory before outlining the recommendations of the study for librarians and interpreted through a variety of theoretical frames and research approaches, albeit typically second-language educators as well as for future areas of research. implicitly rather than explicitly-defined (Lundh, Limberg & Lloyd, 2013), including phenomenographic, sociocultural or discourse analysis lenses (Limberg et al., 2012). The variety of theoretical approaches, which position information literacy as either a teaching or a learning object (Limberg et al., 2012, p.94), can further be summarised as taking either a professional practice approach, where information literacy is positioned as a goal for educational activity, or a research approach, where information literacy forms an object of study (Pilerot & Lindberg, 2011). The eclectic nature of research, which has framed information literacy in terms of its context or its materiality (Lloyd, 2017), as well as, most recently, through its pluralisation as both information (Limberg et al., 2012) and

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literacies of information (Lloyd, 2017), means that the field exists in a certain state of tension setting. However, the reluctance to engage with the shape that information literacy takes regarding both the shape and the purpose of information literacy. within an intercultural setting means that culturally hegemonic ideas, as illustrated by the The literature review builds upon various chronological surveys (Bawden, 2001; Western values (Morrison, 2009) that are entrenched in the now rescinded Information Bruce 1997; Rader, 2002; Virkus, 2003; Whitworth, 2014) to thematically examine how Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education (Standards) (ACRL, 2000), are behaviourist, cognitive constructivist and social constructivist approaches to information embedded into understandings of information literacy. In turn, the presentation of literacy have characterised research within intercultural settings to date. This strategy, which information literacy as a single or fixed way of knowing (Morrison, 2009, p.39) marginalises focuses on the shape of information literacy rather than teaching interventions, facilitates a alternative forms of literate knowledge (Street, 2003) and positions education as a way for more complex understanding of the field. international students to “rectify some aspect of a deficit that they have as a result of being from another culture” (Montgomery & McDowell, 2009, p.456) rather than forming an 2.2.1 Behaviourist approaches to information literacy opportunity to engage with the questions of diversity that are valued in the mission statement A behaviourist or functional approach to information literacy has most consistently of the ‘global’ university (Lillis & Scott, 2007, p.8). distinguished studies of intercultural settings, particularly in the United States. A behaviourist This conception of information literacy is further limited by the methods that are approach, which emerges from attempts to explain, predict or control behaviour (Case & employed in these studies, which, just as Church found in his 1982 survey of sojourner Given, 2016, p.179), as well as the idea that learning can be measured through behavioural adjustment, still tend to rely on personal experiences (e.g. Badke, 2011; Giullian, 2009) or change (Booth, 2011, p.38), characterises information literacy as either a series of fixed steps survey data (e.g. Baron & Strout-Dapaz, 2003; Bilal, 1989). While these approaches may to be followed (e.g. Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1990) or as a set of personal attributes (e.g. establish correlation between ‘successful’ adaptation and individual demographics, they Doyle, 1994) and is generally exemplified through the various national standards and make it hard to explore dynamic processes of adjustment, including international students’ definitions of information literacy that have been developed since the 1980s (Association of abilities to reflect and act on their own experiences (Kim, 2011, p.457). As Volet and Jones College and Research Libraries (ACRL), 2000; Association of American Colleges and (2012, p.246) point out, it is ironic that so few studies into learning within intercultural Universities (AACU), 2013; Australian and New Zealand Information Literacy Framework settings focus on exploring key educational concepts such as self-regulation. Limited (ANZIL), 2004). These standardised definitions and measurements have helped to legitimise research design may further perpetuate stereotypes. The failure to see adaptation within the and popularise interest in the area by replacing the need to problematise situated context of all student adjustment to higher education (Volet & Jones, 2012, p.252) is understandings of information literacy and integrating information literacy into broader particularly problematic because studies that do compare international and domestic student literacy studies research (Tuominen, Savolainen & Talja, 2005, p.331). However, the rigidity information literacy rarely find evidence of widespread difference (e.g. Al-Muomen, Shaw & of this approach has led to an almost exclusive focus on instructional practice as well as a Courtney, 2016; Zhao & Mawhinney, 2015). The limitations of behaviourist approaches to narrow understanding of information literacy within intercultural settings. intercultural information literacy illustrate the need for research that focuses on exploring More specifically, studies of intercultural settings that employ a behaviourist rather than on measuring the information activities of newcomers. The overwhelming perspective to information literacy have tended to either translate ‘universal’ or institutional emphasis on English-speaking contexts within this literature further highlights the importance conceptions of information literacy into the modern language classroom (e.g. Luly & Lenz, of broadening the scope of intercultural research. 2015; Nemtchinova, 2014) or to assess individual behaviour, a perspective that is particularly common within studies of international students (e.g. Baron & Strout-Dapaz, 2001; 2.2.2 Cognitive constructivist approaches to information literacy DiMartino & Zoe, 2000). These studies, which position information literacy as either an Cognitive constructivist understandings of information literacy developed in direct contrast to ability to use the library or as a way to facilitate student acculturation into new academic the perceived limitations of these behaviourist visions (Sundin, 2008, p.30). Cognitive environments, draw attention to the complexity of engagement within a new intercultural constructivism draws from the idea that learners construct knowledge by applying what they 18 19

already know to make sense of new experiences (Brandt, 1997, p.113) and is distinguished itself.” These observations create a more centring approach to international student from behaviourism by its positioning of learning in terms of knowledge construction rather information literacy as well as a growing awareness of the need to understand “what than in response to a stimulus. Simultaneously, the assumption that it is the individual mind constitutes information in different settings or contexts, in different disciplines, professions, that is at the centre of knowledge creation distinguishes cognitive constructivism from social cultures and communities” (Bruce, 2008, p.193). While these goals have not yet been constructivism, which views learning as emerging from participation in social practices addressed in detail, they have helped to foreground information as an object of research in (Talja, Tuominen & Savolainen, 2005, p.83). The focus on “universal cognitive structures” information literacy studies (Bruce et al., 2013, p.4). means that cognitive constructivism differs ontologically as well as epistemologically from Nonetheless, although cognitive constructivist approaches to information literacy the social constructivist perspective (Packer & Goicoechea, 2000, p.228). Within library and have played an important role in recognising and valuing the inherent diversity within information science, the cognitive constructivist approach establishes information literacy as intercultural experiences, the focus remains centred on individual processes within a learning process (Kuhlthau, 2004), or the creation of mental models (Talja et al., 2005, decontextualised settings. This understanding means that cognitive constructivist studies p.83), habits of mind (Addison & Meyers, 2013) and an awareness of one’s own process of neglect to account for individual positioning and the active dynamics of a situation, including using information to learn (Bruce, 2008). Most recently, a cognitive constructivist approach “the multidimensional tension and conflict students experience in a transnational situation” to information literacy has been used to structure the United States’ Framework for (Kim, 2011, p.457). The emphasis on the individual rather than on the broader context can Information Literacy for Higher Education (ACRL, 2015), which has been implemented as a further lead to naive assertions that fail to disentangle existing social relations (O’Connor, successor to the ACRL Standards. The Framework’s focus on the affective and attitudinal 2006, p.204), such as claims that information literacy empowers the use of technology within dimensions of the individual learner also reflects key ideas within the United Kingdom’s intercultural settings (McMahon & Bruce, 2002). More specifically, cognitive constructivist cognitive constructivist-inspired Seven Pillars of Information Literacy (SCONUL, 2011), and approaches refrain from challenging traditional understandings of information literacy A New Curriculum for Information Literacy (Coonan & Secker, 2011). (O’Connor, 2006, p.238; Owusu-Ansah, 2003, p.225). In separating information from the Cognitive constructivist understandings of information literacy have been particularly very meanings and values that situate knowing, information literacy still forms an influential in Australian studies of intercultural settings, which, like behaviourist studies, unproblematic, generic skill that is transferable to other settings. These problems can be seen have predominantly focused on international and English as a Foreign/Second-Language more clearly in the ACRL Framework, where the use of threshold-concept theory positions students (Bordonaro, 2006, 2010; Han, 2012; Hughes, 2005, 2010, 2013; Hughes, Hall & information literacy as a set of truths that are universally applicable for all learners (Hicks & Pozzi, 2017; Johnston, 2014). The emphasis on individual experience, however, moves the Lloyd, 2016, p.341). Thus, while cognitive constructivist understandings of information focus of these studies from prescriptive behaviours to the international student’s literacy shy away from idealising an exemplary student, as in behaviourist models of understanding of their behaviour (cf. Sundin, 2008, p.22). In this vein, linguistic and cultural education, the failure to engage with broader contexts idealises the concept of information variables are seen to bring complexity rather than deficiency (Bordonaro, 2006, 2010; literacy in itself. These issues highlight the need for research that explores how information Hughes, 2004, p.2) to international student information literacy experiences: difference is not literacy is understood given the complex dynamics that structure engagement within a new a personal failing (Hughes, 2013, p.142). Instead, researchers recognise that international intercultural context. students often develop creative strategies to work around unfamiliarity, including using a 2.2.3 Social constructivist approaches to information literacy search engine to find synonyms (Hughes, 2005, 2009) or to establish an author’s gender Social constructivist approaches to information literacy have developed most recently, having (Han, 2012). Coupled with the understanding that common issues with lengthy lists of results predominantly arisen from the work of Australian and Nordic theorists over the last two are not unique to international students, Hughes and Bruce (2006, p.38) conclude that decades (Sundin, 2008). A social constructivist approach builds upon Bruce’s (1997) early difference is related to “the degree of difficulty [rather than to] the nature of the difficulty critiques of behaviourist models of information literacy to view information literacy as 20 21

embracing “historically shaped socio-cultural aspects, such as norms, conventions, and Hultgren, 2017); immigrants in Finland (Aarnitaival, 2010) and Sweden (Mansour & routines, the people acting in the site, material aspects, including the use of ICT tools, as well Francke, 2017); as well as Latinx students (Morrison, 2009) and bilingual workers in North as the interaction between physical setting and the social site” (Pilerot, 2016, p.414). America (Hicks, 2014). The recognition that a person’s engagement with information reflects Positioning knowledge as constructed through dialogue and debate (Tuominen et al., 2005, the ways in which knowledge is sanctioned within a setting means that a social constructivist p.337), social constructivist approaches to information literacy centre on the values, forms of approach shifts the focus of intercultural information literacy research from a person’s ability learning and information modalities that are legitimised within a specific setting (Lloyd, to acquire specific skills to an exploration of how they develop understanding and awareness 2007b) as well as a community’s understanding of competent practice (Talja & Lloyd, 2010, within their new information environments. The focus on building meaning, which highlights p.xii). In further highlighting that this meaning is negotiated within complex social and how a person’s established information practices may not work within a new setting, also technological environments, social constructivist approaches to information literacy also foregrounds how people reconcile their understandings of information literacy within a new emphasise the discontinuities and multiple perspectives (Tuominen et al., 2005, p.337) that society (Lloyd, 2014a). are produced through the construction of situated ways of knowing. In effect, information Like many of the behaviourist and cognitive constructivist studies of intercultural literacy is reconfigured around a social ontology that conceives of an “acting being” (Lave, populations, early social constructivist work tends to centre upon barriers to information 1992) engaged in the world. literacy or the constraints that inhibit how people build meaning within a new setting. An emphasis on the complexity and dynamism of information literacy, which is Nonetheless, the recognition that obstacles may be social and situated as well as internal positioned as “practised in a context” rather than existing in itself (Rivano Eckerdal, 2011), (Sligo & Jameson, 2000) means that a social constructivist approach recognises that means that the social constructivist perspective shifts understandings of information literacy difference should be understood as “information disjuncture” (Lloyd et al., 2013, p.122) from generic skills to a focus on how people learn to “act knowledgeably” within a setting rather than as evidence of deficit or cultural inferiority. These understandings call many (Tuominen et al., 2005, p.340). The recognition that artefacts and activities take on different previously stated assumptions about the perceived knowledge gaps of ethnic minorities into meanings within different contexts (Limberg et al., 2012, p.106) means that a social question (Case & Given, 2016, p.343). More specifically, studies demonstrate how one of the constructivist approach also highlights how information literacy centres on the interplay most problematic barriers for refugees and immigrants centres on the need to perceive and between people, tools and activities (Sundin & Francke, 2009). Collective agreements about access the tacit or taken-for-granted information that is found in every community. Nuanced “what counts as information and is agreed upon as knowledge” (Lloyd, 2011, p.278) further community information, which refers to conventions for daily living, such as the layout of a stress how information literacy encompasses implicit and embodied ways of knowing supermarket or the informal information that is distributed through social networks, such as alongside the more easily recognised physical, social and textual sources. Importantly for the employment (Kennan et al., 2011, p.200) and housing opportunities (Lloyd et al., 2017), is study, the realisation that knowing is situated and collectively-constructed puts the learner’s seen to be particularly hard to access as a newcomer. Unsurprisingly, language, too, is often transition from personal understanding to an intersubjective or shared understanding of perceived as a barrier for refugees and immigrants, both because it makes interactions slower practice at the heart of information literacy research and teaching. and because local accents can impede understanding (Aarnitaival, 2010; Kennan et al., 2011, To date, only a small number of researchers have employed a social constructivist p.199; Richards, 2015, p.90). Language barriers, which may be compounded by a lack of perspective to study information literacy within intercultural settings. These studies, which cultural awareness in the receiving community, prevent refugees engaging with social, textual predominantly centre on international migration and displacement, include an exploration of and digital sources, which causes a further fragmentation of knowledge (Lloyd, 2014a, p.55). the information literacy practices of refugees in Australia (Kennan, Qayyum, Lloyd & Another important characteristic of social constructivist studies is the emphasis upon Thompson, 2011; Lloyd, 2014a, 2015; Lloyd et al., 2013; Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2016, 2017; the information activities that enable people to participate in their new environment. Richards, 2015), Scotland (Martzoukou & Burnett, 2018) and Sweden (Lloyd, Pilerot & Observation, for example, which includes observing people as well as their actions, forms an 22 23

important way for refugees to mediate language barriers and engage with tacit community sociolinguistics and anthropology and are characterised as a group of theories that emphasise information, such as watching the street in order to establish when to put rubbish bins out for the “social and cultural contexts in which literacy is practised” (Perry, 2012, p.51), emerged collection (Lloyd et al., 2013, p.134; Richards, 2015, p.84). Non-textual sources such as the to challenge research that positioned and writing as a mechanism of civilisation and images that are found in junk mail have also been found to help newcomers become oriented superior cognitive development (Goody & Watt, 1963). Since then, sociocultural approaches to daily life (Kennan et al., 2011, p.205). More recently, several studies have explored the to literacy have developed in several different ways, including through a focus on literacy as role of socially-mediated information within intercultural adjustment. Collective coping social practice, which is known as New Literacy Studies, and in terms of multiliteracies, or strategies such as pooling, or the combining of fragmented information amongst groups of New Literacies. Although the concept of multiliteracies, which reconceptualises literacy fellow nationals, draw from the idea that a community’s way of knowing is embedded in the practices within changing technological environments, has important implications for networks that structure social life and have been found to help refugees develop a “more participation in today’s societies (Coiro, Knobel, Lankshear & Leu, 2008), the study is comprehensive picture” of their new information environment (Lloyd, 2015, p.1037). focused on everyday practices rather than uniquely on the digital. For these reasons, New Similarly, everyday public and faith-based spaces have been seen to connect new arrivals to Literacy Studies forms a useful guiding concept for the study. the informal or tacit information that structures social life as well as understandings about Literacy as social practice, or New Literacy Studies, is a multifaceted theoretical how to operationalise this knowing (Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2016, 2017; Richards, 2015, p.85). perspective that centres on people and their literacy practices, or more simply, what people In turn, the refugee’s transition from having information shared with them to being someone do with literacy (Barton & Hamilton, 1998, p.6). Traditionally, literacy has been understood who might act as a “reference point” for new arrivals (Kennan et al., 2011, p.202), has been as the acquisition of functional reading and writing skills. Yet, as a series of anthropological seen to show settlement within a new environment (Lloyd et al., 2013, p.137). studies into the role of literacy in people’s lives demonstrates, literacy is not formed of a set These studies provide a useful starting point for exploring how information literacy is of ideologically neutral and universal skills that are developed through individual cognition. understood within transitional intercultural settings. However, the focus on permanent and Instead, literacy is situated within social contexts (Brice Heath, 1983) and is used for many often traumatic settlement means there is scope for further research. One area that is purposes (Street, 1984), while different literacies are practised in different domains (Scribner underdeveloped relates to the role of technology. While Lloyd et al. (2013) found that & Cole, 1981). Impacting what counts as knowledge within a specific community, the focus refugees tend to eschew digital information due to language and cost barriers, this will likely on human action situates literacy as complex and as emerging from the “delicate interplay of be very different within a study that examines Western student practices, as Lloyd and social, cultural, economic, political, and even geographic forces” (Brandt & Clinton, 2002, Wilkinson’s (2016; 2017) later work with refugee youth highlights. Similarly, linguistic p.340) rather than as forming a decontextualised and decontextualising technology. barriers will be distinctive for students who, unlike many refugees, have some knowledge of The recognition that literacy is situated in a specific time and place further means that the host country language. The study’s focus on language-learning as well as temporary school is acknowledged as only one setting where literacy happens (Pahl & Rowsell, 2012, rather than permanent settlement means that unlike with refugees, contact with fellow p.24). The focus on social context reconceptualises literacy practices around the diverse newcomers may further be considered as problematic rather than as facilitating adjustment. forms and meanings that literacy “takes on” within an environment (Brandt & Clinton, 2002, p.340) and demonstrates how people engage in a variety of local, community-based and 2.2.3.1 New literacy studies vernacular literacy practices as well as more formalised school-oriented activities. These The emphasis on everyday contexts as well as on social practices means that social vernacular literacy practices (Barton & Hamilton, 1998, p.10), which serve everyday constructivist approaches to information literacy draw from and mirror developments from purposes and arise from everyday settings, interests and concerns, highlight how literacy is the broader field of literacy studies. A brief review of sociocultural approaches to literacy linked to the embodied and layered resources, sounds, accents and smells of a neighbourhood studies and their impact on research within library and information science will further situate rather than just to books and texts (Pahl & Rowsell, 2012, p.90). They also demonstrate how the study. Sociocultural understandings of literacy, which were developed from work within 24 25

literacy practices are shaped by a person’s interests and motivations as well as being closely One area of New Literacy Studies research that is particularly relevant to the study is connected to the development of identity (Pahl & Rowsell, 2012). These understandings are how literacy is understood within intercultural contexts. The recognition that literacy summarised by the following list of propositions: practices are shaped by the epistemologies and the social structures within which they are 1. Literacy is best understood as a set of social practices; these can be inferred from embedded means that New Literacy Studies researchers reinforce the idea that literacy events which are mediated by written texts. education must be disentangled from dominant Western ideologies to acknowledge the 2. There are different literacies associated with different domains of life. activities of people within intercultural settings (Pahl & Rowsell, 2012, p.21). The belief that 3. Literacy practices are patterned by social institutions and power relationships, and some literacies become more dominant, visible and influential than others. a single, universal literacy could be interpreted as the imposition of one community’s 4. Literacy practices are purposeful and embedded in broader social goals and cultural conceptions of literacy onto another means that New Literacy Studies research highlights the practices. importance of questioning whose conception of information literacy is valued within studies 5. Literacy is historically situated. 6. Literacy practices change, and new ones are frequently acquired through processes of intercultural contexts (Street, 2003, p.77). of informal learning and sensemaking (Barton & Hamilton, 1998, p.7). Another area of New Literacy Studies research that is particularly valuable for the

study is the recognition that when literacy is situated within broader cultural practices, New Literacy Studies facilitates a meaningful exploration of how literacy can be understood multilingualism forms an asset for learning rather than a problem. From this perspective, an from a social perspective by providing a rich and detailed perspective of how literacy is both ability to speak more than one language facilitates learner engagement with the various multimodal and vernacular. In further illustrating that literacy is used in context, New values and beliefs that drive literacy practices and contributes to the development of dynamic Literacy Studies also provides a useful guiding frame for the study of language-student “dispositions towards inquiry, analysis, design and action” (Comber, 2012, p.xi) by information literacy practices. increasing the number of interpretive resources that people have at their disposal (Comber, 2.2.3.2 New literacy studies and information literacy 2012, p.x). Simultaneously, if literacy is something people do to make sense of their lives To date, work from New Literacy Studies has rarely been used to frame information literacy (Barton & Hamilton, 1998, p.3), New Literacy Studies research highlights that multilingual research. When New Literacy Studies research has been employed, it has typically been used literacies must always be intricately linked to tensions between a learner’s varied values and to argue for a more critical understanding of information literacy (Elmborg, 2012; Hicks, identities (Barton & Hamilton, 1998, p.186). New Literacy Studies research further 2016a; Johansson & Limberg, 2016). Exceptions include Hillard (2009) and Papen (2013) as demonstrates the importance of engaging with questions of power and agency while well as Nicholson (2014) and Hicks (2016b), who use Lea and Street's (1998, 2006) work on refraining from essentialising, over-romanticising (Moje, 2000, p.82) or over-determining academic literacies to argue for a social constructivist approach to information literacy communities in isolation from global influences (Brandt & Clinton, 2002). research and teaching. It is Buschman (2009), however, who engages the most meaningfully 2.3 Information behaviour with New Literacy Studies, which he uses as a frame to argue that the incorporation of Web Information behaviour is a concept that explores how people interact with, or purposefully 2.0 and gaming literacies within library instruction sessions has not yet led to a concomitant and passively seek, manage and utilise information (Bates, 2010). Represented by Wilson reconsideration of the ways in which information literacy is conceptualised. In other words, (2000, p.49) as “the totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information literacy is still viewed and taught as a cognitive skill, despite the integration of information, including both active and passive information seeking, and information use,” popular and community-oriented tools and technologies into teaching practice. Buschman’s information behaviour was expanded by Case and Given (2016, p.6) to encompass (2009) arguments demonstrate that New Literacy Studies plays an important if “information seeking as well as the totality of other unintentional or serendipitous behaviors underdeveloped role in expanding understandings about social constructivist approaches to (such as glimpsing or encountering information), as well as purposive behaviors that do not information literacy. 26 27

involve seeking, such as actively avoiding information.” Together, these descriptions have as well as academic contexts. This section will start by providing a brief overview of inspired the development of theories, concepts and models that attempt to understand the cognitive approaches to intercultural information behaviour before examining social relationships between individuals and information (Robson & Robinson, 2013). approaches to intercultural information behaviour in more detail. The emphasis on human activity means that information behaviour and information 2.3.1 Cognitive approaches to information behaviour literacy are closely related. Learning is one of the main elements that link the two fields; as Early research into information behaviour within intercultural settings tended to see Wilson (1994, p.24) notes, “all information behaviour is learnt, nothing is innate.” Other information behaviour as predominantly dependent upon individual attributes or cultural researchers note that the two fields overlap in highly complementary ways, with information traits of race, ethnicity or nationality (Case & Given, 2016, p.343). Emerging from an attempt behaviour giving theoretical grounding for information literacy and information literacy to diversify research, the belief that race or ethnicity can be used as a predictor of information providing the institutional context for information behaviour (Limberg & Sundin, 2006). behaviour nonetheless rests upon problematic assumptions about how race and other Nonetheless, the two fields have tended to be considered in isolation from each other sociocultural indicators predict “what constitutes information, how people go about obtaining (Shenton, 2010, p.9) and while several studies conclude that information literacy and information, and what usefully predicts people’s information behavior” (Atwood & Dervin, information behaviour are “two sides of the same coin” (Limberg & Sundin, 2006), other 1982, p.549). In further highlighting that a focus on demographic characteristics obscures researchers may see information literacy as subsumed within the field of information structural or systematic constraints (Atwood & Dervin, 1982, p.551), the cognitive approach behaviour (Chelton & Cool, 2004, p.vii). Issues are further muddied by the has since largely been supplanted by interest in the social, cultural and affective aspects of scholar/practitioner divide, with most interest in information literacy emerging through the information behaviour or the idea that context is not distinct from the object of study activities of practitioners and most information behaviour research being carried out by (Pettigrew et al., 2001). Notwithstanding, vestiges of the cognitive approach can still be seen scholars (Julien & Williamson, 2011). As the discussion about the relationships between in studies that link information behaviour to cultural style or dimensions of national values information behaviour and information literacy continues, Julien and Williamson (2011) (e.g. Askola, Atsushi & Huotari, 2010; He, Wu, Yue, Fu & Vo, 2012). Studies that adopt this conclude that research from both fields should be able to inform the other. However, in approach are often symbolised by the work of Hofstede (1980) and position cultural noting that the study’s focus on information literacy emphasises learning rather than difference as a trait that is located within an individual rather than being a proclivity of behaviour, this review will centre on themes that have been underexplored within the field of “people with certain histories of engagement with specific cultural activities” (Gutiérrez & information literacy rather than providing a comprehensive examination of information Rogoff, 2003, p.19). While recognising that ethnic minority groups are typically underserved behaviour research. in libraries, the focus on cultural ‘style’ runs the risk of denying individual agency, and, Unlike information literacy, intercultural information behaviour research literature arguably, increasing inequity by reifying unsubstantiated disparities (Dervin, 1989). The tends to take a social perspective. Emerging in the 1990s, the social approach focuses on the recognition that national identity can be understood as forming a similarly imaginary interpretation of meanings, values and contexts of information behaviour and has largely (Anderson, 2006) or socially constructed community (Meadows, 2010) further highlights the superseded cognitive approaches that centre on an individual’s actions (Pettigrew, Fidel & importance of exploring alternative approaches to intercultural information behaviour Bruce, 2001). More specifically, and just as with information literacy research, most studies research. of intercultural settings have tended to focus on immigrants and international students. Leading to the emergence of concepts as varied as information gatekeepers (Metoyer-Duran, 2.3.2 Social approaches to information behaviour 1991), information grounds (Fisher, Durrance & Bouch Hinton, 2004) and child mediators Social approaches to information behaviour move beyond demographics to engage with the (Chu 1999), information behaviour studies have expanded intercultural research by “contextual, situational, and role variables” (Tsai, 2010) that affect a person’s engagement concentrating on everyday life scenarios or health, business, leisure and employment activity with information within intercultural settings. Just as in information literacy scholarship, 28 29

studies of international students form the major focus of research. The emphasis on context, in perceiving tacit knowledge are also noted by volunteer tourists (Reed, 2009, p.50), who however, means that these studies engage with the complexity of factors that affect struggle to judge between contradictory opinions, as well as in Bronstein’s (2017) study of information behaviour within intercultural situations. Thus, research highlights the ambiguity migrant workers, where language classes became information grounds in which local that students face in new educational contexts as well as the coping strategies that they may knowledge is shared. These studies move beyond the typical lists of information sources in adopt, such as seeking help from local Canadian students (Ishimura, 2013; Ishimura & which newcomers are interested (e.g. employment, education, finance and health) to highlight Bartlett, 2013) or using technologies such as GPS and social media sites to navigate their new the dynamic shape of immigrant information activities. setting (Oh, Butler & Lee, 2014; Sin & Kim, 2013). Equally, studies recognise that feelings Another theme within information behaviour research, albeit one that is less common, of cultural alienation and emotion that students may feel within a new information is the emphasis on corporeal experiences, with several studies describing how an immigrant’s environment are often heightened within intercultural settings (Mehra, 2007; Mehra & first impressions of a new setting are mediated through the senses. Visual differences, such as Papajohn, 2007) with Jeong (2004) highlighting how a sense of marginalisation can lead seeing iron roofs instead of tiles (Goodall, 2013, p.126), olfactory differences, which include international visitors to take recourse in ethnic and faith-based enclaves that reinforce their the smell of fish and chips (Goodall, 2013, p.126), haptic differences, for example, the sense of isolation. Interestingly, only a handful of studies have explored the information Canadian weather (Allard, 2015), and auditory differences, such as the sound of motorbikes behaviour of international students within non-English majority countries, which forms a and geckos (Reed, 2009, p.55), provide a subtle marker of change. Research also significant gap. Noting that language creates a barrier to participation in Danish universities, demonstrates that immigrants may use their senses to become familiar with new settings. which echoes the findings of English-language studies (e.g. Tsai, 2010; Xie, 2012), Visual strategies such as observing or monitoring local actions help people to develop a sense Hyldegård and Hertzum (2016) also recognise the difficulties that many international of appropriate activity as well as to adjust their information behaviour within a new setting; students have in rebuilding support networks overseas. Goodall (2013, p.250) notes how newcomers mute the television and rely on images to keep The other main focus of research centres on immigrant information behaviour and up to date with the news as well as using religious objects to understand a church service. encompasses activity within non-English majority countries such as Finland (Aarnitaival, The body further helps immigrants to reorient themselves in society. Lingel (2011, 2015) 2008), Israel (Bronstein, 2017; Shoham & Strauss, 2007, 2008) Norway (Audonson, Essmat notes, for example, how wandering forms a useful way to identify patterns of meaning in new & Aabø, 2011) and Sweden (Maceviciute & Wilson, 2008), as well as English-speaking surroundings. Migrants may further start to employ their body in new ways to make sense of settings (see Caidi et al., 2010 for an overview). However, unlike cognitive approaches to the situation, including using gestures and charades to understand people and situations information behaviour, social approaches tend to acknowledge that immigrant information (Reed, 2009; Goodall, 2013). Notwithstanding, there has been little sustained examination of activities are mediated through difference, whether this is through conflicts with cultural the role of the body as well as the implications for these findings within intercultural values or ways of knowing (Palmer, Lemoh, Tham, Hakim & Biggs, 2009) or conceptually information behaviour research. remote experiences (Cortinois, 2008). Labelled by Lingel et al. (2014) as leading to a form of A final theme of interest within these studies of immigrant information behaviour is “code-switching”, difference also highlights how immigrants may face problems accessing the focus on experience over time. One critique of research into immigrant information these new ways of knowing. Maceviciute and Wilson’s (2008) research, for example, behaviour is the overwhelming emphasis on initial needs, which obscures the possibility of demonstrates that difficulties in perceiving new cultural norms or the tacit structures of the protracted or lifelong transitions (Dali, 2012, p.198). Thus, while Shoham and Strauss (2007) workplace make it hard for international academics to read new situations and ambiguous mention that migrants may eventually become a “source of information for other prospective behavioural signals, while Audunson et al.’s (2011, p. 224) study, which describes a new immigrants,” there is little understanding of broader transitional processes. An exception is immigrant’s attempt to understand how birthday parties are arranged in Norway, found in the work of Lingel (2011, 2014, 2015), whose study of transnational migrants in demonstrates that these problems are not just limited to the professional sphere. Difficulties New York City explores how newcomers alter the ways in which they move through the city 30 31

as they become more experienced. Another interesting exception is found in Reed’s (2009) facilitate transition by providing a space where students pass on information and experience study of volunteer tourists, which demonstrates how less well-travelled people prepare for (Montgomery & McDowell, 2009, p.461) and share “an insider perspective about unfamiliar their trip by gathering as much information as possible. In contrast, the “information hippies” and/or problematic situations” (Ruble, 2011, p.398). Similarly, while friends and family at of her studies purposefully ignore information because their past experiences give them the home may not be able to help on a practical level, the maintenance of these networks serves confidence to trust that “the universe would send them in the direction they were meant to to “reduce anxiety by offering comfort and stability” and to ease the personal cost of being go” (Reed, 2009, p.61). These findings provide evidence of the need to take an extended away from home (Lao, 2010, p.9). Research has also demonstrated that rather than limiting approach to both transitional and intercultural studies as well as to engage more concretely social contact, people use online communities to: meet local or international students and with the question of time within information research. diversify their information networks (Mikal, 2011, p.17); to learn about new events or activities (Martin & Rizvi, 2014, p.1026); to feel more connected to a place (Polson, 2009, 2.4 Second-language acquisition studies p.52); and to develop at their own pace (Pfeil, 2009). As Gilhooly and Lee (2014, p.389) Beyond library and information science, scholars from the field of second-language point out, participation in online communities gives newcomers access to social experiences acquisition have carried out various studies that offer insights into language-student that may otherwise be denied to them because of “second-language limitations, rural engagement with information during residence abroad. isolation, and outsider status at school and within the host community.” The shape of social support networks is one of the most commonly researched areas While materiality has not been broadly studied within study abroad research, use of within second-language acquisition research into residence abroad. Drawing on ideas of the Internet proves to be as divisive as the question of social support. For many researchers, language socialisation (Schieffelin & Ochs, 1986), numerous studies have demonstrated that the Internet impedes the person’s adjustment to new surroundings by forming a “reduction in people with either online or offline support networks tend to have more successful the number of hours spent engaging with students’ physical surroundings” (Mikal & Grace, transitional experiences. These studies illustrate how a network may offer students emotional 2011, p.300). For other scholars, Internet usage means that students prioritise the support, such as dealing with uncertainty and stress (Lobburi, 2012; Tsai, 2006), as well as establishment of an efficient routine over intercultural interactions, thereby running the risk demonstrating that friends and family can provide considerable informational support, of living alongside local communities (Mikal, 2011; Weiskopf & Kissau, 2008). including details about the host culture (e.g. Lao, 2010; Ruble, 2011). Where research Nevertheless, these claims seem hard to substantiate, especially when locals use the Internet disagrees, however, is how these support groups should be constituted. Several studies have for everyday interactions (Mikal, 2011, p.26) and research in library and information science demonstrated that students who rely on support networks of local co-nationals, international has demonstrated how the use of online search systems can contribute to language-learning students or friends and family at home adjust far less successfully to new environments (e.g. (e.g. Bordonaro, 2010). Similarly, studies show that newcomers use the Internet to explore Deakin, 2012). The recommendation to avoid home contacts, which is linked to the idea that their new identities and experiences (Gifford & Wilding, 2013) as well as to engage more non-native groups lack the local experience necessary to help with survival in the new closely with the target community by looking for information about local cultural events community (Ruble, 2011, p.398), may also have emerged from the perception that online (Mikal & Grace, 2011, p.294) or to avoid expensive or embarrassing cultural faux-pas support groups were initially associated with socially awkward people who were unable to (Mikal, 2011, p.26). In fact, as Martin and Rizvi (2014) point out, a binary here/there construct face-to-face networks (Mikal, Rice, Abeyta & DeVillbiss, 2013, p.A47). conception of place is particularly unhelpful because reliance on technology means that More recent research has demonstrated a far more nuanced understanding of the role ‘here’ is always mediated by ‘there’. In other words, “the ‘here’ of the individual’s local life- that support networks play within transition, including those that are constituted by co- world becomes less and less of a singular or self-present place and more and more of a node nationals or fellow international students. While these groups may not be able to provide in a network of connections with ‘electronic elsewheres’” (Martin & Rizvi, 2014, p.1028). In access to local or taken-for-granted knowledge, research demonstrates that non-native groups effect, experiences in a new setting are mediated through technologies, devices and sharing 32 33

with family and friends left behind and it is through this reterritorialisation, or the situation of Chapter 3: Theoretical framework ‘here’ within the ‘there’, that the migrant’s experience of place is made. More expressly, these findings demonstrate the scope for research that explores questions of technology and 3.1 Chapter overview social support from an information perspective. The chapter provides an overview of the theoretical framework that is applied in the study to explore student information literacy practices during residence abroad. The chapter starts by 2.5 Chapter conclusion describing symbolic interactionism, which forms the ontological framing for the study, before The chapter has reviewed information literacy and information behaviour literature as well as presenting constructionism, which provides its overarching epistemological structure. The related research from the field of second-language acquisition to highlight the gaps in chapter will then provide an overview of transitions theory and practice theory, which form existing scholarship and create the warrant for the study. More specifically, the review two of the sensitising theories through which the findings of the study will be analysed and demonstrates the need for studies that broaden the scope of international research. The explained. Table 1 provides an overview of the purpose for each of these theories in the recognition that global movement is multi-directional and complex highlights the need to theoretical framework. examine questions of language and the activities of English-speakers abroad as well as the Theory Core concepts Purpose within study role of information during temporary stays overseas. Similarly, researchers’ tendency to Symbolic People act towards things through Frames study ontologically by focus on individual processes demonstrates the need for research that acknowledges how interactionism meaning that is interpreted and highlighting the importance people interact within the dynamics of a culturally unfamiliar information environment rather produced through interaction with of shared meaning in the self, environment and society construction of student reality than focusing on learner deficiency. While studies into forced or permanent migration have (Blumer, 1969) as well as reflexive action. broadened the scope of intercultural research beyond its initial emphasis on international students, this review further illustrates the importance of continuing to explore questions of Constructionism Knowledge and social reality is Furnishes epistemological both socioculturally situated and structure of study by technology and social support in more detail as well as the impact of engagement within a constructed through language and emphasising how students new information environment over time. Having provided an overview of findings from shared social processes (Gergen construct meaning through previous research, the following chapter will present the theoretical framework that will be & Gergen, 2008) their ongoing engagement with and negotiation of their used to frame the study of intercultural transition. new social worlds.

Transitions theory People mediate change over time Provides a lens through which through participation in to structure an examination of community activities (Rogoff, students’ transitional 2003; Chick & Meleis, 1996) processes as they rebuild understanding within a new setting.

Practice theory Social life is made and re-made in Facilitates an exploration of practice using tools, discourse the unfolding shape of and the human body (Nicolini, students’ embodied and 2012) materially-mediated activities during residence abroad Table 1: Overview of the theoretical framework

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3.2 Symbolic interactionism communication depends on a person’s ability to understand and position themselves in Symbolic interactionism forms the ontological framing for the study. Symbolic relation to other people’s actions (Charon, 2004, p.112) means that a symbolic interactionist interactionism, which focuses on the construction of reality, is a theoretical perspective that lens also illustrates the importance of social sources as students engage in and deal with the positions people as acting towards things through the (changing) meaning it holds for them challenges and opportunities of their new context. At the same time, the emphasis on the (Fine, 1993, p.64). Some theorists claim that symbolic interactionism, which emerged from present (Charon, 2004, p.29) and a person’s ongoing engagement within society also hints at pragmatist traditions within the United States in the 1930s (Crotty, 1998, p.72), has largely how sociocultural tensions and dynamics both constrain and enable social interaction, while been incorporated into contemporary sociological thought rather than standing as an simultaneously highlighting a person’s ability to rethink, recast and redirect their actions individual theoretical perspective (Fine, 1993, p.81). Yet, the influence of symbolic (Charmaz, 2014, p.270). Beyond social interaction, the realisation that symbols have meaning interactionism on constructionism and nursing transitions theory (Meleis, 2010) as well as its for a person further draws attention to how people act towards information objects focus on people who are both reflective and actively engaged in their environment (Charon, (Buckland, 1991) such as dictionaries or phones and the institutions that “intersect” with 2004, p.41) means that it is worth exploring this heritage in more detail. individual experiences (Westbrook & Finn, 2012, p.807) as well as language. The emphasis Most simply, symbolic interactionism centres on the premise that: on the unfolding shape of student meaning-making also illustrates how symbolic • Human beings act towards things on the basis of the meanings that things have for interactionism is well-suited to inductive and culturally sensitive research methods such as them constructivist grounded theory (explored in Chapter 4). • The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one’s fellows 3.3 Constructionism • These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process used by the person in dealing with things he encounters (Blumer, 1969, p.2) Constructionism provides the overarching epistemological structure within the study’s 1. H theoretical framework. Constructionism positions human perception, knowledge and social Derived from the work of Mead (1934) and later Blumer (1969), who devised the term of reality as built and sustained through social processes (Burr, 1995, p.4) and complements the symbolic interactionism, the ‘symbolic’ part of the phrase represents the idea that people study’s symbolic interactionist ontological framework through its focus on language and assign meaning to their worlds, while ‘interaction’ demonstrates that this meaning is assigned interaction. Drawing epistemologically from the recognition that people construct accounts and transmitted through communication with others (Williams, 2008, p.849). Put another and meaning about the world through dialogue, constructionism illustrates that knowledge is way, humans create “the worlds of experience they live in” (Denzin, 1992, p.25) through produced communally rather than forming an individual possession (Tuominen & taking the acts of others into account as they, themselves, act (Charon, 2004, p.28). In this Savolainen, 1997, p.83). In further highlighting that knowledge is negotiated rather than sense, meaning cannot be seen as shaped in direct response to context and culture (Birks & found or revealed, constructionism demonstrates that ways of seeing the world are dynamic Mills, 2011, p.39). Instead, it is positioned as interpreted as well as continually unfolding as as well as time- and culture-bound (Burr, 1995, p.7). The emphasis on interaction also people actively engage in and reflect upon their activity in relation to the environment and positions constructionism as an extension of constructivist traditions of scholarship, where broader social processes (Charon, 2004, p.28). In effect, meaning is viewed as fluid and knowledge is formed through an individual cognitive process and centres upon the creation of situated as well as fundamental to understanding human activity (Patton, 2002, p.112). stable and isolated sense-making models (Schwandt, 2003, p.305; Talja et al., 2005, p.83). Symbolic interactionism is particularly relevant for this study of people who are in the Within the study, the adoption of a constructionist epistemological stance assumes that process of rebuilding understanding within a new context. Most importantly, the recognition information, as well as information systems and activities are produced within contextually that people act in response to the ways in which they interpret and define a situation moves dependent “linguistic and conversational constructs” (Talja et al., 2005, p.90) rather than the focus of information literacy research towards an acceptance of the important role that always being tangible or universal (Pickard, 2007, p.7). student agency plays in the determination of activity. The acknowledgement that 36 37

More specifically, constructionism is centred on several core assumptions rather than core link between people, communities and cultures (MLA, 2007, p.2) then language- being neatly summarised (Burr, 1995, p.2). An overview of three of its main tenets - social students are developing multiple understandings of social reality as well as the “symbolic understandings of knowledge, its historical and cultural specificity, and the centrality of resources” (Kramsch, 2009, p.124) through which they can give meaning to their activities. language to meaning-making - will help to situate the research. One of the major precepts of This adds an extra layer of complexity to this interpretive research that centres on the constructionism focuses on the social shape of knowledge or the idea that social processes unravelling of multiple meanings of being and identity (cf. Schwandt, 2003, p.315). sustain knowledge (Burr, 1995, p.4). Drawing from the recognition that “the mind constructs 3.4 Transitions theory reality in its relationship to the world” (Tuominen, Talja & Savolainen, 2002, p.273), a Transitions theory forms one of the sensitising theories that structures this theoretical constructionist framework posits that meaning is the product of dialogue as well as of framework. With its roots in anthropology and the idea of rites of passage (Kralik, Visentin & sociocultural influences. The emphasis on social contact, which recognises that shared van Loon, 2006 p.322), transition has most comprehensively been examined in the fields of versions of knowledge are fabricated through everyday interactions, is in direct contrast to education and nursing. Within education, transitions are studied within the framework of the traditional positivist emphasis on objective observation (Burr, 1995, p.4). It also draws human development and more specifically, as connected to questions of socialisation attention to the idea that understanding is historically and culturally relative (Burr, 1995, p.4) (Rogoff, 1996). This means that research has built upon work from psychology and sociology and that knowledge is both a product of and specific to historically and culturally situated to centre on transition at an individual level, as the internalisation of adult skills and social processes (Crotty, 1998, p.54; Gergen & Gergen, 2008, p.817). Given that knowledge (Corsaro & Molinari, 2005, p.16), and on a broader sociocultural level, as communities are actively engaged in the development of new meaning (Talja et al., 2005, interaction with broader collective processes (Corsaro, Molinari & Rosier, 2002, p.325). p.90), knowledge must further be seen as both dynamic and limited because it forms part of Studies have more recently started to move beyond the predominant focus on early childhood ongoing conversations (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p.44). These understandings are pertinent to engage with adult transitions into professional work (Fenwick, 2013). within the study because they recognise the plurality of meanings that characterise language Within nursing, research centres on transitions as they affect a person’s “health, well- expertise as well as problematising the notion of a ‘native’ speaker. being and their ability to take care of themselves” (Meleis, 2010, p.11). Although it has been The focus on interaction between people means that another main tenet of social said that all nursing phenomena encompass a type of transition (Chick & Meleis, 1996, constructionism is language (Talja et al., 2005, p.89). As Schwandt (2003, p.307) points out, p.238), research has most commonly centred on health-illness transitions, such as diagnosis language is a range of activities “in which we express and realize a certain way of being in and rehabilitation, as well as developmental or life transitions, for example, ageing or the world.” Yet, as with our understanding of knowledge, language cannot be conceived as motherhood. Characterised by comprehensive theoretical development that draws on neutral, abstract or as a purely functional way of conveying thought and information (MLA, symbolic interactionism (Meleis, 2010), nursing transitions theory can, nonetheless, be 2007). Language is neither a tool to gain knowledge of the world nor an instrument by which critiqued for flattening “the complexity of social relations” (Fenwick, 2013, p.359). The we can order the world (Schwandt, 2003, p.307). Instead, language creates the conceptual recognition that the focus on power structures and individual agency within educational frameworks that are embedded within sociocultural contexts, practices and conventions transitions theory complements the well-established theoretical structure of nursing (Holland, 2006, p. 93) and which are produced and reproduced by people who share a culture transitions theory means that the study draws upon both sets of theories. The sociocultural (Burr, 1995, p.7). These ideas mean that language should be understood as both constitutive underpinnings of both educational and nursing transitions theory mean that they align both of meaning (Gergen & Gergen, 2008, p. 818) and a form of social action because it gains the ontologically and epistemologically with the study’s broader theoretical framework. capacity to mean through human interchange (Gergen, 1994, p.263). The emphasis on conversation is particularly relevant within the study where language-students engage with “historically shaped ways of language use” (Tuominen et al., 2002, p.277). If language is the 38 39

3.4.1 Approaches to transitions theory Prout, 1998, p.207), although Lundh (2011, p.35) points out that humans are always The variety of perspectives and approaches that have been used to explore transitions means simultaneously being and becoming. that major concepts have been examined in several ways. Traditionally, transition has been Given the ontological and epistemological structure of the study’s theoretical framed as a person’s movement between institutions or settings, for example between framework, a sociocultural perspective on transition provides the most appropriate lens for secondary and tertiary education (Hviid & Zittoun, 2008, p.122) or one life phase, place or the research. The importance that is placed within sociocultural transitions theory on the situation to another (Schumacher et al., 1999, p.2). This approach, which is characterised by activities in which people participate as well as how this participation changes activities over Ecclestone, Biesta and Hughes (2010, p.5) as the navigation of pathways, structures and time (Dockett & Perry, 2007, p.9) moves the focus of information literacy to how people systems, positions transition as standardised or linear and as occurring in relation to develop socially-situated knowing. In turn, the emphasis on participation in the social normative patterns and social expectations, for example, age-appropriate behaviour. More practices of a community reframes information literacy as produced by a community’s recently, the recognition that lifecourse is marked by non-uniform experiences (Field, 2010, history of engagement rather than as constituting a variable that affects or influences p.xviii) means that researchers have focused on the processes of transition or the dynamics of transition (cf. Rogoff, 2003, p.50). Importantly, the use of sociocultural transitions theory development during this time (Hviid & Zittoun, 2008, p.122). Most famously exemplified by broadens the scope of the study by highlighting how social structures can both constrain and the ecological perspective, which draws from Bronfenbrenner (1979) and emphasises enable student engagement in information activities (c.f. Corsaro & Molinari, 2005, p.20). interaction within changing environments, transition has thereby further been characterised as 3.4.2 Change and time within transitions theory a change in role as a person moves “between and across systems” (Dockett & Perry, 2007, Change and time are two of the tangled and complex concepts that characterise transitions p.6). Marked by a shift in identity and agency (Ecclestone et al., 2010, p.6), this approach theory. Change is often used indistinguishably from the concept of transition to describe the recognises that transition is constituted by the relationships and connections that surround a alteration in a person’s developmental process or life circumstances (Kralik et al., 2006, person as well as individual experience (Dockett & Perry, 2007, p.8). p.322). However, the two words are not synonymous. Instead, change is seen firstly, as an Although the ecological perspective has made many important contributions to external event that sets transition in motion (Meleis, Sawyer, Messias, Im & Schumacher, research into human development, it can, however, be critiqued for treating individual and 2000, p.12) and secondly, as the subsequent shifts that a person makes to integrate the cultural processes separately (Rogoff, 2003, p.44) and for ignoring the power relations that disruption into their life (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994, p.121). Change cannot, therefore, produce the social contexts of transition (Corsaro et al., 2002, p.328). This means that a become a transition until it incorporates “accompanying passages between different life sociocultural approach is more frequently being used as an alternative theoretical perspective conditions, statuses and phases, and the resulting self-definitions over time” (Messias, 2010, within transitions research (Perry, Dockett & Petriwskyj, 2014). A sociocultural lens draws p.226). Accordingly, and from the perspective of the study, transition is constituted by from the work of Vygotsky (1978) as well as from Lave and Wenger (1991) to position student adjustment to the changes in their lives rather than in terms of their initial relocation human development in terms of “people’s changing participation in sociocultural activities of overseas. A focus on acclimation rather than physical relocation also highlights how their communities” (Rogoff, 2003, p.52). Connecting change to involvement in a community, language-students may be going through several transitions at once, including, for example, rather than locating it in a person or in their environment (Rogoff, 1996, p.273), transition has the move towards adult independence, although, as Messias (2010) notes, the transition with also been characterised as ‘becoming somebody’ in a personal, educational or occupational the most pressing needs tends to be accorded higher consideration. context (Ecclestone et al., 2010, p.7), although Fenwick (2013, p.362) warns that the Time is another concept that plays an important role within transition. Drawing from suggestion of a unified subject is problematic. The focus on ‘becoming’ rather than ‘being’ the understanding that the beginning and end of a transition do not occur simultaneously may also position a person as incomplete or as characterised by a shortfall (James, Jenks & (Chick & Meleis, 1986, p.240), transition is characterised as both a process (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994, p.121) and as flow and movement that occurs over time (Meleis et al., 2000, 40 41

p.20). In further recognising that change may involve considerable disruption for a person, motivations for moving overseas, as well as underscoring the importance of understanding transitional processes are also seen to “require time as people gradually disengage from old transition from the perspective of those experiencing it (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994, p.122). behaviours and ways of defining self” (Kralik et al., 2006, p.326). In this sense, and just as Knowledge and preparation influence personal meaning, too, and an understanding of change is imbued with personal interpretation and experience, time cannot be portrayed as the new location in which a person finds themselves as well as expected conditions (Messias, regulating a well-defined and self-contained event that stretches from anticipation of change 2010) form an important facilitator of transition. More specifically, knowledge about to stability (Meleis et al., 2000, p.20). Instead, time is dependent on the meaning of change in accommodation and related details such as social customs and expectations is seen to be a person’s life (Schumacher et al., 1999, p.4) and should be understood as “experienced time” particularly effective prior to relocation transitions (Rossen & Knafl, 2003, p.32). (Chick & Meleis, 1986, p.239) that is ongoing and in flux rather than fixed and bounded. Notwithstanding, preparation forms a culturally specific concept. An immigrant’s experience Within the study, an emphasis on time highlights that student transition extends “from the with traditional healers, for example, may not prepare them to engage with health practices first anticipation of transition until stability in the new status has been achieved” (Chick & within their new society (Chick & Meleis, 1986, p.252). Alternatively, a person may never Meleis, 1986, p. 239) rather than forming a linear or a normative journey with distinct stages have had call to develop strategies for the new scenario, such as choosing a doctor (Messias, (Fenwick, 2013, p.362). 2010), while the stress of a new situation may further render a person unable to make The focus on change and time additionally foregrounds the idea of movement. important decisions (Chick & Meleis, 1986, p.252). In effect, while the focus on preparation However, rather than seeing student engagement overseas as leading, unproblematically, to a within transitions theory draws attention to the ways in which students in the study anticipate positive acceptance of change or an altered sense of self (Kralik et al., 2006, p.324), and ready themselves to participate in residence abroad, the recognition that knowledge is transition is characterised as subject to a forwards and backwards movement (Kralik et al., socially situated illustrates how a student’s pre-arrival activity cannot completely equip them 2006, p.325) that is neither continuous nor inevitable (Fenwick, 2013, p.362). A focus on for their time overseas. movement further illustrates that student engagement in residence abroad is structured by an 3.4.4 Social and community conditions within transitions theory endpoint that is relative to the experience (Chick & Meleis, 1986, p.241), while highlighting The emphasis on the meaning with which people imbue transition also highlights how how transition forms a socioculturally-mediated reorientation (Kralik et al., 2006, p.326) that community and social conditions (Meleis et al., 2000) both facilitate and inhibit a person’s is produced through student disconnectedness and loss of security within a new setting engagement in transition. In terms of community resources, the emotional and informational (Chick & Meleis, 1986, p.240) rather than forming a youthful rite of passage. support that is provided by people who are similarly engaged in transition is seen to be vital 3.4.3 Personal meaning within transitions theory (Clingerman, 2007, p.230), although, as Meleis et al. (2000, p.23) point out, the need to ‘keep Another important theme within transitions theory is the emphasis on the meaning that people face’ mean that fellow nationals may serve as inhibitors as well as facilitators of transition. accord to transition, which encompasses awareness, knowledge and preparation (Meleis et The recognition that peers who share the same linguistic background and culture do not al., 2000). Personal meaning alters the way that people perceive and respond to change always form straightforward sources of support is especially important in the study of (Clingerman, 2007) and is seen to be particularly important within migratory transitions, students who are learning a language overseas. where people have a wide variety of motives for relocation (Meleis et al., 2000, p.22). Societal conditions that tend to affect transition centre on the receptiveness of the new Meanings of migration are also understood to be shaped by a person’s community environment, including the presence of discrimination (Clingerman, 2007, p.230) and the experiences (Clingerman, 2007, p.229), with the “strangeness” of a new environment (Chick existence of new support groups and structures (Messias, 2010, p.229). Stigmatisation of & Meleis, 1986, p.252) affecting their engagement within a new setting. Within the study, a either the transition or the person, for example, affect how people are able to respond to focus on personal meaning draws attention to the impact of students’ purposes and change (Im, 2010, p.383). Similarly, structural factors such as class, race, gender, economic and occupational conditions impact a person’s engagement in transition by influencing the 42 43

opportunities to which they have access (Ecclestone et al., 2010, p.11). Within the study, the and community processes further highlights the developmental and intersubjective focus on broader societal structures draws attention to how students’ statuses as language- dimensions of transition. learners who may look and sound very different from a local or a native speaker impacts the 3.4.6 Transitions theory and information research ways in which they engage with information. Interestingly, both Fenwick (2013, p.359) and Transition and transitions theory have not previously been widely explored within Ecclestone et al. (2010, p.10) warn how the effect of social and community conditions on information research. More commonly, transition has referred to events where people travel transition are often downplayed through the “rhetoric of agency”, although practice theory in one direction between two pre-existing and related activities (Beach, 1999, p.114), such as has been suggested as a way to refocus attention onto the collective (Fenwick, 2013, p.363). the move from secondary to tertiary education (Bent, 2008; Burhanna, 2013; Secker & 3.4.5 Human development within transitions theory Coonan, 2011) or as a transfer student between colleges (e.g. Ivins, Copenhaver & Koclanes, Another important theme within transition research is human development, which is 2017; Nelson, 2017). However, a focus on individual actions frames transition as the frequently positioned as an indicator of transition. Process and outcome indicators are navigation of static institutions and neglects to account for the structural forces that impact typically used in nursing transitions theory to assess a person’s progress towards health or student engagement with change. These studies also negate the multiple and circuitous ways wellbeing (Meleis et al., 2000). However, although these indicators provide insight into a in which a learner mediates the impact of these upheavals in their lives by characterising person’s recuperation during health transitions, the notion of a successful outcome is harder transition as progressive and irreversible or as forming a type of culture shock (Ivins et al., to depict within educational transitions. A focus on success further risks “pathologising 2017). An exception is found in Willson’s (2016) research, which uses transitions theory to transitions” by establishing normative transitional milestones and infantilising managerial demonstrate how the information behaviour of early-career academics is structured through interventions (Ecclestone, 2009, p.23; Fenwick, 2013, p.363). In contrast, a person’s ongoing institutional goals and the actions of colleagues. participation within the activities of their community forms a more useful marker of While transition has not been explicitly explored within information literacy research, transition. Focusing on the connections that a person makes with professionals and ideas of change have been touched upon within workplace information studies, where the caregivers, transition is also seen to be denoted by a person’s increasing sense of competence passage from novice to expert is signalled by a shift between textually and socially mediated within a new setting, such as learning to find one’s way around as well as being able to locate knowing of a landscape (Lloyd & Somerville, 2006) and the negotiation of meaning (Moring, sources of information (Johnson, 1999, p.57). 2012). Transition has further been alluded to within studies of refugee information literacy Within migration transitions, awareness is further seen to develop from an practices, where forcibly displaced people must reconcile their established ways of knowing immigrant’s ability to integrate past and present experiences into their lives and to build a with those of their new setting as part of their resettlement process (Lloyd, 2014a). In new, fluid identity. Positioned as the ability to overcome ambiguity as well as to come to fostering information resilience, information literacy has also been seen to play an important terms with a transnational perspective (Baird, 2012, p.261) transition is characterised by an role in helping to mediate these shifts and reorientations (Lloyd, 2014a, 2015). These studies acceptance of multiplicity in a migrant’s new life, rather than by the subsuming of home demonstrate the important role that information literacy plays at a time when knowledge has identity (Messias, 2010, p.230). In effect, if people are “proactively modifying activities,” or been disrupted while nonetheless highlighting the need for further theoretically-driven engaged in preparation, planning and information seeking on a physical, emotional, social explorations of transitions. The study’s use of transitions theory provides one way to explore and an environmental level (Clingerman, 2007, p.222), they are said to be positively engaged the complexity and the implications of the ways in which people engage with information in transition (Meleis et al., 2000, p.19). Within the study, the emphasis on interaction and during periods of change and reorientation. being situated draws attention to the ways in which students construct their information landscapes, while the shift from individual indicators of transition to engagement with group

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3.5 Practice theory with the focus on the body within practice theory, the recognition that speech and writing Practice theory forms the other sensitising theory within this theoretical framework. Practice involve bodily know-how as well as a practical engagement with the broader social theory positions “social practices as the central phenomenon in social life” (Schatzki, 1996, environment (Rouse, 2007, p.535) highlights the interwovenness of linguistic and non- p.xi) and developed through the work of a number of influential scholars, including Schatzki linguistic activity within the sayings and doings of practice (Schatzki, 2017, p.127). A (2002), Gherardi (2000) and Reckwitz (2002). While there is no single or unifying theory practice theoretical approach also creates a warrant for the study’s research methods (see (Nicolini, 2012, p.1), most practice theories are recognisable by the inclusion of several core 4.3). The acknowledgement that practices are uncovered rather than perceived (Schatzki, concepts, including the centrality of human activity; the importance of the body as well as of 2012, p.24) underscores the study’s use of interviews while the focus on materiality within material objects; an emphasis on individual agency; a collective understanding of knowledge; practice theory also supports the employment of visual research methods. and a foregrounding of power (Nicolini, 2012, p.3-6). These elements, which are explored in 3.5.1 Approaches to practice theory more detail later on in this section, move the focus of practice theory beyond individualism Similar to transitions theory, practice theory has been explored through a variety of different and abstract social structures (Schatzki, 2012, p.13) to establish practices rather than people perspectives. Constituting what Schatzki (2012, p.14) refers to as a “domain,” practice theory as the “starting point for theorizing human affairs” (Nicolini, 2012, p.162). Nevertheless, the can most simply be understood as taking either an empirical approach (Feldman & recognition that practices centre on the contributions of both humans and non-humans to the Orlikowski, 2011; Corradi, Gherardi & Verzelloni, 2010), where practices are positioned as organisation and reproduction of social life also places questions of human subjectivity and the object of study, or a theoretical and a philosophical approach (Feldman & Orlikowski, meaning at the heart of practice theory (Schatzki, 2001, p.10). 2011) where practice is positioned as a “way of seeing” (Corradi et al., 2010) and an Within the study, the focus on human coexistence means that practice theory provides analytical concept (Pilerot, 2014b, p.43). The recognition that information literacy practice is a useful lens through which to explore the shape of language-learner information literacy nuanced according to the social affordances of a setting means that practice theory is practices. The recognition that human existence is “tied to the context in which it transpires” employed in the study to explore language-students’ information activities from both an (Schatzki, 2005, p.467) highlights the situated nature of information literacy, while the empirically-driven practice-based standpoint (cf. Corradi et al., 2010, p.269) or in terms of emphasis on what people do draws attention to student perspectives and understandings of what students do, and an analytically-focused practice-theoretical lens (cf. Corradi et al., their activities. The focus on the learner is particularly important within information literacy 2010, p.273), in terms of how student activities are theorised and explained. research which has tended to stress what librarians think people do (or should do) rather than Practice theory can also be explored through either an ontological or an engaging with learner perspectives. The realisation that social life is constantly in flux also epistemological approach to practice (Mahon, Francisco, Kemmis & Lloyd, 2017, p.4). Given means that practice theory forms a useful lens for the study of transition within increasingly the focus on how language-students make meaning, the study takes an ontologically-driven interconnected and boundary-less worlds (Nicolini, 2012, p.2). perspective to practice, which centres attention on how practice is organised and shaped Importantly, a practice approach also aligns with the study’s broader theoretical rather than how people know, which is explored through an epistemological orientation to framework. While practice theory returned to the centre of discussion as interest in the practice (e.g. Lave & Wenger, 1991; Nicolini, 2012). An ontological approach also linguistic turn within social theory started to diminish (Shove et al., 2012, p.6), a shared focus emphasises the site of practice which, in the study, is constituted by language-learning (cf. on action and social interaction as well as a similar pragmatist legacy aligns the study’s Schatzki, 2005). A focus on the site in which human coexistence transpires draws attention to employment of symbolic interactionism with a practice theoretical approach (Nicolini, 2012, community ways of knowing while, in forming a bridge between individual and societist p.41). In turn, the positioning of language as a social phenomenon (Schatzki, 2017) means ontological perspectives (Schatzki, 2005), further reflects the rejection of mind/body, that practice theory is compatible with the study’s use of constructionism. While language cognition/action and subject/object dualisms (Feldman & Orlikowski, 2011, p.1242; “coexists uneasily” (Rouse, 2007, p.515) or becomes less prioritised (Reckwitz, 2002, p.255) Schatzki, 2012, p.14) that are characteristic of practice theory. Within the study, emphasis on 46 47

the site of practice highlights the situated shape of information literacy as well as the recognition that dispersed practices are widespread focuses attention on how the site of importance of exploring local activities and ways of knowing in order to make information practice shapes information literacy practice. literacy practice visible (Lloyd, 2010, p.253). At the same time, a focus on the context of 3.5.3 Activity and its organisation within practice theory information literacy does not preclude an engagement with individual students as well as the The centrality of human activity forms the first of the key concepts that Nicolini highlights as complex social forces with which they engage during residence abroad. underscoring these descriptions of practice. Activity, which is understood as an event that is 3.5.2 Practice accomplished by the performance of action (Schatzki, 2013, p.xv), plays a central role within Practices forms the central concept of practice theory yet the way in which practice is practice theory; although social structures appear durable, they only exist through the conceived is subject to a variety of interpretations. For both Gherardi (2009, p.356), who sees “performance of material activities” (Nicolini, 2012, p.3). Notwithstanding, while activities practice as “recurrent patterns of socially sustained action” and Reckwitz (2002, p.249) who incorporate the purpose or ends for which people act (Schatzki, 2012, p.15), they cannot be positions practice as a “routinized type of behaviour,” the emphasis of practice is on conceived as the possession of a specific person. Instead, activities emerge and are produced continuity. In contrast, Schatzki (2001, p.11) refers to practice as an interwoven array of through an individual’s engagement in the world (Feldman & Orlikowski, 2011, p.1247) as open-ended and spatiotemporally-dispersed activities where activity is constituted by “bodily well as, in additionally determining the shape of others’ engagement in practice, belonging to doings and sayings” (Schatzki, 2002, p.72) that hang together. Schatzki’s definition, which practice (Schatzki, 2003, p.193). In this sense, activity must be seen to encompass both positions activities as continually unfolding (Schatzki, 2002, p.72) while also taking place in physical action and reflexive deliberation (Gourlay & Oliver, 2018). Within the study, the or over objective space and time (Schatzki, 2012, p.5), further highlights how practice is both emphasis on activity shifts the focus of information literacy towards complex understandings dynamic and coordinated rather than merely being constituted by predictable or routinised about the hanging togetherness of social worlds. patterns of activity. The recognition that language-learning centres on meaning-making and In turn, the recognition that the sayings and doings that constitute activity are linked identity rather than on the replication of stable and “commonly-agreed-upon reality” highlights how activity is organised rather than being pre-determined and forming part of a (Kramsch, 2009, p.2) means that Schatzki’s definition of practice will form the basis of the fixed set of collectively agreed-upon entities (Schatzki, 2012, p.19). In other words, activities study’s practice theoretical approach. compose a practice if they “express… one of the understandings, rules or teleoaffective The study also draws upon Schatzki (2002) to position information literacy as a elements that organise that practice” (Schatzki, 2012, p.15). Schatzki’s focus on organisation dispersed social practice that happens within other integrative practices (Lloyd, 2010b, and how doings and sayings hang together further illustrates how practices are continually p.246). Dispersed practices are recognised as coursing through a variety of sectors and arenas unfolding rather than being regularised (Schatzki, 2010, p.129) by acknowledging that these and as concentrating on a single action rather than combining multiple projects and goals, as structural features can change over time (Schatzki, 2001, p.61) and may not be complete is the case with integrative practices (Schatzki, 2002, p.88). Nevertheless, the recognition that (Schatzki, 2010, p.145). For dispersed practices, however, Schatzki (1996, p.91) highlights dispersed practices can look very different within distinctive contexts highlights how they how activities are uniquely structured or oriented through what he refers to as understanding, reflect the social, historical and political features of the integrative practice in which they which is constituted by a person’s (shared) abilities or knowing how to carry out, identify and circulate rather than forming a generic and decontextualised skill (Schatzki, 2001, p.88; respond to actions. Dispersed practices are consequently positioned as being organised by a Lloyd, 2010, p.249). Constituted by a constellation of interconnected activities (Lloyd, knowledge of which “of the doings and sayings of which one is capable” (Schatzki, 2002, 2010c), information literacy is thereby positioned in the study as forming a dispersed practice p.78) would constitute the practice rather than by the rules or teleoaffective elements that that connects people with the information activities and the forms of knowledge that additionally structure integrative practice. Within the study, the acknowledgement that the constitute a knowing of a broader, integrative practice (Lloyd, 2012, p.777). In turn, the activities of a practice are connected as well as learned through participation in practice

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(Schatzki, 1996, p.132) moves the focus of information literacy towards an exploration of the 3.5.5 Materiality within practice theory ways in which ‘knowing how’ guide and shape student information activities. Materiality forms the third important concept within Nicolini’s summary of practice theory. Drawing from the understanding that practice theorists “conceive... of practices as embodied, 3.5.4 The body and knowledge within practice theory materially mediated arrays of human activity centrally organized around shared practical Schatzki’s definition of practice also draws attention to the importance of the body, which understanding” (Schatzki, 2001, p.11), materiality, which encompasses “tools, technologies, constitutes the second of Nicolini’s core practice theory concepts and is positioned as bodies, actions and objects” (Fenwick, 2010, p.69), is bound up with the enactment and forming the meeting point of mind, activity and society (Schatzki, 2001, p.12). The focus on structuring of practice. At the same time, materiality, like practice itself, is subject to a the body, which could be interpreted as a direct response to historical distinctions between variety of interpretations within practice theory. For Gherardi (2009, p.354), who builds upon and dominance of the mind over body (Reckwitz, 2002, p.251), highlights its centrality to the Orlikowski’s (2007, p.1437) premise that “there is no social that is not also material, and no capturing of knowledge (Gherardi, 2009, p.354) and the making and remaking of social life. material that is not also social,” materiality constitutes “a form of distributed agency” that In turn, the recognition that actions are only understood within their practical contexts anchors practices through the knowledge that is embodied in objects, tools and artefacts. In demonstrates how practices constitute bodies as well as activities (Schatzki, 2001, p.11). An contrast, Schatzki (2010, p.132) affords materiality “compositional significance” rather than emphasis on the corporeal also draws attention to embodied understandings that are rarely agency in his discussion of practice. Schatzki’s (2010, p.134) understanding of materiality, articulated, such as tacit cues and sensitivities (Wenger, 1998, p.47) as well as explicit which recognises that “understanding specific practices always involves apprehending physical activities by illustrating how practices both make and are made visible through a material configurations” (Schatzki, 2001, p.12), highlights how nature and non-human person’s body. These ideas are particularly important within the study of language-students organisms as well as humans and artefacts form an ingredient of social practice rather than because they suggest that language alone cannot capture the understanding that undergirds constituting an individual actor or agent. This study’s emphasis on how people build practice (cf. Nicolini, 2012, p.165) while also highlighting how an emphasis on the “whole understanding within a new setting grants primacy to human rather than to nonhuman activity person” (Lloyd, 2010b, p.249) is crucial to an understanding of information literacy practices. and means that Schatzki’s understanding of materiality will be employed in the research. The prominence of the body also means that practice theory reframes the concept of At the same time, the study will also draw on concepts that have typically been knowledge in terms of knowing or as a collective activity that “unfolds over time” (Gherardi, associated with Gherardi and Orlikowski’s portrayal of materiality as a way to broaden 2009, p.353). Knowledge has commonly been viewed in cognitivist terms as know-what or as understanding about the role of things within students’ information literacy practices. More an object that is carried in the head of a person (Reckwitz, 2002, p.254). In contrast, the specifically, practice theory draws attention to material objects or what Knorr Cetina (1997) recognition that people know through their bodies highlights how knowledge espouses know- initially labels as objects of knowledge and later renames as epistemic objects (Knorr Cetina, how and ways of wanting, feeling and understanding (Reckwitz, 2002, p.253) as well as 2001, p.190). In referring to artefacts that are perpetually in the process of being materially- know-what. The acknowledgement that social life forms an ongoing production (Feldman & defined (Knorr Cetina, 1997, p.18), an awareness of epistemic objects provides a way to Orlikowski, 2011, p.1240) further highlights how knowledge constitutes a situated and interrogate the “object relations on which expertise depends” (Knorr Cetina, 1997, p.13) embedded activity rather than an object that can be possessed (Gherardi, 2009, p.357). Within while also highlighting the changing properties of an object as well as the purposes to which the study, the recognition that knowing is emergent and negotiated in-situ draws attention to they can be put. Boundary objects, which refer to the artefacts that act as an anchor or a language-students’ active participation in the shared activities of their setting. An emphasis bridge between different worlds (Star & Griesemer, 1989, p.414), form another way to on shared interpretation also highlights how student knowing centres on understanding explore how people act towards and with artefacts. An emphasis on the arrangements that oneself and others in a culturally understandable way rather than merely what to say and do enable different groups to work together “without consensus” (Star, 2010, p.602), which (Reckwitz, 2002, p.254). demonstrate how an object’s materiality is produced through action rather than an inherent 50 51

“thingness” (Star, 2010, p.603), further helps to make visible the “sociotechnical contexts paths before it” (Schatzki, 2002, p.210). In other words, social life is constituted through the within which people seek, retrieve, use, share, and curate information” (Huvila, Andersen, site of practice (Schatzki, 2005) rather than being produced through human agency alone. Jansen, McKenzie & Worrall, 2017, p.1817). More specifically, Schatzki (2012, p.16) highlights how sites are shaped by arrangements or Within the study, an emphasis on materiality draws attention to the important and set-ups of material objects that channel, prefigure and facilitate practices. The recognition unfolding role that common objects such as mobile phones and social networks play within that arrangements are tied to practices in what Schatzki (2012, p.16) refers to as practice- everyday student life as well as the role of artefacts that are traditionally associated with arrangement bundles illustrates how a person’s possibilities for action are bound in travel such as souvenirs and guide books (cf. Morgan & Pritchard, 2005). Materiality further materiality. An acknowledgement that the relationships between people and the “organisms, helps to challenge the assumption that, to paraphrase Barad (2003, p.801), language, artifacts and things through which they coexist” (Schatzki, 2001, p.51) both limit and discourse and culture matter more in the study of language-learning than matter itself and promote activity also emphasises the need to explore the material conditions of social life as creates the warrant for the use of the visual research methods that provide an entry-way into well as a person’s capacity for autonomous activity within the study. the tangible aspects of language-student engagement with information. In turn, a focus on agency foregrounds the concept of power within the construction of social reality, which forms the fifth of Nicolini’s (2012, p.6) core practice theory concepts. 3.5.6 Agency and power within practice theory Both giving and denying a person the ability “to do things and to think of themselves in a The recognition that practice is produced through embodied and materially-mediated human specific way” (Nicolini, 2012, p.6), power is a complex concept that expresses how one activity additionally means that the concept of agency, which is the fourth of Nicolini’s core person’s actions structure another person’s possible actions (Schatzki, 2005, p.478). theoretical concepts, is centred within practice theory. While the basic units of analysis Demonstrating that actions impact a person’s access to the possibilities that practice- within practice theory are practices rather than practitioners (Nicolini, 2012, p.7), the arrangement bundles provide (Schatzki, 2005, p.479), power is positioned as brought into foregrounding of the body and material arrangements, as well as Schatzki’s (2001, p.15) existence through the historically and socially situated shape of practice (Wenger, 1998, p.47) emphasis on the non-routine nature of practice, illustrates how human agency or a person’s rather than constituting a fixed and stable force within society. The recognition that the enactment of practice is the “central motor” (Schatzki, 2002, p.189) to the ordering and human body forms a frequent target for “social normalization and exercise of power,” perpetuation of social life. The centrality of human agency is also recognised through the (Rouse, 2007, p.514) further illustrates how human action reconfigures “what is at issue and positioning of people as carriers of practice, which illustrates how practice is kept “alive” at stake” (Rouse, 2007, p.533) or how a person participates in the world. Within this study, (Shove & Pantzar, 2007, p.155) through human agency rather than remaining constant. The the concept of power draws attention to how student engagement with information is recognition that non-humans, which include objects and artefacts, have compositional prefigured and shaped through power as expressed through practice-arrangement bundles. influence within practice (see 3.5.5) further highlights how agency is not solely a human Nevertheless, the recognition that power both constrains and enables activity also draws characteristic, although the study stresses the primacy of human agency in alignment with attention to the opening of possibility as well as to the broader concept of resistance and the Schatzki’s (2002) understanding of practice. Accordingly, a focus on agency draws attention role that subverting or taking advantage of hierarchy and authority plays within learning. to the active shape of student participation within their new setting as well as to their creativity and initiative (Nicolini, 2013, p.4) as they act according to what makes sense for 3.5.7 Practice theory and information research them to do (Schatzki, 2001, p.55). The desire to ground information activity within its sociocultural context has been one of the Simultaneously, the recognition that a person’s enactment of practice takes place and major driving factors behind research into practice theory within library and information is only intelligible “against the more or less stable background of other performances” science. Often used in contrast to the concept of information behaviour, an information (Rouse, 2007, p.505) illustrates how human agency “makes the future within an extant mesh practice approach encompasses a broader range of activities than is usually implied by of practices and orders that prefigures what it does- and thereby what it makes- by qualifying traditional information studies (McKenzie, 2002, p.38) and creates renewed emphasis on the 52 53

“continuity and habitualization of activities” (Savolainen, 2007a, p.126). This description, through their dialogic engagement with information that is, in itself, historically, socially and which has led to the outlining of information practices as “a set of socially and culturally politically-situated. The chapter then provided an overview of the guiding theories that frame established ways to identify, seek, use and share the information available in various sources the study of language-student information literacy practices during residence abroad; such as television, newspapers, and the Internet” (Savolainen, 2008, p.2), nonetheless limits transitions theory, which provides a lens through which to explore how students’ transitional the concept of information practice to discrete activities (Cox, 2012, p.185) as well as risking processes are mediated through their engagement in the activities of their community, and positioning practice as the container or the context for activity rather than the site. practice theory, which is employed to examine how students connect with information and Most recently, library and information science researchers have employed a number the ways of knowing that are valued within their new setting. In turn, this theoretical of different ontologically-focused practice theoretical approaches to explore the information framework informs the study’s methodological approach, which will be presented in the practices of various groups and individuals. The growth in the use of a practice theory lens as following chapter. well as the different scholarly traditions that lie behind each practice theoretical approach Various other theories will be used in Chapter 6 to extend this theoretical framework (Nicolini, 2012), which complement earlier interest in Lave and Wenger’s (1991) in accordance with the study’s use of constructivist grounded theory (see 4.2). More epistemological approach to practice theory, explains the range of approaches within the explicitly, risk theory (Douglas, 1992) as well as the theoretical constructs of uncertainty literature. The role of the body forms one of the major emphases of recent library and (Kuhlthau, 1993) and time (Schatzki, 2013) will be used to explain core concepts within the information science research. Both Lloyd (2010b, 2010c, 2012) and Veinot (2007) draw upon study’s emerging theory of mitigating risk while the theoretical constructs of affordance the work of Schatzki (2002) to highlight the important role that corporeal modalities of (Gibson, 1977) and cognitive authority (Wilson, 1983) will be used to explore the shape of information play within the development of knowing. In contrast, Haider (2011) and Pilerot student information literacy practices in more detail. (2014a, 2014b, 2016) focus more concretely on questions of materiality. Seeing the variety of practice theories as a strength rather than as a disadvantage, Pilerot (2014a, 2014b, 2016) draws from Knorr Cetina (1997) and Barad (2003), among other practice theorists, to illustrate how material artefacts coordinate the enactment of information practices. Haider (2011) as well as Schreiber (2014) further draw upon Reckwitz (2002) to respectively explore the routine shape of everyday and academic information practices. The ongoing and emergent ways in which practice theory has been applied to studies of information literacy (e.g. Lloyd, 2010b, Pilerot, 2016, Schreiber, 2014) highlight that there is not just one practice-theoretical strand in library and information science literature, while establishing the need for ongoing research in the area.

3.6 Chapter conclusion The chapter presented the theoretical framework for the study. The chapter started by exploring symbolic interactionism, which provides the study’s ontological framing and highlights how students accord meaning to the information activities and objects with which they engage, before continuing with an overview of constructionism, which forms the epistemological structure for the study and acknowledges that students create meaning

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Chapter 4: Methodology and methods biographies (Mills, Bonner & Francis, 2006, p.9). In turn, the recognition that all knowledge is negotiated, and that interaction is constrained and enabled by the historical and social 4.1 Chapter overview conditions of its production (Charmaz & Bryant, 2008, p.376) means that constructivist The chapter presents the research methodology and methods that were used to explore the grounded theory also moves research away from abstract conceptualisation, hypotheses and a information literacy practices of language-students during residence abroad. The chapter fixed set of questions (Pickard, 2007, p.157) to centre upon everyday realities and the specific starts by presenting the constructivist grounded theory methodological approach that was situation or site that is being studied. employed within the research. The research design, which was shaped by the study’s Constructivist grounded theory builds upon the early work of Glaser and Strauss theoretical framework, correspondingly informed the selection of semi-structured interviews (1967) as well as Strauss and Corbin (1998) and developed in the early 2000s from the work and photo-elicitation as the methods that were used to generate data. After exploring how of Charmaz, Bryant and Clarke, notable among others. Rooted in theories of symbolic data were produced and analysed, the chapter concludes by presenting the study’s interactionism, constructivist grounded theory aims to resituate original understandings of participants as well as examining the limitations of these methods and how ethics and data grounded theory from a constructivist perspective (Charmaz, 2014, p.13). While grounded quality were ascertained. This approach addresses the following research questions: theory as exemplified by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Strauss and Corbin (1998) enjoyed 1. How do language-students enact information literacy practices during residence considerable popularity, scholars were growing increasingly critical of its positivist roots, abroad? which positioned the researcher as a neutral observer who uncovered objective social a. What shapes language-student information landscapes within a new setting? relationships (Herring, 2013, p.205). In response, Charmaz (2002a) and Clarke (2003; 2005) b. What role do information literacy practices play during students’ intensive periods of language-learning abroad? reconfigured constructivist grounded theory around the assumption that “both the research 2. How do language-students make sense of, transition into and come to know their new process and the studied world are socially constructed through actions” (Charmaz & Bryant, information landscapes? 2008, p.376). An emphasis on incorporating the “relativity of the researcher’s perspectives, a. What enables and constrains the ways in which language-students construct their information landscapes? positions, practices, and research situation” (Charmaz, 2008a, p.398) into analysis and theory b. In what ways does the enactment of information literacy practices shape building means that constructivist grounded theory is consistent with the interpretive language-student subjectivity? understandings that frame the study. 4.2 Methodological framing A grounded theoretical approach has not typically been applied within information Constructivist grounded theory provides the methodological framing for the study. literacy research, which has tended to be dominated by measurement and description rather Constructivist grounded theory refers to “systematic yet flexible guidelines for collecting and than by the analysis of human activity (see 2.2.1). Furthermore, the few studies that have analyzing data to construct theories from the data themselves” (Charmaz, 2014, p.1) and employed a grounded theory approach to mediate a lack of prior theorisation (Bury, 2016) or employs simultaneous, comparative data collection and analysis to build theoretical to explore how “the construct of information literacy [is] manifest” (D’Angelo, 2012, p.642) understanding about an event or experience in question. In further constituting a set of have stopped short of explicit theory-building (e.g. Comstock, 2012; Elmore & Stordy, 2015; guidelines and strategies rather than a prescriptive procedure (Charmaz, 2008), constructivist Maybee, Carlson, Slebodnik & Chapman, 2015). Exceptions are found in the work of Lloyd grounded theory is also distinguished by the focus on constructing theory that is ‘grounded’ (e.g. 2005, 2009, Lloyd et al., 2013; Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2016) and Herring (2011), who in data rather than using theory as the impetus for research. Importantly, the researcher is adopt a constructivist grounded theory research design to conceptualise how information consciously grounded within the construction of meaning in a constructivist grounded literacy is understood within a specific community. Within this study, the use of theoretical approach. The emphasis on the interplay and the sense of reciprocity between constructivist grounded theory draws attention to multiple realities as well as to the diversity, researcher and participant acknowledges power imbalances while respecting stories and complexity and situatedness of student information activities. The emphasis on meaning also 56 57

helps to move the focus of information literacy beyond descriptions of skills and procedures interesting facets of the emergent analysis” (Clarke, 2003, p.557) and to elaborate categories to generate understanding that is situated in participant statements and activities. The lack of further. While the grounded theory process has been critiqued for fracturing individual existing theory about information literacy within transition and intercultural contexts, experiences (Bailey & Jackson, 2003, p.58), others believe that the purpose of analysis is to provided further rationale for the study’s employment of constructivist grounded theory. render experience usefully rather than to replicate it (Charmaz, 1995, p.55). Consequently, Constructivist grounded theory is guided by various precepts, which include the need coded data, analytical categories, comparisons and memos were combined to create the to “analyze actions and processes rather than themes and structures” (Charmaz, 2014, p.15) grounded theory or the “abstract theoretical understanding of the studied experience” as well as the use of data rather than pre-existing theory to develop conceptual categories (Charmaz, 2014, p.4). (Charmaz, 2014, p.15). Each of these precepts, which prioritise the interactions between the 4.3 Research methods participant and researcher as the site where knowledge is constructed (Kvale, 1996, p.2), is Qualitative research methods, which assume social constructions of reality (Pickard, 2007, underscored by the desire to create theory that is grounded in both the participant’s and the p.13), were employed in the research in accordance with the theoretical and methodological researcher’s activities. Accordingly, data generation (which was carried out concurrently with stances that guide the study. Used to gather and analyse data (Crotty, 1998, p.3), qualitative data analysis) formed the first step of my process within the study. These data were then research methods were particularly well suited to the study, which engaged with the various subjected to analysis, which consisted of an initial and a subsequent focused coding process ways in which participants give meaning to and interpret information during residence that helped me to summarise and ask analytic questions about the data (Charmaz, 2014, abroad. More specifically, semi-structured interviews and photo-elicitation methods were p.111). These early analyses uncovered new or follow up areas of interest for successive data used to generate data. These two methods were selected because they complemented the collection. Notwithstanding, the desire for theorising that is ‘uncontaminated’ by the open-ended goals of the study as well as each other, with the interview generating spoken researcher’s prior familiarity in the field can be seen as untenable as well as reliant on what reflections at both the beginning and the end of residence abroad and photo-elicitation Thornberg (2012, p.7) labels as “naïve empiricism.” Accordingly, while the sensitising facilitating concrete and situated representations of information activities between interviews, theories that I used lay “fallow” (Charmaz, 2014, p.307) until after my codes and categories as illustrated by Table 2. were established, my analysis can nonetheless be seen to have been influenced by my prior Method Strengths Purpose engagement with transitions theory (3.4) and practice theory (3.5) as well as by my previous Semi-structured -Flexibility to focus issues, as -To allow the interviewee to experience as a teaching librarian. In turn, the desire to ensure that this analysis is grounded interviews well as to follow new trains of reflect on and present their in participant experiences acknowledges that the use of theory necessarily moves this work thought. narrative of events; to gain a beyond students’ direct interpretations of their time overseas to facilitate a student-aligned -Facilitates collaborative sense of meaning for participants construction and deconstruction of their social realities (Charmaz, 2014, p.232). meaning-making between -To explore explanations, researcher and participant affective responses and linguistic The writing of memos, which provided a way for me to record abstract thinking and dimensions of activities developing meaning, further extended data analysis (Mills et al., 2006, p.10). These memos were grounded in the wider context of both the participants’ and the researcher’s lives (Mills Photo-elicitation -Allows people the chance to -To elicit tacit knowledge that is record issues that are hard to put into words et al., 2006, p.11) and later started to form the core of the grounded theory. The grounded important to them rather than -To access contextual data “on- theory was also developed through theoretical sampling, or the purposeful selection of data to the researcher the-go” and to gain a more according to the developing categories and emerging theory (Goulding, 2002, p.66). -Enhances the interview elaborate sense of everyday life processes by building rapport -To gather data between Theoretical sampling, which was employed after key categories emerged from the data, and and prompting abstract ideas interviews and over time subsequently, saturation, focuses on obtaining data to “address specific theoretically Table 2: Overview of research methods 58 59

4.3.1 Interviews centred on student preparation for their time overseas, as well as their use of technologies. Initial and follow-up semi-structured interviews were used to generate reflective data about The follow up interview additionally explored themes that emerged from the first interview. language-student information literacy practices during residence abroad. Semi-structured A desire to collect data while participants were engaged abroad meant that all interviews are positioned as the site of knowledge construction (Kvale, 1996, p.2) and form a interviews were held over Zoom (n.d.) or Skype (n.d.), two online video conferencing useful way to access “what was in, and on, the interviewee’s mind” (Pickard, 2007, p.172) as services that offer video or audio calls as well as instant messaging and an app for mobile well as reflecting different conceptions of meaning and reality. Differentiated from structured use. While Skype is more well-known, the inbuilt audio-recording capabilities as well as the and unstructured interviews by the presence of the interview guide or a list of topics and elimination of the need to create an account meant that Zoom was selected as the primary issues that are explored within the interview (Patton, 2002, p.343) (See Appendix 2), the in- interviewing software. The use of video conferencing tools further allowed participants the depth interviews that were employed in the study consisted of open-ended questions that convenience of choosing their own setting for the interview as well as the possibility of using were used to gain an understanding of participants’ activities, to explore meanings that may their own laptop or mobile device. During the interviews, three students used Skype due to have been hidden from view, and to gain multiple perspectives on a specific event (Johnson, difficulties accessing Zoom from their computers, while two students used the mobile version 2002, p.106). The use of semi-structured interviews further permitted participants to reflect of Zoom on their smartphones. Interviews tended to be carried out in participants’ own on and to present their narrative within their own “linguistic parameters” (Pickard, 2007, apartments, with three interviews taking place in a cafe. p.172) as well as allowing the flexibility to follow issues or “unanticipated areas of inquiry, Interviews were programmed between two and six weeks after each participant’s hints and implicit views and accounts of action” (Charmaz, 2014, p.56) as they arose. The use arrival date abroad to allow them time to settle in overseas. While I tried to be flexible with of interviews also aligned with the practice theoretical framework that structured the study. potential interview times, the broad geographic reach of the study meant that interview The recognition that interviews reflect “participants’ temporal journeys through series of schedules were often constrained by time-zone restrictions. Follow up interviews took place bundles and constellations” (Schatzki, 2012, p.25) meant that interviews provided a useful under very similar conditions, two to three weeks before the end of the participant’s entry point into practices as well as to the arrangements that structure a person’s activities (cf. scheduled academic activities. This time frame was flexible in recognition that residence Pilerot, Moring & Hammarfelt, 2017). abroad programmes differ by institution, but interviews were spaced far enough apart to The open-ended nature of semi-structured interviews meant that they were allow time for participants to engage within their new settings. After the interview was particularly suited to constructivist grounded theory research design. The flexibility of the scheduled, I sent each participant a unique Zoom meeting room link that would be used to interview facilitated an engagement with ideas that were based upon participant responses access the interview. Ten minutes before each meeting time, I logged into the meeting room rather than on preconceived notions (Charmaz, 2014, p.85) while further providing the and started the recording feature within Zoom. Participant interviews lasted from between 24 freedom to explore and refocus conceptual categories from the coding process as analysis minutes and 94 minutes, for an average of 56 minutes. There was little difference between the progressed (Charmaz, 2014, p.108). Accordingly, the study scheduled sequential interviews length of the first and the second interviews. to provide an opportunity to address emerging questions as well as to facilitate independent Given that video interviews have often been criticised for damaging rapport between checks and to create a “nuanced understanding of social process” (Charmaz, 2002b, p.682). participants (Deakin & Wakefield, 2013), my immediate priority within the initial interview Interview questions, which were modified and developed through ongoing interaction with was to establish a sense of connection with participants. Beyond practising self-disclosure participants, focused on exploring typical everyday activities in which information was and highlighting my enthusiasm for the topic (cf. O’Connor & Madge, 2001), I employed a expected to play an important role, including choosing a supermarket, opening a bank range of verbal and non-verbal cues to make up for the lack of other visible signs of interest, account and establishing leisure activities (see Appendix 2). Questions also specifically including over-emphasising my facial expressions and incorporating the participant’s own words into my comments to demonstrate engagement (cf. Seitz, 2016, p.231). These activities 60 61

put participants at ease and contributed to the smooth running of each interview. Interviews Since expanding to include video alongside still images, visual methods are becomingly more were further facilitated by the overall absence of technological issues, which have often widely used within various disciplines, including psychology, geography and health negatively affected data quality in video interviews (Seitz, 2016). However, while interviews education (Pain, 2012, p.304) as well as library and information science. The important role were occasionally marked by time lags or interruptions due to slow Internet speeds, that photographs typically play within travel activities (Andersson Cederholm, 2004; connection issues were surprisingly rare given the broad range of countries in which the Pachmayer & Anderek, 2017), as well as the study’s emphasis on materiality (see 3.5.5), research took place, as well as the use of bandwidth-heavy video. In this sense, the use of meant that the use of photo-elicitation also aligned with both the context of the research and Zoom was seen to have been highly successful and to have directly contributed to interview its practice theoretical approach. and data quality. In facilitating what Kazmer and Xie (2008, p.259) refer to as contextual Specifically, the study employed photo-elicitation method. Photo-elicitation is naturalness, Zoom may also have provided access to activity and objects that are not always described as a “research method whereby photographs chosen by the researcher or the visible within a face-to-face interview. The use of a second interview meant that I often respondent are presented in an interview situation” (Pachmayer & Anderek, 2017) and was noticed and could ask about changes to participants’ surroundings such as new maps on the originally envisaged as the means to create consensus between researchers and to provide wall behind them. construct validity within a study of public housing (Prosser & Loxley, 2008). A recognition Each interview was audio recorded using the inbuilt system within Zoom as well as a of the potential for photographic methods to explore participants’ understandings of a backup service, Audacity, before being saved in a password protected file space. I then specific situation (Collier & Collier, 1986) as well as to create a bridge between different transcribed the interviews to capture the rich, situated detail of each conversation (Birks & experiences of reality (Pink, 2005, p.69) meant that researchers swiftly adapted the use of Mills, 2011, p.76) and to facilitate the in-depth analysis that is called for within constructivist photos for interviews with research participants. Since then, health researchers have further grounded theory studies (Pickard, 2007, p.178). Each interview (initial and follow up) was modified photo-elicitation to create the photovoice method, which is the means through transcribed in full, where full refers to the transcription of every word. However, in which “people can identify, represent, and enhance their community through a specific recognising that the primary focus of the study was participant meaning rather than linguistic photographic technique” (Wang, Cash & Powers, 2000, p.81). Often confused with photo- discourse, I removed distracting features of spoken talk such as ums, errs and pauses from elicitation, photovoice differs through its focus on the promotion of critical dialogue and the transcripts, while adding in punctuation. These choices, which produced the readable desire to realise change within a community (Wang & Burris, 1997). As community action transcripts that are suitable within a constructivist grounded theory approach, acknowledge would be hard to effect in the study of language-learners’ information literacy practices, that transcription is an interpretive rather than a mechanical process (Davidson, 2009). photo-elicitation was selected as more appropriate for the research. More specifically, photo-elicitation provided a useful way to extend data collection. 4.3.2 Photo-elicitation Supplementing participant interviews, photo-elicitation facilitated access to ideas, viewpoints Photo-elicitation, which is a form of visual research, was used to gather participant-created and settings that might otherwise have been overlooked by recording issues that were photo representations of students’ everyday information activities. Visual research methods important to the student rather than to me as the researcher (Meo, 2010). The emphasis on refer to “the use of images to learn about the social world” (Hartel, Lundh, Sonnenwald & positioning participants as experts within their own settings, as well as playing an active role Foster, 2012, para. 1) and emerge from work in visual anthropology (Collier & Collier, 1986) in research (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004) meant that photo-elicitation further connected me to the tacit and visual sociology (Harper, 2012), as well as from feminist theory and the emancipatory or nuanced information that structures a setting (Pain, 2012). As Lloyd (2014b, p.2) points work of Freire (Wang & Burris, 1997, p.370). Encompassing data as varied as illustrations, out, while information literacy research often captures normative or institutionally sanctioned cartoons, multimedia and diagrams, as well as the more typical photographic images (Hartel aspects of practice, it is much harder to capture situated ways of knowing within a setting. et al., 2012), visual methods can most succinctly be characterised as taking either a Accordingly, photo-elicitation provided a simple and effective way to portray the subtleties participatory (emic) or a non-participatory (etic) approach to data collection (Pollak, 2017). 62 63

of participant information activities without having to rely on verbal descriptions. In further activities, where it provides a way to work across languages (Khoir et al., 2014, 2015a, allowing a snapshot of “practice as it happens” (Nicolini, 2012, p.14) rather than merely 2015b, 2015c; Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2016, 2017) and to give a voice to participants (Vannini, relying on after-the-fact accounts of activity, the use of photo-elicitation also aligned with the Gómez & Guajardo, 2016). However, despite the recognition that information literacy centres practice-based focus on “what people ‘actually’ do rather than on what they say they do or on on multimodal information activities, there have been very few information literacy studies what they ought to be doing” (Schultze & Boland, 2000, p.195). At the same time, the that draw upon visual methods beyond Lundh’s (2011) study in a primary school as well as constructionist lens of the study highlights that visual data were constructed between the Lloyd and Wilkinson’s (2016, 2017) studies with refugee youth. participant and the researcher rather than providing an objective representation of reality Participants’ location overseas meant that they were offered the option of (Croghan, Griffin, Hunter & Phoenix, 2008, p.346). The requirement that students only participating in photo-elicitation in two ways; either through using a smartphone app or discuss the most meaningful photos to them (examined later on in this section) further meant through email. The first option relied on the use of the participant’s own personal mobile that visual images provided insight into rather than a comprehensive picture of practice. device and the EthOS Ethnographic Observation System (n.d.), which is a proprietary iOS Photo-elicitation was also used to enrich interview processes (Harper, 2012, p.14) by and Android application (app) for smartphones or tablet computers. Described as a mobile prompting communication (Hall & Mitchell, 2008) and building rapport (Nykiforuk, ethnographic research platform, EthOS is a simple-to-use project management application Vallianatos & Nieuwendyk, 2011, p.119). The ability to break the ice was particularly that enables participants to record, keep track and share photos. Making data accessible to important within the research because participants were both unknown to me and located at a both the researcher and the participant, EthOS also allows a researcher to send prompts and distance. Photo-elicitation was also seen to afford a more critical consideration of events updates to the participant, although that feature was not used in the research. High levels of (Pain, 2012, p.307) by allowing participants the opportunity to reflect upon their activities. smartphone and tablet ownership among college students (Pew Research Center, 2013), the Considering that many residence abroad programmes ask language-students to complete a popularity of image social networks such as Snapchat, Instagram and Facebook (Pew final report of their experiences, the ability to create a multimedia journal provided a benefit Research Center, 2015) and evidence that many students travel with their technology devices of participating in the research (cf. Van Auken, Frisvoll & Stewart, 2010, p.384). (Mikal, 2011) meant that a mobile app formed an appropriate way to research the information Photographic visual research methods have not been widely used within the field of literacy practices of language-students during residence abroad. The second option asked library and information science despite the potential to engage with everyday information participants to email photographic images to me. Designed for students who may not have practices, contexts and spaces (Hartel & Thomson, 2011, p.2214; Pollak, 2017). While had a personal mobile device or a data plan abroad, this option produced very similar data. In various researchers have created their own images for use within research (e.g. Rivano the end, the study was split almost equally between participants who used the EthOS app and Eckerdal, 2013; St Jean, 2014), the employment of photographs to gather feedback about the those who emailed pictures. use and design of library spaces (e.g. Foster & Gibbons, 2007; Gabridge, Gaskell & Stout, The use of participants’ own devices benefitted the study in several ways. The move 2008; Given, 2007) means that participant-driven photography is gradually becoming more from print to transmission oriented photographic practices (Rubinstein & Sluis, 2008, p.9) prevalent within information studies. Barriage’s (2016, 2017) use of the Pixstori mobile app has already been seen to create more spontaneous personal photography, as well as enabling a with three to five-year olds further demonstrates how mobile technologies can be used in greater focus on the everyday and the mundane. The design of a mobile device added an conjunction with photo-elicitation to facilitate communication with the researcher. additional layer of intimacy, both in terms of the topic of the photograph and the handheld Photovoice is also increasingly popular within library and information science. Concluding touchscreen, which introduces an “embodied visual intimacy” (Palmer, 2012, p.88) to the that the use of this participatory action research method enables the exploration of hard-to- photographic process. The ability to tell personal stories as well as to make everyday activity capture experiences, Julien, Given and Opryshko’s (2013) examination of photovoice has more visible was particularly valuable within the study. More pragmatically, the use of a since catalysed its employment in various studies of immigrant and refugee information mobile device removed barriers to data capture by allowing participants to take and share 64 65

media through the devices with which they were already comfortable. The ubiquity of gathering visual data. Participants were offered a USD$40 (GBP£25/CAD $50/AUD$50) personal mobile devices also meant that participants were likely to provide data from “on- iTunes or Amazon gift card in exchange for participation in the research. These sums are the-go” as they engaged in everyday life (Absar, Halbert, O’Brien & Trumble, 2013). commensurate with compensation that is typically offered for participating in usability The visual components of the research were explored after the first interview. When studies in North America (Blakiston, 2014, p.11). Gift cards were emailed after the second the participant chose to use EthOS, I emailed them a link to download the app as well as interview. Due to the lack of Amazon gift card options in Australia, a gift card to Coles, a simple directions about how to set up an account and use the app (See Appendix 4). When local department store, was selected as a replacement option. they chose the email option, I asked them to email photos directly to me. At this stage, I 4.4 Participants engaged each participant in a discussion about privacy issues and the ethics of capturing The study purposefully chose to explore the activities of English-speakers who were people’s faces and actions as well as questions of personal safety, harm, fairness and justice. temporarily residing in a non-majority-English environment due to the tendency to focus on This information was also sent to the participant by email (See Appendix 3). I further non-English speakers within library and information science research, as well as the reminded participants that photos would only be used in the context of the study and that entanglement of these studies with political questions of assimilation and socialisation (see each participant would retain full ownership of all images. 2.2). For these reasons, participants were recruited from Australia, Canada, the United Participants were instructed to capture photos of anything that characterised their Kingdom and the United States, which form four of the largest English-speaking nations. engagement with information overseas, including anything that had helped them to settle in Having studied and worked in three of these countries, I was also familiar with the or to learn more about their target language and its broader community. These instructions undergraduate modern language degree structure as well as the system of residence abroad. were deliberately kept very broad, but I checked participant comprehension of the task by While there are differences of nomenclature and degree length within the four different offering examples of what this could involve. Media were then reviewed by me prior to the systems of higher education, the basic structure wherein students spend time abroad to second interview. During the second interview, images were presented through Zoom’s improve their language skills is the same in each country. screen-sharing capabilities and participants were invited to tell me about the five most meaningful images to them, including each image’s significance, what it represented and why 4.4.1 Sampling they recorded it. These questions were designed to provoke reflection on the changing shape The study’s sample comprised 26 participants, who were each interviewed twice for a total of of their information activities during residence abroad. Participants were also asked if they 52 interviews. In keeping with a qualitative research approach, participants in the study were saw any themes emerging from their media capture. These reflections were transcribed as selected through a maximum variation purposive sampling strategy that helped to part of the follow up interview and integrated into my memos. By the end of the research, I “purposefully inform an understanding of the research problem and central phenomenon in had collected 160 photos with an average of about seven per participant. All but three of the the study” (Creswell, 1998, p.125). The use of maximum variation purposive sampling, participants submitted photos before their second interview; two because they did not have which is designed to confirm that participants “cover the spectrum of positions and access to a camera and one because his computer crashed, and he lost all his photos. perspectives in relation to the phenomenon one is studying” (Palys 2008, p.699), ensured that However, he described the photos that he had taken during the interview in lieu of showing the study explored multiple transitional experiences, including variations in home and host them to me. Participants indicated that they enjoyed taking the photos and that the exercise country background, language of study and occupation. After the first round of recruitment, I made them reflect on their activities during residence abroad. engaged in theoretical sampling to focus my data collection (Charmaz, 2014, p.205) by purposefully recruiting respondents who were likely to have different experiences. This was 4.3.3 Incentives achieved by combing the spreadsheet of potential participants for people located in different Participants were offered nominal incentives in compensation, due to the financial costs (for settings or engaged in different activities and continued until theoretical saturation was example using a mobile phone Internet data plan) as well as the time and effort involved in 66 67

reached and no new information was being added to the research (Pickard, 2007, p.65). 4.4.4 Demographics While I originally planned to engage in snowball sampling, the success of the first Demographics of the 26 language-students who were interviewed for the study are presented recruitment method meant that this was not considered necessary. in Table 3. In terms of home demographics, all but one were undergraduates, with the other participant having graduated a couple of months previously. Most participants came from the 4.4.2 Inclusion criteria UK (12, with nine from England, two from Wales, and one from Scotland) or from the US Inclusion criteria for the study focused on language of study, degree programme and length (eight), with three each from Australia and Canada. 18 universities were represented, of time abroad and was ascertained through the recruitment form (see Appendix 1). The characterising a variety of private and public universities in the US, as well as Russell Group emphasis on degree programme ensured that only Australian, Canadian or US students who and Red Brick universities in the UK.1 In terms of their location overseas, participants were had a language major or minor or British students who were studying a language in a single studying eight European and Asian languages (French, German, Icelandic, Italian, Japanese, or joint honours programme were included in the study. While students were excluded if their Mandarin, Russian, Spanish) within a total of 14 countries, which covered seven European global programme had no language component, these screening criteria included students locations (Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Spain), four in the Americas who were enrolled in area studies programmes such as Latin American Studies as well as (Bolivia, Canada (Quebec), Chile, Guadeloupe), three in Asia (China, Hong Kong, Japan), more traditional language and culture courses. In terms of residence abroad, students who one in Eurasia (Russia) and one in Africa (Melilla). Participants were located in a variety of were engaged in a study, work or volunteer placement as an integral part of their urban and rural regions, including in major cities as well as in small villages and on islands. undergraduate degree were included. Students whose placements lasted for less than three While most chose the country in which they wanted to be located, students who were months were excluded to focus on interactions that went beyond a purely tourist experience. participating in official schemes such as the British Council’s teaching initiative had less No language or country of residence abroad was excluded. input about the specific city or region in which they were placed. In terms of occupation 4.4.3 Recruitment abroad, most participants spent their time abroad studying (17), both through private and non- Participants were recruited through the website that I had established to provide details of the profit exchange programmes as well as through the European Erasmus scheme. A significant study (see Appendix 1). This website URL was sent to my professional connections and proportion of participants (nine) were employed during this time, including taking a private colleagues in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada who were internship or position (four), participating in the British Council teaching assistantship expected to have contact with language-students. This included librarians, teaching faculty scheme (four) and volunteering (one). and language education listservs, as well as international education programme directors, staff and institutes. Emails were also sent to study abroad directors or year abroad coordinators at 190 universities throughout North America, Australia and the UK. These names and addresses were found through intensive web searching. Recruitment took place immediately preceding the Northern hemisphere academic year, with most participants recruited in September 2015, which is when British, North American and European study and work programmes typically start. The choice of September also gave access to participants who were abroad for the whole year as well as students who were engaged in shorter stays. A second, smaller round of recruitment took place in February 2016 to sync with the Southern 1 hemisphere academic calendar. This choice of dates connected me with Australian The Russell Group refers to the 24 universities that are typically seen to be the most prestigious institutions in the United Kingdom. Red Brick universities refer to institutions that were founded in the nineteenth participants as well as students who were travelling to South America. century.

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Participant Country of Visit Language Occupation Origin Country 4.5 Data analysis Studied Abroad Alex S Germany German Study U.K. (Wales) The study employed two methods of data analysis; grounded theory analysis and modified Alex W Hong Kong Mandarin2 Study United States situational analysis. Data analysis was carried out in conjunction with data generation in an Ben China Mandarin Study Canada iterative process in accordance with constructivist grounded theory method. Charlotte Italy Italian Work U.K. (England) 4.5.1 Constructivist grounded theory analysis Chloe China Mandarin Study Australia Coding was the first step of the analysis process. Constructivist grounded theory analysis Chris Germany German Teaching U.K. (England) Eli Iceland Icelandic Study United States employs the constant comparative method, which is a strategy that compares each piece of Evelyn Austria German Work U.K. (England) data to develop analytic conceptualisations and distinctions (Pickard, 2007, p. 241). Within Fiona France French Study Canada this framework, coding, which is understood as the “process of defining what data are about” Genevieve Russia Russian Study United States (Charmaz, 2014, p.111), names and categorises the data before establishing a relationship Helen Guadeloupe French Work U.K. (England) between the data and participants (Star, 2007, p.80). These codes are used to make responses Holly Canada (Quebec) French Study Australia or meanings visible and later form the preliminary elements of the theoretical statements that James Japan Japanese Study U.K. (Wales) create the grounded theory (Herring, 2013, p.208). I carried out initial line-by-line coding of Jemma France French Teaching U.K. (England) data by hand using print-outs of participant transcripts and a highlighter pen. The study’s Julia 3 Spanish Teaching U.K. (Scotland) Melilla/Spain emphasis on activity meant that coding was structured through the language of action Kamila France French Study Canada (gerunds) and focused on what participants were trying to achieve through their undertakings Laura Bolivia Spanish Volunteer U.K. (England) and accomplishments. This approach helped me to start analysis from the participant’s Laurel Spain Spanish Study United States activities, rather than from preconceived concepts (Clarke, 2003, p.558). As conceivable Luan Belgium French Work U.K. (England) codes started to emerge, I listed and mapped potential concepts in an ongoing and dynamic Matt France French Teaching U.K. (England) Mckenna Italy Italian Study United States comparative process. These methods gradually contributed to the emergence of the categories Niko Japan Japanese Study United States that make up the grounded theory of the study by helping me to visualise the emerging Patrick Russia Russian Study United States theoretical structure as well as to review various permutations and ideas. Stuart China Mandarin Study U.K. (England) Focussed coding formed the second phase of the coding process. A more selective Tiffany Chile Spanish Study United States process, focussed coding was my first step in the identification of patterns that emerged from Timothy Canada (Quebec) French Study Australia the initial coding (cf. Herring, 2013, p.209). These codes were then used to analyse larger Table 3: Participant data sets of data and to establish categories as I moved from individual transcripts to broader and more overarching analysis. The shift from data to codes to categories and back again in a recursive, comparative process meant that focussed coding helped me to ensure that the grounded theory emerged from participant data rather than from pre-existing theories (Charmaz, 2014, p.115). More conceptual than the codes that arose from initial coding, focussed codes centre on analytic significance (Charmaz, 2014, p.19). This meant that coding 2 While Cantonese is more widely spoken in Hong Kong, Alex W studied Mandarin Chinese. 3 Melilla is a Spanish enclave located in North Africa. formed an interactive process where all coding reflected and was derived from both the

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participants’ and my own values and perspectives (Mills et al., 2006, p.12). These iterative represent data, situational analysis moves the focus of research beyond the person to facilitate initial and focused coding processes enabled me to gradually build up, merge and establish an exploration of the connections and relationships between themes as well as the key the activities that formed the basis of the emergent theory (discussed in the following “elements, materialities, discourses, structures, and conditions that characterize the situation chapter). While some codes seemed immediately obvious, others proved to be more difficult of inquiry” (Clarke, 2005, p.xxii). Nevertheless, the recognition that context is constitutive of to tease out, leading me to return to the transcripts, as well as to ask participants to critique a situation and action rather than a frame (Clarke & Friese, 2007, p.364) means that my emerging analysis. Codes were also renamed and refined in conjunction with the shape of situational analysis further encompasses the instabilities and the contradictions of social life my emerging analysis. rather than purely focusing on commonality and basic social process. In this sense, situational Memo writing accompanied my coding processes to help me “remember, question, analysis forms a useful way to render the invisible, visible (Charmaz, 2014, p.220) and to analyse and make meaning about the time spent with participants and the data that were open up data to new means of analysis. The emphasis within situational analysis on the key generated together” (Mills et al., 2006, p.11). Memos, which were typically written straight elements that situate student engagement within residence abroad further mirrors the practice after each interview and constituted by unstructured reflections on points of interest, theoretical emphasis on the site as the context in which social life transpires (Schatzki, 2005). emerging ideas and connections that immediately occurred to me, were used throughout the Situational analysis has not been widely adopted within the field of library and research to raise the data to a conceptual level. Memos also directed subsequent data information science despite its potential for exploring difference and broader processes of collection by revealing gaps or weak categories (Birks & Mills, 2011, p.40). As I worked meaning-making (Vasconcelos, Sen, Rosa & Ellis, 2012, p.133). As Vasconcelos et al. (2012, with initial participants, for example, I noticed certain tension with locals and native speakers p.141) point out in one of the few information studies that has used situational analysis, as students started to settle in overseas. These observations, which eventually informed one research into information practices is not purely focused on the situation in question. Instead, of my categories, encouraged me to engage in theoretical sampling and reach out to it must also consider the wider context, or the “information and knowledge exchanges, the… participants who were located in different parts of the world. Theoretical sampling was social context, communication issues, relationships, and tensions experienced” (Sen & driven “by theoretical concerns that have emerged in the provisional analysis” rather than Spring, 2013, p.642) that are especially visible when people are learning to participate in a pertaining to typical qualitative sampling, such as population sampling (Clarke, 2003, p.557), new setting. The emphasis on accounting for a range of worldviews as well as processes of and eventually led to category saturation, when new data failed to create further insights negotiated interaction (Sen & Spring, 2013, p.64) within the structural and environmental rather than focusing on judgements about sample size or the repetition of stories (Charmaz, elements of a social world (Charmaz, 2014, p.220) means that situational analysis is 2014, p.213). As I connected with students who were travelling abroad in the March-July particularly valuable for studies of information literacy, which have tended to simplify rather semester, I noticed increasing repetition of ideas as well as defined patterns of engagement. It than to engage complexity. Situational analysis also facilitates the exploration of dynamic was at this point that I decided I was nearing theoretical saturation and I stopped recruiting situations and complex interactions (Vasconcelos et al., 2012, p.142) by moving beyond the new participants. use of maps for data collection (e.g. Sonnenwald, 1999) to provide a method of analysis that is flexible enough to draw attention to the “sites of silence” within data (Clarke, 2003, p.561). 4.5.2 Situational analysis The situational analysis processes that were used in the study developed from Situational analysis formed a supplemental and complementary method of data analysis that Clarke’s work within the fields of Medicine and Life Sciences and centred on the creation of was used in the study to further analyse the complexities of social life (Clarke, 2003, p.553). situational and social world maps. Together, these visual representations of coded data, which Situational analysis, which is rooted in constructionist epistemologies and characterised as an were accompanied by memoing, formed a way to uncover assumptions or preconceptions expansion of the Arena/Social Worlds framework (Clarke, 2005, p.37), is a mapping rather than constituting a part of the final research (Clarke, 2005, p.83). For this reason, technique that builds upon grounded theory to integrate postmodern implications such as photos of data analysis are included here to illustrate the contributions of situational analysis researcher situatedness (Clarke, 2003, p.556) into data analysis. Providing a way to visually 72 73

to my findings rather than forming part of the grounded theory. The situational map was the first step in the situational mapping process. The creation of the situational map served to elicit, order and alert me to the major concepts that mattered within the study (Clarke, 2005, p.88) and involved the production of an abstract or messy version that was followed by a more ordered or structured representation of concepts. Starting from the question ‘who or what is in or matters in this situation?’, I used an oversized post-it pad to write down human, non-human, material and symbolic elements that had emerged from my analysis to date. After exhausting these ideas, I turned to Clarke’s sensitising categories of discursive elements, silent actors, and temporal and spatial elements to add in extra detail that occurred to me (See Figure 1). I then transcribed the messy map into more legible typed categories.

Figure 2: Relational map

Mapping out my research onto one sheet of paper and in a less structured manner proved to be extremely helpful for analysis. The visual juxtaposition of seemingly unrelated elements opened up my thinking to a number of new possibilities, while the focus on silent and discursive elements broadened and expanded the scope of my analysis. Situational analysis also provided a flexible way to handle the wide range of textual, visual, interview and memo materials that were created within the study (cf. Clarke, 2003, p.559). The subsequent social world map focused on the analysis of social action or how “individuals become social beings… through their actions of commitment to social worlds, and their participation in those worlds’ activities” (Clarke, 2005, p.110). The social world Figure 1: Abstract situational map map centres on the identification of collective areas or arenas of commitment (Clarke, 2003, At this point, I also engaged in relational analysis where I thought more carefully about the p.554) and forms a way to identify groups as well as theoretical concepts, such as shared relationships between elements. I circled each human, non-human, collective and discursive ideologies, to discover how people organise themselves within a situation (cf. Clarke, 2005, element with a different colour pen and drew lines between elements and the other elements p.112). Drawing on my abstract situational map, I started to organise all the collective to which it was related, linking transport, for example, to travel apps, phone, screenshots and groupings in terms of the key social worlds that influence student participation in residence safety (see Figure 2). As the map quickly became quite complex, I also mapped core abroad (see Figure 3). This mapping exercise, which focused on what participants hoped to elements on a separate page, and transcribed these notes into a typed format. Both maps were achieve as well as how they directed their participation, helped to open up my analysis to the accompanied by extensive memoing as I reflected on my data.

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tension in language-students’ lives overseas or to the constraints and the opportunities of objectivity, within qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p.24). In the study, residence abroad. credibility and dependability were achieved through methodological congruence, which is the accordance between theoretical and methodological frameworks, as well as through the procedural position, which was achieved through memoing and the maintenance of an audit trail (cf. Birks & Mills, 2011, p.38). Study confirmability was linked to the depth and the scope of the data, or the understanding that data is both suitable and sufficient to give a full view of the study (Charmaz, 2014, p.32). Data sufficiency was established by investigating whether it enabled me to portray participants’ stated and unstated views and actions over time, as well as the multiple complexities within their lives (Charmaz, 2014, p.33). It was also examined by asking participants to confirm and criticise emerging observations in the second interview (Goulding, 2002, p.89). The credibility of the study was thereby ascertained through checks that data captured a variety of contexts and perspectives as well as detail about the views and actions of all the participants. Credibility was also evaluated within the study’s final grounded theory. Few grounded theory studies explicitly explore the credibility of research, preferring, instead, to rely on the concept of category saturation as a symbol of rigour (Charmaz, 2008b, p.230). Yet, as Charmaz (2008b, p.230) points out, this can lead to questionable claims of sufficiency Figure 3: Social world map that fail to take contextual complexity into account. To this end, she encourages researchers Clarke also includes a positional map in her original representation of situational analysis. to use the criteria of credibility, originality, resonance and usefulness to evaluate a study The position map, which is used to represent positions that have been taken in the data (Charmaz, 2014, p.337). In the study, credibility was established through the correlation (Clarke, 2005, p.126) and organised around issues that have been discussed within the between data, observations and categories and was assessed through the findings that are studied site, disentangles people and organisations from their stated standpoints and enables discussed in Chapters 5, 6 and 7. Originality was determined through the significance of the the researcher to explore positions in discourses or the effect of power and control within a work and an exploration of how the theory extends the field of library and information situation (Clarke, 2005, p.136). Nonetheless, although situational analysis moves beyond the science in Chapter 8. The resonance of the research, which centres on the meaning of the person to encompass social process, Mills, Chapman, Bonner and Francis (2007) caution that study within research participants’ lives, was established through participants’ critiques of the the focus on discourse within a positional map decentres a person’s agency by moving study’s emerging findings. The potential usefulness of the research was established in research away from the codes and categories that emerge from the research data and which Chapter 8 through an examination of the grounded theory’s practical implications. form the basis of situational and social world maps. This distinction, which is seen to distance grounded theory from its constructivist roots (Mills et al., 2007), drove my decision to focus 4.7 Ethics on creating situational and social world maps within the study. The research was approved by the research ethics committee in the School of Information Studies at Charles Sturt University, Australia, where the study took place. Data collection 4.6 Credibility in qualitative research finished before my transfer to the University of Borås. While the research qualified as low Concepts of credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability replace traditional risk because neither the topic nor the procedures provided more than a risk of discomfort positivist measures of quality, which include internal and external validity, reliability and 76 77

beyond what participants would encounter in their everyday lives, research participants were their data, but that they would allow me to access these data as per the study ethics and the often living abroad for the first time and at a significant distance from family and friends. participant information sheet. Data that were generated using the EthOS app were stored at a This meant that participants could have been displaying heightened senses of vulnerability or secure, access-controlled data centre that provided a high level of network, host, physical and insecurity (Im, 2011, p.284) as well as simultaneously engaging in other significant life environmental security. Data and file attachments were encrypted, and EthOS employees transitions, for example, between childhood and adulthood (Rew, Tyler, Fredland & Hannah, could not have accessed this data unless they had been required to do so by law, a provision 2012). These potential issues meant that I took several steps to minimise discomfort. that is comparable with other digital tools, for example Dropbox (see Appendix 5). In Most importantly, I provided language-students with a copy of the Participant addition, I downloaded all data from the EthOS project management system to my file Information Sheet (see Appendix 1) before the first interview took place so that they could storage systems before permanently deleting it from the EthOS servers. Participants were also take an informed decision about whether to take part in the research or not (Marzano, 2012, given instructions about how to export their own data from EthOS. p.443). The Information Sheet provided full details about the nature, scope, duration and Lastly, I sought and audio-recorded each participant’s oral consent to take part in the methods of the research as well as explaining procedures of privacy and confidentiality, study during the first interview. The recognition that in-depth interviews elicit potentially which covered what could be done with participant data. In terms of privacy, the low risk that sensitive information as well as personal feelings meant that I took steps to minimise was inherent within the research design, as well as the desire to allow participants the potential discomfort during the interview by monitoring the conversation and reading the opportunity to “own” their contributions (Canadian Institutes of Health Research, 1998), participant’s verbal and non-verbal cues (Charmaz, 2014, p.68) for signs of unease. meant that participants were able to choose whether they wished to be identified by their own Participants were reminded that they did not have to discuss topics that could cause distress, name or by a pseudonym. In the end, 25 out of 26 participants chose to be identified by their and that they could withdraw from the project at any time for up to two weeks after the final name and I selected a pseudonym for the remaining participant. In terms of confidentiality, interview without giving a reason. No participant withdrew from the study. participants were informed that data, which included interview data as well as any photos that 4.8 Limitations they captured, might be quoted or analysed in my thesis as well as presented at scholarly The context, as well as the methodological choices that have been made in the study means conferences and published in journals. This further included the understanding that their data that it is subject to several limitations. One of the primary limitations relates to the fact that would be kept as computer files in a password-protected file storage system for a minimum the research took place at a distance and principal contact was made through a video- of five years following publication of results. The Information Sheet also outlined the conferencing service rather than taking place in-person. While both initial and follow up incentives that I offered each participant. While ethical questions are raised when incentives interviews were carried out successfully, this format may have made it harder to establish a are used due to the risk of causing a coercive effect, incentives were considered appropriate rapport or to gather details about participant activities. Another limitation refers to the choice in the study because of the financial costs associated with the participants’ use of mobile of interviews as research methods. The use of interviews, which have been critiqued for phone Internet data plans, as well as the time and effort involved in gathering visual data. forming a retrospective narrative or performance rather than a record of experience The recognition that the use of photo-elicitation methods raises additional ethical (Charmaz, 2014, p.78), may additionally have downplayed negative influences, particularly questions related to media capture in public contexts meant that I engaged each participant in by participants who wished to save face with an unknown researcher (Miczo, 2003, p.480). a discussion about the ethics of capturing people’s faces and actions. This discussion took Photo-elicitation methods caused another limitation. While participants indicated that they place over Skype or Zoom, and written guidelines that participants had to follow with regards understood the instructions for participating in the photo-elicitation aspects of the research, to personal safety and questions of harm, fairness and justice were also emailed to each the complexity of information as a concept as well as the extended time frame for the participant (See Appendix 3). The use of media also raised questions of data ownership, especially related to research dissemination. Participants were informed that they would own 78 79

research may have meant that they found it hard to both photograph and to remember to established Plate Glass and post-1992 universities in the United Kingdom,4 there tend to be photograph their everyday engagement with information. fewer students studying languages at these institutions (HESA, 2014). To counter the inherent limitations of interviews, I emphasised my own residence 4.9 Chapter conclusion abroad activities as well as allowing sufficient time to break the ice with participants. I The chapter has outlined the methodological choices that were made within the study’s further considered the interview questions carefully, asking for examples and explanations research design. The chapter started by demonstrating how a constructivist grounded theory that were situated within participant activities to understand varied cultural contexts. methodological framework provided the flexibility to explore and analyse the complexity of Similarly, I aimed to make it easier for participants to reveal their perspectives to a stranger language-students’ information literacy practices during residence abroad. The chapter then by embedding questions within more mundane trains of thought (Charmaz & Belgrave, 2012, illustrated how semi-structured interviews and photo-elicitation research methods provided a p.353). The realisation that photographs can be used to misrepresent as well as to represent useful entry point to the uncovering of language-students’ information activities. The activities meant that I also used the second interview to explore the meaning that participants findings that were produced through these methods of data generation and analysis are attached to photographs and move beyond a superficial interpretation of the image. presented in the subsequent chapter. In terms of the limitations in research methods, I gave participants the opportunity to critique my emerging analysis, which provided a way to reveal the “narrative constructions” within detailed stories and to balance participant statements with analytical details (Charmaz & Belgrave, 2012, p.350). It also ensured that meaning emerged from interactions between myself and the participant, rather than from my own prior residence abroad activities. Furthermore, the realisation that all researchers bring their own assumptions to and are personally located within the research process meant that I used memos (see 4.5.1) to reflect on each interview. To address the potential issues within participant demographics, I used theoretical sampling after the first round of recruitment to purposefully recruit respondents who were likely to engage in different activities. A final limitation relates to the narrowness of the sample. While no host country or language was excluded from the research, most potential participants were studying French, German and Spanish in Europe. As the most popular languages that are studied within North American higher education (MLA, 2013), these figures were expected but it meant that it was much harder to find potential participants from locations with less well-developed language study infrastructures such as Africa. In terms of occupation, the popularity of study abroad or exchange activities in North America and Australia meant that it was almost impossible to find participants from these countries who were planning to work or volunteer abroad. This meant that working students were uniquely represented by participants from the United Kingdom. In terms of home institutions, it was harder to recruit British students from outside

Russell Group and Red Brick universities. While emails were sent to the more recently 4 Other terms used to refer to British universities. Plate glass institutions tend to have been established in the 1960s onwards. Post-1992 universities refer to former polytechnic institutions.

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Chapter 5: Findings 5.2 The information environment As students start to engage within residence abroad, they encounter various new information 5.1 Chapter overview environments, which are constituted by the stable and established knowledge of a social site In the chapter, data that were produced from semi-structured interviews and photo-elicitation (Lloyd, 2017, p.94). Forcing language-students to both map and situate themselves within methods, and analysed through constructivist grounded theory and situational analysis, are their new setting, student participation overseas also produces various new information- used to explore the information literacy practices of language-students during residence related challenges and opportunities for engagement as they build meaning within their new abroad. This analysis, which examines how language-students construct their new context. One of the most visible changes centres on students’ new responsibilities and information landscapes as they transition into their host communities, identifies seven obligations. The importance of making a new home overseas and complying with the legal information activities that configure two categories, Calibrating and Repositioning. These and institutional requirements that govern their stay abroad means that language-students face categories subsequently establish the overarching theme, Mitigating Risk, which constitutes considerable pressure to fulfil various time-sensitive tasks, such as finding accommodation as the grounded theory. Focused on how language-students portray both the shape and the well as legally recording their presence abroad and other registration procedures. They must meaning of their information activities, the chapter starts by providing an overview of further get to know local services, from learning how to open a bank account and setting up students’ information environments. It then explores the Calibrating category, which is telephone or internet access to working out how to use transportation systems and finding structured by four activities: Sifting, Observing, Checking and Noting, before examining the their way around their new location. The cultural side of their new setting is important, too, second category, Repositioning, which is characterised by Triaging, Mediating and as language-students attempt to establish shops, brands and local shopping customs as well as Archiving. The chapter finishes by presenting the overarching theory of Mitigating Risk, as to ascertain leisure and travel opportunities. Given the purpose for which they moved depicted by Figure 4. The presentation of the findings draws upon excerpts from the overseas, language-students are also constantly engaged in learning more about their target empirical data and is interwoven with connections to relevant literature from the fields of language even as they continue to mediate local idiosyncrasies such as new currencies and library and information science and second-language acquisition. different weather systems. The recognition that this period is both exciting and frustrating means that language-students engage in various information activities to meet these new challenges.

5.3 Calibrating Calibrating refers to the adjustments that language-students make through comparison to local practices and is constituted through four activities: the sifting of information to identify the core characteristics of a setting; the observing of others and of oneself to become aware of local practices; the checking of information to validate students’ activities within a setting; and the noting of information to regulate their performance over time. Calibrating forms a way for language-students to build and evaluate their new understanding against the standards of local and expert practice. Creating a mechanism through which language- students orient themselves to local values and expectations, calibrating is both preparatory and reflexive as well as stabilised through a variety of technologies. In this sense, calibrating,

Figure 4: Calibrating, repositioning and mitigating risk which is contextualised and explored through participant quotes below, is seen to provide 82 83

both an effective and an efficient way for students to mediate the pressures that are produced similar authority, both because they represent knowledge derived from experience and through their engagement within an unfamiliar information environment. because they make residence abroad seem achievable, which mirrors the findings from Faced with the prospect of spending significant time overseas, language-students Anderson (2003) and Szabo’s (1996) studies of residence abroad. In effect, prior student often have little experience and sense of what to expect from their new surroundings. stories, which have been seen to play an important role in the support of learning (Lave & Uncertain about the scope of local practices as well as the shape of their own activity within Wenger, 1991, p.108; Lloyd, 2011, p.291; Smith, Pedersen & Burnett, 2014; Elmore, 2018, this new space, language-students turn to the understandings of knowledgeable others to p. 152), demonstrate that there is a field for the legitimate and “mature practice” of what mediate their initial forays within a new setting. The achievements and the visible successes recently arrived students will be doing (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p.110) while further helping that these knowledgeable others have in mediating the settings in which language-students them to start envisaging their future stay overseas. The affirming nature of these experiences find themselves means that they provide coherence within the uncertainty and confusion of is particularly meaningful for language-students who may be unsure about their language students’ initial attempts at building meaning overseas. In further providing an insider’s view abilities, as Mckenna, an American student studying in Italy, and Kamila, a Polish-Canadian that language-students perceive as adding both credibility and validity to activity, student studying in France, highlight: knowledgeable others become positioned by students as the carriers of practice (Reckwitz, 2002; Shove & Pantzar, 2007) or the significant others (Charon, 2004) against whom their I think because it … reassures you that … you'll be able to figure [the move to understandings of a new setting can be judged. One of the most obvious carriers of practice is another country] out yourself and hearing from … students our age that went and did the local or native speaker, whose highly desirable linguistic and cultural fluency means that it and them telling us… things to go see, or go eat at this place, so …it is kind of they are immediately associated by language-students with expertise (Piller, 2002, 2008; reassuring. (Mckenna) Siskin, 2003). Evelyn, who is a British student working in Austria, purposefully turns away from the English sources of information that she had been using towards the German sources We had people talk about the exchange and stuff, and I remember I was really that her new colleagues recommended to her: impressed with the people because they seemed so worldly, they seemed like they'd been to a lot of places, had experience and I thought this is really cool, this is how I Before I came, I was still very much looking through Lonely Planet things, looking want to be when I come back. (Kamila) through TripAdvisor, kind of going through the more touristy stuff... and then as, I think, as I settled here, I’ve been kind of like, I'm starting to count myself more and Valued for their accessibility as well as for their accomplishments, experienced students are, more as a Viennese citizen and whatever and because of that I have been looking at like local and native speakers, positioned by language-students as both a reliable and the sites that… people look at when they live here. trustworthy guide to local practices. However, recently-returned students also reconcile incoming student uncertainty about a new setting by serving as a source of inspiration and Representing student fascination with language as well as their desire to connect to everyday imparting hope (Lindh, 2015, p.130). The important motivational role that people who are in ways of knowing, local and native speakers are seen to characterise both information similar circumstances play within transition is also noted in studies of health information competence and a reliable gauge of appropriateness within a new setting as language-students practices (e.g. Lloyd, Bonner & Dawson Rose, 2014; McCaughan & McKenna, 2007; scrabble to establish the sources of information that the speakers of their target language use Veinot, 2009) while refugee and immigrant dependence on fellow co-nationals provides a and consider relevant (cf. Hock, 2007). comparable demonstration of how newcomer activity is often modelled on the activities of Local and native speakers do not, however, form language-students’ only sources of peers (Caidi et al., 2010, p.507). expertise. Instead, students who have returned from their time abroad are seen to provide 84 85

Identification with people who are already connected to local information Language-students further depend upon knowledgeable others to calibrate their own environments exposes language-students to new means of accessing and using information performance or to assess and adjust their developing understandings within a new setting. within their setting. In other words, it is through calibrating themselves against the The unfamiliarity of their new context means that students may have had few previous knowledgeable carriers of local practices (Reckwitz, 2002; Shove & Pantzar, 2007) that opportunities to start building their new information landscapes. In gauging their activity language-students map their understandings of the new information environment. In turn, against the performance of experienced others, language-students directly and indirectly knowledgeable others expand language-students’ frames of reference by opening up pursue the feedback that will contribute to their understanding about the shape of competent possibilities that may not have previously been available to them. Knowledgeable others help activity within a setting. Substituting for more customary classroom-based means of language-students to start envisioning themselves within their new setting by providing formative assessment, feedback has the potential to limit as well as to enable language- information that helps language-students to build connections and meaning that stretches student performance within a new setting. Yet, the confirmation that calibrating engenders beyond their immediate setting, which is similar to what Allard (2015) found in the pictures often encourages additional effort and investment in learning, as Jemma, a British student that experienced Canadian migrants painted for those left at home. Engagement with local teaching in France, demonstrates regarding the native-speaker videos that she watches to experiences also sets the activities that orient students towards residence abroad in motion, as improve her language-learning: Evelyn demonstrates quite literally through her use of mapping software: Videos of like, slang and different things like that and I check with my flat mates I was just on Google Maps quite a lot saying, look, this is where I will be living, and [who are fluent in the language] and it's fairly accurate so I'm going to keep most people are like, ‘oh it's a map;’ but for me it was kind of, like, ‘I am actually reviewing [these types of videos]. going to be in this space very soon, and this sort of topographical representation of the space will very soon actually be where I am going to be.’ So, it was very exciting. Creating the means through which language-students reflect on their own activity, calibrating helps students to structure the uncertainty of their experiences through engaging recursively In effect, calibrating helps language-students to construct both a representation of their new with the activities and actions of others. While reflection has long been seen as key within social context and an awareness of their physical presence within it. At the same time, transition (e.g. Kralik, 2002) and in the teaching of information literacy (e.g. Hughes, Bruce calibrating adapts to language-students’ changing needs rather than functioning as a simple & Edwards, 2007), calibrating demonstrates how reflexivity also plays an important role in initial mapping exercise of the local environment. Before students leave home, their helping students to mediate the pressures of engagement within new and culturally unfamiliar calibrating mostly draws upon visual and textual sources of information that they can easily information environments. access from home as well as conversations with returned students; as Allard (2015, p.74) The chapter will now explore how the four information activities of sifting, observing, points out in her study of new Canadian immigrants, these stories provide powerful checking and noting facilitate language-student calibrating within a new setting. “associations and impressions of a place.” However, once students arrive and engage within 5.3.1 Sifting their new setting, their calibrating activities pivot to focus on the locals and native speakers Unsure about both the shape and physical appearance of their new setting, language-students who provide students with alternative sources of information as well as a different focus for construct an initial sense of the information environment that surrounds them as well as their their learning. The recognition that the role of knowledgeable others becomes less important place within it by sifting through the information that is available to them. Sifting is an as language-students build their own situated understandings means that calibrating changes activity in which students build meaning by sorting through and drawing upon experience over time rather than remaining constant. that is represented in advice and recommendations from their social connections as well as from collectively-produced forms of information such as travel review websites. Helping 86 87

language-students to bring their new context to life pre-departure, sifting also provides a way You can just type in like travel tips in Nice or things to do in Nice and Pinterest kind for students to mediate their new environment in situ by reducing a new setting to its of shows you… and so that's where I found out about some of the things that I did in seemingly core characteristics and a more manageable size. In this sense, sifting shares many Nice. similarities with the idea of browsing (Bates, 2007), which centres on acquiring glimpses of information objects, foraging (Pirolli & Card, 1999), which represents the efficient Demonstrating the important role that the construction of what Graham (2010, p.434) refers maximisation of information seeking, scanning (Choo, 2001), which facilitates the ongoing to as a ‘virtual representation of the non-virtual” plays within the development of knowing, analysis of an environment, and filtering (Miller, 1960), which forms a response to Fiona’s comments illustrate how she plans for her future stay overseas as she unquestioningly information overload. However, in focusing on building a multimodal picture of a new repurposes a tool that she trusts and with which she is familiar (cf. Sundin et al., 2017) to sift setting rather than being aimless or serendipitous, as is often implied by browsing (e.g. through information about her new setting. Boyce, Meadow & Kraft, 1994), sifting forms a structured yet exploratory information Beyond images, language-students also sift through their personal contacts to see who activity that helps language-students to prepare for the challenges of their time overseas. could provide them with the tips and advice for their time overseas. Demonstrating how Sifting first occurs in the pre-arrival stages as students plan for their time abroad. many language-students embark on residence abroad with considerable mobility capital Functioning as a way to survey the information environment that surrounds them, sifting (Brooks & Waters, 2010; Waters & Brooks, 2011), sifting through this socially-situated provides language-students with the means through which they can engage with key practical information enables students to connect to the tacit ways of knowing that structure their new information about a setting as well as to build an initial understanding of their new context. In setting and to align themselves within their new information environment. Luan, who is this sense, sifting depends on the tools and the resources that are both accessible and trusted British and working in Belgium, and Stuart, who is British and studying in China, discuss by students rather than focusing on the evaluation of the information itself. The simplest and how contacts from home help them to mediate unanticipated surprises and build an awareness most literal way through which language-students start to construct this knowledge is by of what to expect overseas: sifting through images to create a visual representation of a new context, as Helen, who is British and working in Guadeloupe, illustrates: My step-dad works for [manufacturing company] and they have an office out here, so he… emailed one of the women that worked here and said, ‘my step-daughter’s going I guess I did a lot of google imaging, you know, you look at all the pretty photos of it to Brussels, do you have any websites or areas that she should stay away from, that all and things like that. she should go for?’ (Luan)

Labelled as pre-visiting (Brown, 2012), Helen’s attempts to build an initial picture of her new I had a couple of meetings with people who had been here before, the two people I setting is structured through her trust in Google’s ability to establish the most relevant and know. And so, the two of us who came, from [his university], went to the pub with authoritative images of her new location (cf. Sundin, Haider, Andersson, Carlsson & them and talked to them about what to expect, what to bring, what to be worried Kjellberg, 2017). The same focus on established or well-known information tools is also seen about, that kind of thing. (Stuart) through student engagement with social media. In sifting through search results on Pinterest, Fiona, a Canadian student who is studying in France, is able to grasp or start building a vision Demonstrating that sifting helps students to add details to the picture that they are creating of of the core cultural and historical features of her new setting: their new location, this engagement with knowledgeable others also serves to recognise and legitimise students’ identities as language-students who will be travelling abroad. In effect, it is by sifting through the information that is produced within these social encounters that 88 89

language-students start to situate themselves within a new environment, as Kamila asserts This indiscriminate use of both books and online sites, which represents an implicit judgment regarding her interactions with returning students: of value, demonstrates student focus on taking advantage of the insider knowledge that is portrayed in these sources (Brown, 2012) or what McKenzie and Davies (2010, p.801) refer Like, you see numbers, you see all the information, ok, that's cool… but then seeing a to as “the socially organized competencies associated with a particular setting,” in whichever person, a real live person who did it, went there, saw things, went through all the format they can find. Similarly, prior experience lends both credibility and relevance to the problems, and that makes it more real, and that makes you more excited. recommendations of local contacts. Laurel, who is an American studying in Spain, positions her Spanish professor as a physical embodiment of the information that is found in a Enabling language-students to move beyond their own vision of what local practices entail, guidebook or a travel review website as she sifts through travel options: sifting additionally allows them to create an image of their place within it. Beyond helping to represent a new location, sifting is further used to narrow down So, our professor, right now in the intensive study, he was telling us about different and limit information once students arrive abroad. Similar to filtering (Savolainen, 2007b), places, ‘oh you should go here for this’, or ‘you should go here for that.’ And he which helps to weed out what is not needed, sifting allows language-students to decide what mentioned Villajoyosa… I Facebook-messaged a couple of friends, ‘hey I'm going to focus on in a new setting. Alongside the advice of contacts, travel websites such as out, I don't really want to go by myself, so who wants to come and eat chocolate with TripAdvisor represent a considerable source of guiding authority for inexperienced students. me?’ Providing numeric ratings that are used to indicate quality, these websites also enable students to draw upon the reviews and interpretations of previous travellers as a way to focus Demonstrating how local experience accords information both credibility and trustworthiness the information that is available to them. Student reliance on recommender systems is also (Rieh, 2010), sifting could also be seen to draw upon Metzger, Flanagin and Medders’ (2010) extended to their use of guidebooks, as Fiona, who is a Canadian studying in France, endorsement heuristic, which demonstrates how trust in an information source is often mentions, and Laura, who is British and volunteering in Bolivia, demonstrates in Figure 5: derived from the validation and recommendations of others. In relying on digital tools, students also place considerable trust in the “significance production” of a search engine’s algorithms (Sundin & Carlsson, 2016, p.1005) as they set their sights on accessing the I used these books called the Lonely Planet ‘authentic’ local knowledge and values with which they are anxious to engage. and it's kind of travel books that tell you While sifting forms one of the preparatory activities in which students can participate about the places that you travel to. So, in pre-departure, the situated nature of knowing (Gherardi, 2009) means that it can never be an terms of travelling to other places to see entirely isolated activity. Consequently, while students carry on sifting through information things, I’ve used those books for restaurants after their arrival abroad, local conditions as well as their growing experience means that this that people have recommended, or places and activity also changes shape as language-students develop an awareness of their new setting. hostels to stay in. (Fiona) Julia, who is British and teaching in North Africa, adjusts the way she looks for housing

Figure 5: “That was in my guidebook again, literally it's when she realises that newspapers form a far more rewarding and appropriate resource for been my main source of information since I've been here.” (Laura) sifting through accommodation options than websites:

For my flats, I've just remembered, it was really helpful to look at newspapers because they actually have information. You get so much more information in the 90 91

newspaper than you do online, which is probably the only place in the world where experienced activity as a way to minimise potential problems within a new setting. Essential this is still the case. for the development of practical understanding when working across languages, observing is used by language-students to connect to the nuanced, tacit and contingent ways of knowing At other times, it is the web application itself that adapts to students’ changes in that are learned through participation within local practices. circumstances. Holly, who is an Australian studying French in Canada, notes how the adverts 5.3.2.a Observing of others change through her use of Facebook to sift through information about local events: Observing of others fulfils the very practical aim of facilitating understanding when students

need to work across languages. As language-learners, students arrive abroad with I think what Facebook does, which is slightly creepy but also kind of useful, it works considerable capacity to engage with local linguistic norms. However, these capabilities do out your location and it just kind of works out what events are happening in the area, not always extend to the technical vocabulary and the informal ways of communicating that so it's all Montreal events, when I was in Perth it was all Perth events, and sometimes are often used in everyday situations; similarly, many language-students are challenged by if I'm with my friends and we want to go out and do something and we’re not too sure the different accents or speed of conversation that they encounter. In these situations, what to do, we go on Facebook and see if there’s anything close by, and check it out. observing supplements students’ linguistic comprehension of a situation, as Holly points out

regarding the difficulties of understanding instructions in her Taekwondo class: Other language-students notice differences in whom they would ask for advice and recommendations as they engage with more people in their new context, including local host Most of the time, when you're actually in there training, our instructor is kind of like family, flatmates, colleagues or fellow travellers, as Laura points out: yelling at us, and you kind of just follow along. So yeah, even if you don't fully

understand what she's saying, you kind of like, see what's she's doing, like, you know, It's mainly word of mouth really, talking to, recommendations from my host family or a kick or whatever, and you're like, ‘oh that's what it is.’ my work, my, the exchange organisation, or other tourists so, yeah, just like listening

to other experiences that people have had. Emerging from students’ attempts to tune their ears into local speech patterns, this type of

observation is often employed near the beginning of student time abroad as they work to Emphasising how student activities change as they settle in and build more connections reconcile their classroom and institutional linguistic proficiency with the locally produced within their setting, sifting provides further evidence of the important role that reflection, features of language that surround them. The observing of local and native speakers, which which helps language-students to gauge whether the sources and the ways in which they sift bears some resemblance to the gesturing that Elmore (2018, p.200) noticed in her study of through information are both relevant and effective, plays in the development of situated ESOL learners, is also important in second-language acquisition research (e.g. Jackson, knowing. Notwithstanding, the focus on shared social connotations means that reflection is 2005). socially produced rather than constituting an individual process that translates (bodily) Beyond facilitating linguistic understanding, observing helps to make local practices activity into (cognitive) knowledge. visible to language-students by enabling access to the everyday non-linguistic and intangible 5.3.2 Observing information that emerges from experience and structures local performances. The newcomer Observing, which refers to becoming aware through careful attention, forms another one of status of Genevieve, who is an American studying in Russia, meant that her attendance at a the ways in which language-students calibrate their understandings within a new setting. local church service was fraught with potential missteps as she neither understood nor knew Occurring more frequently towards the beginning of students’ stays, observing focuses on the who to ask about local religious rites. Observing helped her to understand the scope of the bodies of knowledgeable others as well as on students’ own bodies as they look to service that she attended as well as the shape that her contributions should take: 92 93

I would pick up on mannerisms in that way, so something that may sound rude or may I would kind of stand in the back of the church and watch what everyone else was sound inappropriate in Canada, may actually be just a normal conversation and how doing and by the end of the service when we would go up for communion, at that people talk to each other. point I was much more like familiar, I would get to the end of the line, so I could do whatever anyone else did. Like did they kiss his hand, or did they... I have been doing Beyond serving as a positive reinforcement for activity, observing also signals what not to do that because every church seems to be a little bit different in what they do and so just within a new setting. It is through her observation of a waiter’s body language that Laura by standing in the back, watching the proceedings I'm more comfortable by the end of realises that video chatting is not permitted in her favourite cafe, even though she eventually it to actually start engaging in the service myself. ignores his strictures:

Enabling her to recognise both the sanctioned activities of a community and the nuances They give you evils sometimes, I haven't been told off, I think it's because since then I within the stylised actions of each participant, observing facilitates unique insights into the try and be really subtle, so if the waiter comes, I normally like, stop talking or just ways of doing and knowing that mark local experience. Constituting a form of what Lave and gesture, so it's fine. Wenger (1991) label legitimate peripheral participation, which describes how learning is shaped through a person’s gradual engagement with the activities of their community, Both simple and inconspicuous, observing provides the means through which language- interactions between experienced and newcomer bodies have also been noted as important students engage with the affordances of their new setting and reflect upon the shared within studies of firefighters (Lloyd, 2007a) and sales assistants (Moring, 2012). meanings that are produced through local practices. A similar focus has been noted in studies Observing further enables language-students to evaluate a local situation, whether this of refugees where observing is seen to facilitate participation in local activities (Lloyd et al., is choosing somewhere to eat or using the authority of observed local activity as a proxy for 2013; Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2017; Richards, 2015, p.84). quality as Eli, who is an American studying in Iceland, and James demonstrate in Figure 6: Language-students are further drawn into local practices through social intermediaries’ attempts to show them the information that they are missing, as both Richards (2015, p.84) and Lloyd (2007b) note in their respective studies of refugees and firefighters. Matt, who is British and teaching in France, turns his body towards the teachers in his school ‘Oh, there's something here, there's a lot of to facilitate his understanding of the new school routine: people at the side of the road, what's here?’ (Eli) Basically, I just sort of followed the teachers around and did as they did, in the staffrooms, during break, going to lunch and that sort of thing.

Just as experienced firefighters use knowledge of their own bodies to identify issues with Figure 6: James’ image of food options novice performances and draw newcomers into practice (Lloyd, 2007a, p.189), knowledgeable locals also employ their own bodies to mediate gaps in students’ experiences. Observing subsequently helps language-students to reconcile and rebuild their sense of what Recognising that Laurel was not accustomed to public transport, her host mother physically is appropriate, as Fiona points out about conversations between French speakers: walked her through the route to school to orient her to local practices:

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Our homestay madres [mothers] walked us to the train station, it was like the first day of school, of kindergarten all over again, it was cute. So, they all walked us to the The same focus on the body can be seen in the example of Ben, a Canadian student studying train station on that first day and showed us to swipe our passes and go through the in China, who decides whether or not to return to a restaurant based upon the effects of its gates and where our tram and stuff like that. food on his digestive system:

Other times, the linking of experienced and inexperienced bodies becomes more forceful, as So yeah, we've tried a few places… and we do the three hours test, if we're Fiona found out when she was swept up into French greeting rituals: not sick three hours after that… it's good, we can go back there. Then, with the roommates’ [use of this method, too] we've got now around 10 places that are When I went to meet them they just kind of did it, so for me the first one was a shock, safe! because I was kind of going in for a handshake, but then the guy was like ‘no, no, we don't do handshakes here, we do bisoux [kisses]’! As both Kinginger (2008, p.15; also see DuFon, 2006) and Elmore (2018, p.153) point out, taste and food play an important role in helping to build local understanding. The surprise that Fiona displays at being unexpectedly kissed can be interpreted as evidence Beyond helping language-students to develop knowledge about their new setting, self- of the considerable gap that exists between local and newcomer activity as well as important observing is used by students to reflect upon and to adjust their own activities. Niko, who is differences in the ways that bodies are employed across settings. Yet, while being an American student studying in Japan, illustrates how listening to herself and comparing the manipulated in this manner may come across to language-students as surprising or childlike, sounds she makes to how a Japanese person talks helps her to develop her speaking abilities: the physical orientation and positioning of students within their information landscapes also forms a type of attunement where experienced and inexperienced bodies start to act in You can still tell when I talk that I'm not a Japanese person just from my word choice tandem rather than in opposition to each other. or the intonation of some of my words, just things like that it doesn't sound the way the Japanese person would say it… but I just kind of do my best when speaking 5.3.2.b Self-observing Japanese, I guess, and try to like, make it sound like what I think it's supposed to As language-students continue to engage within their new setting, they also turn their sound like. attention to their own bodily responses. The recognition that the body forms an important information source as well a rich site of learning that facilitates the construction of situated Highlighting that language-student information landscapes are constructed through whole and nuanced knowing (Lloyd, 2010c) means that self-observing or awareness reflects body activities, self-observing also demonstrates how students use their bodies to inform and students’ attempts to engage with information in spaces that are sensorily very different from shape their ongoing construction of understanding. The importance of being able to perceive home. It also represents students’ efforts to understand and harness the information cues that information cues from one’s own body has also been noted within running (Gorichanaz, emerge from their own bodies, particularly when their comprehension is restricted. Stuart, for 2015), acting (Olsson, 2010), grocery shopping (Ocepek, 2017), and browsing online example, relies on taste to help him establish what food he does and does not like when he is pornography (Keilty, 2016). unable to translate or understand what he is eating: Self-observing also forms a way through which students build self-awareness or

recognise and locate themselves within their new setting. In observing where their own Since we couldn't really read the menus that well or it took way too long to bodies are in relation to visual landmarks (rather than merely observing the physical translate everything on the menu just using the dictionary, I had a couple of dodgy buildings), Genevieve and Kamila (see Figure 7) demonstrate how being able to situate choices which I didn't really appreciate. 96 97

themselves within their new physical environment helps them to navigate an unfamiliar setting: I wore shorts the other day and every single person that I walked past that was Spanish stopped and stared! It was awkward, I haven't worn shorts since then. There's landmarks that help for finding out and orienting yourself, the cathedral of Christ Similarly, local responses to gender cause Jemma to question her ability to participate within the Saviour is pretty high and very a new setting by compelling her to observe and become aware of her own body: recognisable so the point, the tallest point of the Kremlin is also really useful. So, there's The way in which some men here behave is quite different to England so literally I kind of landmarks for if I don't know where I would be walking down the street, completely appropriately dressed and you'll get am in the city, I turn a corner and I can see numerous comments and like, little things that initially made me feel quite the Kremlin in the distance then I kind of Figure 7: The landmark in relation to which Kamila uncomfortable. orient myself, I know where I am myself. positions her own body (Genevieve) Self-observation thereby both pulls language-students into and pushes them away from local practices as they become aware of the fragility of their status overseas. In making students re- Similarly, knowledge of a physical setting is further enhanced by the auditory cues that assess or become self-conscious about their own bodies, self-observing also changes the ways language-students use to locate themselves within their information environments. Charlotte, in which they present themselves within a new setting, as Fiona illustrates: who is British and working in Italy, acknowledges the Italian notion of campanilismo as she points out how observing where her own body is in relation to the sound of church bells helps Here the girls they wear high heels and they have little purses, they don't have a her to locate herself within a new setting: backpack, so a lot of us have kind of just tossed, a lot of us came with backpacks, and we just haven't used them because once you walk into a classroom you're the only one There’s basically a church near me, but there's not many other churches nearby, so if I with a backpack they automatically know that you're not from France. can hear that, I'm kind of in that rough direction. Highlighting how clothing plays an important role within the development of situated At the same time, students’ observations of their own bodily reactions may also distance knowing, as both Veinot (2007, p.166) and Baker (2004) point out in their studies of the them from their physical environment, as Helen found when she arrived at her mouse- workplace, students’ introspections further demonstrates how the body serves as an important infested accommodation. site for exploring and reconciling collective ways of acting and being in the world. While Knowledge of an environment can be further complicated for female language- research has noted the value of welcoming safe spaces for immigrants (e.g. Fisher et al., students when local responses to their presence and activity means that they are compelled to 2004), there has been little exploration of how local reactions to a person’s physical presence observe their own bodies in different ways, as researchers have highlighted within study can affect how they engage with information. abroad literature (e.g. Coleman, 2013; Fryer & Wong, 1998; Polanyi, 1995; Twombly, 1995). 5.3.3 Checking Spanish reactions to her typical North-American attire, for example, forced Laurel to observe Checking, which is understood within the study as a means of validating or determining the the appropriateness of her own body within a new space rather than merely what clothes she accuracy of information against the authority of local experience, plays an important should or should not wear: regulatory role within the intense period of time that language-students spend abroad. 98 99

Centred upon the assessment of students’ own activities, rather than forming an evaluation of the people who guide their learning, checking forms a pragmatic safeguard against I used to ask the bus misunderstanding that helps to make the scope and shape of local practices visible. In further driver just to make sure, connecting language-student performances across time, checking also forms a reflexive because I didn't want to feedback mechanism through which students calibrate and adjust their own activity within a end up on the other side setting. Bearing a resemblance to the verifying stage of Ellis’ (1989) model of information of Brussels, but I used to behaviour, checking moves beyond the typical focus on feedback loops that structure models ask him like, ‘this is of information behaviour (e.g. Savolainen, 2017) and user engagement with information definitely going to this retrieval systems (e.g. Kelly, 2005) to illustrate how language-students reduce their leeway place, isn't it?’, kind of for errors that could threaten their goals for this time overseas. thing. (Luan)

Most concretely, checking forms a highly practical and targeted way for language- Figure 8: Luan’s image of a bus timetable Figure 9: Fiona’s image of a travel app students to establish the accuracy of something in their new context. The challenges of limited vocabulary as well as different accents and conversational speeds means that checking helps students to confirm whether they have understood something correctly, as Checking emerges from student inexperience within a setting yet forms a way to mediate the Holly points out: uncertainty that is produced through their engagement overseas. At the same time, the inherent emphasis on appropriateness means that checking also A lot of the time you just can't be too safe if you just want to double check, triple relates to students’ own performances within these new settings. With no prior experience to check just to make sure you got the place and time right and that you haven't serve as a template against which they can gauge their understanding of local practices, misunderstood a word that they have brought up in the conversation that didn’t checking provides a way for language-students to receive instant and localised feedback on seem useful but that turns out is a key word which can change the sense of the their activity and to adjust their performance for the future. In this sense, Holly and Luan’s entire sentence. questions above also represent an attempt to calibrate their activity or to discover what it means to act appropriately within their new setting. Checking thereby helps students to Similarly, the absence of familiar support mechanisms such as smartphone data, which is regulate their understanding of local practices by validating their interpretation of knowledgeable activity as well as their own performance within this setting. These ideas can often either too expensive or too hard to set up, means that checking is frequently used to assist student decision-making and to avoid financially and temporally costly errors. Luan most clearly be understood through Laura and Kamila’s attempts to verify the legitimacy of (Figure 8) and Fiona (Figure 9) demonstrate their reliance on a variety of navigational the textual information that they encounter: checking mechanisms to ensure their safe arrival at a destination: I read about the wrestling in my guide book. As for the location, it explained how to

get there in my guidebook and I double checked with my host mum. (Laura)

I think I just started looking and I think I just realised this website had the most offers and I just found it off of Google, and when I mentioned it to a friend in Nice, who actually studies here permanently, he said ‘oh yes, that website's a good place

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to look.’ (Kamila) The demands of a new context as well as the frequently overwhelming volume of new stimuli means that forgetting, or the inability to remember information, characterises much of In checking whether the information that they found is considered valid in the eyes of their students’ early activities abroad. Focused on everyday information and highlighting student local friends and host family, Laura and Kamila’s questions are designed to corroborate unfamiliarity within a setting, forgetting is a minor frustration that can, nonetheless, be highly whether their own information activities constitute acceptable local practices rather than discouraging, as Jemma points out: merely forming queries about the accuracy of the information that they have found. The importance that language-students place upon acting knowledgeably in relation Sometimes with the supermarkets it's a little bit irritating because I can't remember to local customs and procedures is further seen through the more intensive forms of the hours that the different places are open. verification in which students occasionally engage. Kamila becomes involved in a desperate quest to check her understanding of the French housing benefit system: Providing a practical way to extend the limits of memory, noting helps students to coordinate and manage their day-to-day life as well as the larger project of language-learning during Everyone, honestly whenever I try and talk to anyone, I ask, ‘oh how are you dealing residence abroad (cf. McKenzie & Davies, 2010, p.789). with this?’ and I try and get their perspective; so, my classmates from Canada who are More specifically, noting maintains language-student access to the tacit knowledge here, but also, I have French roommates, who also go through some of the same that characterises their new community. Typically perceived visually or aurally, the problems, and the French people I've met at school as well. contingency of this information means that not only can it be hard to distinguish, but also to remember and to recreate. A physical record helps to negotiate this ephemerality by Intensified by the legal implications of her concern (as well as the infamous complexity of translating it into a more permanent notation, as Genevieve and Helen (Figure 10) French bureaucracy), this exhaustive triangulation of perspectives illustrates student attempts demonstrate: to work around missing information rather than emerging from a surplus of information as in Greyson’s (2018) study of young parents. In further bringing past, present and future performance together over time, checking also demonstrates how students’ information landscapes are both tentative and continually developing. Our programme had pointed [a church] out while we were getting a tour of Moscow… 5.3.4 Noting so, I took a picture of their hours, and just Noting builds upon and complements sifting, observing and checking activities to play an walking around I would notice a church, I important role in helping language-students to maintain their developing understandings of would go up to it and see if they had their local practice. Identified in the research as the capturing of information for a temporary hours posted anywhere, and so I have like, purpose rather than for posterity, noting extends student memory spatially and temporally by seven churches’ hours on my phone right helping them to remember the valuable yet unfamiliar information that is produced in place. now. (Genevieve) More specifically, noting supports students’ ongoing calibrating as well as their goals for this period of time overseas through regulating their consistent performance over time. Centring upon action-oriented and point-of need information creation (McKenzie, Davies & Williams, Figure 10: Helen’s annotated list of transport options 2014), noting represents a physical and multimodal embodiment of remembrance while also illustrating the vital role that technology plays within the enactment of practice. 102 103

Facilitating language-student entry into everyday life, noting stabilises the situated to contribute to the “persistence of larger infrastructures” (McKenzie & Davies, 2012, p.456), information that structures local practices, which is similar to what Marshall (1997) and which refers to the intense period of time they spend overseas. Winget (2008) found in their studies of annotation practices. Noting also helps students to Producing idiosyncratic yet tangible representations of memory that language- reflect upon and stabilise their learning by recording local instances of practice, as James, students carry upon their person, noting is coordinated through the use of various who is a British student studying in Japan, explains regarding his vocabulary lists: technologies. However, although students occasionally employ analogue tools such as pen and paper, noting is most commonly carried out on mobile phones, which are also positioned Any word that I find, oh that will be really good, I'll write it down, and take it in, so by McEwen and Caidi (2013) as playing a vital role in mediating newcomers’ transitions to that can be all life vocab, it could be stuff which I find in the or, if I'm with university. While noting may have previously been most commonly associated with textual my girlfriend, and I’m like, ‘what's that?’, or ‘how do you say that?’, things like that, information practices such as annotation, the portability and ubiquity of the smartphone then I’ll write it down. I write in my iPhone notes programme. means that noting is now more likely to take the form of photos or screenshots. The mobile phone provides a convenient way for language-students to record and incorporate the Beyond enabling the spontaneous capture of everyday information, noting is further used by practical activity and experience that is born of movement into their reflective activity while language-students to prepare for their participation within new activities. Most frequently also enabling them to keep a reliable record of performance within a new space. Connecting employed to support way-finding and to mitigate the risk of getting lost, noting centres upon past, present and future interactions abroad, noting, like checking, can thereby also be seen to the creation of maps and directions and tends to be effected through screenshots and photos play a key role in making time through coordinating the ongoing reproduction of consistent that are subsequently displayed on students’ phones. Noting further supplement students’ activity. developing ways of knowing by providing them with both an element of control over their The chapter will now turn to explore the second category of Repositioning. activities and a sense of comfort. For Alex S., a British student who is studying as an 5.4 Repositioning Erasmus student in Germany, noting helps him to plan for and avoid making costly mistakes: Repositioning refers to how language-students situate themselves within and in relation to an

information environment and is constituted through three activities: the triaging of Say I'm going to go somewhere where I haven't been before, and I need a map of the information questions and interactions to channel student engagement overseas; the place, I take a screenshot of the map before I leave my place… and I haven't needed mediating of information to validate their expertise within a setting; and, the archiving of data. information to uphold their credibility as a language-student over time. Taking place

concurrently with calibrating, which orients students to surrounding information sources and Physical notes also help language-students to facilitate communication or to prepare for and activities, repositioning forms the means through which students manage their participation negotiate oral interactions when there is a risk of misunderstanding, as Stuart explains in within a new social context. Directed towards both the negotiation and the alignment of the relation to his travel activities: ways in which students participate in information activities, repositioning forms a purposeful

response to the linguistic, cultural and physical barriers that limit their opportunities to Having a screenshot of a map or something to show the taxi driver where we want to engage with information within a new setting. In turn, repositioning, which is contextualised go, along with an address in Chinese. and explored through the following participant quotes, also illustrates students’ growing

confidence and expertise within a setting as they use a variety of communication technologies In forcing language-students to engage recursively with the nuances of daily activity, noting inscribes students into their new information landscapes by drawing from local conventions 104 105

and other material artefacts to redefine themselves in terms of collectively-agreed upon ways of engaging with information. Illustrating how locals position language-students in ways that are at odds with students’ own As language-students interact within a new setting, they become increasingly aware understanding of themselves and their goals as residential language-learners, Niko, Alex S. of how the sociocultural environments that surround them shape and mark their information and Tiffany’s comments also demonstrate how these interactions lead to what Hodges (1998) activities. While being able to speak the language of their setting affords them a valuable labels as non-participation, where students are excluded from being able to identify with opportunity to engage with local ways of knowing, their status as a student who may look and practice. In further demonstrating how identity disconfirmation results in negative emotions sound very different from a local or a native speaker also affects how they are regarded and (Fenton-O’Creevy, Dimitriadis & Scobie, 2014, p.37) and disempowerment (Lave & treated within a new setting; as Elmore (2018, p.209) highlights, newcomers both observe Wenger, 1991, p.36), as students are kept from engaging more fully in their new setting, and are observed. Illustrating how their bodies make them a target for the exercise of power these comments also echo the frustration that has been noted in Second Language studies (Rouse, 2007, p.514), prevailing social norms often restrict students’ abilities to situate when language-students feel when they are positioned as an outsider (e.g. Siegal, 1996, themselves within an information environment. Niko’s non-typically Asian appearance, p.360; Peirce, 1995). Revealing how social interaction both complicates and facilitates which represents a material dimension of practice, means that her possibilities to interact with language-student engagement with everyday ways of knowing, the willingness of locals and locals and native speakers and to engage with the social opportunities of her setting are native speakers to afford access (or not) to useful information mirrors the activities of constrained by the reluctance of her fellow commuters to communicate with her: gatekeepers who decide who, how and when people engage with information (e.g. Metoyer- Duran, 1991). Similar frictions have been noted by Latin American migrants who perceive If they're Japanese they would probably ask a Japanese person and looking at them, that they are more isolated from their community under the Trump presidency (Adkins, they wouldn’t think I was Japanese. Moulaison Sandy & Derpic, 2017), as well as by mature students, whose age is seen to minimise informational opportunities in the classroom (Given, 2002). Attempts by locals and native speakers to subvert the language of conversation into English Notwithstanding, the recognition that an exclusion from practice risks impacting their play a similarly inhibiting role by limiting student access to a community’s tacit and goals for this time overseas means that students engage in repositioning as a way to push contingent ways of knowing, as Alex S. points out: back against these constraints. As Fenton-O’Creevy et al. (2014, p.37) go on to point out, identity disconfirmation can also lead to changes in activity as people seek “confirming A lot of the guidelines and sheets were in English but then they didn't tell us the responses” as well as to convince others of their legitimacy. Providing the means for students German words… so when we go to actually enrol, everything is in German, I had no to re-establish themselves as competent participants within their new setting, repositioning idea what was, it was a bit difficult to be honest. forms an active assertion of agency as students respond to the ways in which they are positioned by the attitudes and activities of their local community. Achieved through Information seeking also draws student attention to their outsider status. In discovering that adjusting and reconciling their own information activities to the expectations and values of she was not eligible for a resident travel card, Tiffany, who is an American studying in Chile, their new location, repositioning enables students to mediate their ongoing engagement became distanced from her local setting: overseas by framing their participation in relation to their community rather than as isolated and disconnected from local customs and values. Language-students also purposefully Students normally get a discount of 200 pesos but apparently, we're not necessarily engineer their ongoing contact with social practices by acting in ways that are both considered students for some reason. I think it's just because they don't want to give recognisable and acknowledged by others in the community (Lloyd, 2006, p.576). Holly and us the discount, it's really stupid so we have to pay the full price. 106 107

Fiona, for example, highlight their Australian and Canadian nationalities to defuse the threat world so you'd hear loads and loads, earthquake there, earthquake there and it doesn't of their “foreignness” and to connect with locals and native speakers: really affect you at all and so I just didn't bother.

You kind of just start a conversation and you're like, ‘from Australia’ and they're like, James’ self-assured judgement and deft handling of the situation highlight how he draws ‘Australia?’ ‘I'm on exchange here’ and then you slip that in as soon as possible, so from his locally produced understandings of risk to situate himself as knowledgeable within a they'll be nice to me! I wish I was exaggerating, but literally that's one of my setting while further demonstrating how repositioning centres upon his ongoing critical strategies here. (Holly) reflection and his active recontextualisation of local practices rather than upon passive assimilation. A similar focus upon the ways in which people use their (embodied) experience I’ve had experiences where I would go into the French office or the office at school or to reconfigure the ways in which they are positioned within an information environment has the administration and I would ask something and they would turn me away right also been noted in studies that explore how women negotiate relationships with health care away, or at the bank you would try to open a bank account but after that like, having a providers (McKenzie, 2002, 2004; Rivano Eckerdal, 2011). conversation with them but I’m like, ‘I’m just a student from Canada, I'm having a The chapter will now turn to explore how repositioning is facilitated through the little hard time trying to get things going;’ when you build up that rapport, they triaging, mediating and archiving of information. change that no into yes. (Fiona) 5.4.1 Triaging

Triaging refers to the means through which language-students sort and prioritise the various In centring on the adoption of the ways of knowing that exclude them from the system in the information-centred tasks and obligations that they face within a new information first place, repositioning illustrates how language-students play an active role in helping to environment. Triaging forms a way for language-students to determine both the importance ensure their ongoing access to an information environment; similar diversionary tactics, and the urgency of the large number of demands that require their consideration and where students take the initiative to maintain their engagement within a specific setting, have sequences student activity at a time when they may be feeling overwhelmed or unsure about also been noted in Ross and Dewdney’s (1998) study of reference desk consultations. More the best course of action. In further providing a way for students to channel their attention importantly, however, Holly and Fiona’s actions demonstrate how repositioning marks a towards information that will help them to meet their goals for this time overseas, triaging transition from individual to collective knowing as they start to think of themselves and their also helps language-students to reposition themselves within and in relation to broader activities in terms of their connections and relations to others. community ways of knowing. Incorporating what many researchers in the field of health have Students also reposition themselves through their growing sense of expertise. referred to as information avoidance (e.g. Barbour, Rintamaki & Brashers, 2005; Case, Validating the understanding that is constructed through their embodied engagement Andrews, Johnson & Allard, 2005; Narayan, Case & Edwards, 2011; Sairanen & Savolainen, overseas, repositioning becomes entwined with students’ growing confidence within a new 2010) and queueing (Miller, 1960), triaging mediates the stress and anxiety of information setting as well as the increasingly situated shape of their knowledge. James’ lack of overload (Allen & Wilson, 2003; Savolainen, 2007b) while facilitating language-student compunction in deleting the earthquake warning application from his phone, for example, alignment with collective ways of knowing. illustrates his developing alignment with and understanding of everyday life within Japan: From finding accommodation to fulfilling bureaucratic requirements and figuring out

a myriad of other unexpected and everyday necessities, student participation within a new I stopped using this app because it was telling me about every earthquake like, ever, setting creates a wide array of critical information-centred tasks and responsibilities. Given around Japan and Japan is maybe one of the most earthquake hotspots in the whole that these burdens tax students’ capacities to manage and pressure their emerging ways of knowing, triaging provides the means through which they sequence these demands in a 108 109

period when they may be feeling especially challenged by what Shove et al. (2012, p.65) and strains that characterise and are produced through their participation within a new refer to as the colonisation of their time and energy. For some language-students, triaging information environment. Triaging affords students a breathing space to figure out new helps them to prioritise and direct their engagement within a new setting. Holly’s relocation systems and responsibilities (cf. Poirier, 2012, p.282) as well as helping them to filter and from and to a technology-rich city, for example, means that she focuses her initial energies on buffer the ways in which they interact within a new setting. Evelyn and Helen (Figure 11) re-establishing a vital internet connection: engage in triaging when they physically remove themselves from their new information environment: One of the first things I did when I came here was make sure I got a prepaid phone plan, just so I could have data.

For other language-students, triaging means that they defer activity until they have the time I quite enjoy weekends retreating and really and the emotional capacity to deal with these demands. Having latched onto the first having my own space. (Evelyn) functional route to work that she had found, Evelyn deprioritises exploring more efficient transportation options until she can plan an alternative journey:

There were multiple opportunities to get to work, but I think I visited work before I started my internship just to say ‘Hi,’ and took one specific route and then I stuck to Figure 11: Helen’s retreat that for about two weeks. Helping them to mediate the stress and anxiety of a new situation, Evelyn and Helen’s In contrast, it is spatio-temporal distance or the perceived remoteness of her upcoming purposive retreat, which constitutes what Savolainen (2007b) labels as an affectively-oriented exchange visit that underscores the reasons for which Chloe, an Australian student studying withdrawal strategy, forms an assertion of their agency in the face of demands on their time in China, triages her information questions: and energy. The recognition that students avoid information to minimise the frustration of information overload (Allen & Wilson, 2003; Sairanen & Savolainen, 2010) means that Yeah, they sent the information pack a couple of months before we got here, that's triaging additionally forms a coping strategy that emerges from students’ time-constraints and why I had forgotten, I forgot to check where I was staying or anything like that. current capacity to deal with new information rather than an attempt to disregard things with which they do not agree (Barbour et al., 2005; Case et al., 2005). Demonstrating what Hultgren (2009, p.178) refers to as the timeliness of information, which At the same time, triaging also helps language-students to reposition themselves more refers to the opportune relevance of information, triaging forms both an active and a favourably within an information environment by connecting them to the information purposeful way to segment and order activity within time and space as well as helping activities and sources that they perceive as most relevant for their goals. As Wenger (1998, language-students to evaluate the relative importance of their information questions and p.164) highlights, people define themselves through the practices that they do not engage in interactions. The need to prioritise pressing demands has also been recognised as important as well as the ones in which they do. In purposefully focusing his attention upon expatriate within refugee information research (Martzoukou & Burnett, 2018). websites and ignoring the advice that his host university provides, Alex S triages the Recognising the time pressures and the intensity of this period, triaging also enables information with which he chooses to engage to reposition himself within the information language-students to mediate the affective dimensions of their time overseas or the stresses landscape of a (more desirable) worldly young professional rather than that of a student: 110 111

within a new information environment, triaging also highlights the active role that students I've also used just websites for expats in Berlin I just found on Google and those play in rebuilding understanding within their new setting. were really helpful, other people who'd been in similar situations could speak less 5.4.2 Mediating German than I could, very clear instructions on what to do to register. Mediating refers to how language-students reshape and interpret information about their time

overseas for others. Providing language-students with the means through which they share Similarly, in rejecting the local tourist information office, Charlotte triages the information elements of their new activities overseas, mediating helps students to address their friends’ that she chooses to look at as a way to situate herself as a long-term resident rather than as a and family’s inexperience by drawing them in and situating them in relation to their new holiday-maker, even as she must then work around this loss of assistance: setting. In further forming the link through which students build and maintain their

relationships with others, mediating information also enables students to foster the vital There is a kind of tourist information, but I haven't actually used that because I emotional support that they may need to mitigate the challenges of their new context while figured I'd wander and find out. ensuring their continued presence and place in their friends’ and families’ lives. In this sense,

mediating enables students to reposition themselves in terms of their own knowing as they A similar emphasis on fitting in has been noted by Lingel (2014, p.758) who highlights that recognise and become recognised for their growing expertise within a new setting. Achieved recently arrived transnational migrants would often slyly use technology to find their way through information sharing (Pilerot, 2014b), mediating arises through everyday interactions around New York City rather than opening a paper map that would signal their outsider and relationships and is additionally afforded through information technologies that mediate status. spatial and temporal distance. Triaging also provides a way for language-students to maintain their position within a One of the primary reasons for which language-students mediate information about setting as well as to contest it. In refusing to think about the rabbit that she is offered to eat, their activities overseas is to situate and draw their friends and family into their new context. because it is something that she would never dream of eating in the United States, Laurel’s Characterising their relatives’ prior attempts to assist them as “not really relevant” (Chris) or triaging of information helps her to preserve and protect her desired immersion in and as dating from “the Soviet era” (Genevieve), students realise that the advice they receive engagement with Spanish culture, where eating rabbit is more typical: from home is rarely borne out of current or direct experience overseas. In mediating

information about their activities in a new setting, students draw upon their ongoing and I think there might have been rabbit in something I ate, I'm not really sure because embodied engagement overseas to orient their relatives towards an understanding of their we're generally, unless we're brave, people recommend that we don't ask what we're everyday realities. Laurel mediates information about her unexpected discoveries overseas as eating. a way to create a narrative about her life abroad and to connect and make her new setting

accessible to her blog readers: The recognition that repositioning is structured by the information with which students engage as well as by that with which they do not means that triaging also highlights how I use… my blog for these are the new foods I'm trying every single day, and these are language-student information questions and interactions can neither be viewed as static nor as the things that I've found, and I've shared pictures of things that I've ended up doing, pre-determined. Instead, as Lundh (2010) highlights, they must be recognised as both like there's a fast food restaurant here that they serve French fries but they also give negotiated and as co-constructed through students’ everyday activities within a new setting. you a two-pronged wooden toothpick fork because you eat with forks, that blew my In further illustrating that students assert and take control of the ways in which they engage mind.

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Providing another reminder of Lave and Wenger’s (1991) concept of legitimate peripheral Fiona’s decisions about which photos to share is partly driven by the structure of Instagram, participation where newcomers are drawn into practice, mediating helps to establish common which is uniquely oriented around photo-sharing rather than textual updates, her focus on ground (Wenger, 1998, p.186) and coordinate understanding when loved ones are unable to selection emphasises how students have certain power to control others’ access to and fully participate in students’ activities overseas. People with chronic health conditions are understanding of information, particularly when they are working across languages: similarly seen to mediate information as a way to situate and align their family and friends to their medical conditions (Lloyd et al., 2014; Veinot, 2009). I think for Instagram I have to be a lot more choosy with the photos I put on, In turn, mediating information to others helps students to build and maintain the whereas with Facebook, you can kind of just put on a full 100 photo album whereas emotional support that they may need to meet the demands of a new setting. Genevieve and with Instagram, you have to pick your favourite one or the coolest one to put up Jemma (Figure 12) foster the relationships that are crucial for their ongoing participation because I think it's more catered towards the quality of the picture rather than just overseas by constructing a shared narrative about their time abroad: your full experience.

Illustrating how students position both themselves and the friends and family with whom they share information, mediating highlights how student engagement overseas as well as the I Skype with my mom usually once a week authority that is produced through their linguistic expertise accords them the power to and just kind of update her on the things negotiate and shape the ways in which they define themselves (Wenger, 1998, p.175). In turn, moms care about like how life has been. student license to portray their activity illustrates how participation within a setting both (Genevieve) disempowers and empowers, as students move towards a more knowledgeable position about and within their new setting (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p.36). A similar emphasis on power is also seen in studies of immigrant and refugee resettlement (Chu, 1999; Lloyd & Wilkinson,

Figure 12: Jemma’s FaceTime with family 2017) where the need to engage with different information systems raises a number of questions about what information is and can be shared.

Technology plays a vital role in helping to coordinate student mediating. It is through Demonstrating that it is in mediating or modifying and interpreting information about their video chatting applications such as Skype or FaceTime, for example, that language-students stay overseas that these supportive connections are nurtured, Genevieve and Jemma’s actions mediate information about their time abroad for friends and family who may be located at a could also be interpreted as an attempt to mitigate the threat of being forgotten about as they distance as well as several time zones away. The ephemerality of instant messaging work and study multiple time zones away from their family. In effect, while mediating forms applications such as Snapchat further highlight the importance of connection rather than a common activity, these comments illustrates how it becomes more resonant when students content to student mediating activities, as Genevieve points out: are deprived of an easily accessible and familiar support system; family and friends often become more rather than less important while they are overseas. Mediating information, I sent so many people pictures of the -15F when I was in St Petersburg because I which occurs within the general flow of everyday conversation rather than forming a strictly thought it was unbelievable, I had never been in weather this cold and I don't think purposeful information activity, has also been seen to build vital emotional connections for you have either, so I tended to send many a Snapchat about that. both cancer patients (McCaughan & McKenna, 2007) and people with HIV (Veinot, 2009).

At the same time, mediating information to people who may not have direct experience within students’ new settings raises a number of questions related to power. While 114 115

More concretely, it is the mobile phone and the durability of communication that is afforded I guess maybe selfishly, if you tell someone something, they'll tell you something?! through messenger tools that facilitates student mediating activities by coordinating both the capture and the transmission of the everyday moments that language-students share with For other students, mediating facilitates the creation and maintenance of the emotional others, as Eli points out: support that lubricates their adjustment to a new setting, as Chris, who is a British student teaching in Germany, illustrates regarding the other teaching assistants with whom he I send a lot of pictures to my friends and parents every day… I have a data plan here socialises: that's really, really, really, cheap… so anywhere I am, I’m in touch with anyone that has an iPhone which is a lot of people, or I use Facebook message, so yeah, so, I'll We're all in exactly the same boat. When we arrived, we were all 20 years old, we send my parents pictures in the moment. were all in our third year of university, we were all doing the same teaching programme, so… it's easy to relate to each other because… we're all doing very Beyond situating others, technology also helps language-students to reflect upon their new similar things… obviously, I'd try to make other friends as well, but I always wanted landscapes and to authenticate their new position overseas. Evelyn starts to construct her own to make sure I had a group of English teaching assistants to help me. sense of home through creating and sharing videos to mediate information about her new apartment to others: These findings confirm the important role that peers play within international transitions (e.g. Allard, 2015; Hyldegård & Hertzum, 2016; Ishimura, 2013; Lingel, 2011, 2015) as well as in There has been quite a lot of Skyping and showing apartments and stuff like that. transitions to parenthood (e.g. Bartholomew, Schoppe-Sullivan, Glassman, Kamp Dush & Sullivan, 2012) and to college (e.g. Woodley & Meredith, 2012). Facilitating what Martin and Rizvi (2014, p.1023) refer to as telepresencing, mediating More importantly, however, these findings demonstrate that mediating information information demonstrates how the ‘there’ of back home conditions the ‘here’ of Evelyn’s helps language-students to reposition themselves in terms of their own expertise. Tiffany’s engagement within a new context. In further helping language-students to signify information understanding of her own learning and development, for example, is reinforced by her ability in relation to a setting, technology can be seen to facilitate their entwinement within an to mediate information about Chilean life to other travellers: information environment rather than inhibiting their participation or representing their passive consumption of a new physical environment, as many studies of second-language People will be ok ‘where are you from?, what are you doing?’, and I'll be like, ‘oh acquisition imply (e.g. Mikal, 2011; Mikal & Grace, 2011; Weiskopf & Kissau, 2008). Santiago’, and they'll be like, ‘oh I'm planning to go there next week, can you help Beyond friends and family back home, language-students also mediate information to me?’, and I'll be like ‘oh yeah,’ explaining the metro system, and explaining stuff like fellow students. Providing another means through which knowledge can be produced, co- that, so that's been kind of cool, because it's nice to teach people- you realise how located peers are also valued because they constitute a resource that exists outwith local much you've learned when you're like, explaining things and you can get off here and power structures (cf. Lave & Wenger, 1991, p.93) and with whom students can engage see this and get off there and see this. without worrying about the conventions and rules that are inherent within their local settings (cf. Fenton-O’Creevy, Brigham, Jones & Smith, 2014, p.58). For some students, mediating Students also become recognised as experts through interpreting and mediating information information to others is a precursor to mutually beneficial information exchange with peers environments for others and this acknowledgement of their proficiency helps them to who share similar embodied experiences abroad, as Julia points out: reposition themselves in relation to their new setting. Both Laura and Kamila highlight the sense of achievement that they feel when they can mediate information for others: 116 117

I think I did cool stuff so I want to do cool stuff again if I can, I want to have in that So, I'm like, an expert in all the buses, so we normally meet so I can show them what way, so what should I do, what should I not do, it’s to remember. bus we need to take. (Laura) For other students, archiving centres on creating information objects that will later help them Yeah, I was at the bus stop, and there was a family of tourists, and they just started to revivify their time abroad. In intentionally recording information about her activities asking me for directions to where this place was… it made me feel kind of like they throughout the year, Kamila’s multimodal posting on social media is designed to provide her thought I was a local, so I must kind of fit in to the society here, which was kind of with an entry back into her time abroad after she has left: interesting. (Kamila) I'm posting a lot more pictures from my trip, I'm updating statuses about what's going A similar emphasis can be seen in Kennan et al., (2011, p.202), who found that refugees on in my life right now, and even for myself, I'm kind of too lazy to run a blog, I don't become a “reference point” for newcomers as well as in Willson (2016, p.263) who argues have the willpower to write every single day, but I feel that someday I can go back that this change of status symbolises the end of an early career researcher’s transition. In this and look at old pictures, at the things that I've written, even the short little bits and sense, mediating also marks student growing awareness of and alignment with collective just have little souvenirs of my life here. ways of knowing as they locate themselves within their new setting and in relation to others. Focusing on what language-students perceive to form the most meaningful aspects of their 5.4.3 Archiving stay overseas, archiving, which corresponds to the keep segment of Whittaker’s (2011) Archiving refers to the construction and storing of information in written, photographic or information curation lifecycle, helps students to mark a significant period in their lives. material form for the purposes of posterity. Differentiated from noting by the emphasis upon Archiving also facilitates the construction of a stabilising sense of continuity about and durable memories rather than upon short-term recall, archiving involves the future-oriented within students’ lives by helping them to build a personal narrative of this time abroad; as creation and preserving of information objects that record and will later mediate language- Bowker (2005, p.9) points out, documentation enables “both the creation of a continuous, students’ fears of forgetting about their activities during residence abroad. Channelling and useful past and the transmission sub rosa of information, stories, and practices from our wild, encapsulating student understandings within a new setting, archiving is afforded through a discontinuous, ever-changing past.” Refugees are also seen to engage in archival practices to variety of written and photographic genres as well as through the materiality of students’ memorialise their journeys overseas (Lloyd et al., 2017). digital and physical souvenirs. Archiving also helps students to reposition themselves as Simultaneously, archiving helps language-students to mediate their return home by experienced as well as to portray this knowledgeability over time by creating a representation forming a representation of their expertise; as both McCullough (2009) and Parkin (1999) of their time overseas. point out, the symbolism and stability of objects means that they play an important Worried that future geographic distance as well as the passage of time may render therapeutic role within transitional processes. Archiving helps language-students to reposition their activities inconceivable, language-students archive or create and capture information themselves as experienced by furnishing tangible evidence of their stay and corroborating the about their time abroad to pre-empt a loss of connection to their current information very existence of their time overseas. The focus upon artefacts that are produced through landscapes. For some students, their focus is on practical details, as they document specific student embodied participation abroad means that archiving also repositions students in terms information that they can use to guide their future visits, as Ben illustrates: of their situated understandings and competence. As Pahl and Rowsell (2012) indicate,

artefacts play an important role in defining a person’s identity as well as their aspirations, I realised I'm not remembering exactly what I did last week, I should note that down, values and beliefs. In this sense, archiving helps students to prepare for their return home by it is kind of like to remember when to go, what did I do, also if I come back I want to, 118 119

reinforcing their own credibility as a language-student, as both Tiffany and Genevieve I feel like once I get back it will be so surreal and here I feel like it's going to be a highlight: dream so, it'll be really nice to have something tangible to hold and think back to the things that happened.

The durability and visibility that is afforded by the tools that language-students use to I'll keep plane tickets, park entrance tickets, document information about their time abroad means that technologies play an equally stuff like that definitely, and most of that important role within the production of memory. The written format of Ben’s diary, for stuff's for scrapbooking so when I'm 80 I can example, fixes and stabilises his understandings of this time abroad. Similarly, Facebook’s look back and be like, ‘hey kids, I was cool at “On This Day” memory feature, which features algorithmically-driven recollections of one point in life!’ (Tiffany) specific days or events, helps students to bring the past into the present, which is similar to what Brubaker, Hayes and Dourish (2013) note in their research into memorial sites on Facebook. Social media also serves as a living archive of the social connections that students have made during their time overseas (Richardson & Hessey, 2009). Notwithstanding, memory must always be understood as constructed rather than as Figure 13: Genevieve’s souvenirs retrieved (van Dijck, 2007). Although the objects that language-students use to document their time away represent their activities overseas, these artefacts do not always provide The focus on everyday objects that function as a souvenir once their “reminding function has stable anchors of recollection, as the well-travelled Niko points out: been fulfilled” (McKenzie & Davies, 2012, p.444), draws further attention to students’ desires to substantiate their activities overseas; the irreproducibility and the contingency of I think that like, that kind of stuff is fun if it's in a scrapbook or a journal or something mundane ephemera such as paper newspapers or tickets emphasises their expertise within a but if it's not then it ends up just being a bunch of random papers, so I've tried doing new setting. Archiving also confirms student command within and over a new situation by that in the past, but I never ended up taking the initiative to put them all in a providing “proof of discovery” (Shankar, 2007, p.1457) and transforming the unfamiliarity of scrapbook and I just kind of thought, ‘why do I have all these papers lying around my a new setting into the intimate. Fiona demonstrates her authority over a physical environment house?’ by reducing her information landscape into something that she can both hold and remove: Niko’s reluctance to engage in archiving, which illustrates how the passing of time impacts I just go to the beach and put a bit of sand in a Ziploc bag and label it and when I’m her engagement in information activities, also demonstrate how knowing is enacted through home, I put the sand in a little Mason jar. student participation in their new setting rather than being static or fixed in time. The chapter will now turn to explore the overarching theme of mitigating risk that is The physical solidity as well as the personal involvement that is inherent within the selection produced through this analysis. and use of material objects provides an important cue for reminiscing and facilitates students’ abilities to inform and direct future memory-making (Jacucci & Wagner, 2007). As Kamila 5.5 Mitigating risk points out: Connecting students to the shape of local practices and driving the construction of their information landscapes, language-student information activities are drawn together through

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the overarching theme of mitigating risk, as illustrated by Figure 5. Mitigating risk, which transience, as well as by their aspirations for their time overseas, coalesces to create a series refers to student attempts to negotiate the pressures that are produced through their of risks that threaten student engagement within a new information environment, including participation abroad is constituted through: the calibrating of student activities in comparison risks of physical safety, financial hardship and academic failure. Students attempt to mitigate to local practices; and the repositioning of students within their information landscapes. these risks, which both organise and shape their time abroad, through their engagement in a Recognising that the uncertainty that is produced through student engagement within a new variety of information activities. One of the biggest risks that language-students face within a information environment and intensified by the brevity of their stay overseas leads to the new setting relates to the various formal requirements to which they need to adhere. establishment of academic, financial and physical pressures, mitigating risk forms the catalyst Potentially impacting students’ academic performances as well as their legal right to be for student engagement in information activities. Shaped by student unfamiliarity with the abroad, the absence of information about legal regulations and academic guidelines muddies information sources of their setting, mitigating risk highlights how student engagement students’ understandings about their responsibilities within a new situation while also raising within a new information environment is structured through their varying goals and the stakes of non-compliance. For Alex W., who is an American student studying in Hong motivations for this time overseas. In further highlighting the broad range of information Kong, a lack of information about the registration system of his new university increases the sources and activities in which students engage whilst they are overseas, mitigating risk also risk that he will be unable to enrol within the classes that he needs to graduate and, demonstrates the complexity of building new information landscapes. consequently, to fulfil his academic goals for his time abroad:

There was nobody there to teach us how to use this add-drop system. Apparently, there's a waitlist but I didn't, nobody told me how to put myself on the waitlist, I actually did not even know that it existed, so yeah, the first one and a half weeks I was just going to all of these different buildings...just going all over campus trying to find information that I need.

In contrast, it is the partial nature of the legal information available to Kamila and Luan that impacts their ability to comply with official regulations and increases the risk of being unable to maintain their legal status overseas:

I've been really struggling to find the proper documents to give them and when I went to the office to find out some information, they say ‘oh this isn't the right office, we don't give information here, you have to go somewhere else.’ (Kamila)

It was a bit iffy online as to… what I needed to bring. It was translated literally from Figure 14: Calibrating, repositioning and mitigating risk French, so it wasn't very good English, and it was a bit confusing because I was doing When language-students enter a new setting, their inexperience means that they are forced to an internship. ‘Was I a student or was I working?’ So, I never knew what documents I cope with the uncertainty that is produced through their engagement within a new actually needed. (Luan) information environment. This uncertainty, which is intensified by students’ relative

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As students attempt to establish what information they need as well as how to access and similar preoccupation with safety during their time overseas while refugees’ (Lloyd et al., understand it, these risks are further complicated by the complex bureaucracy that is involved 2017) and ESOL learners’ (Elmore, 2018, p.158) need to feel secure within their new in a move to a new country (Khoir, 2016, p.107; Lloyd et al., 2013, p.131), as well as the environment further echoes students’ concerns about the risks of participating in residence need to reconcile partial and conflicting information (Peirce, 2000, p.92). abroad. Threats to their own safety and wellbeing form another common risk that language- Calibrating, or the adjustment of information activity through comparison to local students face within a new setting, as Anderson (2003) and Pellegrino-Aveni (2005) note in practices, forms one of the primary mechanisms through which language-students mitigate their studies of residence abroad. These risks, which are produced through students’ risk abroad. As students start to engage within their new setting, their interactions within a unfamiliarity within their physical environments, are exacerbated by their problems accessing new information environment highlight how unfamiliarity with new information resources the embodied and contingent information that structures local ways of knowing. Inexperience intensifies threats to their academic and social goals for their time overseas. In establishing about the security of unknown accommodation and public transportation, for example, knowledgeable others as a trusted template against which they can calibrate their information increases the sense of physical risk that many female language-students feel within a new activities, language-students mitigate the risks of their new settings by orienting themselves setting, as Charlotte illustrates: towards the people whom they perceive to form the most reputable guide to local ways of knowing. In other words, students mediate the insecurity of a new context through engaging Going back at night on the tube sometimes just because you’re, it's dark and you're on with and becoming connected to local information environments. Calibrating helps Jemma to your own and you don't know about that. mitigate the risk of failing to improve her language proficiency by enabling her to access the information that will orient her to local ways of speaking: The unusualness of a new setting can also jeopardise student daily welfare abroad. Misunderstanding about exchange rates as well as cultural traditions such as tipping, which [The native-speaker video is] targeting people in France that want to sound more Kendrot (2011) found to be equally problematic in her study of residence abroad, creates a French, so this stuff just makes you fit in more and to actually have more connection number of financial risks, as Kamila points out: with French people rather than, you may have perfect vocabulary, grammar, but if you're speaking like that, they're going to know, they're not going to have a proper France is very expensive, so it's [the grocery store] the cheapest in France I would connection with you for all that you're fully prompt, grammar and everything. say. I think it's really tough to stay in budget because the price differences are quite high, I mean things like bread and cheese and wine, of course, are cheaper than in Calibrating also provides language-students with access to the nuanced local knowledge that Canada, but the rest, it's much more expensive, I find. will mediate many of the physical threats that they face abroad, which mirrors the warnings that a local gave Nielsen (2014) about sectarian pubs in Ireland. Calibrating enables Charlotte The various shapes and meanings that these pressures take confirm that threats to student to mitigate risk by helping her to build a physical awareness of her new setting: participation overseas go beyond physical danger. They also demonstrate that risk is produced through students’ time-constrained unfamiliarity within a new information When I was looking for an apartment I went to one area and the mother of the family environment rather than forming a natural outcome of an increasingly risk-averse society. In was like, ‘Don't go there, that's kind of infested with drugs’ and things like that. helping students to mediate uncertainty, information activities play a vital role in helping language-students to mediate these threats to their engagement overseas. Noting that Similarly, in facilitating student engagement with the taken-for-granted knowledge that “information is power,” Reed (2009, p.63) found that inexperienced travellers shared a structures local understanding, calibrating helps to mitigate financial risk by providing 124 125

language-students with advice about how to keep their costs down while travelling abroad, as Kissau, 2008), repositioning helps language-students to mitigate risk by maintaining their Niko demonstrates: access to surrounding information environments. Creating information, which repositions students as competent, also forms a way of mitigating the risks that are produced through I had a friend that studied abroad in Japan a couple of years ago and he said that when student engagement overseas. In taking control and constructing a list of the information that he was in Japan he would always go to the grocery store at night to get the special she needs to open a bank account, Fiona mitigates the risk of failing to comply with the deals on the bentos [single portion meal] and stuff, the prepared foods, so I was like official rules and procedures of her new setting: ‘oh maybe my grocery store has that’ and I noticed that they do at night-time, they have special prices. At first, they would tell me you don't have one document but then I would go back and they said, ‘oh you don't have that document,’ but they didn't tell me that the first In effect, while risk may magnify the authority of knowledgeable others, calibrating helps time when I went, so… after a couple of times, I sat down and said, ‘why don't you students to mediate the hazards and opportunities of international transition by providing list out every single document that I need so I don't have to come back a third or a access to the nuanced ways of knowing that structure a new setting. fourth time.’ Repositioning, which refers to how language-students situate themselves within and in relation to local practices, forms the other means through which students mitigate the risks Demonstrating her understanding of how knowledge is shaped within the community, that are produced in the construction of their information landscapes. While calibrating Fiona’s comments also illustrate that mitigating risk arises through students’ reflexive and facilitates an understanding of local practices, students’ outsider statuses can also isolate and reflective considerations of their overseas activities. impact their participation within a new information environment. Repositioning mitigates the 5.6 Chapter conclusion risk of remaining detached from a new setting by helping students to resituate themselves Presenting the findings from the study, the chapter has explored how language-student time within local information environments. In enabling James and Alex S. to purposefully engage overseas is characterised by the construction of their new information landscapes. The with the information landscapes of local and native speakers rather than those of their chapter identified seven different information activities that configure two major categories, English-speaking compatriots, repositioning helps students to mitigate the risk of failing to Calibrating and Repositioning, before presenting how these activities contribute to the improve their language proficiency: overarching theme of the study, which is the grounded theory of Mitigating Risk. Examined

in the chapter through students’ accounts of their activities in a new context, the theory of I avoid as much as possible to just be talking in English to a lot of the people because mitigating risk will be explored through the study’s theoretical framework in the following you then just become this English person and you lose your, as a personality you’re chapter. just there to help their English. (James)

I think maybe I have avoided making other friends from England... I don't want to hang around English people, I have an aversion to it, it's like xenophobia, but with people from your own country, I don't know if there is a word for that! (Alex S.)

Highlighting the tensions between the use of peers for emotional support and the consequent effect on language-learning (Deakin, 2012; Mikal, 2011; Mikal & Grace, 2011; Weiskopf & 126 127

Chapter 6: A grounded theory of mitigating risk

6.1 Chapter overview The theory of mitigating risk emerges in response to the pressures that structure language- student time overseas. In the chapter, the theory of mitigating risk is explored in relation to the study’s theoretical framework as well as to literature from within and outside library and information science. The chapter starts by applying theories of risk (Douglas, 1992) and the theoretical constructs of uncertainty (Kuhlthau, 1993) and time (Schatzki, 2013) to unpack the key categories that form the grounded theory of mitigating risk and examine how the demands of residence abroad are mitigated through the construction of students’ new information landscapes. The chapter then employs the lens of practice theory (see 3.5) to examine how mitigating risk catalyses information literacy practices. Focusing on how the information literacy practices of language-students are enacted during residence abroad, the chapter also uses the theoretical constructs of affordance (Gibson, 1977) and cognitive authority (Wilson, 1983) to explain how student engagement with the people and the Figure 15: The grounded theory of mitigating risk opportunities of their new setting shapes their understanding overseas. The chapter finishes by using transitions theory (see 3.6) to explore the complex processes of transition in which language-students are engaged. The emerging shape of student transition is presented in 6.2 Mitigating risk: A grounded theory Figure 6, which will be used throughout the chapter to provide a visual representation of While residence abroad affords language-students a unique opportunity to improve their information literacy practice within residence abroad. language skills, the uncertainty that is produced through their engagement within a new setting coalesces with the short time frame in which they must improve their language proficiency to form a series of risks that impact students’ academic objectives for travelling abroad as well as their physical and economic well-being within a new setting. Mitigating risk demonstrates how students negotiate these pressures by connecting to the information sources and activities that facilitate their access to and engagement within their new community. Focused on the calibrating of their activities in comparison to local practices as well as their attempts to reposition themselves within local information environments, mitigating risk is marked by the construction of student information landscapes, as Figure 7 illustrates.

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meaning rather than engaging in calculated predictions and recognises that both risk and students’ responses to risk are localised, contextualised and produced through a cultural and historical lens. While risk theory has emphasised risk-taking rather than its mitigation, information has tended to be positioned as both causing risk (when information is lacking) as well as the means through which people can, as responsible citizens, “ward off” potential dangers and hazards (Tulloch & Lupton, 2003, p.77). As both Tulloch and Lupton (2003) and Beck (1992) point out, engagement with specialist sources of information, including magazines, the internet and colleagues who work in scientific communities help people to make the “invisible visible” (Tulloch & Lupton, 2003, p.5) and build judgment by throwing light onto Figure 16: Mitigating risk during residence abroad expert claims. Echoing the ways in which language-students calibrate their activities against those of knowledgeable others, the emphasis within risk theory on hidden structures further

6.2.1 Risk reflects the important role that student engagement with tacit and contingent ways of Risk forms the core guiding concept behind student engagement in information activities. A knowing plays in helping them to mediate risk within their new setting. The understanding complex phenomenon, risk has, arguably, most commonly been understood in terms of the that knowledge gaps restrict a person’s ability to recognise the most effective actions and risk society (Beck, 1992) or the highly-critiqued health and safety-driven audit culture of choices that they can take within a new setting means that information is also positioned as blame and responsibility that is perceived to structure everyday life in the West (Tulloch & helping people to expand alternative courses of action (cf. Purcell, Clarke and Renzulli, 2000, Lupton, 2003). Beck’s (1992) characterisation of a society that is fettered by unmanageable p.72). In this sense, sifting and observing, which provide the means to envisage a new setting catastrophe, which takes what Zinn (2009, p.7) labels as a critical realist perspective, has as well as new ways of being, mediate risks by helping students to construct new ways of positioned risk as both objective and an inevitable hazard within an increasingly dealing with issues. Nevertheless, the positioning of risk as needing to be avoided and as individualised and globalised late modernity. In further reducing risk to a calculated ‘resolved’ through the addition of information illustrates how risk theory presents a limited probability (Boholm, 2003, p.160) that is mediated through moral judgment about a person’s perspective of the role that information plays at this time. sense of personal responsibility (Tulloch, 2009), structural and political framing means that A comparable emphasis is noted within library and information science, which has risk has typically been seen as both measurable and something to be avoided. However, while not typically engaged with the concept of risk in any great detail. Burkell (2004) and Nara acknowledging the importance of health and safety regulations within society as well as the (2007), for example, position risk as both objective and problematic when they emphasise widespread influence of Beck’s (1992) ideas, these theories of risk can also be critiqued for how people need ‘more’ information to perceive and counteract the dangers of everyday life. taking an institutionally-centred and objective approach to risk (Zinn, 2010, p.107) that Similarly, Choo (2017) views risk from an organisational perspective as well as untouched by ignores both cultural differences and the ways in which risk is constructed and experienced in the dynamics of social life when he draws upon the Risk Information Seeking and Processing everyday life (Tulloch & Lupton, 2003, p.6). Accordingly, the study builds upon the work of Model (Griffin, Dunwoody & Neuwirth, 1999) to suggest that hazards and threats are Douglas (1992; Douglas & Wildavsky, 1982) and Lash (1993) to position risk as a mediated through affective and situational precursors such as social norms. In contrast, sociocultural construction that is produced through the meaning and significance that Houston and Westbrook (2013) hint at the inherent complexity of risk by illustrating how residence abroad holds in students’ lives rather than seeing them as pawns within narratives people mitigate intimate partner violence through controlled non-use of information. of risk management. This sociocultural approach emphasises how language-students build Correspondingly, while they do not phrase their findings in terms of risk, Allen and Wilson 130 131

(2003, p.38) demonstrate how people engage in both the hoarding and the over-sharing of become more adept at anticipating and managing risk in their lives. Growing understanding, information or what they term as “pathological information behaviour” to guard against for example, both initiates and facilitates student efforts to reposition themselves within their losing their job. These studies highlight how individual perceptions of the (objective) risks of new information landscapes and mitigate the risks of remaining isolated from the everyday life cannot be linked, simplistically, to a lack of information, while further opportunities of their new setting. Similarly, the realisation that edgework provides the illustrating how the connections between risk and information are underexplored within opportunity to create and extend alternative notions of authenticity, self-hood and agency library and information science. illustrates how language-student mediate risk through the development of subjectivity. In Accordingly, the sociocultural focus of the study emphasises that the risks with which demonstrating that triaging, mediating and archiving contribute to students’ sense of control language-students engage during residence abroad are far more complex than has previously over their new information landscapes as well as the boundaries of their own body (Lupton & been assumed. In illustrating how risk is mediated through the development of skilled Tulloch, 2002, p.122), risk can be seen to play an important role in helping students to performance and knowing within a setting, the related construct of edgework, which refers to establish their language-learning identity within a new setting. Travellers similarly use stories voluntary risk-taking (Lyng, 1990; 2009), provides a way to explore how language-student of risk as a way of asserting their identity within a foreign setting (Elsrud, 2001; Reed, 2009). activity cannot uniquely be conceived as reactive or as a perpetual struggle that is marked by Accordingly, while transition has been highlighted as particularly important for fear. Edgework is a theoretical construct that emerged from studies of how risk is understood people whose minority economic and social status is considered to make them particularly in the practice of extreme sport, dangerous occupations and other frequently stigmatised vulnerable (e.g. Ecclestone, 2009), edgework stresses that risk is mediated through student activities to explore purposeful engagement in unpredictable and risky activities. Drawing agency rather than curtailing it (Thesen, 2014, p.16). In turn, while growing political interest upon the idea that risk-taking straddles edges or boundaries between “life and death, frequently positions transition as inherently risky or as needing to be managed (Ecclestone, consciousness and unconsciousness, and sanity and insanity” (Lyng, 1990, p.855), edgework 2009), edgework focuses attention on student growth rather than subscribing to the ongoing highlights how an engagement with risk can also lead to pleasure and self-fulfilment as pathologisation and flattening of transitional processes (Fenwick, 2013, p.363). people push their bodies towards the limits of uncertainty. Seen in this light, student 6.2.2 Uncertainty engagement with risk is interpreted as rewarding as well as problematic; while student Uncertainty, along with time (see 6.2.3), forms one of the two major influences that combine participation in residence abroad is not as physical as sky-diving, the thrill that they to produce the risks that structure student time overseas. As students participate in the demonstrate when they reposition themselves in terms of their expertise illustrates how risk activities of their new settings, the unfamiliarity of a new information environment coupled can be affirming as well as distancing. with the loss of familiar support structures means that their engagement overseas produces Most importantly, however, edgework demonstrates how risk can be seen as an considerable uncertainty. Leaving students unsure about social arrangements, such as when opportunity for language-student growth rather than as purely something to be avoided. In supermarkets are open, uncertainty also impacts students’ understandings about how to act rehearsing their jump as well as checking their equipment and the sequence of their within a new context, for example, while attending a church service. Further intensified by formations, skydivers are seen to “spend more time preparing for a jump than they do making students’ need to fulfil new responsibilities while operating among the unfamiliar sights, it” (Lyng, 1990, p.874). The recognition that edgework is linked to a person’s effort or smells and tastes of a new setting, uncertainty also creates anxiety (Kuhlthau, 1993) as well preparation for activity rather than being connected to luck or to “mental toughness” (Lyng, as irritation and frustration (Nahl, 2004), as evidenced by student attempts to mediate the 1990, p.859) illustrates how language-students mediate risk through planning as well as stress of their time overseas through triaging and mediating. Most famously explored within through the development of expertise and situated ways of knowing. The recognition that library and information science through Kuhlthau’s Principle of Uncertainty (1993) as well as driving appears to form less of a risk as a driver becomes more proficient (Purcell et al., in Wilson’s uncertainty project (1999; also see Wilson, Ford, Ellis, Foster, Spink, 2002), 2000, p.69) further demonstrates how increasing knowledgeability helps language-students to uncertainty is positioned as “endemic” to transitional processes (Mikal et al., 2013, p.A51) 132 133

where it has been recognised as interfering with a person’s ability to make judgements (Chick to illustrate how uncertainty is produced through language-students’ ongoing interactions & Meleis, 1986, p.252) and to assign values, predict outcomes or to make sense out of with co-located peers and family as well as with the more obviously expert local and native experience (Johnson, Morton & Knox, 1992, p.300). speakers. The recognition that students already have some competence in their target The recognition that student engagement within a new setting is structured through language further highlights how uncertainty is created through their engagement within a new uncertainty, which has been characterised as emerging from a lack of understanding, a gap in setting rather than emerging from an internal deficit or a personality trait (e.g. Hyldegård, meaning or a limited construct (Kuhlthau, 1993, p.347), illustrates the important role that 2009). information plays in helping to mediate ambiguity. In positioning doubt as reduced by A constructionist lens also highlights how uncertainty is employed in various ways information (Kuhlthau, 1993; Wilson, 1999), uncertainty both initiates and guides language- during residence abroad. Although the alleviation of uncertainty has always been assumed to student engagement with information. Student uncertainty about what to expect before they form the goal of an active information user (Sairanen & Savolainen, 2010), language-students leave for their time overseas, for example, prompts them to start sifting through information attempt to sustain and expand uncertainty during transition. In triaging information, for resources to build a picture of their new setting. Similarly, checking illustrates how example, students purposefully maintain uncertainty to protect themselves from a sense of uncertainty encourages language-students to engage with knowledgeable others to mediate information overload and the pressure of decision-making. Similarly, students knowingly the unfamiliarity of their new setting. Mirroring Schumacher and Meleis (1994, p.122) as increase their uncertainty when they avoid engaging with English-language or tourist well as Johnson et al.’s (1992, p.300) recognition that unfamiliarity emerges from and is information to reposition themselves within their information landscapes. Helping students to resolved through encounters with new knowledge and information during transition, respond to the emergent shape of information (cf. Genuis, 2012) as well as to the dynamics of uncertainty is thereby recognised as playing an important role in both shaping and their interactions overseas, the maintenance and extension of uncertainty has also been subsequently driving student attempts to mitigate the risks that structure their engagement recognised as a useful strategy when people are faced with illness (Barbour et al., 2005; overseas. Brashers, Neidig, Haas, Dobbs, Cardillo & Russell, 2000; Sairanen & Savolainen, 2010). A However, while recognising the importance of Kuhlthau’s (1993) and Wilson’s similar emphasis on increasing uncertainty is seen in Lingel’s work (2015, p.1245), where (1999) contributions to the development of user-centred information perspectives, the transnational migrants avoid using technology that would help them to find their way around constructivist and cognitivist approaches that have typically been used to explore uncertainty to ensure that they “learn” their new city. The recognition that “the desire to reduce also limit broader understanding about its role within library and information science. Most uncertainty is assumed to be only one of several possible responses to events and importantly, a constructionist lens illustrates that responses to uncertainty are more wide- circumstances marked by unpredictability, ambiguity, or insufficient information” (Brashers ranging than may otherwise have been assumed. Engagement in triaging, noting and et al., 2000, p.64) means that findings from the study reinforce the understanding that archiving, for example, demonstrate that student uncertainty is mediated through a wide uncertainty, like risk, is not uniquely undesirable (Cole, 1993). range of organisational and creative information activities rather than uniquely through 6.2.3 Time and temporality information seeking and searching, as Kuhlthau (1993) asserts. Similarly, the intertwined and Time, coupled with uncertainty, forms the second of the two major influences that combine cyclical shape of calibrating and repositioning illustrates how uncertainty facilitates a to produce the risks that structure language-student activities overseas. Time plays a complex “shaping, expanding, refining and reforming” (Anderson, 2006) of activity rather than role within residence abroad. Linked to the understanding that the more time language- triggering the start of a linear and straightforward mediation process. Uncertainty is further students spend overseas, the more they will learn (cf. Compton-Lilly, 2016, p.87), time, understood to be negotiated through social exchange; the important role that repositioning which structures the academic calendar to which students are subject, delineates the length of plays within student engagement overseas develops Kuhlthau’s (1993) recognition of the students’ stays overseas. Producing a fixed deadline by which students must have improved important role that experienced teachers and librarians play in the information search process their language skills, time is consequently positioned as creating what Savolainen (2006, 134 135

p.116) refers to as a “temporal constraint”, as evidenced by students’ dilemma about whether Temporality also shapes the ways in which students engage within a new information or not to engage with English speakers as they try to improve their language. Time environment. The desire to make the most of their short time overseas means that students consequently combines with the uncertainty that is produced through engagement within a engage in future-oriented preparatory information activities such as sifting to facilitate a new setting to intensify what students perceive to form a one-off opportunity to improve their smooth transition upon arrival. Similarly, archiving helps students to make future time (cf. language skills before final exams and create the risks that structure their time overseas. The Gourlay & Oliver, 2018, p.113) by capturing and recording their activities overseas. At the measurable time of clocks and calendars (McKenzie & Davies, 2002, p.2) thereby generates a same time, temporality can also magnify the risks that language-students face within a new sense of urgency and “harriedness” (Southerton, 2003) that is further impacted by the loss of setting. The important role that triaging plays during residence abroad highlights how risk a neat and timetable-delineated understanding of when students are and are not language- that is produced through the past-present-future dimensions of student activity intensifies students, as their need to engage in triaging demonstrates. Pressures of chronological time their responsibilities near the beginning of their stay overseas. Triaging further demonstrates have been seen to similarly qualify individuals’ decision-making and other information how students need to create what McKenzie and Davies (2002, p.9) refer to as a “window of behaviour (e.g. Allen, 2011; Dahm, 2012; Higgins, 1999; McKenzie & Davies, 2002, 2010) opportunity” in which they have the capacity to cope with these demands and sequence what although this focus has not yet translated into an exploration of the effect of time on the has variously been termed as time famine, poverty or fatigue (Bossaller, Burns & VanScoy, production of risk. 2017, p.12). Like the “time sinks” that limit graduate student engagement with information Time, however, does not just indicate chronological time. Instead, time is also resources (Sadler & Given, 2007, p.127) or the speed with which refugees are expected to understood in terms of temporality, which refers to the “past-present-future dimensionality of resettle (Lloyd et al., 2013, p.136), these pressures demonstrate that “when an individual activity” (Schatzki, 2012, p.18). Temporality draws upon Heidegger’s (1928, trans. 1962, Int. seeks information is as important as what he or she seeks” (McKenzie & Davies, 2002, p.4). II: 18) assertion that time forms the “horizon of the understanding of being” or the means While a focus on temporality centres students’ goals for their time overseas, the through which human existence is united and emerges from the premise that a person’s interwovenness of activity illustrates that past-present-future dimensions evolve socially activity is mediated through the past-present-future aspects of time rather than through through student participation overseas rather than being linked to instantaneous or isolated successive and objective “clock time” (Blattner, 2005, p.311). Positioning people as acting choices, as Hultgren (2009, p.86) points out in her study of school leavers. The recognition through their possibilities of being (Heidegger, 1928, trans. 1962, II.4: 336) or their that language-student current and future engagement within a community can be disrupted projection of what they understand themselves to be, which constitutes the future, Heidegger through the ways in which they are received overseas also demonstrates how temporality is highlights how human existence is also structured through what is important to a person entwined with complex questions of power, as student engagement in repositioning (Heidegger, 1928, trans. 1962, II.4: 340), which constitutes the past, as well as the equipment demonstrates. At the same time, student engagement in activities that help them resist being or the material objects that accompany these goals and concerns (Heidegger, 1928, trans. situated in a specific way, such as triaging, illustrate how they can also refuse to accept these 1962, I.3: 69), which constitute the present. In other words, risk is a simultaneous expression temporal exclusions (Schatzki, 2013, p.96). Students’ growing knowledgeability and of past and present activities as well as future goals; students act towards an end or for the expertise within their new setting illustrates their increasing power over and claims on their sake of something as well as because of something that matters to them (Schatzki, 2012, peers’ as well as their friends’ and family’s temporal activities, as their engagement in p.19). The fear of academic failure, for example, is constructed through student prior mediating illustrates (cf. Schatzki, 2013, p.94). Mitigating risk thereby brings the past and engagement with language-learning and their home university’s expectations for time abroad future together into “a decision that needs to be taken in the present” (Thesen, 2013, p.16) to as well as through their current encounters overseas and their motivations for future linguistic illustrate how time makes (Shove, 2009, p.17) or plays a constitutive role within language- fluency and expertise. student activity rather than forming an abstract container in which activities occur (Savolainen, 2006, p.113). 136 137

The complexity of this period also means that language-students use a variety of developmental and chronological stages (e.g. Beheshti, Cole, Abuhimed & Lamoureux, 2015; material objects to coordinate and direct their temporal engagement; as Shove, Trentmann Kuhlthau, 2004) rather than as shaping student information activities. There has additionally and Wilk (2009, p.5) point out, things give time “meaning, order and personal as well as been little exploration of the future within information practices research beyond a collective qualities and characteristics.” The creation of reminders and prompts that are both recognition that what Greyson, Cunningham and Morgan (2011) refer to as “time sensitivity” action and forward-looking (McKenzie & Davies, 2016, p.152) and which further allow can cause tensions as people juggle competing information activities. students to see time as something to be managed (McKenzie & Davies, 2010) help students 6.3 Information literacy practices to anticipate activity while also coordinating their engagement throughout their time In facilitating the construction of language-students’ new information landscapes, mitigating overseas. In turn, and just as the reports and forms that constitute boundary objects (Star & risk consequently catalyses the enactment of information literacy practices. Information Griesmer, 1989) within vault inspection (Veinot, 2007) and midwifery (Davies & McKenzie, literacy practices, which are explored in this section through the lens of practice theory as 2004) coordinate the work of diverse people, the creation of information artefacts such as well as through the theoretical constructs of cognitive authority and affordance, help scrapbooks help language-students to materially synchronise and ensure the coherence (c.f. language-students to mediate the risks that are produced through their engagement within a Anderson, 2007) of their activities beyond the temporal boundaries of residence abroad. new setting. In coordinating the broader integrative practice of language-learning, Material objects additionally enable language-students to coordinate their activity across time information literacy practices scaffold students’ reflexive understandings of how knowledge zones; students’ needs to maintain networks of emotional support means that they use a is situated within a new information environment as well as the activities that will facilitate variety of synchronous and asynchronous tools (such as FaceTime) to mediate and organise their ongoing interactions within their new community. In further being shaped by the local their interactions with friends and family who are often located several hours away. Helping conditions that constrain and enable how information is accessed and used within a setting, students to uphold the rhythm (Jarrahi & Thomson, 2017, p.1082) of their information information literacy practices are also characterised by language-student reflective activities as well as “to stretch out, outline a trace, and give shape to the temporal dimension engagement within the socioculturally-mediated and intersubjective dimensions of their new of practice” (Pilerot, 2014a, p.2012), material objects, which also unfold over time setting. Enabling the development of nuanced and flexible ways of knowing that support the (Ewenstein & Whyte, 2009, p.12), both bind and structure students’ temporal engagement reconstruction of understanding within a new setting, the unfolding shape of information within a new setting. literacy practice is summarised in Figure 8. The study’s emphasis on transition (see 6.4) provides a further illustration of the importance of time and temporality within the theory of mitigating risk. The recognition that language-student activity alters as they act “toward, with, and amid” entities encountered in the world (Schatzki, 2013, p.28) illustrates how student subjectivity is shaped through and in relation to their temporally-mediated goals and motivations. However, although information literacy has been viewed as a transformation from novice to expert (Lloyd, 2005, p.85) as well as, more frequently, in terms of transfer and the sequencing of learning, there have been few studies that have explored questions of time and temporality in detail within information practices research. While research, for example, has noted that a person’s information activities change as they become more experienced, time is positioned as chronological rather than as linked to broader questions of human existence (e.g. Greyson, 2016; Kuhlthau, 1988, 1999; Solomon, 1997; St Jean, 2012). Alternatively, time is positioned as forming 138 139

these information activities are linked by mutual or shared understanding about how to carry out, identify or respond to actions (Schatzki, 1996, p.91) and further moves the focus of information literacy beyond the individual. In observing how locals and native speakers engage within a setting, for example, student information activities are shaped by shared or taken-for-granted understandings that are made visible through the bodies of others, such as ways of practising religion. Students’ doings and sayings are also fashioned in response to understanding about what constitutes acceptable local practice. In checking the credibility of the information sources that they propose to use against the opinions of locals and experienced others, students mitigate risk through identifying local understandings of competence in both their own and others’ actions. Similarly, in helping students to filter out information that they perceive as either irrelevant or as unsuitable, triaging is regulated by student understandings about what is valued within their new setting. This emphasis on organisational structures is particularly important for information literacy research, where,

despite recent attempts to acknowledge the impact of collaborative spaces on information Figure 17: Language-student information literacy practice during residence abroad literacy practices (e.g. ACRL, 2015), activity continues to be positioned as a solitary In exploring how individuals rebuild understanding within a new setting, mitigating academic practice (Harris, 2008; Hicks, 2018). risk illustrates that language-student information literacy practices are constituted by a series In constituting the actions of others, bodies play an important role within information of situated information activities rather than through homogenous information skills (e.g. literacy practices (cf. Schatzki, 1997, p.44). The need to work across languages, for example, AACU, 2013; ACRL, 2000; ANZIL, 2004) or derivative knowledge practices, competencies demonstrates how language-student mitigate risk through observing the sayings and doings and dispositions (e.g. ACRL, 2015; SCONUL, 2011). The seven information activities that are reflected in the bodies and actions of experienced locals. Students’ own bodies also identified in the study, which focus attention on what is happening rather than on what is influence the shape of their information activities overseas by referencing the doings of accomplished by actions (Schatzki, 2013, p.xv), connect students with both the sites of practice. Centred, as could be expected in a study of language-students, upon listening to knowledge and the related sources of information that are valued within their new setting. At pronunciation, accent and intonation, as well as recognising the shape and the effect of their the same time, the recognition that these activities incorporate the mundane (Pilerot, 2014b, own body within a new space, self-observing highlights how students mitigate risk through p.43) as well as being interwoven into the everyday (Haider, 2011; Lindh, 2015; Veinot, their increasingly dexterous bodily performances. Their bodies subsequently become a site of 2007) demonstrates that they are produced through student engagement with intersubjectively information or an affordance for themselves and for others (cf. Lloyd, 2014b, p.95; Schatzki, agreed-upon understandings of a setting. Highlighting how information activities are 1997, p.44) as they mediate information that is recognised by people in similar constrained and enabled by the context in which they are produced, these seven activities circumstances, including fellow students and tourists. subsequently hang together (Schatzki 1996, p.188) to shape language-student information The emphasis on bodily activities also demonstrates how language-students rely on literacy practices during residence abroad. informal and non-normative sources of information such as workarounds and ‘tricks of the In affording student access to the ways of knowing that are sanctioned within their trade’ as well as more formal information sources, such as rules and regulations, to mitigate setting, information activities are also structured through the ways in which information the risks that are produced within a new setting. Informal sources reference local knowledge literacy practice is organised. An emphasis on the organisation of practice illustrates how that is both nuanced and contingent and are particularly valued within residence abroad 140 141

where language-learning takes place within everyday spaces (cf. Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2016; by forming both a credible and an accessible guide to a new information environment as well 2017) rather than in the structured surroundings of the classroom. However, the lack of as a standard against which students can check and validate their own activity. The formal recognition that external authorities accord these sources (Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2017) recognition that cognitive authorities proffer information as well as useful advice about “how means that students must create their own ways of taking advantage of the learning to treat certain pieces of information” (Wilson, 1983, p.18) further illustrates the important opportunities within their new setting to mitigate the risks that are produced through their role that these knowledgeable others play in helping students to access the tacit and collective participation overseas (see 6.3.1). The emphasis on information that only comes from being ways of knowing that will enable them to negotiate shared understandings. In this sense, the present in a setting reframes information literacy as a vernacular literacy (Barton & establishment of cognitive authority plays a key role in the shaping of information literacy Hamilton, 1998) that is produced through everyday experiences for an everyday purpose and practices. Developed from social epistemology, Wilson’s 1983 theory of cognitive authority highlights student reflexivity and creativity (Barton & Lee, 2012, p.283). It also speaks to the has since been critiqued by McKenzie (2003, p.262) for its constructivist epistemological importance of recognising non-standardised information literacy practices in both teaching viewpoint, which positions knowledge as dependent upon a person’s prior activities rather and research (Reyes, Hicks & Maxson, 2018). than as being produced through engagement within a community’s dialogic meaning-making. Beyond facilitating an exploration of how information literacy practices are shaped Accordingly, while recognising that Wilson (1983, p.150) acknowledges the role of within residence abroad, a practice theory lens also recognises that, as a dispersed practice, collective agreement, cognitive authority is viewed in the study as an outcome of embodied information literacy scaffolds student knowing of the broader practice of language-learning. expertise (Lloyd, 2012, p.780) and as produced through discursive action (McKenzie, 2003, However, in acknowledging that student activities during residence abroad are very different p.262) rather than as uniquely focused on the cognitive. from those in which they engage in the classroom (see 6.4), language-learning during Given their physical proximity as well as their perceived authentic and insider residence abroad is positioned in the study as forming a project (Schatzki, 2002, p.73) in the knowledge, locals and native speakers form one of students’ most obvious sources of larger practice of language-learning rather than as constituting its own separate practice. The cognitive authority whilst they are overseas. Although they cannot be considered as project of language-learning during residence abroad is implemented through the doings and authoritative due to what Wilson (1983, p.21) terms “occupational specialization,” a local or sayings that compose the activities in which students engage and hangs together to form part native speaker’s cultural heritage and long-term exposure to a target language means that of the increasingly complex organisation of language-learning practice. In further emerging their expertise is perceived to be both justifiable and highly recognised within students’ new from the sake for which people act, the project of language-learning is also linked to student settings. This mastery may be especially prized by language-students (and teachers) who intentions for their time overseas or the particular ends (Schatzki, 2012, p.16) for which they position native speakers as both an object of desire and an ideal to be emulated (Kramsch, move abroad in the first place. 2013; Piller, 2002, 2008; Siskin, 2003) despite the problematic concept of who possesses or what constitutes linguistic fluency (Kramsch, 2003). The same focus on native speakers is 6.3.1 Cognitive authority recognised by Hultgren (2013, p.279) who notes that young Swedish immigrants place more The important role that calibrating plays within mitigating risk demonstrates how students’ weight on local informants because they belong to a socially-approved group in which information literacy practices also centre on how they rebuild trust and judgment within a newcomers both participate and wish to participate. The credibility that people accord to new setting. The theoretical concept of cognitive authority (Wilson, 1983), which recognises fluent speakers of a language is also acknowledged in Mansour and Francke’s (2017) study that people construct understanding through their own first-hand experience as well as of an immigrant mothers’ Facebook group as well as in earlier work on gatekeepers through the second-hand interpretation and hearsay of people who are deemed as “knowing (Metoyer-Duran, 1991) and child mediators (Chu, 1999). what they are talking about” (Wilson, 1983, p.13), provides a useful way to explore how However, just as McKenzie (2003, p.283) notes in her study of women who are students decide whether a source against which they calibrate their activities is authoritative pregnant with twins, authority is not just limited to these more obviously ‘expert’ or for them within a new context. More specifically, cognitive authorities help to mitigate risk 142 143

institutionally sanctioned sources. In positioning recently returned language-students as organization of the community of practice of which the master is a part” (Lave & Wenger, authoritative by virtue of their achievements or their “index of special competence” (Wilson, 1991, p.94) while demonstrating how local knowing is produced through participation in 1983, p.23), students also establish trustworthiness by drawing upon the anecdotal and practice rather than forming an innate quality of native speakers. situation-specific experiential information (Jordan, 1997) that is produced through their 6.3.2 Affordance peers’ histories of engagement overseas. Both relatable and communicated in ways that are The recognition that students actively work to reposition themselves in relation to an easy to understand, insider ways of knowing, or what Mansour and Francke (2017) describe information environment further demonstrates how student information literacy practices are as “life experience,” also play an important role in Chatman’s (1987) work on opinion leaders shaped by the affordances within a setting, which refer to participatory possibilities for in low income environments. Coupled with the understanding that this authority of local action. The concept of affordance, which was coined by Gibson (1977) and originally experience is transferred (Wilson, 1983, p.22) to the guidebooks and travel websites through referred to what a physical environment “offers animals, what it provides or furnishes for which students sift, students can be seen to create “flexible and versatile descriptions of good or ill” (Gibson, 1977, p.68), has been adopted in the field of design and educational cognitive authority to suit the needs of the interaction” (McKenzie, 2003, p.283). In further technology to describe the potential and perceived uses of an object or how design enables highlighting that students calibrate their activities against a different range of people as they and constrains activity (Norman, 1988). Since then, Billett (2001) has explored affordance in settle in and build connections within their setting, the designation of cognitive authority is terms of learning, which he positions as facilitated and inhibited through the opportunities also positioned as temporally structured through students’ motivations for their future that a workplace structure offers to participate in its activities. Highlighting how language- (Wilson, 1983, p.147) rather than forming “a discrete evaluation event” (Rieh, 2010, p.1342). student activity is mediated through the social conditions of a site rather than purely through The recognition that knowledgeable others are positioned by language-students as student readiness or preparation for time abroad, the theoretical concept of affordance has credible guides to local practices means that the concept of cognitive authority also overlaps also been seen to provide a more holistic (Sadler & Given, 2007) perspective of a person’s with Shove and Pantzar’s (2007, p.154) notion of carriers of practices, who are defined as a material and social interactions within a specific context. Accordingly, while language- group of practitioners whose more or less faithful enactment of practice facilitates its ongoing students may struggle to engage with the unfamiliar design of a new environment, such as a reproduction. Both carriers of practice and the concept of cognitive authority illustrate the supermarket layout, their ability to mitigate risk is also shaped by the “invitational qualities” important role that experienced others play in shaping student understanding overseas. (Billett, Barker, Hernon-Tilling, 2004, p.233) of the communities that surround them. During However, although McKenzie (2003, p.283) demonstrates that the establishment of cognitive residence abroad, language-students mitigate the risks of their new setting through learning to authority is highly reflexive, the notion of carriers of practice extends the reach of cognitive perceive and then repositioning themselves to take advantage of the context-specific authority by demonstrating how an engagement with knowledgeable people creates a route affordances that enable them to construct their new information landscapes. The emphasis on through which participants are “recruited” (Shove & Pantzar, 2007) or drawn from the interaction and the negotiation of collective understanding highlights that information literacy periphery into practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In other words, the establishment of practices are shaped through and in relation to the affordances of a setting while recognising cognitive authorities does not merely help students to ascertain the credibility of information. the important role that the opportunities of an environment play in the development of Instead, it is in engaging with these knowledgeable people that language-students start to intersubjective ways of knowing. become what Harvianen and Savolainen (2014) refer to in their study of gamers as “being in Locals and native speakers furnish language-students with some of the most the know” and, subsequently, a reliable cognitive authority for others. Mediating, for meaningful affordances during residence abroad. Student engagement with knowledgeable example, demonstrates how student engagement within a new setting facilitates the others facilitates access to what have been termed as the “unintended” (Billett, 2001, p.211) development of expertise that positions them as an authority for others. Students’ positioning or the “hidden” (Gaver, 1991) learning opportunities of a setting and illustrates how as cognitive authorities further highlights that expertise resides “not in the master but in the participation in indirect activities such as observing function as an entryway to the tacit and 144 145

contingent ways of knowing that structure local practices. These social affordances students the opportunity to engage with the people who furnish what Gibson (1977, p.75) subsequently form a type of pedagogy (cf. Fenwick, 2006, p.694) that facilitates student terms as “the richest and most elaborate affordances of the environment,” locals and native knowing of their information landscapes and encourages language-students to become both speakers can also provide what Nagy and Neff (2015, p.1) refer to as an imagined affordance reflective and reflexive about their practices. Checking and observing, for example, provide or an expectation that may not be fully realised. Student repositioning, for example, the immediate feedback that language-students need to maintain their participation overseas. demonstrates how local reactions to and judgements on students’ perceived competence and Nevertheless, affordance also depends upon perception; students must be able to perceive as personal characteristics such as physical appearance (cf. Billett, 2001, p.210) limit the quality well as to possess the dexterity or the physical and cognitive ability (such as listening) to and type of information to which students have access abroad. Local and native speakers’ utilize or deploy an affordance (cf. Davis & Chouinard, 2017, p.5). Similar to the theoretical reluctance to engage with students demonstrates how affordance is affected by “cultural and construct of edgework (Lyng, 1990), mitigating risk demonstrates that students’ abilities to institutional legitimacy” or through the power structures in which it is produced (Davis & recognise affordance changes in line with the development of understanding. In facilitating a Chouinard, 2017, p.6). Their involvement also emphasises the active role that bystanders play more complex understanding of what is valued within local practices, the affordances that within transition (see 6.4) while hinting at the need for what Gibson (1977, p.76) refers to as local and native speakers offer must also be seen as produced through students’ interactions reciprocity to recognise what is afforded in an environment. within their new setting rather than as constituting an inherent feature (Evans, Pearce, Vitak At the same time, learner agency means that language-students are in the position of & Treem, 2017), or the “social rules of the game” (Nagy & Neff, 2015, p.4). being able to make decisions about how and what they learn overseas (cf. Billett et al., 2004); Beyond social interaction, the affordances that are offered by tools and material learning is affected as much by students’ reactions to the constraints that limit their objects provide various ways for language-students to connect to and engage with a new participation overseas as it is by their engagement with a setting’s affordances. information environment. The ability to capture images and create textual or auditory records Repositioning, for example, forms a purposeful response to the barriers that limit students’ of everyday practice with their phones, for example, enables students to interact with the abilities to engage with the information affordances of a new setting. Accordingly, the physical know-how that structures a setting as well as to receive the feedback that they use to recognition that risk could potentially affect their goals for time overseas mobilises student calibrate their activity. Similarly, the possibilities of sharing images and connecting with responses to these limitations and restrictions. Evelyn and Helen’s “self-preservation” (Billett friends and family through video-conferencing and social media platforms affords language- et al., 2004, p.235) or (temporary) withdrawal from their new settings further demonstrates students the ability to mediate information to others and build the emotional support that they how student engagement with the weak affordances (cf. Billett, 2001, p.6) of their setting is need to mitigate the risks that are produced through their participation in residence abroad mediated through their emotional responses as well as through the assertion of their (see 6.2.3). The visibility (through memory features such as Facebook’s On This Day) and knowledgeability. As such, a focus on affordance emphasises how language-student learning searchability of social media platforms as well as the physical durability of the memory is negotiated through their participation within a new setting rather than through “a objects that language-students create through archiving further facilitate students’ continued unidirectional process of socialisation or enculturation…[and] the mere reproduction of engagement with their time overseas (cf. Evans et al., 2017). Demonstrating how these situational values and practices” (Billett et al., 2004, p.237). opportunities emerge through everyday practice in the moment of action (Haider, 2016, While it is not couched in terms of affordances, the same proactive negotiation is seen p.484), a focus on affordance also highlights how students’ participatory possibilities for in the work of McKenzie (2002) and Ross and Dewdney (1998), who explore how people action are not just limited to their immediate physical environment. employ a variety of “counterstrategies” (McKenzie, 2002) in the face of barriers that prevent The affordances of a setting can also constrain language-student access to them from accessing information. The deployment of active scanning and seeking information; as Gibson (1977, p.77) points out, “some offerings of the environment are information activities, for example, illustrates how, similarly to pregnant women (McKenzie, beneficial, and some are injurious.” While the structure of residence abroad affords language- 2002), language-students engage in a variety of information activities to remain connected 146 147

with the affordances of an information environment. Similarly, both Sundin (2002, also see Johannisson & Sundin, 2007) and Bonner and Lloyd (2011) demonstrate how nurses use a variety of approaches to negotiate their continued engagement to medical information environments. Trace’s 2008 study of informal literacies further demonstrates how language- student engagement with information helps them to redirect their learning towards their own purposes. These studies suggest that students play an active role in shaping information literacy practice during residence abroad rather than seeing the refusal to submit to local expectations as negatively impacting learning.

6.4 Transition Language-student transition, which emphasises the creation of a “sustainable fit” (Hviid & Zittoun, 2008, p.123) within a new environment, is consequently mediated through the enactment of information literacy practices. Demonstrating how students negotiate the rebuilding of meaning through the development of nuanced and socially situated ways of knowing, transition becomes positioned as a time of learning and growth rather than as Figure 18: Transition during residence abroad merely being precipitated by student movement across national borders and between Preparation for the future forms one of the most important ways in which students mediate institutional settings (cf. Meleis et al., 2000, p.15). In further highlighting that the enactment transition. Allowing students to anticipate what to expect within a new setting as well as their of information literacy practices facilitates the reconstruction of language-learning identity as role within it, preparing, which is manifest in the study through sifting and archiving, helps students situate and redefine themselves in relation to collective ways of knowing, transition students to develop both the knowledge and the strategies (Meleis et al., 2000, p.22) to is also reconstituted as a time of transformative change as students negotiate the local rebuild meaning when they move into and return from a new setting (Johnson, 1999; Meleis environmental conditions that facilitate and enable their participation abroad. Language- et al., 2000). Preparation also helps students to legitimise their language-learning activity student transition is explored in this section through nursing and educational transitions overseas as they leave the familiarity of the classroom behind them as well as to manage theory (see 3.4.1) and illustrated in Figure 9. expectations about the forthcoming changes in their life (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994). In this sense, preparation constitutes what Corsaro and Molinari (2000, p.17) refer to as a priming event that facilitates students’ abilities to envision and engage in the collective activities of their new setting. Most succinctly, preparation creates a framework from which students produce and interpret sociocultural knowledge (Corsaro & Rosier, 2002, p.138). Notwithstanding, students cannot be prepared for every eventuality. As Clingerman (2007, p.228) points out in her study of migrant farmworkers, there may be differences between “anticipated and actual migration experiences”, including the existence of unrealistic expectations (Schumacher & Meleis, 1994, p.122). Just as language-students alter their sifting techniques or the people against whom they calibrate their activities to meet the realities that they encounter, transition is mediated through students’ dynamic engagement in 148 149

their new setting rather than through the application of fixed skills. Accordingly, while A recognition of the important role that social interaction plays in structuring change planning plays an important role in helping language-students to manage the uncertainty of means that a focus on conditions also highlights how bystanders play an active rather than a this time, the inseparable nature of learning, practice and performance (Kilminster, Zukas, detached (Davies, 2005, p.664) role within transition. Student involvement in mediating Quinton & Roberts, 2010) as well as the emerging shape of students’ information landscapes upholds Davies’ (2005, p.664) critique that nursing transitions theory has failed to means that preparation can never fully scaffold student transition. acknowledge the interplay between the different stakeholders who are involved in transition More concretely, transition is negotiated through what nursing transitions theory by demonstrating that support is multidirectional and that students, just like patients and other refers to as social and community conditions or the environments that “constrain, support or interested people (Davies, 2005), are not merely passive recipients of assistance and promote healthy transitions” (Meleis & Trangenstein, 1994, p.257). Social and community interventions. Nevertheless, there is little evidence for student engagement in the faith-based influences impact both the conditions under which transitions occur and a person’s actions and community health groups that support immigrant and refugee transitions (e.g. Adkins et within a setting (Fenwick, 2002) by isolating language-students from the local information al., 2017; Khoir, 2016; Lloyd, 2014a; Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2016). While two students, environment as well as from the groups who could help them to mediate their transition Timothy and Julia, drew considerable support from their local churches, the relative brevity overseas. Niko’s perception that Japanese people were reluctant to talk to her because of her of residence abroad may have impeded broader student participation in their communities. foreign accent and appearance, for example, demonstrates how her physical characteristics 6.4.1 Acting and becoming limited her access to both the contingent and the nuanced knowledge that structures her Transitions theory also draws attention to the outcomes of transition or the complex and setting. Similar issues were noted in a study of new African-American mothers that shows socioculturally mediated consequences of change. In illustrating that transition is mediated how transition is impeded by “the hassles of being stereotyped, facing negativity from others, through the enactment of information literacy practices, mitigating risk highlights how one of or being treated like ‘public property’” (Meleis et al., 2000, p.23). the most important outcomes of student transition is the development of the ways of knowing Social and community conditions also enable language-student transition by that are valued and shaped by a specific setting. The recognition that students alter how they facilitating engagement with the people who will provide meaningful social support. sift through information, for example, illustrates how language-students demonstrate an Mediating information for friends and family back home, for example, helps students to build understanding of the sources of information that are most relevant to them overseas. The the emotional connections that they need to feel supported during their transitions overseas. entire category of repositioning, which is a reflexive response to student distancing and In providing both learners and patients with useful practical help and advice, social contacts isolation from local information environments, provides further evidence of students’ have also been seen to help manage the uncertainty of a new situation within nursing and growing grasp of and abilities to operate in their new context. Students’ awareness of an educational transitions (e.g. Dockett & Perry, 2005; Johnson, 1999). Similarly, the ability to information environment as well as their own possibilities within it, which represents what mediate information to co-located peers plays an important role in helping to situate and Meleis et al., (2000, p.26) refer to as role mastery or the “skills and behaviors needed to reposition students within their new information environment. While Meleis et al. (2000) manage their new situations or environments,” means that transition is marked by their found that immigrant transitions could be constrained by a reluctance or inability to trust increasingly comprehensive sense of situated “care, judgment and dexterity” (Ingold & fellow nationals, findings from the study illustrate how fellow students provide both Kurttila, 2000, p.192). The emphasis on redefinition and renewal also positions transition as a emotional and practical assistance during residence abroad. Similar emphasis on supportive “critically intensive learning period” (Kilminster et al., 2010, p.556) rather than as a site of peer-to-peer information sharing has also been noted in studies of people living with chronic transfer. health conditions (Lloyd et al., 2014; McCaughan & McKenna, 2007; Veinot, 2009) as well The recognition that mastery of a situation cannot be separated from a shift in self- as in Willson’s (2016, p.262) exploration of early career researcher transitions, where identity (Kralik et al., 2006, p.324) further hints at how transition is entwined with both the physical proximity to colleagues facilitates helpful information “flow.” formation and the re-formation of subjectivities within a new setting. Before students 150 151

participate in residence abroad, their conception of what it means to be a language-student (Kralik, 2002, p.153) or neatly partitioned entry-passage-exit trajectory (Meleis & had been fabricated in relation to a classroom-based information landscape, as evidenced by Trangenstein, 1994, p.256) with an identifiable endpoint. In effect, the recognition that time students’ initial difficulties understanding technical vocabulary and informal ways of is actively configured rather than forming a universal and continuous given (Barad, 2013, communicating. Mediated through the legitimised values and information sources of the p.28) demonstrates that transition is complex; as Meleis et al. (2000, p.20) point out, academy, student subjectivity is produced through their engagement with their teacher and migration may feel temporary even in its permanence. The recognition that calibrating and their fellow English-speaking students. In contrast, residence abroad provides a very different repositioning form cyclical and recursive activities means that transition is also positioned as learning experience, as students’ attempts to map and orient themselves to their new setting ongoing as students both participate within and draw back from the complex ecology of demonstrates. Focused upon both the dynamism and the tensions that are inherent within an practice (cf. Fenwick, 2013, p.364). Accordingly, becoming can neither be seen in terms of a everyday setting as well as the informal and vernacular sources of information that structure congealing subjectivity (Fenwick, 2013, p.364) nor as forming a conventional story of local ways of knowing, the different shape of language-learning means that students must progress “punctuated with discoveries that lead the way out of the swamp of ignorance and develop their language-learning identity to renew their prior successes and accomplishments. uncertainty to the bedrock of solid and certain knowledge” (Barad, 2013, p.18). Instead, the Drawing from the idea that the different roles and responsibilities produced through transition dynamism and fluidity of student engagement overseas means that transition unfurls within a both cause and necessitate a subsequent reconfiguration of self or what Lave and Wenger broad structure of challenges and opportunities. (1991, p.51) refer to as a “change in person,” the development of students’ language-learning 6.5 Chapter conclusion identity is thereby positioned as mediated through student participation in their community The chapter used the study’s theoretical framework to explore the grounded theory of and the construction of their information landscapes. mitigating risk. Demonstrating that mitigating risk catalyses the enactment of information More specifically, students’ new language-learning identities are marked by the literacy practices, the chapter highlights how language-students participate in a temporally development of intersubjective understandings of practice. As language-students calibrate mediated and situated process of transition as they develop subjectivity within their new and reposition themselves in relation to the sites of knowledge and the ways of knowing that setting. In further indicating that student information activities are enabled and constrained are valued by locals and native speakers, they situate themselves within and in relation to through their participation overseas, the chapter illustrates both the shape and the complexity socially constructed or intersubjective understandings of their new information landscapes of student engagement within residence abroad. These understandings will be discussed in (cf. Lloyd, 2007a, p.191). Facilitating new ways of being and doing, student engagement relation to the study’s research questions in the following chapter. within a new setting can thereby be seen to mobilise student transition from acting like a language-student to becoming a language-student within the context of residence abroad. Seen, most clearly, through the changes that students make to the way that they dress and talk as well as through their attempts to forget or unlearn language-learning strategies that have previously been successful for them, the transition from acting to becoming is further characterised as a transition from engaging with information to learn about practice to engaging with information to enhance practice (Lloyd, 2006, p.576). Both situated and temporally unfolding, processes of acting and becoming further reference Lave and Wenger’s (1991) emphasis on how newcomers are recruited into a community. The focus on transformative development also emphasises that transition forms a “multiple, complex, non-linear pathway” (Fenwick, 2013, p.364) rather than a chronological 152 153

Chapter 7: Discussion of research questions interpretation of their new setting rather than on pre-established skills and competences. In further indicating that enactment references a specific environment, or what Weick (1988, 7.1 Chapter overview p.307) refers to as a bracketed field of experience, language-student information literacy In this chapter, the theory of mitigating risk that emerged from the data analysis is used to practices are also enacted through their growing understanding of “what it is people do every discuss the study’s research questions, which are represented below. The theory of mitigating day to get their work done” (Orlikowski, 2002, p.249) or the information tools, activities and risk demonstrates that student attempts to mediate the pressures that are produced during sources that are valued and legitimised within their new setting. In this sense, information residence abroad catalyse the enactment of information literacy practices, which subsequently literacy practices are positioned as both situated and collectively-produced as well as shaped mediate language-student transition within a new setting. Focusing student activity on the by historically and socioculturally-mediated ways of knowing. construction of their new information landscapes, the theory further illustrates how these At the same time, language-student information literacy practices are enacted in activities are held in place by the affordances of students’ new settings as well as their goals relation to their goals and motivations for their time overseas; as Weick (1995, p.37) points for this time away. The chapter starts by discussing how language-students enact information out, “action can affect meaning other than by producing visible consequence in the world.” literacy practices during residence abroad, including how their information landscapes are The emphasis on student objectives for their time overseas, which bears some resemblance to shaped as well as the impact on language-learning. It continues by discussing language- what Niemelä, Huotari and Kortelainen (2012, p.213) label as the activating effect that student transition with a focus on how change is enabled and constrained during residence information has on a person, means that the theory of mitigating risk illustrates how the past- abroad as well as how students develop subjectivity as they engage within their new setting. present-future dimensions of language-student activity play an equally important role in 1. How do language-students enact information literacy practices during residence shaping how information literacy practices are enacted. In highlighting that student abroad? information activities are both temporally and socioculturally mediated, the focus of a. What shapes language-student information landscapes within a new setting? information literacy is extended beyond the information sources that are valued and b. What role do information literacy practices play during students’ intensive periods of language-learning abroad? legitimised within a social site to centre students’ goals and motivations for this period. The 2. How do language-students make sense of, transition into and come to know their new recognition that the enactment of information literacy practices connects language-students to information landscapes? “a community of actors who are co-located and co-participating in the performances of a a. What enables and constrains the ways in which language-students construct their information landscapes? site” (Lloyd, 2012, p.777) rather than to a set of static disciplinary conventions further b. In what ways does the enactment of information literacy practices shape extends understandings about the situated shape of information literacy (e.g. Farrell & Badke, language-student subjectivity? 2015; Hillard, 2009; Nichols, 2009). Information literacy practices are consequently reframed 7.2 How do language-students enact information literacy practices during as bringing both practices and people into being (cf. Lloyd, 2017, p.95) as well as being residence abroad? produced and reproduced through language-student unfolding participation overseas. The first research question centres on how language-students enact information literacy The recognition that noting, mediating and archiving enable language-students to both practices during residence abroad. The theory of mitigating risk suggests that, as a practice, reflect upon and engage with the everyday norms and values that structure their new information literacy is enacted or takes place “in the act” (Mol, 2002, p.33) rather than as is information landscapes means that the theory of mitigating risk also highlights the more typically assumed, achieved or attained (Lloyd, 2017, p.96). The emphasis on importance of information creation within information literacy practice. Information creation, enactment draws upon Weick’s (1988, p.306) understanding that “when people act, they which differs from the ‘Information Creation as a Process’ frame of the ACRL Framework bring events and structures into existence and set them in motion” to highlight that language- (ACRL, 2015), refers to how people record information to provide continuity for everyday students’ information literacy practices centre on their active engagement in and activities (Trace, 2007, p.143) and is seen, within the study, through the various ways in 154 155

which students create and employ material objects to structure their engagement within a new adjustment of activity, as Cox, McKinney & Goodale (2017) found with the production of information environment. Constituted through archiving, in terms of the scrapbooks that food logging diaries. In effect, the recognition that the construction of personal information students produce as well as the souvenirs that they save to memorialise their stay overseas, artefacts facilitates both continuity and students’ active engagement within their new setting and mediating, through the stories that students produce and share, information creation also rather than merely helping them to organise activity (e.g. Fulton, 2016; Hartel, 2006) encompasses noting, where students construct and use temporary photos, annotations and illustrates how information creation plays a vital role within the enactment of information screenshots as memory aids to support the ways in which they build meaning within a new literacy practice. setting. These informational objects are ephemeral yet highly personalised and fulfil a range 7.2.1 What shapes language-student information landscapes within a new setting? of individual purposes and needs rather than constituting formal outputs. However, in The shaping of information landscapes forms the focus of the first sub-question. More illustrating the important role that these objects play in helping students to manage their expressly, the theory of mitigating risk highlights that language-students construct their participation in an unfamiliar setting, the theory of mitigating risk demonstrates how information landscapes with reference to relevant local sites of knowledge (Lloyd, 2017, information creation is centred within language-students’ information literacy practices. p.94) as well as to the values, activities and practices that structure and sustain their new Most importantly, the theory of mitigating risk demonstrates how information setting. At the same time, the recognition that students are entering a context in which they creation focuses student attention on local representations of knowledge and competence. are forced to direct their own language-learning stresses the important role that non- Information creation has previously been recognised as helping scientists (Shankar, 2009) normative or institutionally-sanctioned sources of information (Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2016) archaeologists (Olsson, 2016, p.417) and patients with chronic kidney disease (Lloyd et al., play in the development of situated knowing. In further highlighting that language-students 2014, p.212) to develop a more meaningful sense of a setting by enabling individuals to weave their growing understanding into everyday life (cf. Ingold, 2004, p.333), information engage with “the content and form of the discipline, what is worth remembering and what landscapes are also understood to be constantly under development as students continue to can be forgotten” (Shankar, 2009, p.161). In centring upon the collection and storing of engage with the learning affordances of their setting and draw meaning from their newspapers and tickets, which represent local cultural knowledge, archiving engages students participation within the broader information environment. with the norms and values that structure a setting as well as the production of cultural More specifically, mitigating risk underscores the important role that social narratives (cf. Trace, 2007). The recognition that the tangibility of these artefacts produces a information sources play in the construction of language-student information landscapes. Just reassuring sense of security (Trace, 2007, p.152) and control (Alaszewski, 2006; Lupton, as studies of refugees and immigrants point out (e.g. Chu, 1999; Lloyd et al., 2013; Lloyd & 2014) over daily activities further stresses how information creation plays a part in situating Wilkinson, 2016, 2017; Metoyer-Duran, 1991), the accessibility of locals and native speakers students within their new context rather than merely functioning as the final product of demonstrates how they play a vital role in connecting students to the tacit norms and values information literacy or as a way to present content (e.g. Fulton, 2017; Koh, 2013). of their community. At the same time, the important role that checking plays within a new The theory of mitigating risk also demonstrates how information creation stabilises setting demonstrates how knowledgeable others also promote student growth by providing a and sustains the enactment of information literacy practices. Like the tourist who uses notes sounding board against which students can assess their understanding of a community’s to “botch” or work around his lack of internet access in Haider’s (2017) study of search activities, as well as their own performance within a new situation. As a consequence, social practices, noting and the production of temporary memory aids such as screenshots highlight sources are positioned as helping to align student activity rather than merely enhancing the how information creation helps language-students to coordinate the enactment of information visibility of local practice. The recognition that friends and family back home as well as co- literacy practices within and throughout their new context. In illustrating that annotations and located others play a valued role in orienting and resituating students in relation to their new photos of important signs enable language-students to reliably reproduce their information activities further underscores how, as both Lloyd et al. (2014) and Veinot (2009) found in activities over time, information creation also facilitates an ongoing monitoring and 156 157

their studies of chronically ill patients, student information landscapes are constructed both produced through movement and action rather than forming static or natural entities (cf. digitally and physically as well as across time. Schatzki, 2013, p.97). Bodily activities play an equally important part in the construction of language- 7.2.2 What role do information literacy practices play during students’ intensive periods students’ information landscapes. Drawing from the understanding that language-learning of language-learning abroad? engages a person’s “emotions, their bodies, and the most intimate aspects of themselves” The second sub-question concentrates on the role that information literacy, as a dispersed (Kramsch, 2009, p.2), the theory of mitigating risk highlights how the ability to listen (to practice that happens within other practices (Lloyd, 2010, p.249), plays in supporting objects, others and to oneself) as well as to taste and smell helps students to build knowing students’ intensive periods of language-learning overseas. Most simply, the theory of within a setting, as Bonner and Lloyd (2011) found in their study of renal nurses. In turn, the mitigating risk highlights how student engagement with information impacts the ways in recognition that information landscapes are heard and touched as well as seen (cf. Ingold, which students immerse themselves within their target language. Facilitating student 1993; Schatzki, 2013, p.98) stresses how language-students access sites of knowledge engagement with the learning affordances of their setting as well as providing them with through material artefacts as well as through language and bodily performance. The ways to assess their own speaking, listening and reading performance in comparison to importance of objects that students bring overseas with them, such as mobile phones, as well others, the enactment of information literacy practices enables students to continue as the ordinariness of the souvenirs with which they return home illustrate how language- developing their understandings of the linguistic forms and structures in their target language. student information landscapes are constructed through a range of vernacular tools and More importantly, however, information literacy practices enable language-students to walk sources as well as through the unfolding shape of epistemic objects (cf. Knorr Cetina, 2001) the walk as well as to talk the talk (Gee, 1990, p.246). Drawing upon the understanding that such as annotations. language-learning involves engagement with “the body, cultural-historical artifacts, the Most importantly, the theory of mitigating risk draws attention to the temporal physical surroundings, in short, all the affordances that the physical, social and symbolic dimensions of language-student information landscapes (cf. Schatzki, 2013, p.100). On the worlds have to offer” (van Lier, 2008, p.599), information literacy practices facilitate one hand, the recognition that student information landscapes are built through the meaning language-student knowing of the broader elements that characterise engagement with that sources and activities take on through ongoing social interaction illustrates how student language. These findings resonate with Elmore’s (2018, p.227) recognition of the important knowing is constructed through a reflexive engagement in the present. On the other hand, the role that the ESOL classroom plays in developing newcomer understanding of a new setting. ways in which students rebuff the sources and activities that helped them to succeed as The theory of mitigating risk further demonstrates how the enactment of information classroom learners illustrate how student information landscapes are also built in reaction to literacy practices mediates language-student transition between the classroom and residence the past or through their attunements with what matters (and mattered) to them. In turn, the abroad. Noting that information within the language-learning classroom is shaped, afforded realisation that language-students engage in activities with their final year of undergraduate and interpreted by professional teaching staff and in relation to institutional norms and study in mind demonstrates how language-student information landscapes are further values, student participation in residence abroad means that they are forced to rebuild the constructed through their engagement with the future or what they are coming towards. ways in which they interact with information in order to learn from and within their new Information landscapes may subsequently take on new meanings when language-students context. Information literacy practices provide the means through which language-students transition home and their activities during residence abroad become the informational are able to rebuild meaning within their new setting by facilitating engagement with everyday understandings against which they react as they rebuild their classroom-based information and informal ways of knowing. At the same time, the recognition that language-students landscapes. A focus on temporality also highlights that student knowing is “perpetually under reorient themselves towards intersubjective understandings of local practices through their construction” (Ingold, 1993, p.162) and accentuates how information landscapes are engagement with non-normative sources of information (Lloyd & Wilkinson, 2016) illustrates the important role that vernacular and local literacies (Barton & Hamilton, 1998) 158 159

play in shaping students’ language-learning identities overseas. Accordingly, transition is positioned as a cyclical process that is extended over time as students build up the skills and positioned as mediated through language-student ability to recognise and engage with what knowledge to situate themselves in relation to new information environments. can often form opaque forms of knowing rather than, as Lloyd (2005, p.85) found in her Language-student adjustment to a new setting is, nonetheless, complicated by what study of firefighters, through the reconciliation of textually and socially-mediated ways of Greyson (2016) labels as the “accelerated change” of transition. Linked to the brevity of knowing. A similar emphasis on the important role that informal and first-hand knowledge students’ stays overseas, the process of mitigating risk can thereby be seen as a project plays within information practices has also been noted by Mansour and Francke (2017) in management strategy that enables language-students to organise transition and meet their their study of transnational mothers on Facebook. objectives for residence abroad. Emerging from students’ visions or images of their activities, Significantly, the theory of mitigating risk also highlights the crucial position that which as McKenzie and Davies (2010, p.799) point out, drives the management of wedding social support holds in helping students to mediate this intensive period of language-learning projects, language-student time overseas can consequently be seen as coordinated through the overseas. While earlier studies within the field of second-language acquisition assert that the artefacts that allow them to document and keep on track with their goals (cf. McKenzie & “umbilical cord” (Kinginger, 2011, p.67) of friends and family disincentivises language- Davies, 2012). The recognition that language-student engagement overseas is limited by the learning, the information lens of the study highlights how fellow language-learning students presence of their ticket home, which, as in pregnancy (Davies & McKenzie, 2004) and and home contacts provide the emotional support that language-students may need to cement wedding planning (McKenzie & Davies, 2010) establishes a specific time frame for action, as and maintain their engagement overseas during a new information environment. More well as representing what students are coming toward, additionally highlights the temporal importantly, the recognition that language-students use conversations with friends and family shape of language-student transition. to mediate information about their stay overseas suggests that communication with home Nevertheless, language-students’ stays overseas is not meticulously planned, unlike increases student engagement during residence abroad by providing them with a way to Hultgren (2009, p.169) found in her study of school leavers’ post-graduation plans. Instead, process their activities and reflect upon their learning. Similarly, it is in mediating student transition is mediated through continued reflection as they interpret and adjust how information to others that language-students start to recognise their newly developed they participate during residence abroad. The theory of mitigating risk subsequently extends expertise and to reposition themselves as participants within their new setting. In this sense, Hultgren’s (2009, p.178) concept of the timeliness or opportune relevance of information to and just as Gilhooly and Lee (2014, p.389) point out in their study of refugee resettlement, demonstrate how transition is structured through reflexivity or students’ abilities to transcend engagement with English-speakers is understood to supplement rather than to detract from the immediate and to “think about the past, in the present for the future” (Carroll, 2009, p.43). language-student activities overseas. Reflexivity enables language-students to develop a “historical self-consciousness” (Kemmis, 2010, p.158) of themselves as a learner and facilitates student knowing by helping them to 7.3 How do language-students make sense of, transition into and come to develop meaning about their interactions with others (cf. Charon, 2004, p.29) as well as to know their new information landscapes? make connections between social and cultural understandings (Fook & Gardner, 2007, p.28). The second research question centres on how language-students make sense of, come to In further enabling students to position themselves in relation to others, reflexivity also know and transition into their new information landscapes. The theory of mitigating risk allows students to become more specialised (Kemmis, 2010, p.158) as they engage with and positions transition as a period of change and upheaval in which the enactment of information continue to shape their engagement overseas. Reflexivity has long been seen to play an literacy practices facilitates the building of meaning within the complexities of students’ new important role within information literacy teaching practices (see Corrall, 2017; Poirier, language-learning contexts. More expressly, the recognition that language-students’ 2012). In facilitating language-students’ temporal engagement overseas as well as helping increasing knowledgeability enables them to continue refining and adjusting how they engage them to push back against the time pressures of their stay, reflexivity is positioned as playing with the ways of knowing that are valued within their setting means that transition is further a vital role in the mediation of transition. 160 161

The focus on reflexivity, or what Charon (2004, p.65) refers to through the lens of More expressly, the theory of mitigating risk demonstrates how the arrangements of a symbolic interactionism as symbolic interaction with the self, also demonstrates the active site limit the ways in which students construct their information landscapes. In illustrating role that language-students play in structuring their time overseas. Both nursing (Meleis et that local actions position students as outsiders within their new setting, which echo the al., 2000) and ecological educational transitions theory (Dockett & Perry, 2007; Dockett, learning dynamics that are found in the concept of legitimate peripheral participation (Lave & Petriwskyj & Perry, 2014) tend to position people as passive recipients of expert assistance Wenger, 1991), social arrangements constrain student access to the sayings and the doings of during transition. In contrast, the emphasis on language-students’ ongoing engagement in a a site or to the knowledge and the material objects that are recognised and valued in their new variety of information activities means that the theory of mitigating risk positions transition setting (cf. Lloyd, 2012, p.776). While they are not referred to as such by the authors, the as produced through a person’s active participation within their new setting rather than as provision of digital materials (Lloyd et al., 2013) and university managerialism (Willson, occurring to people who have little control over their destiny. The study’s focus on a 2016) could be interpreted as emerging from and forming similarly constricting arrangements transitional context in which there is no active mediator, such as a nurse or a librarian, further by restricting individuals’ access to relevant information. highlights how language-students construct their own (socioculturally-mediated) ways of At the same time, the arrangements of a site do not preclude more positive negotiating transition. In emphasising private means of constructing meaning, which are connotations, as both Mahon et al. (2017, p.16) and Schatzki (2002, p.216) point out. In often less visible than the more easily observable active methods of engagement within a inhibiting student access to locals and native speakers, social arrangements also enable the community, an emphasis on reflexivity also broadens understanding about the broad gamut of construction of information landscapes by channelling student engagement towards peers and ways in which students participate in the activities of their community. family back home whose support helps them to mediate their time overseas. Accordingly, the arrangements of information literacy practice can be seen to complicate student engagement 7.3.1 What enables and constrains the ways in which language-students construct their overseas rather than to uniquely limit or obliterate possibilities of action (cf. Schatzki, 2002, information landscapes? p.226). Illustrating how transition forms a “site of contestation, contradiction, tension and The first sub question centres on how student transition, which is mediated through the struggle” (Mahon et al., 2017, p.20), a focus on arrangements further highlights the active construction of information landscapes, is promoted and prevented during their time role that students play in the enactment of practice. overseas. Given that residence abroad is designed as a learning opportunity that facilitates The impact that other people’s actions have on activity means that the theory of language-student engagement within the everyday practices of a target language community, mitigating risk also illustrates how students’ possibilities for action are shaped by the student transition must be seen to play out through the unfolding complexity of social complex interdependency and interrelatedness of material arrangements (Schatzki, 2010, interaction. As the site of practice, language-learning is composed of a nexus of practices and p.141). Just as an educator’s teaching practices enable and constrain how student learning arrangements that structure and connect human coexistence (Schatzki, 2005). The recognition practices unfold within a specific setting (Rönnerman & Kemmis, 2016, p.96), local and that these practice-arrangement bundles moderate student engagement in activity means that native speaker practices order student engagement with information even though student the theory of mitigating risk indicates how the construction of student information landscapes transition centres on the enactment of language-learning practice rather than on the initiation is both constrained and enabled by set-ups of material objects that channel and facilitate into the unreachable goal of becoming a native speaker (cf. Kramsch, 2009, p.28). However, practices (Schatzki, 2012, p.16). A focus on arrangements prefigures the enactment of in structuring the ways in which students engage within a new information environment, the information literacy practice by qualifying the possible paths that a person’s activity could arrangements that structure local and native speaker practices are eventually fed into the ways take (Schatzki, 2002, p.44) and highlights how actions, as well as artefacts, organisms and in which students enact information literacy practices as they situate themselves in relation to things impact potential courses of activity in which students may engage. Accordingly, local activity and understandings. In turn, student activities may become part of the student information landscapes must be seen as built in relation to these conditions rather arrangements that structure the transition of the following year’s cohort of language-students than uniquely through their goals and investment as a language-learner (cf. Peirce, 1995). 162 163

as current students provide information to and act as cognitive authorities for soon-to-depart build their language-learning identity through their ongoing interactions with others. Just as students at study abroad orientations. Indicating how students represent themselves in the an engagement with information affects how new mothers (McKenzie, 2003) and sexually arrangements that structure their time overseas (cf. Kemmis, Wilkinson, Edwards-Groves, active teenagers (Rivano Eckerdal, 2011) conceive of themselves, language-student Hardy, Grootenboer & Bristol, 2014, p.38), student information landscapes are thereby subjectivity is constructed through the ways in which students work to reposition and situate constructed through an enmeshing with the arrangements that constrain and enable their themselves in relation to the unfolding activities and practices of their new setting. In this engagement overseas. sense, the development of subjectivity is both dynamic and intricately connected to the past- present-future of language-student time overseas. 7.3.2 In what ways does the enactment of information literacy practices shape language- Mitigating risk demonstrates how bodies, too, ground the development of language- student subjectivity? student subjectivity (cf. Lloyd, 2007b). The bodies of experienced others attune students to The development of language-student subjectivity forms the focus of the second sub- community practices through the demonstration and modelling of collective ways of knowing question. Recognising that a constructionist perspective moves the focus of research from and are particularly important when working across languages. The recognition that what is learnt to what students are becoming (Packer & Goicoechea, 2000), the theory of language-learning encompasses the need to engage with “a wide variety of environmental mitigating risk highlights how information literacy practice is marked by the development of affordances, including speech, gesture, and movement” (Kinginger, 2008, p.15) means that subjectivity rather than by the acquisition of skills. In further highlighting that this shift in local and native speaker bodies also orient language-students to non-linguistically mediated identity is negotiated through language-students’ increasingly competent participation in a understandings of local practices. While residence abroad does not rely on the “shared community’s shared ways of knowing (cf. Lindh, 2015, p.181; Moring, 2012, p.17), the intuition” (Billett, 2014) that is necessary in contexts such as healthcare or the emergency development of subjectivity is also positioned as a function of, or as emerging from services, contact with the shared bodily understandings that are generally inaccessible in the intersubjectivity (Biesta, 1994, p.301), which refers to a reliance upon “common symbols, as language-learning classroom often forms an additional motivation behind student decisions to well as common definitions of situations” (Veinot & Williams, 2012, p.855). The positioning engage in residence abroad. An emphasis on identity also situates information literacy as a of language-student subjectivity as engagement in the shared procedures of a community as meaningful practice (cf. Burnett, Merchant, Pahl & Rowsell, 2012). well as its understandings (cf. Billett, 2014, p.207) also illustrates how subjectivity constitutes what Lave and Wenger (1991, p.53) refer to as “an evolving form of 7.4 Chapter conclusion membership,” rather than a one-way process of acculturation (Biesta, 1994, p.311). The chapter has discussed the theory of mitigating risk through theoretical and empirical The recognition that identity reflects “both how a learner sees the world and how the literature from the fields of library and information science and second-language acquisition world sees the learner” (Brown & Duguid, 2000, p.200), which refers to how learners as well as from related areas. Demonstrating how mitigating risk explains both information perceive and are perceived within society, means that the theory of mitigating risk highlights literacy practice and transition, which form the central concepts of the study, the chapter how social connections play a key role in the development of language-student subjectivity. draws attention to the complexity of language-student activities during residence abroad as Knowledgeable others help students to both build and validate their intersubjective well as to student development and growth as they learn to participate within their new understandings of a new setting by providing a template or a model against which they settings in increasingly knowledgeable ways. The implications of these ideas will be calibrate their understandings of information sources and activities. As Pilerot (2014b, p.69) discussed in the next chapter, which forms the conclusion to the study. points out in his study of design researchers, participation in shared (and sharing) information activities allows people to construct and maintain a sense of belonging within a community as well as their own individual identity as a member of a professional network. Students also

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Chapter 8: Conclusion science (e.g. Burkell, 2004; Choo, 2017; Nara, 2007). By identifying that risk is both produced through language-students’ temporally-mediated uncertainty within a new 8.1 Chapter overview information environment and mitigated through the enactment of information literacy The thesis set out to explore the information literacy practices of language-students during practices, the study emphasises the importance of the concept within information research. In residence abroad. Recognising that previous studies have presented a move overseas as further recognising that student time overseas is driven by a variety of social pressures, the characterised by individual deficit, the research highlights that students are, instead, engaging study also extends the concept of risk beyond physical danger to demonstrate how student in an ongoing process of building meaning within a new setting. Given this initial guiding academic and financial wellbeing is threatened within a new setting. At the same time, the structure, the chapter explores the theoretical, methodological, societal and practical related theoretical concept of edgework (Lyng, 1990; 2009) stresses that risk is multifaceted. contributions of the study. The chapter starts by examining the contributions of the research Highlighting that risk enables students to build a complex understanding of an information to library and information science with a focus on the implications and the limitations of the environment rather than purely threatening to derail their activities, the study moves beyond a study’s findings before exploring the contributions of this work to second-language focus on the risk society (Beck, 1992) and the health and safety culture to illustrate the acquisition as well as to transitions theory. The chapter concludes by outlining various everyday role that risk plays within a person’s engagement with information. practical recommendations before indicating directions for future areas of study. The study’s exploration of uncertainty forms another significant contribution to the field. Most importantly, the use of a sociocultural lens positions uncertainty as produced 8.2 Theoretical contributions through language-student participation overseas rather than forming an internal information The theory of mitigating risk forms one of the primary contributions of the study to library deficit. In highlighting that students maintain or even increase their unfamiliarity as they and information science. Providing a detailed exploration of how language-students recognise develop subjectivity, the study also demonstrates that uncertainty plays a generative role and engage with difference within a new information environment, the study establishes within student development rather than purely being seen as something to be reduced. In turn, mitigating risk as a theory of transition and change that illustrates how an engagement with the recognition that an engagement with unfamiliarity provokes a wide range of responses information helps learners to mediate the complexity of building meaning within culturally means that the study further illustrates how uncertainty is mediated through a variety of different contexts. Demonstrating that language-student time abroad is organised by their social and creative information activities rather than uniquely focusing on information temporal goals for this period as well as by the sociocultural conditions that produce their seeking. In this sense, the study’s sociocultural approach extends understanding about the new setting, the study draws attention to the range of risks that characterise a person’s shape of uncertainty within information research. engagement in transition. In further illustrating that these pressures catalyse language-student A recognition of the important role that time and temporality play within information enactment of information literacy practices, mitigating risk also signals how a person’s practices forms another contribution to library and information science. Moving beyond the transition to a new setting is mediated through an increasingly knowledgeable engagement understanding that information practices happen within a chronological time-period, the with local information sources and activities. In this sense, mitigating risk provides a detailed study draws attention to temporality or the idea that language-student participation overseas understanding about the shape of both transition and a person’s engagement with information is produced through their past and current activities as well as in terms of their future during a time of change and upheaval. motivations. Demonstrating that student engagement with the past-present-future accords As the central concept of the theory, risk forms an important contribution of the study. meaning to both the information with which they engage and to their information activities, While the component concepts of uncertainty (e.g. Kuhlthau, 1993) and time (e.g. the study underlines the importance of adding a temporal dimension to the more spatially- Savolainen, 2006) have already been established as playing an important role within focused idea of an information landscape (cf. Schatzki, 2013, p.97). Importantly, the information research, risk has only been explored peripherally within library and information emphasis on temporality or the meaning (Blumer, 1969) that an event holds for a person also 166 167

extends information research beyond the immediate material environment. Highlighting the typically research-oriented role within higher education means that the study also draws need to explore the reasons for which people engage with information, the study underscores attention to the need to broaden understanding about the scope of information literacy how a teleological focus broadens understanding about both the purpose and the shape of a practice within academic settings as universities start to engage with high-impact practices person’s engagement with information within a specific context. (Kuh, 2008) and alternative teaching and learning initiatives. The emphasis on students who are enrolled in higher education broadens practice- 8.2.1 Information literacy based approaches to information literacy. Demonstrating that use of practice theory is not The study’s socio-cultural approach means that it makes a variety of contributions to limited to exploring what Deitering (2015) labels as “after-college” issues such as community information literacy research. Most importantly, the study highlights the centrality of and leisure based contexts (e.g. Cox, 2012; Haider, 2011; Lloyd et al., 2013) or the workplace transition to information literacy research and practice. In demonstrating that language- (Cavanagh, 2013; Jarrahi & Thomson, 2017; Olsson, 2016), the study’s focus on residence student transition is mediated through the construction of their new information landscapes, abroad, which forms a key part of students’ language-learning activities within higher the study illustrates the important role that information literacy practices play in scaffolding education, stresses both the viability and the appropriateness of extending practice theory to processes of change within a time of upheaval. At the same time, the focus on student research that explores information literacy within academic contexts (e.g. Pilerot, 2016; subjectivity or what students are transitioning from and to means that the study also Schreiber, 2014). At the same time, the study problematises situated understandings of highlights how information literacy forms a transformative practice. While the value of information literacy by examining an academic practice that takes place within an everyday thinking like an historian or a lawyer is often espoused within information literacy literature setting and which neither maps neatly to a discipline nor to a bounded community of practice (e.g. Fister, 2015; Jackson & Mogg, 2005), research has rarely explored the shaping of (Wenger, 1998), as is often the case with workplace information literacy studies. Describing identity in detail. In contrast, findings from the research illustrate the central role that the a context that is both fluid and structured by instrumental and academic goals (MLA, 2007), shaping of subjectivity plays in the development of knowing. Coupled with the understanding the research builds upon Gulbekk’s (2016) and Pilerot’s (2016) studies into the similarly that information literacy practices are enacted through the simultaneous past-present-future unstable shape of interdisciplinary settings to challenge and extend understandings about the dimensions of student activity, the focus on transition further disrupts the assumption that situatedness of academic information literacy practices. information literacy constitutes a sequential and chronological narrative of progress. The In terms of intercultural information literacy practices, the study facilitates a complex emphasis on temporality also highlights the need to explore learner perspectives within understanding of language-student information activities overseas. A focus on the enactment information literacy research. of information literacy practice widens the scope of intercultural information literacy In positioning information literacy as a research object rather than as a teaching research, while the emphasis on language-learning as well as students who are visiting non- practice, the study further broadens scholarship that explores the shape that information English-speaking countries provides a more detailed understanding of how people adjust to a literacy takes within an academic context. While higher education forms the site of new information environment. More specifically, the study both illuminates and develops information literacy teaching innovations (e.g. Accardi, Drabinski & Kumbier, 2010), there understanding about the barriers that are often cited as impeding the enactment of has been little corresponding exploration of how information literacy is understood within an information literacy practices within a new intercultural setting. Highlighting the range of academic context beyond a scholarly model of research and communication. The study’s pressures that are produced through student engagement within a new environment, the study employment of an ontological rather than an epistemological lens to practice extends demonstrates that information literacy practices are constrained and enabled through understanding by exploring information literacy in terms of how it is produced and enacted students’ receptions overseas rather than through their individual cultural deficiencies. The with reference to local ways of knowing rather than solely centring on how it is taught or focus on interaction further demonstrates how transition to a new intercultural setting is mediated through official standards and frameworks (e.g. AACU, 2013; ACRL, 2000, 2015; ANZIL, 2004; SCONUL, 2011). The focus on residence abroad, which plays a key yet non- 168 169

dynamic and negotiated rather than centring on a person’s passive assimilation and beyond the typical engagement with formal and institutionally sanctioned understandings of socialisation. information to offer insight into the ephemerality of information literacy practices (cf. Burnett et al., 2012, p.97) and the informal and contingent aspects of everyday life. 8.3 Methodological contributions The study’s use of constructivist grounded theory provides one of the most important 8.4 Societal contributions methodological contributions of the study. While a handful of information literacy studies The study’s detailed exploration of the ways in which newcomers build understanding within have used a grounded theory approach to explore community perceptions of information a new setting means that it also makes a number of contributions to society more generally. literacy (see 4.2), this study is one of the first (although see Lloyd, 2017) to use a grounded On the one hand, the recognition that language-student time overseas is marked by risk theory approach to engage in theory building from an information literacy perspective. The means that the study broadens understanding about the complexity of a newcomer’s study’s focus on theorising provides detailed insight into the shape and meaning of transition within everyday settings. Highlighting the active role that people play in the information literacy for language-students who are engaging in residence abroad as well as development of knowing, the study also illustrates how missing or contradictory information providing a basis for the production of future information literacy theory in a field that about official procedures, including registration, legal compliance and financial issues, adds typically emphasises teaching practices. Beyond widening the scope of information literacy to and intensifies the pressures that are produced through engagement in a new context. On research, the study’s use of visual research methods within a grounded theory framework the other hand, the realisation that student participation within their new information provides another significant contribution of the study. While constructivist grounded theory environments is mediated through the social conditions as well as the power structures of has typically emphasised participants’ words, or their understandings and interpretations of their new setting means that the study also extends understanding about the impact that the their interactions, the use of visual research methods enables a simultaneous focus on reactions and the receptiveness of local communities have on the shape of intercultural participant actions as well as their reflections on a specific event or happening. Facilitating a transition. Findings from the study provide a vivid illustration of the tensions as well as the more complex understanding of participant lives, the use of visual research methods also opportunities that underscore newcomer attempts to engage within a new context and brings additional richness to the study’s final grounded theory. highlight the importance of looking beyond individual information activities towards the Outwith the grounded theory framework of the research, the use of photo-elicitation broader community’s role in preparing for and engaging with questions of global movement. methods forms a key contribution in itself to library and information science. Providing a 8.5 Contributions to language-learning research detailed examination of how photo-elicitation is employed in practice, the study extends The research contributes to the fields of second-language acquisition and international understanding about both the viability and the role of visual research methods within library education by extending an information perspective to the study of immersive language- and information science. Most importantly, the study demonstrates how the use of photo- learning activities. Most importantly, the study draws attention to the importance of elicitation expands understandings about information practices by offering people the information literacy during residence abroad. Providing students with the means through opportunity, on their own time, to establish an alternative past-present-future or a non- which they can both orient themselves to and learn about local ways of knowing, the study researcher focused understanding of the information activities in which they engage. This demonstrates how the enactment of information literacy practices enables students to approach creates a complex picture of how information is understood from a participant’s recognise and engage with the “cultural subsystems” that form the basis of translingual and perspective and highlights how the simplicity of photography, which contrasts with the transcultural education (MLA, 2007; Hicks, 2013). Importantly, the recognition that an complexity of verbal descriptions, facilitates the capture of data at times and in spaces to engagement with information mediates the development of student subjectivity within a new which a researcher may not have access. In further enabling access to information that may context illustrates the important role that information literacy plays in helping language- have otherwise seemed inconsequential, the study also moves library and information science learners to create meaning within a new setting. In allowing students to perceive and 170 171

participate in the learning opportunities of their setting as well as to engage with the shared asked students to critique my initial findings in the second interview, I would have liked to ways of knowing that facilitate the development of intersubjectivity, information literacy have shared the situational analysis maps (see 4.5.2) that were produced in the study with practices play a key role in enabling students to situate themselves overseas as well as to participants. Importantly, a further limitation of the study is that it did not attempt to measure recreate their identity as a language-student. or to analyse how ‘successful’ students were during their time overseas. While the study focused on transition rather than on language-learning improvements, it seemed evident that 8.6 Contributions to transitions theory some students were happier than others during their time abroad. The structure of the study The information perspective of the study means that it makes a variety of contributions to additionally meant that it was impossible to tell whether the support that students received transitions theory. Specifically, the study increases understanding about the sociocultural from English speakers counteracted gains in language skills. conditions that constrain and enable transition. The recognition that students actively negotiate the ways in which they mediate change highlights how transition is shaped through 8.8 Practical recommendations the social interactions between people rather than forming a one-way process of Findings from the study lead to the formulation of several practical recommendations. For acculturation. In centring on a bounded rather than an irreversible transition, the study also language librarians, the study highlights the importance of broadening information literacy recognises the role of time within transition. Rather than seeing transition as fixed-in-time instructional opportunities beyond the more typical literature class. The recognition that (Bridges, 1991), the realisation that temporality both constrains and enables the enactment of students struggled to find housing as well as to understand the various legal rules and information literacy practices demonstrates how time plays an active rather than a passive regulations with which they need to comply means that the study recommends that language role within processes of change. The important part that mobile phones and artefacts play librarians work with residence abroad coordinators to help prepare students for everyday within language-student activities overseas means that the study also brings a material focus information environments. Upon students’ return, language librarians could further draw to transitions theory. Demonstrating that material objects enable students to both regulate and upon student engagement in everyday information activities to design reflective learning coordinate their engagement overseas as well as to sequence their activity over time, the opportunities that underscore the transcultural goals of modern language education (MLA, study signals the neglected role that tools and technologies as well as information creation 2007). Similarly, findings from the study have implications for librarians who work with play within transitional processes. The study also extends a focus on the body to transitions international students. Highlighting that one of the challenges of residence abroad is to theory. Highlighting how language-students use their own bodies as well as the bodies of rebuild social connections, the study recommends expanding library events such as speed- others to guide their activity and the development of knowing, the study develops transitions friending (Bridges, 2014) that aim to break down barriers and build networks between theory by emphasising that transitions are both corporeally and socially mediated rather than domestic and international students. In further demonstrating the pressure that many students purely focused on the cognitive. are under to make the most of their time overseas and the impact that these tensions has on the shaping of information literacy practices, the study also illustrates the need to design 8.7 Limitations learning opportunities that are sensitive to the complexity of international students’ Building upon the methodological shortcomings of the study (see 4.8), the findings are transitional activities. subject to several limitations. One of these limitations centres on the use of photographs; For university staff and study abroad providers, the study recommends integrating while photographs broaden the study in a variety of ways (see 8.3), the reliance on images student peers into pre-departure orientations. Peer-led panels recognise the important role that may also have over-emphasised the visual aspects of the study by accentuating an ocular- fellow students play in preparing learners for residence abroad and give students the centric focus. Another limitation centres on the time-scale of the research; the abbreviated opportunity to ask about insider information that a home or host institution may not think is nature of students’ stays abroad as well as my status as a part-time PhD student meant that it relevant while also helping them to assuage their fears before departure. Importantly, while was not possible to share all the findings from the research with participants. Although I 172 173

recognising that many students will supplement official welcome events with advice and second-generation immigrant or in a very conservative or liberal area. The focus on high recommendations from family contacts, orientations such as these also help to ensure the stakes pressure means that the theory should further examine the activities of people in accessibility of residence abroad (cf. Brooks & Waters, 2010; Waters & Brooks, 2010). stressful situations including financial speculation, extreme sports and the military. In turn, Similarly, findings from the study suggest the need to design learning opportunities that the emphasis on change means that mitigating risk can be used to study situations in which integrate students into their new setting. Noting that few students in the study engaged with people are attempting to rebuild their lives, for example while recovering from addiction or the community groups and leisure activities that afford access to information (Quirke, 2014), mental health issues. The prominence of time pressure means that mitigating risk should also residence abroad coordinators could establish opportunities for students to participate in local consider time-delimited activities such as event planning or seasonal workplace practices. faith-based, service or sports organisations. Participation in these groups would help students Beyond focusing on specific groups of people, the theory of mitigating risk provides to build connections to their local community and engage them with the tacit and contingent the means to re-examine common ideas within library and information science. The concept forms of information that structure social life (Lloyd et al., 2013). The important role that of satisficing, which describes information that is “good enough” (Case & Given, 2016, observing plays during student time overseas means that the study also encourages the p.36), has often been used to explain the selection of less reliable or credible information. In training of students in ethnographic methods to scaffold their engagement with the puzzling recognising that people who are engaged in satisficing direct their information activity events that they encounter (e.g. Jackson, 2005; Kinginger, 2011). towards meeting specific goals within a specific time-period (Zach, 2005, p.31), future Notwithstanding, while recognising that transitional sites provide an inhospitable research should explore whether satisficing emerges from a person’s attempt to mitigate risk setting for many, findings from the study call for a nuanced approach to academic staff within a defined scenario. Similarly, the study’s emphasis on temporality means that the involvement within transition. Demonstrating that transition provides a variety of complex theory of mitigating risk could re-examine Wilson’s (1977) ideas of concern or caring, where yet generative opportunities for student learning, the study emphasises the need for academic a person’s interest affects how much energy they invest in resolving an issue. Future research staff to refrain from simplifying educational interventions and positioning students as unable should also investigate the connections between the theory of mitigating risk and information to navigate change without formal support. In further recognising that transition is neither poverty (Chatman, 1996). In employing secrecy and deception to avoid asking supervisors, linear nor predictable, findings from the study also demonstrate the need to acknowledge colleagues or fellow residents for assistance, the janitors and elderly residents in Chatman’s discontinuity within student learning to avoid creating normative and cumulative studies could be engaging in self-protective activities to mitigate the risk of being found out development trajectories that obscure the dynamics of change. as less healthy or competent than they appear. Chatman’s (1996, p.204) focus on risk-taking, which demonstrates the important role that “contextual others” play in shaping whether it is 8.9 Future research worth attempting to access and engage with information or not, could further demonstrate the Findings from the study provide various avenues and angles for future research. Most role that temporality or a person’s projection for the future plays within these activities. importantly, the theory of mitigating risk needs to be examined within other contexts to determine its use in explaining other transitional activities as well as to explore the findings 8.9.1 Information literacy from the research further. As both Webber and Johnston (2013, p.23) and Willson (2016) The study demonstrates the importance of continuing to study information literacy through signal, transitions play an important role throughout a person’s life and future research should both a social constructivist and a practice theory lens. More specifically, future research move beyond the academic focus of the study. More specifically, the emphasis on social could target far less commonly explored questions of materiality (although see Pilerot, 2016; tension and the affordances of a setting means that the theory of mitigating risk provides a Sundin & Carlsson, 2016; Sundin & Francke, 2009). In highlighting that tools and material meaningful way to investigate how people engage in what may be considered stigmatised surroundings coordinate and direct student enactment of information literacy practices, activities such as elective surgery and gambling as well as exploring different identities as a further research would provide a more complete exploration of the role of material affordances in the development of knowing. Spatiality forms another underexplored focus 174 175

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models, interactive methods, and music digital library tool development. Journal of Appendix 1: Recruitment information the Association for Information Science and Technology, 59(12), 1878-1897. doi:10.1002/asi.20876 Webpage Text Witter, D. (2014). IBISWorld Industry Report 61163. Language instruction in the US. Are you studying a language and about to travel abroad on a study, work or volunteer Retrieved from IBISWorld database. placement for three months or more? If so, consider participating in this research about your Woodley, C., & Meredith, C. (2012). Supporting student transition through social media. information experience and use as you settle in! You’ll be helping me with my research, but American Journal of Distance Education, 26(2), 86-95. you’d gain a valuable chance to reflect on your experiences abroad, which may help you if doi:10.1080/08923647.2012.655055 you have to write a report for your programme. I will also be providing USD$40 Amazon or Xie, S. (2012). Canadian academic library support for international faculty: Library iTunes gift cards to compensate you for your time. experience and information needs of Chinese visiting scholars at the University of Western Ontario. Partnership: The Canadian Journal of Library and Information You are eligible if you are: Practice and Research, 7(2),1-15. Retrieved from https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index.php/perj/article/viewArticle/1997 ● Currently undertaking an undergraduate degree in a world language (e.g. French, Yeoman, A. (2009). Information behaviour in accounts of the menopause transition. Spanish, Japanese, Russian, Arabic, etc.) (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Aberystwyth University, UK. Retrieved from ○ In the United States, Canada or Australia, this includes students with language http://cadair.aber.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/handle/2160/3523/AYeoman%20revised major/minor or who are studying a language in an honors/honours programme %20phd%20thes...?sequence=1 ○ In the United Kingdom, this includes students studying single or joint honours, Zach, L. (2005). When is “enough” enough? Modeling the information-seeking and stopping as well as ab initio students. behavior of senior arts administrators. Journal of the Association for Information ● About to go abroad for a period of three months or more Science and Technology, 56(1), 23-35. doi:10.1002/asi.20092 ○ This includes study, work or volunteer placements Zhao, J.C., & Mawhinney, T. (2015). Comparison of native Chinese-speaking and native English-speaking engineering students' information literacy challenges. The Journal If you agree to take part in this research, you will take part in two audio-recorded interviews of Academic Librarianship, 41(6), 712-724. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2015.09.010 via Skype or similar, and capture photos of your information usage. Anything you say, and Zinn, J. (2008). Heading into the unknown: Everyday strategies for managing risk and any media you capture will be treated in confidence. It is your decision to be part of this uncertainty. Health, Risk & Society, 10(5), 439-450. doi: project and if you decide that you would later like to pull out from the research, you don’t 10.1080/13698570802380891 have to tell me why you are leaving and you won’t be disadvantaged in any way. Zinn, J. (2009). Introduction: The contribution of sociology to the discourse on risk and uncertainty. In: J. Zinn (Ed.) Social theories of risk and uncertainty: An introduction Sound intriguing? Register your interest below! (pp.1-17). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Zinn, J. (2010). Risk as discourse: interdisciplinary perspectives. Critical approaches to ● Contact Details discourse analysis across disciplines 4(2), 106-124. Retrieved from ● Name/Email: http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/journals/cadaad/wp- ● What’s your degree/major? What language(s) are you studying? content/uploads/2015/01/Volume-4_Zinn.pdf ● Residence Abroad: Zoom (n.d.). Retrieved from https://zoom.us ● Which country are you going to and which language are you studying? ● How long will you be there for? ● What will you be doing there? (Study, Work, Internship, Volunteer, Other)

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PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET 7. What if I don't want to take part in this study or decide to withdraw before the study ends? You are invited to participate in a research study on your time abroad, which is known as Participation in this research is entirely your choice. Only those people who give their Study Abroad or Exchange in the United States, Canada and Australia, and the Year Abroad informed consent will be included in the project. If you do decide to participate, you may in the United Kingdom. This study is being conducted by Alison Hicks at Charles Sturt withdraw from the project up to two weeks after the second interview without giving a University, Australia. reason. Any information that is created up until the time of withdrawal will be removed from Before you decide whether or not you wish to participate in this study, it is important for you the dataset and destroyed. to understand why the research is being done and what it will involve. Please take the time to 8. How will my confidentiality be protected? read the following information carefully and discuss it with others if you wish. I will ask you to confirm in the first interview whether you give consent to take part in this study. Any information collected by the researcher that might identify you will be stored securely in a password-protected file and only accessed by the researcher unless you consent otherwise. 1. What is the purpose of this study? Data will be stored securely in a password-protected file for a minimum of five years after I’m interested in how language majors/students transition from the classroom to the country publication of the results. You will be able to retain copies of all materials submitted during whose language you have been studying, in particular, how you use information to settle in, the project. to adjust your everyday habits, and any new information practices that you might have 9. What will happen to the information that I give you? adopted. Data (interview or media) from this research may be quoted or analysed in this thesis, as well 2. Why have I been invited to participate in this study? as presented at scholarly and professional conferences and published in journals, books, etc. I am seeking language majors/students who are going abroad for a period of three months or All data will be kept confidential; you will be identified or given a pseudonym in accordance more. More specifically, you are eligible if you are: with your wishes. If you choose to be given a pseudonym you will not be able to be identified ● Currently undertaking an undergraduate degree in a world language (e.g. French, from any analysis or quotations or through the posting of any media you provide. Spanish, Japanese, Russian, Arabic, etc.) 10. What should I do if I want to discuss this study further before I decide? ○ In the United States, Canada or Australia, this includes students with language If you would like further information please contact Alison Hicks ([email protected]) or my major/minor or who are studying a language in an honors/honours programme supervisor, Annemaree Lloyd ([email protected]) from whom potential participants can ○ In the United Kingdom, this includes students studying single/joint honours obtain further information about the project. ● Currently engaged or about to go abroad for a period of three months or more ○ This includes study, work or volunteer placements 11. Who should I contact if I have concerns about the conduct of this study? ○ If you are going abroad for less than three months you are not eligible to The Faculty of Education Human Research Ethics Committee has approved this project. If participate. you have any complaints or reservations about the ethical conduct of this project, you may 3. What does this study involve? contact the Committee or my supervisor through the Executive Officer, Lisa McLean: If you agree to participate, you will be asked to take part in two interviews via Skype or a Faculty of Education Human Ethics Committee, Charles Sturt University video conferencing service. Interviews will take place at the beginning and end of your stay, [email protected], 02 6338 4966 and will be audio recorded and transcribed. You will also be asked to take photos to record your information experiences over a period of a month. We will then discuss these photos in Any issues you raise will be treated in confidence and investigated fully and you will be the second interview. informed of the outcome. 4. Are there risks and benefits to me in taking part in this study? Thank you for considering this invitation. This information sheet is for you to keep. There are no known risks of participating in this research. Benefits include the chance to reflect on your experiences abroad, which may be helpful if you have to complete a report about your stay. 5. How is this study being paid for? Funding from Charles Sturt University will pay for this. 6. Will taking part in this study (or travelling to) cost me anything, and will I be paid? It will not cost you anything to take part in this study. You will be offered a USD$40 (GBP£25/ CAD$50/ AUD$50) iTunes or Amazon gift card to compensate you for your use of a data plan and for your time in taking part in this study. Gift cards will be emailed after the second interview. If you withdraw from the study you will still receive the gift card to thank you for participating up to the point of withdrawal. 214 215

Appendix 2: Semi-structured interview guide (indicative) Appendix 3: Photo-elicitation discussion and training

Opening Conversation Thanks for agreeing to be an anthropologist abroad for me! Here are the basic guidelines for ● Remind me where you're located and what language you are studying. capturing photos ethically and appropriately: ● How long have you studied that language? What made you decide to go abroad? ● Try and avoid taking photos of people. If you want to take photos of a person or a ● Have you travelled or lived abroad before? small group of people, you *must* get verbal consent. Taking photos where the ○ Has anyone in your family travelled or lived abroad before? person is not the main focus of the photo and is not identifiable is fine. ● Tell me about your programme and what you're doing while you're abroad. ● Don’t invade anyone’s privacy! Use your judgment- would you like to be ○ Are you there with anyone you know? photographed in that situation? Similarly, respect someone’s right to refuse consent. ● Don’t trespass! Take photos on public property and ask permission if you want to take Experiences photos on private property. ● How’s it all going so far? ● Respect the cultural norms and considerations. Don’t make assumptions about what is ● What were your first impressions of the country/town? normal- if in doubt ask a local whether it’s ok. ● How are you coping with everyday things like choosing a grocery store, finding your ● Don’t hide! Explain what you're doing if anyone asks ;) way around, opening a bank account, finding the best bar etc.? ○ How did you work out what to do? How did you find helpful sources of Personal Safety information? Don’t forget, your safety is the highest priority ○ If you have questions, what do you do? Who do you approach? Where do you ● Be aware of your surroundings go? ● Don’t do anything you wouldn’t usually do ● Don’t go anywhere you wouldn’t usually go Before Arrival ● Don’t take photos if it is dangerous to you ● Were you given any information about this country or town before you got here? ○ By whom? Was it helpful? Why or why not? What would have helped you? Guidelines ● Were you given any information on arrival? If you're not sure whether you should be taking that photo, ask yourself these questions: ○ By whom? Was it helpful? Do No Harm ● How did you prepare before you got here? ● Am I taking photos in a way that will do harm to me or my community or my setting? ○ Websites, people, school, prior contact etc. Do Good ● What is my intention or purpose for taking this photo? Getting to Know Fairness ● Are you using any technologies to help you settle in? ● Am I taking photo in a way that fairly represents the situation, or the physical ○ Have you altered any settings, used any different sites since you got here? location? ○ Have you altered your social media habits? Added anyone local? Justice ● Have any people been especially helpful? ● Am I respectful of the places and things that I am photographing? ○ How did you know to ask them? Did you approach them looking for help?

Challenges and Strategies ● What have been your biggest challenges that you have faced so far? ● What about your family or friends? Do you ask them for help? ○ Who else has been helpful so far? Why did you approach them?

Settling In ● Have you been able to share how to do something with anyone yet? ○ For example, have you been able to give tips, advice? If so, what? ● Considering what we have talked about, what do you wish you had known before you left home, or what advice would you give to someone going abroad next year?

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Appendix 4: EthOS training Appendix 5: EthOS security policy

EthOS Labs leverage Amazon Web Services (AWS) for their computing infrastructure. AWS 1. Use the link that Alison will send you to download the EthOS app. has achieved ISO 27001 certification and has successfully completed multiple SSAE 16 2. Login with your email address and the password they provide. You can change this audits. For more detail on AWS security, please refer to https://aws.amazon.com/security. password under Settings. 3. You can now take photos for this study! Click on the relevant icon to get started. Physical and Environmental Security 4. After you have taken the photo, you will be given the option to give it a description- EthOS Labs employees do not have physical access of any kind to our production facilities, use this if you don’t think you’ll remember why you took it... When you're done, click as all of our infrastructure is in the cloud at AWS. Send. 5. Click View Entries to see your media or notes. Swipe left to delete them. AWS’s data centers are state of the art, utilizing innovative architectural and engineering 6. If you are not in a Wi-Fi enabled space, simply take photos with your regular camera approaches. Amazon has many years of experience in designing, constructing, and operating and upload them later. Click on the photo icon and select Camera Roll. large-scale data centers. This experience has been applied to the AWS platform and 7. Whatever photos you take will be stored in your device’s normal camera too. infrastructure. AWS data centers are housed in nondescript facilities. Physical access is 8. At the end of the project I’ll give you warning before I delete your account and let strictly controlled both at the perimeter and at building ingress points by professional security you know how to download photos if you have already deleted them from your phone staff utilizing video surveillance, intrusion detection systems, and other electronic means. or tablet. Authorized staff must pass two-factor authentication a minimum of two times to access data center floors. All visitors and contractors are required to present identification and are signed in and continually escorted by authorized staff.

AWS only provides data center access and information to employees and contractors who have a legitimate business need for such privileges. When an employee no longer has a business need for these privileges, his or her access is immediately revoked, even if they continue to be an employee of Amazon or Amazon Web Services. All physical access to data centers by AWS employees is logged and audited routinely.

Fire Detection and Suppression Automatic fire detection and suppression equipment has been installed to reduce risk. The fire detection system utilizes smoke detection sensors in all data center environments, mechanical and electrical infrastructure spaces, chiller rooms and generator equipment rooms. These areas are protected by either wet-pipe, double-interlocked pre-action, or gaseous sprinkler systems.

Power The data center electrical power systems are designed to be fully redundant and maintainable without impact to operations, 24 hours a day, and seven days a week. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) units provide back-up power in the event of an electrical failure for critical and essential loads in the facility. Data centers use generators to provide back-up power for the entire facility.

Climate and Temperature Climate control is required to maintain a constant operating temperature for servers and other hardware, which prevents overheating and reduces the possibility of service outages. Data centers are conditioned to maintain atmospheric conditions at optimal levels. Personnel and systems monitor and control temperature and humidity at appropriate levels.

Management AWS monitors electrical, mechanical, and life support systems and equipment so that any issues are immediately identified. Preventative maintenance is performed to maintain the 218 219

continued operability of equipment. For additional information see: prepared statements within our ORM (Doctrine) to avoid SQL injection issues and all user https://aws.amazon.com/security input is sanitised to prevent XSS.

Network Security Encryption The AWS network provides significant protection against traditional network security issues, Our application interfaces all leverage and require SSL throughout. By using encryption, we and you can implement further protection. The following are a few examples: minimize the chances of someone possibly intercepting username/password combinations and/or other sensitive information. All data (other than passwords and authentication strings) Distributed Denial Of Service (DDoS) Attacks is stored in plain text. AWS API endpoints are hosted on large, Internet-scale, world class infrastructure that benefits from the same engineering expertise that has built Amazon into the world’s largest Data Storage & Retention Policies online retailer. Proprietary DDoS mitigation techniques are used. Additionally, AWS’s File attachments are stored within AWS S3. Video files are transcoded through a 3rd party networks are multi homed across a number of providers to achieve Internet access diversity. provider, Zencoder, who also utilize AWS for their infrastructure allowing secure file transcoding and delivery to AWS S3. Man in the Middle (MITM) Attacks All of the AWS APIs are available via SSL-protected endpoints which provide server Data is stored in a MySQL Database. Our databases are backed up on a nightly basis. In authentication. Amazon EC2 AMIs automatically generate new SSH host certificates on first addition to our usage of this data in production we also occasionally take a copy of the data boot and log them to the instance’s console. and load it in our testing environments.

Port Scanning We use Amazon's Content Delivery Network (CDN), CloudFront, which has multiple edge Unauthorized port scans by Amazon EC2 customers are a violation of the AWS Acceptable locations around the world to deliver previews of file attachments. Amazon CloudFront Use Policy. Violations of the AWS Acceptable Use Policy are taken seriously, and every caches copies of the preview files close to viewers, lowering latency when they reported violation is investigated. When unauthorized port scanning is detected by AWS, it is download/view the files. All original files can only be accessed via AWS S3 via an SSL stopped and blocked. Port scans of Amazon EC2 instances are generally ineffective because, encrypted endpoint using the HTTPS protocol using an expiring token. by default, all inbound ports on Amazon EC2 instances are closed. Incident Management Policies Packet sniffing by other tenants We plan on always notifying our customers of security incidents as soon as it is safe and It is not possible for a virtual instance running in promiscuous mode to receive or “sniff” prudent to do so, and will share any relevant information to allow our customers to take the traffic that is intended for a different virtual instance. Even two virtual instances that are necessary actions. owned by the same customer located on the same physical host cannot listen to each other’s traffic. Attacks such as ARP cache poisoning do not work within Amazon EC2. Customer Data EthOS Labs employees do not access customer data as part of normal operations, however Host Security they may need to when providing support at the request of the customer or when required to Our production environment is completely separate from the other environments, including do so by law. staging and development.

Our servers are built using repeatable build processes powered by Puppet (http://puppetlabs.com). We keep all source code and configuration files within private GitHub repository’s http://github.com. Root access is disabled on our servers, all access is controlled via SSH keys, individually identifiable RSA key pairs are used for SSH access. This insures that there is a complete audit trail via sudo from a specific action back to the specific individual who triggered that action. Systems are in place to bans IPs that show the signs of malicious activity.

All server log files are curated and stored in a central location, this allows our operations team to search and monitor our logs for unusual events.

Web Security We actively scan our website for the OWASP Top 10 Web Application Security Risks and other known security holes. We use best practices for secure code, for example, we use 220 221 Seldén, Lars (2004). Kapital och karriär: informationssökning i forskningens vardagspraktik. (ISBN 91-89416- Publikationer i serien Skrifter från VALFRID 08-2) Första uppl. 1999. Skriftserien; 20

Enmark, Romulo (red.) (1990). Biblioteksstudier. Folkbibliotek i flervetenskaplig belysning. (ISBN 91-971457-0- Edström, Göte (2000). Filter, raster, mönster: litteraturguide i teori- och metodlitteratur för biblioteks- och X) Skriftserien; 1 informationsvetenskap och angränsande ämnen inom humaniora och samhällsvetenskap. (ISBN 91-89416-01-5) Skriftserien; 21 Enmark, Romulo (red.) (1991). Biblioteken och framtiden. [Bok 1], Framtidsdebatten i nordisk bibliotekspress. (ISBN 91-971457-1-8) Skriftserien; 2 Klasson, Maj (red.) (2000). Röster: biblioteksbranden i Linköping. (ISBN 91-89416-02-3) Skriftserien; 22

Selden, Lars (red.) (1992). Biblioteken och framtiden. [Bok 2], Nordisk idédebatt: konferens i Borås 11-13 Stenberg, Catharina (2001). Litteraturpolitik och bibliotek: en kulturpolitisk analys av bibliotekens november 1991. (ISBN 91-971457-2-6) Skriftserien; 3 litteraturförvärv speglad i Litteraturutredningen L 68 och Folkbiblioteksutredningen FB 80. (ISBN 91-89416- 03-1) Skriftserien; 23 Hjørland, Birger (1993). Emnerepræsentation og informationssøgning: bidrag til en teori på kundskabsteoretisk grundlag. 2. uppl. med register. (ISBN 91-971457-4-2) Skriftserien; 4 Edström, Göte (2002). Filter, raster, mönster: litteraturguide i teori- och metodlitteratur för biblioteks- och informationsvetenskap och angränsande ämnen inom humaniora och samhällsvetenskap. Andra aktualiserade Höglund, Lars (red.) (1995). Biblioteken, kulturen och den sociala intelligensen: aktuell forskning inom och utökade upplagan. (ISBN 91-89416-05-8) Skriftserien; 24 biblioteks- och informationsvetenskap. (ISBN 91-971457-5-0) Skriftserien; 5 Sundin, Olof (2003). Informationsstrategier och yrkesidentiteter: en studie av sjuksköterskors relation till Hjørland, Birger (1995). Faglitteratur: kvalitet, vurdering og selektion: grundbog i materialevalg. (ISBN 91- fackinformation vid arbetsplatsen. (ISBN 91-89416-06-6) Skriftserien; 25 971457-6-9) Skriftserien; 6 Hessler, Gunnel (2003). Identitet och förändring: en studie av ett universitetsbibliotek och dess självproduktion. Limberg, Louise (1996). Skolbiblioteksmodeller. Utvärdering av ett utvecklingsprojekt i Örebro län. (ISBN 91- (ISBN 91-89416-07-4) Skriftserien; 26 971457-7-7) Skriftserien; 7 Zetterlund, Angela (2004). Att utvärdera i praktiken: en retrospektiv fallstudie av tre program för lokal Hjørland, Birger (1997). Faglitteratur: kvalitet, vurdering og selektion. Bd1, Materialevalgets almene teori, folkbiblioteksutveckling. (ISBN 91-89416-09-0) Skriftserien; 27 metoder og forudsætninger. (ISBN 91-971457-8-5) Skriftserien; 8 Ahlgren, Per (2004). The effects on indexing strategy-query term combination on retrieval effectiveness in a Pettersson, Rune (1997). Verbo-visual Communication: Presentation of Clear Swedish full text database. (ISBN 91-89416-10-4) Skriftserien; 28 Messages for Information and Learning. (ISBN 91-971457-9-3) Skriftserien ; 9 Thórsteinsdóttir, Gudrun (2005). The information seeking behaviour of distance students: a study of twenty Pettersson, Rune (1997). Verbo-visual Communication: 12 Selected Papers. (ISBN 91-973090-0-1) Skriftserien; Swedish library and information science students. (ISBN 91-89416-11-2) Skriftserien; 29 10 Jarneving, Bo (2005). The combined application of bibliographic coupling and the complete link cluster method Limberg, Louise. (1997). Skolbiblioteksmodeller: utvärdering av ett utvecklingsprojekt i Örebro län. (ISBN 91- in bibliometric science mapping. (ISBN 91-89416-12-0) Skriftserien; 30 973090-1-X) Skriftserien; 11 (nytryck av nr 7, bilaga inne i boken) Limberg, Louise, Folkesson, Lena (2006). Undervisning i informationssökning: Eliasson, Anette, Lööf Staffan, Rydsjö, Kerstin (red.) (1997). Barnbibliotek och informationsteknik: elektroniska slutrapport från projektet Informationssökning, didaktik och lärande (IDOL). medier för barn och ungdomar på folkbibliotek. (ISBN 91-973090-2-8) Skriftserien; 12 (ISBN 91-89416-13-9) Skriftserien; 31

Klasson, Maj (red.) (1997). Folkbildning och bibliotek? På spaning efter spår av folkbildning och livslångt Johannisson, Jenny (2006) Det lokala möter världen: kulturpolitiskt förändringsarbete i 1990-talets Göteborg. lärande i biblioteksvärlden. (ISBN 91-973090-3-6) Skriftserien; 13 (ISBN 91-89416-14-7) Skriftserien; 32

Zetterlund, Angela (1997). Utvärdering och folkbibliotek: en studie av utvärderingens teori och praktik med Gärdén, Cecilia, Eliasson, Anette, Flöög, Eva-Maria, Persson, Christina, Zetterlund, Angela (2006). exempel från folkbibliotekens förändrings- och utvecklingsprojekt. (ISBN 91-973090-4-4) Skriftserien; 14 Folkbibliotek och vuxnas lärande: förutsättningar, dilemman och möjligheter i utvecklingsprojekt. (ISBN 91- 89416-15-5) Skriftserien; 33 Myrstener, Mats (1998). På väg mot ett stadsbibliotek: folkbiblioteksväsendets framväxt i Stockholm t o m 1927. (ISBN 91-973090-5-2) Skriftserien; 15 Dahlström, Mats (2006). Under utgivning: den vetenskapliga utgivningens bibliografiska funktion. (ISBN 91- 89416-16-3) Skriftserien; 34 Limberg, Louise (2001). Att söka information för att lära: en studie av samspel mellan informationssökning och lärande. (ISBN 91-973090-6-0) Första uppl. 1998. Skriftserien; 16 Nowé, Karen (2007). Tensions and Contradictions in Information Management: an activity-theoretical approach to information activities in a Swedish youth/peace organisation. (ISBN 978-91-85659-08-1) Skriftserien; 35 Hansson, Joacim (1998). Om folkbibliotekens ideologiska identitet: en diskursstudie. (ISBN 91-973090-7-9) Skriftserien ; 17 Francke, Helena (2008). (Re)creations of Scholarly Journals: document and information architecture in open access journals. (ISBN 978-91-85659-16-6) Skriftserien; 36 Gram, Magdalena (2000). Konstbiblioteket: en krönika och en fallstudie. (ISBN 91-973090-8-7) Skriftserien; 18 Hultgren, Frances (2009). Approaching the future: a study of Swedish school leavers’ information related Hansson, Joacim (1999). Klassifikation, bibliotek och samhälle: en kritisk hermeneutisk studie av activities. (ISBN 978-91-89416-18-5) Skriftserien; 37 ”Klassifikationssystem för svenska bibliotek”. (ISBN 91-973090-9-5) Skriftserien; 19 Söderlind, Åsa (2009). Personlig integritet som informationspolitik: debatt och diskussion i samband med tillkomsten av Datalag (1973:289). (ISBN 978-91-89416-20-8) Skriftserien; 38 Björk, Lars (2015). How reproductive is a reproduction? Digital transimisson of textbased documents. (ISBN 978- Nalumaga, Ruth (2009). Crossing to the mainstream: information challenges and possibilities for female 91-981654-6-3) Skriftserien; 59 legislators in the Ugandan parliament. (ISBN 91-89416-20-1) Skriftserien; 39 Eklund, Johan (2016). With or without context: Automatic text categorization using semantic kernels. (ISBN 978- Johannesson, Krister (2009). I främsta rummet: planerandet av en högskolebiblioteksbyggnad med studenters 91-981654-8-7) Skriftserien; 60 arbete i fokus. (ISBN 978-91-89416-21-5) Skriftserien; 40 Kawalya, Jane (2009). The National Library of Uganda: its inception, challenges and prospects, 1997-2007. Gunnarsson Lorentzen, David (2016). Following tweets around: Informetric methodology for the twittersphere. (ISBN 91-89416-22-8) Skriftserien; 41 (ISBN 978-91-981653-0-2) Skriftserien; 61

Gärdén, Cecilia (2010). Verktyg för lärande: informationssökning och informationsanvändning i kommunal Lindh, Maria (2017). Cloudy talks: Exploring accounts about cloud computing. (ISBN 978-91-981653-2-6) vuxenutbildning. (ISBN 978-91-98416-23-9) Skriftserien; 42 Skriftserien; 62 Michnik, Katarina (2017). Samhällets allt-i-allo? Om folkbibliotekens sociala legitimitet. (ISBN 978-91-981653- Ponti, Marisa (2010). Actors in collaboration: sociotechnical influence on practice-research collaboration. 4-0) Skriftserien; 63 (ISBN 978-91-89416-24-6) Skriftserien; 43 Söderholm, Jonas (2018). Borrowing and Lending Tools: The Mateiality of X-Lending Libraries. (ISBN 978-91- Jansson, Bertil (2010). Bibliotekarien: om yrkets tidiga innehåll och utveckling. (ISBN 978-91-89416-25-3) 981653-6-4) Skriftserien; 64 Skriftserien; 44 Forsgren, Emma (2018). Enterprise social media in project-based knowledge work: A contextualized view through Olson, Nasrine (2010). Taken for granted: the construction of order in the process of library management system the lens of activity theory. (ISBN 978-91-981653-8-8) Skriftserien; 65 decision making. (ISBN 978-91-89416-26-0) Skriftserien; 45 Hicks, Alison (2018). The theory of mitigating risk: Information literacy and language-learning in transition. Gunnarsson, Mikael (2011). Classification along genre dimensions: exploring a multidisciplinary problem. (ISBN 978-91-983398-0-2) Skriftserien; 66 (ISBN 978-91-85659-72-2) Skriftserien; 46

Lundh, Anna (2011). Doing research in primary school: information activities in project-based learning. (ISBN 978-91-89416-28-7) Skriftserien; 47

Dolatkhah, Mats (2011). Det läsande barnet: minnen av läspraktiker, 1900–1940. (ISBN 978-91-89416-29-5) Skriftserien; 48

Frenander, Anders (red.) (2011). Arkitekter på armlängds avstånd? Att studera kulturpolitik. (ISBN 978-91- 978768-0-3) Skriftserien; 49

Frenander, Anders & Lindberg, Jenny (red.) (2011). Styra eller stödja: svensk folkbibliotekspolitik under hundra år. (ISBN 978-91-978768-1-0) Skriftserien; 50

Isah, Esther Ebole (2012). Physicians´ Informations Practicies: A Case Study of a Medical Team at a Teaching Hospital. (ISBN 978-91-978768-2-7) Skriftserien; 51 Johansson, Veronica (2012). A Time and Place for Everything? Social Visualisation Tools and Critical Literacies. (ISBN 978-91-978768-3-4) Skriftserien; 52

Maurin Söderholm, Hanna (2013). Emergency Visualized: Exploring Visual Technology for Paramedic-Physician Collaboration in Emergency Care. (ISBN 978-91-978768-5-8) Skriftserien; 53

Lindsköld, Linnéa (2013). Betydelsen av kvalitet: en studie av diskursen om statens stöd till ny, svensk skönlitteratur 1975-2009. (ISBN 978-91-978768-5-6) Skriftserien; 54

Pilerot, Ola (2014). Design Researchers’ Information Sharing: The Enactment of a Discipline. (ISBN 978-91- 978768-8-9) Skriftserien; 55

Lassi, Monica (2014). Facilitating collaboration: Exploring a socio-technical approach to the design of a collaboratory for Library and Information Science. (ISBN 978-91-981654-0-1) Skriftserien; 56

Dessne, Karin (2014). In a world of values and views: Information and learning activities in a military setting. (ISBN 978-91-981654-2-5) Skriftserien; 57

Lindberg, Jenny (2015). Att bli bibliotekarie: informationssökning och yrkesidentitet hos B & I-studenter och nyanställda högskolebibliotekarier. (ISBN 978-91-981654-4-9), Skriftserien; 58