Regional Stratigraphy of North America Regional Stratigraphy of North America

William J. Frazier David R. Schwimmer Columbus College Columbus, Georgia

Plenum Press • New York and London Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Frazier, William J., 1946- Regional stratigraphy of North America. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Geology, Stratigraphic. 2. Geology-North America. I. Schwimmer, David R. II. Title. QE651.F75 1987 557 87-7019 ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9005-6 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-1795-1 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-1795-1

This limited facsimile edition has been issued for the purpose of keeping this title available to the scientific community.

109876543

© 1987 Plenum Press, New York A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013 All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher To Sandra and Gabriele Preface

An early reviewer of this book stated that he had difficulty assessing its marketability because it "falls between the cracks" of geological literature. We have designed this book to meet a need of modem geology: namely, a single source providing both detailed and synoptic stratigraphy of the various regions of North America, through geological time. Shortly after beginning work on such a book, we realized why it had not yet been written: it required six years of effort, assimilation of an incredible amount of information, and two years' additional work to cut the volume down to publishable size. Further, by the time the final chapter was written, the fIrst few were already out of date. Nevertheless, the book lies in front of you. It is intended to serve several purposes. As a textbook, it will serve the following courses: • Regional stratigraphy • Sedimentary tectonics • Regional tectonics • Advanced historical geology • Survey-level paleontology Obviously, not all portions of the book are relevant to all of the above courses. We assume the reader will retain this book after the particular course is done, and will use it as a reference book. Hopefully, others will obtain the book solely for reference purposes. We believe it will be especially useful for the working geologist or academic geologist seeking generalized and some moderately detailed information about a region or geological time interval which is unfamiliar. Discussions herein are detailed to the formational level on an exemplar basis: that is, not all formations for a time and region are discussed, but the characteristic strata are generally explained in a paragraph and equivalent units are noted. It is hoped that the reader can fInd the depositional history of virtually any North American unit of note in this text. We omit discussions of basic principles because it is assumed the reader will have had courses in physical geology, historical geology, mineralogy, principles of stratigraphy, and at least a basic introduc• tion to plate tectonics theory. A considerable amount of paleontology is included because many under• graduate curricula do not require paleontology and many discussions herein involve details of bio• stratigraphy. Then too, even a course in undergraduate invertebrate paleontology will not prepare the reader for the various elements of vertebrate history we have interwoven with the stratigraphy. One may, of course, simply read the book for a thorough survey of North American stratigraphic history, exclusive of course or reference needs. Certain discussions will undoubtedly be heavy going, and for that reason we liberally provide overviews throughout. One may skip around the text and use the overviews to reorient or summarize detail one chooses not to read. A most valuable part of this book for many readers will be the citations. We opted for a compromise between the rigorous citation format of technical papers and the general lack of citations in textbooks. Rather than cite all arguments (as in journal articles), we typically cite both classical and current references for major arguments, and assume the reader will check those sources and their citations for further in-depth reference. We have vii viii PREFACE

attempted to avoid citing obscure or archaic sources, unless there is an important point to be made by the nature of such reference (e.g., the original authorship of a major idea). Specialists in many areas will undoubtedly bemoan our omissions of crucial papers: we ask indulgence and consideration of how many we found. An additional source of understandable culpability is in the scope of the book itself. Modem geology is inherently international, considering the importance of global tectonics. One may fairly ask how we dare create a sizable book dealing with the history of a single continent when all geologists realize that this slab of crust has been strongly influenced by the comings and goings of other continents, smaller terranes, and the expansions and contractions of seafloors. If we are myopic, it is for practical reasons: the book is already as large as possible. To provide a measure of the global perspective, we open most chapters with analyses of global paleogeography, showing especially which adjacent landmasses were affecting the margins of North America during the time in discussion. In addition, in subsequent discussions in text we analyze the effects of extracontinental influences on this continent's geological development.

William]. Frazier David R. Schwimmer Columbus, Georgia Acknowledgments

During the long course of production of this book, a great many individuals have assisted in manuscript preparation, securing literature, providing illustrations, and performing technical reviews. In figure captions we acknowledge the sources of all illustrations, so at least one group will receive a portion of the credit due. Here, we wish to thank selected individuals. For manuscript typing: Karen Jackson, Daniella Homeck, Martha White, Bonnie Edwards, and Martha Kilgore. For reproduction of text figures: Jon Haney. For literature search and acquisition: Dr. Sharon Self and Fred Smith. Many colleagues have shared ideas with us during the course of writing this manuscript, but we would especially like to thank Drs. Ronald S. Taylor, Thomas B. Hanley, Sydney W. Fox, William C. leNoir, and William Birkhead for valuable critiques during the course of research. We also wish to acknowledge the material and financial support given by Columbus College during the long course of this effort. Technical reviews were done by the following individuals, whose inclusion here does not neces• sarily indicate agreement with all material appearing in the book, but to whom we are grateful: Chapters 2 and 3, Dr. Kent C. Condie; Chapter 4, Dr. Juergen Reinhardt; Chapter 5, Dr. Peter W. Bretsky; Chapter 6, Dr. John M. Dennison; Chapter 7, Dr. Walter H. Wheeler; Chapter 8, Dr. Kenneth A. Aalto; Chapter 9, Drs. William J. Fritz and John Attig.

ix Contents

CHAPTER 1: Introduction 1

CHAPTER 2: The Archean 9 A. Introduction ...... 9 A.1. Distribution of Archean Rocks ...... 9 A.1.a. Archean Rocks outside of North America ...... 9 A.l.b. Archean Rocks of North America ...... 10 A.2. Problems of Archean Geology ...... 12 B. Major Archean Lithologies ...... 13 B.1. Greenstone Belts ...... 13 B.l.a. Shape ...... 14 B.l.b. Structure ...... 14 B.l.c. Stratigraphy ...... 17 B.2. A Digression: Weathering and Sedimentation during the Archean...... 21 B.2.a. Surface Temperature ...... 22 B.2.b. Atmospheric Composition...... 22 B.2.c. Weathering Processes...... 23 B.2.d. Sedimentation...... 23 B.3. High-Grade Terranes ...... 24 B.3.a. Isua Supracrustals: The Oldest Rocks...... 24 B.3.b. The Amitsoq and Uivak Gneisses...... 25 B.3.c. Malene and Uperoavik Supracrustals ...... 25 B.3.d. Younger Quartzofeldspathic Gneisses...... 26 B.3.e. Late Granites ...... 27 B.4. Relation of High-Grade Terranes to Greenstone Belts...... 27 C. Hypotheses on Archean Tectonics ...... 28 C.1. "Classical" Models: The Downsagging Basin ...... 28 C.2. Uniformitarian Models...... 30 C.2.a. Rift-Basin Model ...... 30 C.2.b. Marginal-Basin/Magmatic-Arc Model ...... 31 C.3. Development of an Actualistic Mvdel ...... 33 C.3.a. The Archean Geothermal Gradient...... 33 C.3.b. The Primitive Stage ...... 35 C.3.c. The Permobile Stage ...... 36 C.3.d. The Archean-Proterozoic Boundary...... 38 xi xii CONTENTS CHAPTER 3: The Proterozoic ...... 39 A. Introduction ...... 39 B. North Atlantic Craton ...... 39 B.1. Nagssugtoqidian Mobile Belt ...... 40 B.2. Ketilidian Mobile Belt ...... 40 B.3. The Gardar Assemblage...... 40 C. Circum-Superior MobUe Belt ...... 40 C.1. Southern Province ...... 41 C.I.a. Lower Proterozoic Strata of Southern Province ...... 43 C.l.b. The Hudsonian (Penokean) Orogeny ...... 48 C.l.c. Middle Proterozoic Rocks of Southern Province ...... 50 C.l.d. Upper Proterozoic Rocks of Southern Province ...... 51 C.2. Churchill Province, I: Circum-Ungava Mobile Belt ...... 52 C.2.a. The Labrador Trough ...... 52 C.2.b. Cape Smith Fold Belt ...... 53 C.2.c. Belcher Fold Belt ...... 55 C.3. Churchill Province, II: Western Circum-Superior Belt ...... 55 C.3.a. Sutton Inlier ...... 55 C.3.b. Fox River Belt ...... 56 C.3.c. Thompson Nickel Belt ...... 56 C.4. Tectonic Interpretation of the Circum-Superior Belt ...... 56 D. ChurcbUl Province, III: Western Churchill ...... 57 D.1. Major Fold Belts ...... 58 D.l.a. Wollaston Lake Fold Belt ...... 58 D.l.b. Foxe and Committee Fold Belts ...... 58 D.2. Supracrustals of the Kaminak Craton ...... 59 D.3. Thelon, Athabasca, and Borden Basins ...... 59 D.3.a. The Thelon Basin...... 59 D.3.b. The Athabasca Basin...... 60 D.3.c. The Borden Basin ...... 60 D.4. The Hudsonian Orogeny in Western Churchill Province...... 60 E. Bear Province ...... 61 E.1. The Wopmay Orogen...... 61 E.l.a. The Coronation Margin ...... 61 E.l.b. Great Bear Magmatic Belt...... 64 E.l.c. Hottah Terrane ...... 64 E.l.d. Tectonic Interpretation ...... 64 E.2. Athapuscow and Bathurst Aulacogens ...... 65 E.3. Middle and Upper Proterozoic Strata of the Amundsen Basin ..... 67 F. Grenville Orogen ...... 68 F.l. Subdivisions of the Grenville Orogen ...... 68 F.l.a. Grenville Tectonic Front ...... 68 F.l.b. Grenville Foreland Belt ...... 68 F.l.c. Central Gneiss Belt...... 69 F.l.d. Central Metasedimentary Belt ...... 70 F.l.e. Central Granulite Belt ...... 70 F .l.f. Baie Comeau Segment ...... 70 F.l.g. Eastern Grenville Province ...... 70 F .l.h. Adirondack Mountains of Northern New York ...... 70 F.l.i. Northern Appalachian Orogen ...... 70 F.l.j. Central and Southern Appalachians ...... 70 F.l.k. Llano Uplift ...... 71 F.l.l. Van Hom Mountains...... 71 CONTENTS xiii

F.2. Stratigraphy of Grenville Rocks in Canada ...... 72 F.2.a. Grenville Supergroup ...... 72 F.2.b. Wakeham Bay Group ...... 72 F.2.c. Grenville Foreland Belt Strata ...... 72 F.3. Tectonics of the Grenville Orogeny ...... 72 G. Proterozoic of the United States Craton ...... 75 G .1. Penokean Belt of the Northern Great Plains ...... 75 G.2. Interior Belt ...... 77 G.2.a. Wisconsin ...... 77 G.2.b. Southern Margin of the Wyoming Craton ...... 77 G.2.c. Central and Southern Interior Belt ...... 78 G.3. Southwestern Belt ...... 79 G.4. St. Fran~ois Belt ...... 79 H. Early History of the CordUleran Continental Margin ...... 80 H.I. Belt and Purcell Rocks and Their Correlatives ...... 80 H.l.a. The Belt and Purcell Supergroups ...... 80 H.I.b. Uinta Mountains Group and Big Cottonwood Formation ...... 82 H.1.c. Grand Canyon Supergroup ...... 82 H.I.d. Crystal Springs and Beck Springs Formations (of Pahrump Group) ...... 83 H.I.e. Other Belt-Purcell Correlatives ...... 83 H.2. Racklan-East Kootenay-Grand Canyon Tectonic Event ...... 84 H.3. Windermere Rocks and Their Correlatives ...... 84 H.3.a. The Windermere Group ...... 84 H.3.b. Windermere Correlatives in Southeastern Idaho and Utah .. 86 H.3.c. Kingston Peak Formation (Upper Pahrump Group) ...... 86 H.3.d. Rapitan Group ...... 86 H.4. Late Precambrian Tectonics and Development of the Cordilleran Margin ...... 87 I. Early History of the Appalachian Continental Margin ...... 88 1.1. Upper Precambrian Rocks of the Central and Southern Appalachians ...... 89 l.1.a. Northern and Central Virginia ...... 89 Ll.b. Southwestern Virginia and Northwestern North Carolina ... . 90 l.l.c. Western North Carolina and Eastern Tennessee ...... 91 1.2. Upper Precambrian Rocks of the Northern Appalachians ...... 91 1.3. Late Precambrian Rifting and Early History of the Appalachian Margin ...... 92 J. The Fossil Record of Early Life ...... 93 J.l. Introduction ...... 93 J.2. Archean Fossils: 3.5-2.5 Byr...... 93 J.3. Fossils of the Early and Middle Proterozoic: 2.5-1.4 Byr...... 95 J.4. The Late Precambrian Fossils: 1.4-0.6 Byr...... 96

CHAPTER 4: The Sauk Sequence: Ediacarian-Lower Ordovician ...... 99 A. Conditions at the Beginning of the Phanerozoic ...... 99 A.I. Overview ...... 99 A.2. Global Paleogeography ...... 100 A.3. Paleoclimatology ...... 100 xiv CONTENTS

B. Epeiric Seas and Cratonic Sequences ...... 10 1 B.1. The Concept of Epeirogeny...... 101 B.l.a. Tectonic Interpretation of Epeirogeny...... 102 B.1. b. Dynamics and Characteristics of Epeiric Seas ...... 102 B.2. Cratonic Sequences ...... 103 C. A Digression, the Ediacarian: Do You Believe Rocks or Fossils? .... 104 C.1. Nomenclature for Latest Precambrian Time...... 106 C.2. Occurrence and Nature of North American Ediacarian Strata...... 106 C.2.a. Southwestern (Great Basin) Ediacarian Strata ...... 106 C.2.b. Northern Rocky Mountain Ediacarian Strata ...... 106 C.2.c. Central and Southern Appalachians ...... 107 C.2.d. Newfoundland and Other Areas ...... 107 C.3. Ediacarian Life and the Significance of Metazoans...... 107 C.3.a. The Metazoan Body Plan ...... 108 C.3.b. The Stratigraphic Record of First Metazoans...... 108 C.3.c. The Tommotian Skeletal Fossils ...... '" ...... 109 C.3.d. Ediacarian/Tommotian Paleoecology and Hypotheses for the Advent of Skeletons ...... 110 D. Phanerozoic Sauk Sedimentation ...... 111 D.1. Overview of Cambrian Sedimentation ...... III D.2. The Craton during Sauk Deposition ...... 111 D.3. Cambrian of the Eastern Margin...... 111 D.3.a. Lower Cambrian (Waucoban) Basal Detrital Sediments and Carbonates ...... 111 D.3.b. Middle and Upper Cambrian (Albertan and Croixan) Lithofacies ...... 116 D.4. Cambrian of the Western Margin ...... 117 D.5. Cambrian of the Craton ...... , ...... 121 D.6. Peripheral Cambrian Strata...... 122 D.6.a. Eastern Cambrian Strata ...... 122 D.6.b. Cambrian of American Arctic Regions ...... 122 D.7. Lower Ordovician Sedimentation ...... 123 E. Earliest Animals with Skeletons: First Recorded Taxonomic Radiation ...... 124 E.l. On the Appearance of Skeletonized Animals in the Lowermost Cambrian ...... 124 E.2. Trilobites...... 125 E.2.a. Morphology ...... 125 E.2.b. Evolution and Taxonomy...... 127 E.3. Archaeocyatha ...... 129 E.4. Inarticulate Brachiopods...... 129 E.5. Cambrian Echinoderms ...... 130 E.6. Cambrian Miscellanea and the Burgess Shale Fauna ...... 132 E.7. Cambrian and Early Ordovician Paleobiogeography ...... 133

CHAPTER 5: The Tippecanoe Sequence: Middle Ordovician-Lower Devonian ...... 135 A. Introduction...... 135 A.I. Overview ...... 135 A.I.a. Craton...... 135 A.1.b. Continental Margins ...... 135 A.2. Global Paleogeography ...... 136 CONTENTS xv

B. Tippecanoe Cratonic Sedimentation ...... 137 B.1. The Post-Sauk Regression ...... 137 B.2. Basal Tippecanoe Detrital Sedimentation ...... 138 B.2.a. Blanket Sands: The St. Peter Sandstone ...... 138 B.2.h. Other Basal Tippecanoe Detrital Sediments on the Craton .. 139 B.3. Chazyan Limestones: Basal Carbonates and an Introduction to Reefs ...... 139 B.3.a. An Introduction to the "Reef" ...... 141 B.3.b. Skeletal Carbonates ...... 143 B.4. Middle Tippecanoe Time: A Sea from Coast to Coast ...... 144 B.5. The Taconic Influence: Upper Ordovician Detrital Sediments .... . 146 B.6. Post-Cincinnati: The Sea Shallows ...... 147 B.6.a. Lower Silurian Sedimentation ...... 147 B.6.b. Middle Silurian: The Niagaran Section ...... 148 B.6.c. The Silurian Iron Ores ...... 149 B.7. Upper Silurian of the Michigan Basin ...... 150 B.7.a. Evaporite Deposition in Salinan Time ...... 151 B.7.b. The Problem of Silurian Reefs ...... 152 B.8. Final Tippecanoe Cratonic Sedimentation: Uppermost Cayugan and Lower Devonian ...... 152 C. The Appalachian Continental Margin ...... 154 C.l. Introduction to the Appalachian Orogen ...... 154 C.l.a. The Northern Appalachians ...... 155 C.l.b. The Southern Appalachians ...... 157 C.l.c. The Appalachian Orogen as a Tectonic Collage ...... 159 C.2. The Taconic Orogeny ...... 160· C.2.a. Nature of the Taconic Orogeny ...... 160 C.2.b. Plate-Tectonic Speculations ...... 162 C.3. Stratigraphic Record of the Orogeny ...... 164 C.3.a. Nature of Detrital Wedges ...... 164 C.3.b. The Blount Detrital Wedge ...... 165 C.3.c. The Taconic Detrital Wedge ...... 165 C.4. The Caledonian Orogeny in Greenland ...... 167 D. The Innuitian Continental Margin ...... 168 D.l. Major Geological Features ...... 168 D.1.a. The Canadian Shield ...... 168 D.l.b. Arctic Platform ...... 168 D.l.c. The Innuitian Fold Belt ...... 168 D.l.d. Brooks Range, Alaska ...... 169 D.l.e. Sverdrup Basin and Arctic Coastal Plain ...... 169 D.2. Early History of the Innuitian Continental Margin ...... 171 D.3. Tippecanoe History ...... 171 D.3.a. Continental Shelf ...... 171 D.3.b. Hazen Trough ...... 172 D.3.c. Pearya Magmatic Arc ...... 173 D.3.d. Effects of the Caledonian Orogeny ...... , 174 E. Continental Margin and Magmatic Arc Assemblages of the Cordillera ...... 174 E.l. Tippecanoe Cordillera: Overview and Summary of Regional Tectonics ...... , ... . 174 E.2. The Continental Margin Assemblages ...... 174 E.2.a. Middle and Upper Ordovician ...... 174 E.2.b. Silurian and Lower Devonian ...... 176 B.3. "Borderland Terranes" and "Insular Belt" Facies ...... 177 xvi CONTENTS

F. Filling the Niches: Tippecanoe Life ...... 180 F .1. Introduction ...... 180 F.2. Above the Benthos ...... '" ...... " .... . 180 F.2.a. Graptolites ...... 180 F.2.b. Tentaculitids and a Few Other Miscellanea ...... 181 F.3. The Reef-Builders ...... 182 F.3.a. Rugose and Tabulate Coral ...... 182 F.3.b. Bryozoans ...... 184 F.3.c. Stromatoporoids ...... 185 F.3.d. Calcareous Algae ...... 186 F.3.e. Sponges and Spongelike Forms ...... , ...... 187 F.4. Euryhaline Organisms: Eurypterids ...... 188 F.5. Success in the Tippecanoe Seas: Articulate Brachiopods ...... 189 F.6. Early Paleozoic Mollusks ...... 191 F.7. Diversification of Echinoderms ...... 193 F.8. The Shelled Microfossils ...... 195 F. 9. Early Vertebrates and Chordates ...... 196 F.9.a. Earliest Chordates ...... 196 F.9.b. Chordate Characteristics ...... 196 F.9.c. Cephalochordates and Conodonts ...... 197 F.9.d. Vertebrates of the Tippecanoe Sequence ...... 197 F.10. Ascent to Land ...... 199 F.1O.a. Vascular Plants ...... 199 F.10.b. Land Animals ...... 200

CHAPTER 6: The Kaskaskia Sequence: Middle Devonian-Upper • • • MiSSlsslpplan ...... 203 A. Introduction ...... 203 A.1. Overview ...... 203 A.2. Global Paleogeography ...... 206 B. Kaskaskian Events on the Craton ...... 207 B.1. The Wallbridge Discontinuity ...... 207 B.2. Structural Framework of Kaskaskian Cratonic Sedimentation ...... 208 B.3. Early Devonian Events ...... 208 B.4. Middle Devonian Events ...... 210 B.5. Late Devonian Events ...... 214 B.5.a. The Eastern Craton ...... 214 B.5.b. The Southwestern Craton ...... 215 B.5.c. The Northwestern Craton ...... , ...... 215 B.6. Kinderhookian Cratonic Strata ...... 220 B. 7. The Osagian Stage ...... 222 B.8. Meramecian Events ...... 225 B. 9. The Chesterian Age: Final Retreat of the Kaskaskian Sea ...... 226 C. Kaskaskian of the Appalachian Mobile Belt ...... 229 C.1. The Wallbridge Discontinuity in the East ...... 229 C.2. The Onesquethaw Stage: Return of the Sea ...... " ...... 229 C.3. The Acadian Orogeny ...... 230 C.3.a. Effects of the Acadian Orogeny ...... 230 C.3.b. Plate-Tectonics Model of the Acadian Orogeny ...... 232 C.4. The Erian Stage: Initiation of the Acadian Detrital Wedge ...... 234 C.4.a. Facies Patterns in the Foreland Basin ...... 234 CONTENTS xvii

C.4.b. The Hamilton Group ...... 235 C.4.c. Erian Strata in the SOlltheast ...... 236 C.5. Upper Devonian Stratigraphy and Paleogeography in the East .... . 236 C.6. A New Period Begins: Kinderhookian Events in the East ...... 237 C.7. Osagian Events ...... 238 C.8. The Meramecian Stage in the East ...... 239 C.9. Chesterian Events: End of the Kaskaskian in the East ...... 241 C.IO. Mississippian Events in the Northern and Maritime Appalachians ...... 242 D. Ouachita Mountains, Marathon Uplift, and Related Areas ...... 242 D.l. Introduction ...... 242 D.2. Earliest History ...... 243 D.2.a. Cambrian Rifting ...... 243 D.2.b. Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen ...... 244 D.2.c. Early History of the Ouachita-Marathon Continental Margin ...... 244 D.2.d. Devonian Events: The Arkansas/Caballos Novaculite ...... 246 D.3. The Stanley Group: Development of a Mississippian Submarine Fan ...... 246 E. The Cordilleran Continental Margin ...... 248 E.1. The Pre-Antler Continental Margin ...... 248 E.l.a. Continental Shelf ...... 248 E.l.b. Oceanic and Volcanic Terranes ...... 249 E.2. The Antler Orogeny: Destruction of the Cordilleran Passive Margin ...... 250 E.2.a. Plate-Tectonics Speculations ...... 250 E.2.b. The Cordilleran Continental Margin during the Antler Orogeny ...... 251 E.2.c. Final Stages of the Antler Orogeny ...... , .. 253 F. The Innuitian Continental Margin ...... 253 F.1. Middle Devonian Stratigraphy ...... 254 F.l.a. Continental Shelf ...... 254 F.1. b. Continental Slope and Marginal Basin (Hazen Trough) ...... 254 F.l.c. Pearya Magmatic Arc ...... 255 F.2. The Ellesmere Orogeny ...... 255 F.2.a. Ellesmere Detrital Wedge ...... 255 F.2.b. Tectonic Effects of the Ellesmere Orogeny ...... 256 F.2.c. Plate-Tectonics Model of the Ellesmere Orogeny ...... 257 F.3. Mississippian Events ...... 257 G. Revolutions among Invertebrates and the "Age of Fishes" ...... 258 G .1. Invertebrate Revolutions ...... 258 G.2. The Age of Fishes ...... " ...... 258 G.2.a. Superc1ass Teleostomi (Bony Fish: Acanthodii and Osteichthyes) ...... 259 G.2.b. Superclass Elasmobranchiomorphi (Cartilaginous Fish: Placodermi and Chondrichthyes) " ...... 260 G.3. The First Land Vertebrates ...... 262 G.4. The Literal Rise of Terrestrial Plants ...... 263 G.4.a. Devonian Flora ...... 263 G.4.b. Mississippian Flora ...... 265 GA.c. Pennsylvanian and Permian Floras ...... 267 G.5. Early Insects and Related Late Paleozoic Arthropods ...... 267 xviii CONTENTS CHAPTER 7: The Absaroka Sequence: Lower Pennsylvanian-Lower Jurassic...... 271

A. Introduction ...... 271 A.l. Overview of Absarokan Events ...... 271 A.2. Paleogeography ...... 271 B. Absarokan Cratonic Sedimentation ...... 274 B.l. Overview ...... 274 B.l.a. The Post-Kaskaskia Erosion Surface ...... 276 B.l.b. Index Fossils in the Absaroka Sequence ...... 278 B.2. Early Pennsylvanian Time on the Eastern Craton ...... 279 B.2.a. Terrestrial and Paralic Facies in the Appalachian Basin...... 279 B.2.b. Deltaic/Marine Sequences of the Illinois and Michigan Basins...... 281 B.2.c. Marine Facies of the Midcontinent Basin ...... 284 B.3. Cyclic Sedimentation and the Formation of Coal ...... 285 B.3.a. The "Ideal" Cyclothem ...... 285 B.3.b. Walther's Law and the History of a Cyclothem ...... 286 B.3.c. Regional Variations and Paleogeography ...... 288 B.3.d. Causes of Shoreline Oscillation ...... 288 B.4. Early Pennsylvanian of the Western Craton: Shallow Seas, Uplifts, and Yoked Basins ...... 289 B.4.a. Morrowan-Atokan Transgression on the Cordilleran Platform ...... 289 B.4.b. Uplifts and Their Adjacent Basins: The Enigma of Cratonic Tectonics ...... 289 B.4.c. Analyses of Selected Upper Paleozoic Cratonic Basins...... 291 B.4.d. Analyses of Pennsylvanian Cratonic Uplifts: The "Ancestral Rockies," Nemaha Ridge, and Others...... 294 B.4.e. Causes of Yoked Basins and Other Intraplate Features ...... 294 B.5. Middle Pennsylvanian across the Craton (Desmoinesian- Missourian) ...... 296 B.5.a. The Western Craton...... 296 B.5.b. The Northwestern Platform...... 296 B.5.c. The Williston Basin Region ...... 296 B.5.d. The Midcontinent Basin ...... 297 B.5.e. The Illinois and Michigan Basins ...... 298 B.5.f. Desmoinesian and Missourian Strata of the Appalachian Basin...... 300 B.6. Late Pennsylvanian and Comformable Penno-Permian Sequences (Virgilian-Wolfcampian) ...... 301 B.6.a. Terminal Sedimentation in the Appalachian Basin ...... 301 B.6.b. Latest Paleozoic in the Illinois Basin ...... 302 B.6.c. Pennsylvanian-Permian Transition in the Midcontinent ...... 303 B.6.d. Penno-Permian of the Northwestern Craton...... 304 B.6.e. The Central-Western and Southwestern Craton...... 305 B.7. West Texas and Eastern New Mexico: The "Permian Basin" ..... 307 B.7.a. Pennsylvanian History...... 307 B.7.b. Wolfcampian ...... 308 B.7.c. Leonardian ...... 310 CONTENTS xix

B.7.d. Guadalupian ...... 310 B.7.e. Ochoan and Post-Permian ...... 311 B.8. The Midcontinent Pennian Sea ...... 312 B.9. Penno-Triassic of the Northwestern Craton ...... 314 B.9.a. Pennian of the Eastern-Northern Craton ...... 314 B.9.b. Pennian of the Northcentral Rockies Region ...... 315 B.9.c. Triassic of the Northern Craton ...... 316 B.10. Pennian through Lower Jurassic of the Southwestern Craton; Final Retreat of the Absaroka Sea ...... 318 B.IO.a. Pennian History ...... 318 B.IO.b. Triassic History ...... 320 B.IO.c. Jurassic History ...... 322 C. The AUegheny Orogeny: Tectonic Culmination in the East ...... 324 C.l. Evidence for the Allegheny Orogeny ...... 324 C.l.a. Debate on the Cause of Defonnation in the Valley and Ridge ...... 325 C.1.b. Are the Piedmont and Blue Ridge Allochthonous? Evidence from Seismic Profiling ...... 326 C.2. Plate Tectonics and the Allegheny Orogeny ...... 330 D. Events on the Ouachita-Marathon Continental Margin ...... 331 0.1. The Southern Continental Margin before the Ouachita Orogeny ...... 331 D.1.a. Continental Shelves: The Arbuckle Facies ...... 331 D.l.b. Outer Shelf and Slope: The Frontal Ouachitas ...... 333 D.l.c. Deep-Water Environments: The Ouachita Facies ...... 333 D.1.d. Change in Sedimentary Dynamics during Atoka Time ...... 336 0.2. The Ouachita Orogeny ...... 337 0.3. Molasse Sedimentation in the Ouachita Foreland System ...... 340 D.3.a. The Pattern Begins: Desmoinesian Strata ...... 340 D.3.b. The Pattern Persists: Missourian and Virgilian Strata ...... 342 D.3.c. End of the Pattern: Pennian Strata ...... 343 E. Eastern Triassic-Jurassic Basins and the Gulf of Mexico: Onset of Continental Rifting ...... 344 E.1. Eastern Triassic-Jurassic Basins ...... 344 E.1.a. Basin Structure ...... 345 E.l.b. Basin Geology ...... 346 E.1.c. The Opening of the North Atlantic Ocean ...... 350 E.2. Early Rifting on the Southern Continental Margin ...... 351 F. The Absaroka Sequence in the Cordillera ...... 351 F .1. Between Orogenies: Paleogeography during the Pennsylvanian and Pennian ...... 351 F.1.a. Antler Orogenic Belt and Foreland Basin ...... 352 F.l.b. Ocean Basin Terrane (West of the Golconda Thrust) ...... 355 F.l.c. Volcanic Arc Terrane ...... 357 F.2. The Sonoma Orogeny ...... 359 F.2.a. Timing and Effects of the Sonoma Orogeny ...... 359 F.2.b. Tectonic Models ...... 360 F.3. Early Mesozoic Tectonics of the Western Cordillera ...... 361 F.3.a. The Southern Cordillera ...... 362 F.3.b. The Northern Cordillera ...... 367 G. Upper Paleozoic and Lower Mesozoic Strata of the Innuitian Continental Margin ...... 369 G.l. Pennsylvanian Strata in Northern Alaska ...... 370 G.2. Pennsylvanian and Lower Pennian Strata of the Sverdrup Basin .. . 371 xx CONTENTS

G.2.a. Mississippian Beginnings ...... 371 G.2.b. Pennsylvanian and Lower Pennian Facies Patterns ...... 371 G.2.c. Observations on Basin Tectonics ...... 373 G. 3. Penno-Triassic Strata of Northern Alaska ...... 374 G.4. Penno-Triassic Strata of the Sverdrup Basin ...... 375 H. Late Paleozoic and Triassic Marine Life: A Study in Diversification, Extinction, and RepopuJation ...... 375 H.1. The Late Paleozoic Invertebrate Biota ...... 375 H.I.a. Brachiopods ...... ' ...... '" 375 H.1.b. Late Paleozoic Radiation of Bivalves ...... 377 H.I.c. Sponges ...... 378 H.I.d. The Mazon Creek Biota ...... 378 H.2. The Penno-Triassic Boundary and Mass Extinction ...... 379 H.2.a. The Nature of the Faunal Changes at the Penno-Triassic Boundary ...... 380 H.2.b. Evaluation of Confonnable Boundary Sequences ...... 380 H.2.c. Causes of the Penno-Triassic Extinctions ...... 380 H.3. Triassic Marine Faunas ...... 381 H.3.a. General Makeup of the Biota ...... 381 H.3.b. Scleractinia ...... 382 I. Early Amphibians and Reptnes ...... 383 1.1. Dominant Amphibia of the Late Paleozoic ...... 383 l.1.a. Temoospondyli ...... 383 1.1. b. Anthracosauria ...... 384 I.I.c. Lepospondyli ...... 384 Ll.d. Lissamphibia ...... 385 1.2. Origin, Morphology, and Early Radiations of Reptiles ...... 385 1.2.a. Differences between Reptiles and Amphibians ...... 385 1.2.b. Reptile Systematics and Temporal Fenestrae ...... 385 1.2.c. Anapsida and the First Reptiles ...... 385 1.2.d. Synapsida ...... 387 1.2.e. Euryapsida and Triassic Turtles ...... 389 1.2.f. Diapsida ...... 390

CHAPTER 8: The Zuni Sequence: Middle Jurassic-Upper Cretaceous .... 393 A. Introduction ...... 393 A.I. Overview ...... 393 A.2. Zuni Paleogeography ...... 394 B. Zuni Cratonic Sedimentation ...... 397 B.1. The Post-Absaroka Unconfonnity ...... 397 B.2. Jurassic Marine Sequences in the Western Interior ...... 397 B.2.a. First Zuni Transgression ...... 397 B.2.b. Second Jurassic Transgression ...... 399 B.2.c. Final Jurassic Transgression ...... 402 B.3. Jurassic Continental Deposits ...... 404 B.3.a. The Morrison Fonnation ...... 404 B.3.b. Jurassic Deposits of the Continental Interior ...... 406 B.4. Early Cretaceous in the Western Interior ...... 406 B.4.a. Introduction to the Cretaceous System ...... 406 B.4.b. Lower Cretaceous Nonmarine Strata of the Central-Western Interior ...... " ...... 408 CONTENTS xxi

B.4.c. Lower Cretaceous Paralic and Marine Strata in the Southern-Western Interior ...... 409 B.4.d. Marginal Marine and Marine Units of Western Canada and Northernmost United States ...... 412 B.4.e. The Mowry Shale and Equivalent Latest Early Cretaceous Strata ...... , ...... 414 B.S. Late Cretaceous in the Western Interior ...... 415 B.S.a. Overview of Upper Cretaceous Sequences and Sedimentation ...... 415 B.S.b. Lower/Upper Boundary Sequences: "Dakota" Redux ...... 417 B.S.c. The Colorado Group ...... 417 B.S.d. The Montana Group ...... 421 B.S.e. The Laramie Formation and Equivalents ...... 428 C. Zuni Sequence of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Province ...... 431 C.l. Introduction to the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Province ...... 431 C.2. Jurassic Events ...... 433 C.2.a. Atlantic Coastal Province ...... 433 C.2.b. Gulf Coastal Province ...... 437 C.2.c. Jurassic Stratigraphy and Tectonic History of the Gulf of Mexico ...... 439 C.3. Cretaceous Events ...... 443 C.3.a. Lower Cretaceous Strata-Atlantic Coastal Province ...... 443 C.3.b. Lower Cretaceous Strata-Florida and the Bahamas ...... 445 C.3.c. Lower Cretaceous Strata-Gulf Region ...... 448 C.3.d. Upper Cretaceous Strata-Atlantic Coastal Province ...... 451 C.3.e. Upper Cretaceous Strata-Florida and the Bahamas ...... 454 C.3.f. Upper Cretaceous Strata-Gulf Region ...... 455 D. Zuni Sequence in the Cordillera ...... 462 D.1. The Southern Cordillera: The Andean-Type Arc ...... 463 D.l.a. The Jurassic Arc: Nevadan Orogeny ...... 463 D.l.b. The "Classic" Cretaceous Arc ...... 464 D.2. The Northern Cordillera ...... 470 D.2.a. Jurassic Events: Canada ...... 471 D.2.b. Cretaceous Events: Canada ...... 474 D.2.c. Alaska ...... 478 E. The Innuitian Continental Margin ...... 480 E.l. The Sverdrup Basin ...... 480 E.l.a. Jurassic Stratigraphy ...... 480 E.l.b. Cretaceous Stratigraphy ...... 481 E.2. Northern Alaska ...... 482 E.2.a. Jurassic History ...... 483 E.2.b. Cretaceous History ...... 483 E.3. Early Opening of the Arctic Ocean ...... 484 E.3.a. The Arctic Ocean Basin ...... 486 E.3.b. Opening the Arctic ...... 487 F. The Transition to Modern Invertebrates ...... 490 F.1. Mesozoic Life, in General ...... 490 F.2. Cephalopods ...... , ...... 490 F.2.a. Ammonites ...... 490 F.2.b. Belemnites and Other Coleoids ...... 493 F.3. Bivalves ...... 493 F.3.a. Oysters ...... 493 F.3.b. Inoceramids, Trigoniids, and Buchia ...... 494 xxii CONTENTS

F.3.c. Clams, in General...... 495 F.3.d. Rudists ...... 495 F.4. Microfossils...... 495 F.4.a. Planktonic Algae: Coccolithophores, Dinoflagellates, and Silicoflagellates ...... 495 F.4.h. Mesozoic Foraminifera...... 497 F.5. Echinodenns ...... 497 F.5.a. Pelmatozoans ...... 497 F.5.h. Echinoids ...... 499 F.6. Bryozoa...... 500 F.7. Brachiopods ...... 500 F.8. Arthropods: Decapod Crustaceans...... 501 G. Mesozoic Terrestrial Plants...... 502 G.I. Summary of Events among Terrestrial Floras at the Penno-Triassic Boundary ...... 502 G.2. Mesozoic Gymnospenns ...... 503 G.2.a. Conifers ...... 503 G.2.h. Cycads and Bennettitales...... 503 G.2.c. Ginkgoes...... 504 G.3. Origin and Early Radiation of Aogiospenns in the Cretaceous .. "...... 504 G.4. New Mesozoic Insects...... 505 H. The Rise and Fall of Archosauria and Other Zuni Vertebrates...... 505 H.I. Origins and Varieties of Archosaurs...... 505 H.l.a. Dinosaur Pelvises ...... 505 H.l.h. Earliest Dinosaurs ...... 506 H.l.c. Important North American Dinosaur Assemblages ...... 507 H.2. Pterosaurs ...... '" ... " ...... 507 H.3. Crocodilians...... 509 H.4. Early Birds ...... 509 H.5. Marine Reptiles (Euryapsida) of the Zuni Sea ...... 511 H.5.a. Plesiosaurs ...... 511 H.5.h. Ichthyosaurs...... 511 H.6. Mosasaurs and Other Lepidosaurs ...... 512 H.7. Mesozoic Marine Turtles...... 513 H.8. The Earliest Mammals ...... 514 H.8.a. Reptile-Mammal Distinctions and Subdivisions of Mammalia...... 514 H.8.h. Subdivisions of Mesozoic Mammals ...... 515 H.8.c. Triassic Mammals ...... 515 H.8.d. Jurassic Mammals ...... 515 H.8.e. Cretaceous Mammals...... 516 H.9. Hot-Blooded Dinosaurs and Related Notions...... 517 H.I0. The End-Mesozoic [Maestrichtian-Danian(?)] Mass Extinction ...... 519 H.1O.a. Boundary Clays and the "Danian" Stage ...... 520 H.1O.h. Dinosaurs and the "End of the Cretaceous" ...... 521 H.1O.c. Hypotheses, Hypotheses ...... 521

CHAPTER 9: The Tejas Sequence: Tertiary-Recent...... 523 A. Introduction ...... 523 A.l. Overview of Tejas Events ...... 523 CONTENTS xxiii

A.2. On Cenozoic Time and Time-Stratigraphic Units, and "Lyellian Curves" ...... 524 A.2.a. Nomenclature of the Periods ...... 524 A.2.b. Lyellian Curves ...... 524 A.2.c. Quaternary Nomenclature ...... 525 A.3. Global Paleogeography ...... 525 B. Tertiary Cratonic Sedimentation ...... 527 B .1. Overview ...... 527 B.l.a. Summary ...... 527 B.l.b. Tectonic Controls on Tertiary Cratonic Sedimentation ...... 527 B.l.c. The Post-Zuni Unconfonnity ...... 527 B.2. Paleocene and Eocene Strata in the Intermontane Basins ...... 528 B.2.a. Paleocene Terrestrial Strata ...... 529 B.2.b. A Last Epicontinental-Marine Unit ...... 532 B.2.c. Eocene Strata in the Intermontane Basins ...... 532 B.3. Oligocene Strata in Wyoming and the Dakotas ...... 537 BA. Miocene Strata of the Great Plains and Mountain Basins ...... 541 B.5. Pliocene Sheet Deposits ...... 543 C. Tejas Sequence of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Province ...... 543 C.l. The Paleocene Series ...... 544 C.2. The Eocene Series ...... 548 C.3. The Oligocene Series ...... 554 CA. The Miocene Series ...... 556 C.5. The Pliocene Series ...... 559 C.6. Quaternary Deposits ...... 561 D. Tejas Sequence in the Cordillera ...... 565 D.l. Overview ...... 565 D.2. Early Cenozoic Paleogeography ...... 566 D.2.a. Paleocene Events ...... 566 D.2.b. The Laramide Orogeny ...... 573 D.2.c. Eocene Paleogeography ...... 578 D.2.d. Oligocene Paleogeography ...... 587 D.3. Late Cenozoic Paleogeography ...... 593 D.3.a. Miocene Events ...... 594 D.3.b. Plio-Pleistocene Events ...... 606 E. The Innuitian Continental Margin ...... 611 E.l. Opening of the Eurasian Basin ...... 611 E.2. Cenozoic Events in Northern Canada ...... 611 E.2.a. Sverdrup Basin ...... 611 E.2.b. Eurekan Orogeny and Related Events ...... 613 E.2.c. The Arctic Coastal Plain ...... 615 E.3. Northern Alaska ...... 615 F. The Quaternary ...... 616 F .1. Introduction ...... 616 F.2. Late Cenozoic Paleoclimatology ...... 617 F.2.a. Ocean Cores ...... 617 F.2.b. Ice Cores ...... 618 F.2.c. Additional Paleoclimatic Data ...... 619 F.3. The Pliocene-Pleistocene Boundary Problem ...... 619 FA. Pre-Wisconsinan Laurentian Events ...... 619 F.5. Wisconsinan Events of the Laurentide Ice Sheet ...... 621 F.5.a. Constructional Topography and 14C Dating ...... 621 F.5.b. Wisconsinan Chronology ...... 621 xxiv CONTENTS

F.6. The Cordilleran Glacier Complex ...... 622 F.6.a. Canadian Rocky Mountains...... 622 F.6.b. Cascade Mountains...... 623 F.6.c. Alaska...... 623 F.7. A Case of Authentic "Catastrophism": The Channeled Scablands and the Lake Missoula Jokulhlaups ...... 623 F.8. Retreat of Late Wisconsinan Glaciers...... 624 F.9. Glacio-isostatic Rebound and Sea-Level Variations...... 626 F.IO. The Wisconsinan Lakes ...... 627 F.IO.a. Lakes in the Glaciated Regions ...... 627 F.IO.b. Pluvial Lakes in the Great Basin...... 628 F .11. Causes ofIce Ages ...... 628 F .Il.a. Why Glaciation in the First Place? ...... 628 F.ll.b. Why Multiple Glaciations? ...... 629 G. Tertiary Invertebrates, Plants, and Paleoclimatology...... 631 G.1. Changes and Trends among Tertiary Invertebrates ...... 631 G.2. Diversification of Marine Microfossil Taxa...... 631 G.2.a. Nannoplankton ...... 632 G.2.b. Foraminifera and Ostracodes...... 632 G.3. Tertiary Climatology and the Diversification of Angiospenns ..... 633 G.3.a. Paleocene-Eocene Floras and Climates ...... 633 G.3.b. Oligocene-Pliocene Floras and Qimates ...... 634 H. Cenozoic Mammals ...... 634 H.I. Introduction and Some Generalities about Mammalian Diversification ...... 634 H.2. Mammals of the Latest Cretaceous-Paleocene Transition ...... 636 H.3. Archaic Eutherians of the Paleocene and Eocene ...... 637 H.3.a. Creodontia and Carnivora ...... 637 H.3.b. Condylarths and Ungulate Characteristics ...... 638 H.3.c. Archaic North American Ungulates ...... 639 H.4. Chiroptera (Bats) ...... 640 H.5. Prosimians (Primates) ...... 640 H.6. Edentates (Sloths, Anteaters, Armadillos)...... 641 H.7. Progressive North American Mammals ...... 642 H. 7 .a. Rodents and Lagomorphs ...... 642 H.7.b. Cetaceans...... 642 H. 7 .c. Perissodactyls ...... 643 H.7.d. Artiodactyls ...... 646 H.7.e. Subungulates ...... 647 H.8. Quaternary Mammal Assemblages and Mass Extinction...... 649 H.8.a. The Irvingtonian Assemblage ...... 649 H.S.b. The Rancholabrean Assemblage...... 649 H. S.c. Pleistocene Mammalian Extinctions ...... 650 H.9. Quaternary Man in North America...... 652

Appendix: Synoptic Taxonomy of Major Fossil Groups ...... 653

References...... 659

Index...... 689