formation on traditional farming will remain archival because oflate 20th century century 20th oflate because archival will farming remain traditional on formation
saie). Recent works were consulted when pertinent but the main sources of in of sources main the but pertinent when consulted were works Recent saie).
Chuuk (formerly Truk), Pohnpei (formerly Ponape), and Kosrae (formerly Ku (formerly Kosrae and Ponape), (formerly Pohnpei Truk), (formerly Chuuk
versity of Guam. The island groups studied are Belau (formerly Palau), Yap, Yap, Palau), (formerly Belau are studied groups island The Guam. of versity
particular theory or hypothesis. hypothesis. or theory particular
first-order pattern-recognition, not a quantitative study attempting to prove a a prove to attempting study quantitative a not pattern-recognition, first-order
study, in addition to being a compilation of little known facts, is an exercise in in exercise an is facts, known little of compilation a being to addition in study,
may be wasted. Thus it is important for the reader to realize that the present present the that realize to reader the for important is it Thus wasted. be may at subsequent stages of research. research. of stages subsequent at
first and later deciding whether those measurements are meaningful, much effort effort much meaningful, are measurements those whether deciding later first and nomically decide what is appropriate to measure and document in more detail detail more in document and measure to appropriate is what decide nomically
gross level of resolution. Once a broad overview is obtained, one can most eco most can one obtained, is overview broad a Once resolution. of level gross
as this, it is necessary first to seek an overall picture of variability at a relatively relatively a at variability of picture overall an seek to first necessary is it this, as
tems, past and present, and, from a consideration of these, to find any regularities regularities find any of to these, consideration a from and, present, and past tems,
n hs ytm hc a erltd o niomna factors environmental to related be may which systems these in
for the study included the belief that when beginning a new area of research such such of research new area a beginning when that belief the included study the for
vations have been made on the traditional Micronesian high island farming sys farming island high Micronesian traditional the on made been have vations
Micronesica Micronesica
h mtras osle ad ie r vial tte irre fte Uni the of libraries the at available are cited and consulted materials The
hs td wsudrae i odr o er wa kns ffra obser formal of kinds what learn to order in undertaken was study This
in these tropical island farming systems is recommended for a better better a for recommended is systems farming island tropical these in
understanding of the environmental and cultural controls that have have that controls cultural and environmental the of understanding
graphic field work to document within- and between-island variations variations between-island and within- document to work field graphic
shaped Micronesian horticulture past and present. present. and past horticulture Micronesian shaped
re r ot rp i te td ilns Eooial-retd ethno Ecologically-oriented islands. study the in crops root or tree
posed. Tentative associations are seen between basic geographic factors factors geographic basic between seen are associations Tentative posed.
such as rainfall, slope, and soil types and the differential emphasis on on emphasis differential the and types soil and slope, rainfall, as such
man settlement and changes in land use over prehistoric time is pro is time prehistoric over use land in changes and settlement man
et r osdrd ad eorpi/lmtc oe o nta hu initial of model demographic/climatic a and considered, are pects
groups is presented. Geographic, ethnographic, and archaeological as archaeological and ethnographic, Geographic, presented. is groups
Abstract-An Abstract-An
servations of traditional horticulture in five Micronesian high island island high Micronesian five in horticulture traditional of servations
A Review Review A Traditional of Micronesian Island Horticulture High
24(1)
: :
1-56, 1991 1991 1-56,
in Belau, Belau, in Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae
archival review supplemented by the author's field ob field author's the by supplemented review archival
ROSALIND ROSALIND
Univ
Water and Energy Research Institute Institute Research Energy and Water
. .
of Guam, Mangi/ao, GU 96923 96923 GU Mangi/ao, Guam, of
If If
Introduction Introduction
L. L.
one takes the other approach, of measuring measuring of approach, other the takes one
HUNTER-ANDERSON HUNTER-ANDERSON
. . The rationale rationale The
1951, 1951,
has stated stated has
1963: 155-156) 155-156) 1963:
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
Some ethnographic ethnographic Some descriptions of Micronesian those especially from cases,
From From an evolutionary perspective, the established cultural practices of a
Investigations Investigations this of sort do not proceed in a theoretical vacuum, course. of
scholars scholars in the ethnographic division of labor in Chuuk; Goodenough see
been been treated as a separate subject (and was even studied in the by different field
of of indigenous farming strategies and their associated technology and labor or
helpful helpful in the present study. For example, holistic documentation and analysis ganization ganization are largely absent from this literature. "Material culture" often has
therefore tend therefore not to include kinds certain information of have been would which
motivation motivation is a primary cause of culturally mediated behavior. the the early post-World War II years, lack an ecological systemic perspective and
for for cultural variations. This is a point overlooked by those who believe human
thropologist tries to explain to explain cannot and thus thropologist tries postulated causes as underlying serve
overt overt expressions of its operation in a cultural context are part of what the an
techniques techniques guided by theory and hypotheses. Therefore the "human mind" and
specific cultural responses to them are discoverable discoverable through appropriate them responses to cultural are analytical specific
past past and present environmental context. Both environmental conditions and
practices, practices, and evolutionary and successes failures, it is necessary to study their
Thus Thus in order to understand cultural regularities and deviations from established
provoke provoke behavioral responses aimed at regaining stability in parts the of affected
nificant nificant changes in the environment of a cultural system can be expected to the the Naturally system. there guarantee no is that successful. be such will responses
may may be guiding people's perceptions of the external world. It follows that sig
material material conditions their of environment, ofany regardless cultural "filter" which
group of people can be taken to be generally appropriate appropriate the external, taken generally to responses be be can to people of group
[adaptive] [adaptive] means may be regarded as attributes of particular populations, par
ticular ticular cultural means as attributes of particular human populations."
in in treating cultures as entities to separated be from the culture carriers. Particular
populations populations rely most heavily upon extrabiological (that is, cultural) means in
exploiting but exploiting niches in there ecosystems; is inquiry, no advantage, ecological for
a a common habitat, and have in common certain distinctive means they whereby
exploit exploit one or more niches in one or more ecosystems. Needless to say, human
regarding regarding this position within anthropology, "A population, human or not, may
be be defined as an of organisms aggregate that belong to the same occupy species,
that that human populations are subject to natural just laws, like any other species
without without the cultural mode adaptation. Rappaport of As (
order. order. The ecological approach to understanding cultural adaptations assumes
studies. studies. While few would question the appropriateness of ecology to a strictly
botanical botanical study, when cultural practices are involved, a justification seems in
tentative tentative relationships which may or may not be confirmed or modified by later
Here Here an ecologically-oriented interpretive framework was employed to explore
currently currently in preparation by the author.
the the raised coral islands and atolls of the Carolines, Marshalls, and Gilberts is
archival archival sources pertaining to indigenous farming in these high islands and in
changes changes in land use. The Mariana Islands have not been included; a review of 2 2
versity of Guam in 1984-85 and includes the author's field observations on Yap, Yap, on field observations author's the includes and 1984-85 in Guam of versity
one, hu, ore n Bluoe i erpro nigi 1986 in ending period year six a over Belau and Kosrae, Chuuk, Pohnpei,
information was derived from interviews with Micronesian students at the Uni the at students Micronesian with interviews from derived was information
Agriculture Data Base (MATAOB) of the University of Guam (Leith 1984). 1984). (Leith Other Base of Guam (MATAOB) Agriculture Data of University the
demography. Archival materials consulted came from the Micronesian Area Re Area Micronesian the from came consulted materials Archival demography.
search Center (M.A.R.C.) Pacific Collection and the Micronesian Area Tropical Tropical Area Micronesian the and Collection Pacific (M.A.R.C.) Center search
studies describing geographic features, climate, soils, topography, and historical historical and topography, soils, climate, features, geographic describing studies
in some detail. This included a review of archival documents as well as modem modem well as as documents archival of review a included This detail. some in
horticulture has remained in practice in our five high island cases were reviewed were reviewed cases island five high our in practice in remained has horticulture
(cf. Yen's 1971 discussion of the role of sweet potato in the peopling of eastern eastern of peopling the in potato sweet of role the of 1971 discussion (cf. Yen's
Polynesia). Polynesia).
older crops. crops. older
population has not been determined but remains an interesting avenue of study study of avenue interesting an remains but determined been not has population
cronesian plantings of sweet potatoes may have increased the amount of calories of calories amount the increased have may sweet of potatoes plantings cronesian
or produce tonnage which a given plot of land would yield, compared with the the with compared yield, would land of plot given a which tonnage produce or oned 99 lre 91 tlte 99 teseg 90.Smlry Mi Similarly, 1980). Steensberg 1979, Stilltoe 1971, Clarke 1969, Townsend
in Grossman 1984 comparing metal vs. stone tools described in Salisbury 1962, 1962, Salisbury in described tools stone vs. metal 1984 comparing Grossman in
on a given plot of land in the same amount of time (see the experiments cited cited experiments the (see time of amount same the in land of plot given a on
be noted that metal knives, axes, and shovels have probably made horticultural horticultural made probably have shovels and axes, knives, metal that noted be
work less arduous and increased the amount of work that could be accomplished accomplished be could of that work amount the increased and less work arduous
demographic conditions as well, as did the introduction of the white potato in in potato white the of introduction the did as well, as conditions demographic
Europe
ductions probably had some effects on Micronesian horticulture, and possibly on on possibly and horticulture, effects Micronesian some on had probably ductions
centuries before (see references and discussion in Hezel 1983). The new intro new 1983). The Hezel in discussion and references (see before centuries
tools, and new crops, for example, sweet potatoes, in some islands came some some came islands some in potatoes, sweet example, for crops, new and tools,
of variation in these aspects of culture in the distant past. past. distant the in culture of aspects these in variation of
in the present and early European contact era suggests a potentially greater range range greater suggests potentially era a contact European early and present the in traditional in reference to farming practices does not imply rigidity, of course. course. of rigidity, imply not does practices farming to reference in traditional
Variability in farming technology and its implementation by Micronesian peoples peoples by Micronesian implementation its technology and in farming Variability the absence of and generally prior to significant European contact. The term term The contact. European significant to prior generally and of absence the
animals. By indigenous or traditional is meant those practices which evolved in in evolved which practices those meant is traditional or By indigenous animals.
encountered term agriculture to indicate the characteristic Micronesian use of of use Micronesian characteristic the indicate to agriculture term encountered
small gardens and simple hand tools instead of large fields, plows, and draft draft and plows, fields, large of instead tools hand simple and gardens small
19th century, although the introduction of new technology, particularly metal metal particularly technology, new of introduction the although century, 19th
anthropology when post-war ethnographic fieldwork fieldwork by American out was carried ethnographic post-war when anthropology
anthropologists. anthropologists.
cases there has been an inordinate emphasis on the psychological aspects of of aspects psychological the on emphasis inordinate an been has there cases
indigenous behavior and lifeways, reflecting the prevailing theoretical biases of of biases theoretical prevailing the reflecting lifeways, and behavior indigenous
nesia resulted in a fragmented picture of the island adaptive systems. In many many In systems. adaptive island the of picture fragmented a in resulted nesia
aeil utr. Ti aoitc prah n otwratrplg i Micro in anthropology post-war in approach atomistic This culture." material
ea 16)fo ta o knhp ln tnr, n ohr aeoiso "non of categories other and tenure, land kinship, of that from 1964) Lehar
The contact histories and environmental settings within which traditional traditional which within settings environmental and histories contact The
In the study islands, marked outside influences began to be felt during the the during felt be to began influences outside marked islands, study the In
The term horticulture has been used in preference to the more commonly commonly more the to preference in used been has horticulture term The
. .
These possibilities have not been studied systematically here but it can can it but here systematically studied been not have possibilities These
If If
and how such factors affected Micronesian farming systems and and systems farming Micronesian affected factors such how and
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
. . 3 3
If If
Barrau 19 56, Rody Rody 56, Barrau 19
& &
Pelzer Pelzer unpubl. on Chuuk). These mimeo
& &
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
In In the immediate post-war period, some descriptions of island crops were
Using Fisk's definition as a guideline, the present review yielded very limited limited very yielded the review present guideline, a Fisk's as definition Using
It It was expected that an assessment could be made as to the kinds of data
nutrition nutrition intended for the use of Micronesians (Rody unpubl.) presents infor-
improvements improvements using modem techniques and introduced varieties. A manual on
(PA TS) TS) contain (PA traditional information e.g., Raynor ( but 1985) focus on crop
uals uals (Soucie on 1975, 1976) tropical horticulture were published for use in the crops of Micronesia. Some bulletins of the Ponape Agricultural the and of Agricultural bulletins Ponape Micronesia. Trade Some School crops of
Trust Trust Territory these schools; contain discussions and illustrations of the major
M.A.R.C. in the MATADB; also see the in the M.A.R.C. also the see Papers published Working by Series MATADB; the
Tipen Tipen unpubl., Alex unpubl., Hadley unpubl., Untaman unpubl., on file at Trust Territory Office of the Staff Anthropologist, Anthropologist, teacher's Nos. Two 4, 6). man the Trust of Staff Territory Office
ample, ample, the individual reports written during the Field Training and Interchange
loristic loristic beliefs and practices associated with particular crop plants (see, for ex in in Root held Crops in in Philip Koror, unpubl., Fall Belau, Ikelap 1965: unpubl.,
tions tions of traditional farming methods and techniques as well as records of folk
techniques. techniques. done Also under government there auspices, short are a few descrip
produced produced as part of overall economic assessments in Micronesia by the U.S. graphed graphed reports, on at file M.A.R.C., contain some information on traditional
Commercial Commercial Company Hall (e.g.,
unpubl., unpubl., Raynor unpubl.). 1985,
in the field have been carried out (Murai et al. 19 58, Massal Massal 58, have carried been out (Murai al. et the in 19 field
experimental experimental conditions, and nutritional of some analyses collected crop species
literature literature (but Raynor see exist under of for yields Figures cultigens some 1989).
quency quency of use, and actual harvests in cases specific is generally absent in the
and and analysis of these Quantification processes). of such factors as plot fre size,
island island farmers add or substitute cash crops (see Fisk 1986 for a recent review
out out and are becoming more to difficult conduct as modernization proceeds and
in in the Pacific. results. Baseline field studies of indigenous farming systems have not been carried carried been not have systems farming indigenous of studies field Baseline results.
various indigenous forms of socio-economic organization of horticultural horticultural organization of systems socio-economic of forms various indigenous
the the reference to marketing is excluded, Fisk noted, this definition covers the
even even how the proceeds of marketing should be distributed within the unit."
harvested; harvested; when, how and by whom it should be consumed or marketed-and
and and by whom, and by what processes; when, how and by whom it should be
process that that process determines what should be planted and when, and in what quantity,
of of the labour and land resources of the production unit; the decision making
orientation, orientation, Fisk has (1976:7) defined an Agricultural System to include: "not
only only the cultivation techniques, but also the system of allocation and direction
and how these relate to other aspects of culture. and relate culture. the with other to present of More in these keeping how aspects
published published in the Micronesian ethnographies is of a very general nature, and in rather rather than traditional on horticultural island such, high as and strategies systems
other sources it is limited to a commercial economic focus on specific crop crop plants other limited is it commercial sources a to economic on focus specific
are are lacking. It was found that most of the information about island farming
that that are available, and in what areas of relevance to traditional horticulture data 4 4
diet from a caloric standpoint. Yams are grown on Pohnpei as a ceremonial crop crop ceremonial a as Pohnpei on grown are Yams standpoint. caloric a from diet
important. But But it is clear not how important. essential eating the of yams was in the traditional
crop dominance. Some deviations from this pattern were seen. For example, on on example, For seen. were pattern this from deviations Some dominance. crop
Pohnpei, where the tree crop breadfruit is a major staple, large yams are also also are yams large staple, major a is breadfruit crop tree the where Pohnpei,
ticulture is associated with root crop dominance. Conversely, a higher proportion a proportion higher Conversely, dominance. crop root with is associated ticulture
a high proportion of alluvial soils in respect to the total soils available for hor for available soils total the to respect in soils alluvial of proportion high a of steeply sloping soils and relatively high annual rainfall is associated with tree tree with associated is rainfall annual high relatively and soils sloping steeply of
to be more important in the higher rainfall, less seasonal climatic regimes. Also, regimes. climatic seasonal less rainfall, higher the in important more be to
These include a tendency for root crops (taro, yams, and sweet potatoes) to be be to potatoes) sweet and yams, (taro, crops root for tendency a include These
tween climate, soils, and horticultural practices and emphases on certain crops. crops. certain on emphases and practices horticultural and soils, climate, tween more important in the lower rainfall, seasonal climatic regimes and for tree crops crops for tree regimes and climatic seasonal rainfall, lower the in important more
explain and predict. Ironically these are the same behaviors which development development which behaviors same the are these Ironically predict. and explain nological changes in Third World contexts. contexts. World Third in changes nological
pcait fe ids rsrtn,a hyatmt oipeet nrvn tech unproven implement to attempt as they so frustrating, find specialists often
doing things are part of what the ecologically-oriented anthropologist seeks to to seeks anthropologist ecologically-oriented the what of part are things doing
h eeto o eti taiin. n atclua peeecsotnehbt reg exhibit often preferences cultural fact In traditions. certain of retention the truly idiosyncratic and personal. These culturally conditioned, preferred ways of of ways preferred conditioned, culturally These personal. and idiosyncratic truly
the prevailing social and environmental conditions which may or may not favor favor not may or may which conditions environmental and social prevailing the ularities quite unlike what would be expected if such preferential behavior were were behavior preferential such if expected be would what unlike quite ularities
differential emphasis on one crop over another, or differential effort in growing growing in effort differential or another, over crop one on emphasis differential people's preferences, as cultural expressions, themselves are seen as shaped by by shaped as seen are themselves expressions, cultural as preferences, people's
the same plant, or or plant, same the
is not satisfied with dismissing apparently minor inter-island variations such as as such variations inter-island minor apparently dismissing with satisfied not is
aspects of Micronesian culture, such as prehistoric population levels and forms forms and levels population prehistoric as such culture, Micronesian of aspects phasizes origins and diffusion of trait complexes, the cultural ecological ecological approach cultural the complexes, of diffusion trait and origins phasizes
fscopltclognzto. nie h clue itrcl prah ht em that approach historical culture the Unlike organization. socio-political of
Micronesia, and into the possible relationships between these variations and other other and between variations these possible the relationships into and Micronesia,
which compete for their time and attention. attention. and time their for compete which into the causes of variations in traditional horticultural practices within western western within practices horticultural traditional in variations of causes the into
and in the modem setting there are many distractions for island young people people young island for distractions many are there setting modem the in and
ing about indigenous techniques of farming and fishing take time and attention, attention, and time fishing take and farming of techniques indigenous about ing
at the University of Guam, June 1985) pointed out, the traditional ways ways ofleam traditional the out, 1985) pointed June of Guam, University the at
traditional farming techniques. As Falanruw (U.S. Forest Service training lecture lecture Service training Forest (U.S. As Falanruw techniques. farming traditional
have only limited knowledge of traditional horticulture and have not mastered mastered not have and horticulture traditional of knowledge limited only have
who have been sent away to school, for example, to high school on another island, island, away high another school school, to on sent for to been who example, have
various study islands obtained from the literature review and from her recent recent her from and review literature the from obtained islands study various
field experiences. They indicated that many of of field many the young people that these from islands experiences. They indicated
a scientific understanding of the variability in the indigenous horticultural systems systems horticultural in indigenous the of a the scientific variability understanding
of Micronesia, is generally lacking. lacking. generally is Micronesia, of firmed the impression of the declining practice of traditional horticulture on the the on horticulture traditional of practice declining the of impression the firmed
However, the ethnographic information implied in Fisk's definition, relevant to to relevant definition, Fisk's in implied information ethnographic the However,
mation on nutritional content of Pacific foods including some indigenous crops. crops. indigenous some including Pacific foods of content nutritional on mation
ntepeet td sm neetn ettv ascain eefud be found were associations tentative interesting some study present the In
Another expectation for this project was that some insight could be gained gained be could insight some that was project this for expectation Another
The author's interviews with University of Guam students generally con generally students Guam of University with interviews author's The
"just "just
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
the the
way people prefer (or have learned) to do it." Rather, Rather, it." do to learned) have (or prefer way people 5 5
has become a commonplace become has commonplace a
It It
a delineation delineation a people-environment of relationships
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
Finally Finally
Previous Previous Studies of Micronesian Horticulture
islands. islands.
it it is clear that both more refined and more realistic theoretical
, ,
As a botanist, a botanist, As Barrau primarily concerned was with identifying the cultigens
In In addition to the general documentary work of the late 19th and 20th
Regarding Regarding possible relationships among sociocultural forms, demography,
The The exchange of foods and other commodities in their several symbolic
interpretive interpretive convention when authors refer to the origins of non-forested parts
limited limited the Expressing goals. botanical consensus of the time, Barrau formulated
question by Pacific scholars for the the thirty for last scholars question years. Pacific by
native native cultivation systems. But the influence of his work went beyond these
a a model of human-induced landscape change which has been accepted without
he he encountered in the field and with documenting the general features of the
(1961). (1961). In this influential study, Barrau inventoried the plants and described
coral coral and volcanic islands in Polynesia and Micronesia.
cultivation cultivation methods used at the time of his during fieldwork the in several 1950s
Finsch Finsch 1914, Kubary 1885, Thilenius 1913-1938, Someki 1940, Okabe 1943,
tence horticulture horticulture tence considered been botanical has also from a perspective Barrau by
Schneider Schneider Riesenberg 1949, Alkire 1950, 1968, Micronesian 1959, 1977), subsis
centuries centuries by German, Japanese, and American ethnographers (for example,
tices tices in the present and recent past, is essential if archaeologists are to be able
to to accurately model adaptive changes at earlier time ranges.
in in the different
features features were and are utilized by traditional farmers under particular conditions
within within an adaptationist ecological framework, as evidenced in traditional prac
of of horticultural features used in the past, and an understanding of how such
tional tional domains include the physical dimensions horticultural of features and their
associated associated artifactual inventories, relative and/or absolute dates for various types
1965, 1965, Pollock 1970, Weiner 1976, 1980, Earle and Ericson 1977, Smith 1977, of of those parts of the archaeological record on the various islands which relate to
models models are needed research, to new guide and more basic descriptions are needed
questions questions of sociocultural variation and change. Some of the relevant observa
sented sented below
archaeological archaeological information on prehistoric Micronesian farming systems, pre
be followed as a result of this study are indicated below. From a review of available study available this indicated are From of result of a below. review a as followed be
and and different horticultural practices, certain lines of investigation which might
sian sian farming systems the offer opportunity to integrate such concerns with anal
Petersen Petersen Appadurai 1982, Perry Future Bloch & 1986, 1989). studies Microne of
yses yses of production and land allocation strategies.
and and consumption long has fascinated anthropologists (see, for example, Firth
contexts contexts including the various and social political dimensions food preparation of
these these crops remains unassessed.
portant portant than others (McCutcheon 1981). However, the caloric contribution of
Riesenberg Riesenberg Similarly, 1968). certain types of taro in Belau are ritually more im
to to be used in competitive displays in the acquisition of traditional titles (see 6 6
year-round swiddening is the norm. Yet Pohnpei and Kosrae have very little little very have Kosrae and Pohnpei Yet norm. the is swiddening year-round ethnographically known to be practiced in the eastern Carolines, were responsible responsible were Carolines, eastern the in practiced be to known ethnographically
non-forested land. land. non-forested
errud sidnn. hs ilns ae h ms etnie ra o non of areas extensive most the have islands These swiddening. year-round,
forested lands. In contrast, in the islands of Kosrae and Pohnpei, continuous, continuous, Pohnpei, and Kosrae of islands the in contrast, In lands. forested
The monsoonal climate of Belau, Yap, and Chuuk (and in the Marianas, which which Marianas, the in (and Chuuk and Yap, Belau, of climate monsoonal The
possess considerable areas of non-forested land) is associated with seasonal, not not seasonal, with associated is land) non-forested of areas considerable possess "slash-and-bum" methods resulting in excessive erosion and severe deforestation. deforestation. severe and erosion excessive in resulting methods "slash-and-bum"
of forested lands cast doubt on Barrau's suggestion of intensive, destructive destructive intensive, of suggestion Barrau's on doubt cast lands forested of high islands of Micronesia. Micronesia. of islands high
in Yap. The present review also found no evidence for such practices in the other other the in practices such for evidence no found also review present The Yap. in
kinds of destructive horticultural practices presumed by Barrau to have been been have to Barrau by presumed practices horticultural destructive of kinds
responsible for creating non-forested areas in prehistoric times, were ever used used ever were times, prehistoric in areas non-forested creating for responsible that the the that
Yap for a very long time. It was also noted by Zan & Hunter-Anderson (1989) (1989) Hunter-Anderson & Zan by noted also was It time. long very a for Yap
these facts alone it would seem that some non-forested zones have existed on on existed have zones non-forested some that seem would it alone facts these
fems are some of the most ancient in the Pacific (Johnson et al. 1960). From From 1960). al. et (Johnson Pacific the in ancient most the of some are fems
to at least the Holocene, and the interior soils that now support only grasses and and grasses only support now that soils interior the and Holocene, the least at to
in the late Holocene, and that these species are well-adapted to the specific geo specific the to well-adapted are species these that and Holocene, late the in
climatic conditions of Yap. The monsoonal climate of western Micronesia dates dates Micronesia western of climate monsoonal The Yap. of conditions climatic
plant species that obviously evolved before the arrival of the first island farmers farmers island first the of arrival the before evolved obviously that species plant
non-forested zones in the Micronesian high islands, those in Yap contain endemic endemic contain Yap in those islands, high Micronesian the in zones non-forested
model to the origins of the "savannas" of Yap. They pointed out that like other other like that out pointed They Yap. of "savannas" the of origins the to model
horticultural development by migration or diffusion was not proposed]" (Barrau (Barrau proposed]" not was diffusion or migration by development horticultural
introduced by the migrations [into Polynesia; a separate model for Micronesian Micronesian for model separate a Polynesia; [into migrations the by introduced parently, that led to the development of taro-growing on low-lying hydromorphic hydromorphic low-lying on taro-growing of development the to led that parently,
soils and on irrigated terraces in the valleys, techniques which may have been been have may which techniques valleys, the in terraces irrigated on and soils om o giutr wt atfca friiain fte ol I ws hs ed ap need, this was It soil. the of fertilization artificial with agriculture of forms
gardens. Increased populations and the use of primitive agricultural techniques techniques agricultural primitive of use the and populations Increased gardens. for deterioration of both vegetation and soils on the majority of high islands. islands. high of majority the on soils and vegetation both of deterioration for
With the decrease in land fertility it became necessary to employ semi-permanent semi-permanent employ to necessary became it fertility land in decrease the With
cultural systems, at least on the high islands, were either shifting agriculture or or agriculture shifting either were islands, high the on least at systems, cultural
agriculture ·with bush-fallowing rotation. Burning was used for clearing space for for space clearing for used was Burning rotation. ·with bush-fallowing agriculture [namely, a cycle of burning, deforestation, and erosion] were probably responsible responsible probably were erosion] and deforestation, of cycle burning, a [namely, 1961:18; comments in brackets added). added). brackets in comments 1961:18;
a scenario of anthropogenic environmental degradation followed by relatively relatively by followed degradation environmental anthropogenic of scenario a
ae rhsoi aoto o tr-rwn: I i poal ta te rgnl agri original the that probable is "It taro-growing: of adoption prehistoric late
he observed in the Polynesian high islands, such as an emphasis on the growing growing the on emphasis an as such islands, high Polynesian the in observed he island peripheries and little or no horticultural use of non-forested island interiors. interiors. island of non-forested use horticultural no or little and peripheries island
Expressing a then-popular Western view of"primitive" farming, Barrau imagined imagined Barrau farming, of"primitive" view Western then-popular a Expressing of aroids (e.g., (e.g., aroids of
model was proposed was in order to account for some of the cultivation patterns patterns cultivation the of some for account to order in was proposed was model
of high islands through Oceania, although the specific context in which Barrau's Barrau's which in context specific the although Oceania, through islands high of
At the regional level, the climatic facts arrayed against the spatial distribution distribution spatial the against arrayed facts climatic the level, regional the At
Zan & Hunter-Anderson ( 1989) have questioned the applicability of Barrau's of Barrau's applicability the questioned ( 1989) have & Hunter-Anderson Zan
·
available ethnographic and archaeological data do not indicate that the the that indicate not do data archaeological and ethnographic available
Colocasia, Cyrtosperma) Cyrtosperma) Colocasia,
If If
Hunter-Anderson
it is true that intensive swiddening of the continuous type, type, continuous the of swiddening intensive that true is it
: :
Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional
in lowlying "hydromorphic" soils on on soils "hydromorphic" lowlying in 7 7
Medina Medina
& &
Hunter-Anderson Hunter-Anderson
& &
Overton Overton 1988). Soil and fossil pollen
& &
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
These conclusions These conclusions notwithstanding, the conventional wisdom among Pacific
The The issue of the causation of the grasslands and fernlands of Micronesia, as
mation mation of similar vegetation patterns. Paleoenvironmental research aimed at confirm confirm this possibility.
such such conditions may also have existed during the Pleistocene, favoring the for elucidating elucidating the vegetative history of the Micronesian high islands is needed to
perate perate latitude glaciations. These cool, dry periods in the tropics coincided with had been impoverished by millions of years of erosion In erosion Micronesia and of leaching. impoverished years been had millions of by
the the development of extensive savanna areas on the older landforms where soils
which which included long periods of drier, cooler conditions during the major tem
geological age) experienced experienced age) radical oscillations geological in climate during the Pleistocene, ronmental ronmental studies in Fiji (Brookfield
analyses analyses indicate that Fiji (and by implication other tropical islands of similar nas nas are entirely anthropogenic, is being revised in the light of recent paleoenvi
scholars scholars concerned with variability in island landscapes, that the tropical savan
climatic climatic changes" (Cole 1986:30).
the the geomorphological evolution of the landscape, geological events and major
ies ies in a wide variety of savanna settings worldwide it is now apparent that such that, that, over time, have been and are subject to continuous change in response to
1975, Bourliere Bourliere 1975, Cole Appropriate 1983, 1986). field and laboratory studies have factors factors are at best secondary to "the interplay of all the environmental factors
from from the through the 1930s From 1960s. subsequent experimental and stud field
creating savanna savanna creating environments, popularity the noting savanna anthropogenesis of
man man influence through fire and other cultural practices was a primary factor in
landform landform evolution. Cole (1986:26-30) reviewed the history of the idea that hu
responsible responsible for degradation soil in the prehistoric past. The local lack of research theories theories no longer held by scientists working elsewhere on problems of tropical
not not been conducted, and little is known of aboriginal farming practices allegedly apparently has resulted in a continued acceptance among Pacific scholars of earlier earlier apparently continued scholars of a resulted in has acceptance among Pacific
tense scrutiny tense scrutiny accorded continental savanna environments Golley (see
general general scientific neglect of the small Pacific islands in comparison with the in
sought. sought. elsewhere elsewhere in the Pacific, is far from settled. One of the reasons for this is the
later later in the prehistoric sequence if at all. Zan & Hunter-Anderson (1989) con
occupation occupation are located in the coastal zones whereas island interiors are occupied cluded cluded that a geo-climatic explanation for these patterns probably should be
be be in the extreme interior. Finally, the earliest archaeological sites of human
Yet Yet the location of non-forested lands in the high islands of Micronesia tends to
should should have most seriously occurred in these areas, not in the island interiors.
access access to marine resources among other reasons), deforestation from farming
settlement settlement in island along islands the to is high margins (possibly facilitate regular
if if the destructive farming scenario is correct. Since the most intensive human
forest forest distribution should be observed than is the case. Zan
(1989) also (1989) noted a discrepancy in the spatial distribution of non-forested lands
8 8 for for the deforestation of parts of all these islands, the opposite pattern of regional
causally related in the Micronesian cases, social theorists must seek alternative alternative seek must theorists social cases, Micronesian the in related causally
explanations. Empirical investigations using archaeological and ethnographic ethnographic and archaeological using investigations Empirical explanations.
tion. If it is true that agricultural intensification and societal complexity are not not are complexity societal and intensification agricultural that true is it If tion.
the Pacific (e.g., Sahlins 1958, Brookfield 1972, Earle 1973, I 987, Kirch 1984, 1984, I Kirch 987, 1973, Earle 1972, Brookfield 1958, Sahlins (e.g., Pacific the
great size to support larger populations; and (4) "surplus production" in most most in production" (4) "surplus and populations; larger support to size great
with the observation that the types of horticultural production used on these these on used production horticultural of types the that observation the with
complexity and social stratification. stratification. social and complexity
"managerial" roles often proposed to account for prehistoric cases of societal societal of cases prehistoric for account to proposed often roles "managerial"
complex societies did not involve large-scale intensive agriculture. Bath (1984) (1984) Bath agriculture. intensive large-scale involve not did societies complex
islands with highly stratified and complex social systems did not require the the require not did systems social complex and stratified highly with islands
concluded her study of prehistoric political evolution on Pohnpei and Kosrae Kosrae and Pohnpei on evolution political prehistoric of study her concluded
a causal factor in the development of complex, hierarchical societies; (3) ruling (3) ruling societies; hierarchical complex, of development the in factor causal a
centers of alliances and societies had to have intensive agriculture systems of of systems agriculture intensive have to had societies and alliances of centers
agriculture" in the high islands of Belau, Yap, the Marianas, Chuuk, Kosrae, Kosrae, Chuuk, Marianas, the Yap, Belau, of islands high the in agriculture"
highly intensive agriculture; (2) the development of intensive agriculture was not not was agriculture intensive of development (2) the agriculture; intensive highly
well as his own field observations, to study prehistoric Micronesian "intensive "intensive Micronesian prehistoric study to observations, field own his as well
(1) high population density contributed to the development of large scale and and scale large of development the to contributed density population (1) high
Pohnpei, and the low islands of the Marshalls. He tentatively concluded that that concluded tentatively He Marshalls. the of islands low the and Pohnpei,
causal factor (see references in Brookfield 1972). In this context, Cordy (unpubl.; (unpubl.; Cordy context, this 1972). In Brookfield in (see references factor causal
96,Crys n Bt' fnig ae rvctv ad eur frhr explica further require and provocative are findings Bath's and Cordy's 1986),
among chiefdoms. "Agricultural intensification" has been suggested as a major major a as suggested been has intensification" "Agricultural chiefdoms. among
farming, prompted by a theoretical interest in what causes societal complexity complexity societal causes what in interest theoretical a by prompted farming,
see also Cordy 1986) used ethnographic and archaeological archival sources as as sources archival archaeological and ethnographic used 1986) Cordy also see
additional plant illustrations. In the post-World War II ethnographic literature literature ethnographic II War post-World the In illustrations. plant additional
islands in the study region, although works in land tenure have touched on the the on touched have tenure land in works although region, study the in islands
there have been no anthropological studies focused on horticulture in any of the the of any in horticulture on focused studies anthropological no been have there
Marksbury 1979, Mccutcheon 1981). 1981). Mccutcheon 1979, Marksbury
subject (see, for example, Fischer 1958, Kaneshiro 1958, 1958, McGrath 1958, Kaneshiro Fischer (see, subject for example,
that of Sproat (1968), which is a near-verbatim repetition of Barrau ( ( with 1961) Barrau of repetition near-verbatim a is which (1968), Sproat of that
of the U.S. government work on Micronesian horticulture is derivative, such as as such derivative, is horticulture Micronesian on work government U.S. the of
personal communication 1987), a policy ending only about a decade ago. Much Much ago. decade a about only ending policy 1987), a communication personal
A significant factor accounting for this omission was the tight control over foreign foreign over control tight the was omission this for accounting factor A significant
Barrau's, namely, two studies by Yen (1971, 1974), Micronesia is not considered. considered. not is 1974), Micronesia (1971, Yen by studies two namely, Barrau's,
anthropologists and archaeologists to better anticipate variations in aboriginal aboriginal in variations anticipate better to archaeologists and anthropologists
in comprehensive botanical reviews of traditional horticulture in Oceania after after Oceania in horticulture traditional of reviews botanical comprehensive in
scientific access to the islands by the American administration since 1945 (Yen, (Yen, 1945 since administration American the by islands the to access scientific
tropical Pacific islands (Roberts 1989). Although beyond the scope of the present present the of scope the beyond 1989). Although (Roberts islands Pacific tropical
farming systems, both initially and subsequently in Micronesia. Micronesia. in subsequently and initially both systems, farming
of humankind as well as during the time of prehistoric human occupation of the the of occupation human prehistoric of time the during as well as humankind of
oscillations which could have affected island biotic conditions prior to the advent advent the to prior conditions biotic island affected have could which oscillations
study, an understanding and appreciation of such natural processes should help help should processes natural such of appreciation and understanding an study,
In light of the theoretical literature on the evolution of social complexity in in complexity social of evolution the on literature theoretical the of light In
Recently Pacific archaeologists have begun to investigate traditional island island traditional investigate to begun have archaeologists Pacific Recently
In keeping with the general neglect of Micronesia by international science, science, international by Micronesia of neglect general the with keeping In
During the Holocene era there appear also to have been significant climatic climatic significant been have to also appear there era Holocene the During
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
& &
Wilson 1971, 1971, Wilson 9 9
to to these
response response
-
in
Rainfall Rainfall amounts and their distribution (see
C.). C.).
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
of of ocean. However, the combined dry land area of
2 2
A A Regional Geographic Overview
be be due to the tendency for annual rainfall to be highest
may may
This-
Prolonged Prolonged regional drought and irregularity in rainfall between years are not
Generally Generally rainfall is more abundant in the islands on the eastern side of the
The The climate of this region is tropical maritime with average monthly tem
The The western Micronesian region with the five high island cases considered
• •
Wallace Wallace 1983). A particularly severe and prolonged drought, such as that of
2
& &
(see (see Table 1). Short-phase droughts associated with the El Nino/Southern Os
cillation cillation the in (ENSO) tropical years occur western (Rasmussen every 2-10 Pacific
lush lush vegetation (see van der Brug For 1986). example, the standard deviation in
1/12 1/12 the mean annual amount; in Belau, Yap, and Chuuk the dry season is
uncommon uncommon in the Micronesian islands in spite of their tropical setting and often
annual annual rainfall is over 450 mm. in the cases for which this could be calculated
also also can occur in Kosrae, as the author found during fieldwork in 1986.
and and February can be drier than other months. Dry periods in July and August
5,000 mm. mm. 5,000 while in Belau, Yap, and Chuuk the annual average is less than 3800
reversal reversal characteristic this of climatic regime. The windy period, when the north
islands islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae are closer to the primary trade wind area, which
of the the primary of monsoon area (Thomas experiencing 8), the 1963:Fig. annual wind
east east trades dominate, generally extends from November to May. The eastern
generally generally brings heavy rains all year. However, even in these islands, January
mm. mm. All these islands experience some months in which the rainfall is less than
associated associated with the Asian monsoon (Robinson 1970). These islands just are east
north, north, as as well to the prevalence of the northeast trades year-round in this part
of of Micronesia (Taylor 1973). Annually Kosrae and Pohnpei experience at least
close close to 7 degrees North Latitude and to decrease as one moves either south or
study study area.
the the wet-dry seasonality is pronounced.
(which (which includes Belau and Yap) and rarely sees heavy storms but in some years
do do not. Chuuk, in the center, is on the eastern edge of the Asian monsoon zone
western western side of the study area (Belau and Yap) usually experience pronounced
wet wet and dry seasons while the islands on the eastern side (Pohnpei and Kosrae)
peratures peratures in the 80s F. (ca. 26
Table Table 1) through the year are more variable than temperatures. Islands on the
km
the the high islands of Belau, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae is only about 1,140
passing passing some 111,800 km
in in this study is shown in Figure This 1. is a large geographic expanse, encom
10 10
nographic nographic records of the islands.
ies ies into the implications for human cultural organization
faced by prehistoric prehistoric by faced Micronesians. Anthropological insights afforded such by stud
conditions conditions should enable a better interpretation of the archaeological and eth
into into the past and present environmental and human demographic conditions data data are certainly called for in order to pursue this issue. Also needed is research
•o •o
w w
"b "b
:!! :!!
~ ~
·
.---r··· .---r···
Figure Figure
z z
~ ~
>-
ii? ii?
a.. a..
~, ~,
u u
<( <( ~ ~
WJ WJ
"' "'
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I. I.
Map of Micronesia showing five island groups in present study. study. present in groups five island showing Micronesia of Map
•o •o
N N
I I
w w
~ ~
"' "'
"'.:: "'.::
......
. .
.. ..
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Cl Cl
~ ~
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iii iii
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Ul Ul
Ul Ul
co co
C: C:
.. ..
·,, ·,,
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\ \
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,, ,,
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·. ·.
I I
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.. ..
'\ '\
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a. a.
<{ <{
>-
______
UJ UJ
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0
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0 0
a. a.
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uJ uJ
z z
Q.. Q..
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......
• •
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-
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-----
j~· j~·
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0 0
(J) (J)
<{ <{
UJ UJ
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C: C:
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-
••• •••
______
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co co
C: C:
Ul Ul
• •
. .
-~ -~
~ ~
·.:::: ·.:::: .c .c
-· -·
<( <(
~ ~
"'' "'' 'b 'b
!= !=
w• w•
_,, _,,
~: ~:
w: w:
~ ~
f
' '
' '
j j
: :
f) f)
( (
-
I I -
Mar Mar
Oct-Apr Oct-Apr
Jan, Jan, Jul-Nov
Sept-Oct, Sept-Oct, Dec-
Jan-Mar Jan-Mar
Jan-Apr Jan-Apr
6 6
.
Hawaii Hawaii and Pacific 1984 (for
308.6 308.6
439.7 439.7
, ,
. .
Rainfall Rainfall Per
Mean Mean Annual
can be appreciated appreciated can be that fluctuations such
8 8 408.4
8 8 323.3
.
.
It It
** **
455.2 455.2
Micronesica (24)1, 1991 1991 (24)1, Micronesica
10 10 447
50 50
01 01
20 20 513
20 20 466.1 258
.
.
.
.
.
Selected Selected island rainfall data (in millimeters).
Mean Mean
5276
Annual Annual Standard
3696
3074
3735
4884
I. I.
Table Table
). The The ). high islands of Yap and Belau are just located to the west of this
*Sources: *Sources: NOAA Climatological Data Summary
1 1
**s.d. not not **s.d. calculated, as period of record only 8 yrs
Belau, Yap, Yap, Belau, Chuuk, Pohnpei); NOCD (for 1989 Kosrae).
Kosrae Kosrae
Pohnpei Pohnpei
Belau Belau
Yap Yap
Island Island Group Rainfall Deviation Month Driest Months
Chuuk Chuuk
Geologically, Geologically, Micronesia is divided by the so-called "Andesite Line" (see
Global Global paleoclimatic studies are beginning to document oscillations in the
Of Of all the oceanic areas where tropical cyclones occur, Micronesia experi
ippine plate where it abuts the subducting western edge of the Pacific plate. These These plate. it the abuts ippine where plate Pacific the of western edge subducting
geological plate plate geological tectonic boundary. They lie along the eastern edge of the Phil
Fifure Fifure
should should help archaeologists better anticipate the variability encountered in the
archaeological record, record, broadening band the ofinterpretive archaeological options currently used.
rations of time when they were less so. so. less were they when time rations of
ticular kinds of farming systems in the past. Awareness of paleoclimatic paleoclimatic variations of past. Awareness the in systems farming of kinds ticular
in in storminess could have had profound on effects the or success failure of par
ney ney as as well 1985, Roberts For Micronesia 1989). this means there have been
rain rain they bring to the islands were more common than today, and similar du
periods periods of tens and hundreds of years when typhoons and the large amounts of
frequency of tropical tropical of frequency storminess throughout the in Holocene references Fin (see
recovery recovery from a typhoon can take many years.
lens. lens. In islands with pronounced seasonality in rainfall and/or frequent drought,
struction struction in the Marshalls and eastern Carolines. Vegetation including cultigens
and and breadfruit are slower to recover because of salt damage to the underground
large amounts amounts large annual of atoll rainfall giant as such whereas cultigens swamp taro
recovers recovers from typhoons quite rapidly in the high islands which normally receive
However, However, severe storms sometimes form farther east and can wreak great de
vicinity vicinity of Kosrae and Pohnpei, gaining strength as they move northwestward.
are are felt on the atolls to the north and east of Yap. Many typhoons form in the
the the western side of the study area. The most devastating of these effects storms
Called Called typhoons in the western Pacific, severe tropical storms are common on
ences the the ences proportion, greatest about ). thirty percent et (Brown al. 2.1 1989:Table
(van (van der Brug 1986:1)
western western portion of the study and region once every 250 yr in the eastern portion
the the ENSO of has 1982-83, been estimated to occur once every 125 yr in the 12 12
J. J.
areas tend to hold standing water during the wet season, called by Stemmerman Stemmerman by called season, wet the during water standing hold to tend areas
under special soil conditions such as heavy concentrations of bauxite (noted by by (noted bauxite of concentrations heavy as such conditions soil special under
types of forest. Non-forested zones are rare in the eastern islands and occur only only occur and islands eastern the in rare are zones Non-forested forest. of types
are derived from the weathering of Oceanic basalt and tend to support various various support to tend and basalt Oceanic of weathering the from derived are
( ( 1981)
calculation by the Yap State Land Management Office Office in Management Land State Yap the by calculation Because of the high clay content of the soil, shallow depressions within these these within depressions shallow soil, the of content clay high the of Because
demic grasses and ferns and, in places, individuals and small stands of of stands small and places, in individuals grasses demic and, ferns and
fBluad a spot eaieyetniennfrse aeso aiu en various of areas non-forested extensive relatively support Yap and Belau of
with respect to the Andesite Line. The lateritic, highly weathered interior soils soils interior weathered highly lateritic, The Line. Andesite the to respect with
km
position vis-a-vis the Andesite Line. Belau's main island, Babelthaup, is is Babelthaup, island, main Belau's Line. Andesite the vis-a-vis position
area is is area
Beguets), Beguets), several are under and
total total
and and
archipelago archipelago and
none in Kosrae. Kosrae. in none
ca. four m.y.a. (Kosrae) to twelve m.y.a. (Chuuk). (Chuuk). m.y.a. twelve to (Kosrae) m.y.a. four ca. there has been considerable subsidence in Chuuk, less in Pohnpei and practically practically and Pohnpei less in Chuuk, in subsidence considerable has been there
million years ago. Each of these islands is older than the next from east to west, west, to east from next the than older is islands of these Each ago. years million
islands of Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae were formed between four and twelve twelve and four between formed were Kosrae and Pohnpei, Chuuk, of islands
For example, compare maximum elevations of of elevations maximum compare For example,
around one hundred million years years ago million (Menard one hundred around
Yap and Belau, Belau, may Yap and go whose back antiquity to late Mesozoic-Early the Cenozoic,
guished by their continental-type metamorphic rocks, rocks, e.g., metamorphic slate, guished gneiss, by schist; continental-type their and 21, 21,
being called "continental" islands, whereas the high islands east of the Andesite Andesite the of east islands high the whereas islands, "continental" called being mainly of basalt rocks rich in lime and iron but low in silica (Gressitt (Gressitt silica in low but iron and lime in rich rocks basalt of mainly field research (Keating unpubl., Keating et al. unpubl.) indicates that the eastern eastern the that indicates unpubl.) al. et Keating unpubl., (Keating field research
the ocean floor, and they tend to have steep off-shore off-shore slopes. steep have to tend they and floor, ocean the
by their sediments, e.g., coal and clay; and their intrusive rocks, e.g., andesites andesites e.g., rocks, intrusive their and clay; and coal e.g., sediments, their by
truding through the Pacific Plate, built up by successive basalt outpourings from from outpourings successive basalt by up built Pacific Plate, the through truding Pohnpei, and Kosrae. All are geologically much younger (probably Tertiary) than than All Kosrae. geologically are (probably Tertiary) and younger much Pohnpei,
ieCuk PhpiadKsa-r tepnalso ocncmutis pro mountains of volcanic pinnacles the Kosrae-are and Pohnpei Line-Chuuk,
the western Pacific, which in Micronesia also include the Marianas, are distin are Marianas, the include also Micronesia in which Pacific, western the
marine shelves similar to continental land mass shelves, leading to their once once their to leading shelves, mass land continental to similar shelves marine
andesitic islands occur in arclike formations or archipelagoes trending northeast trending archipelagoes or formations arclike in occur islands andesitic high in silica and alumina (Thomas (Thomas alumina and silica in high
southwest, with deep trenches on their Pacific plate side. These "rimlands" of of "rimlands" These side. plate Pacific their on trenches deep with southwest,
Bridge, cited in Fosberg Fosberg in Bridge, cited
2 2
Wiens Wiens
in extent; Yap's four main islands total total islands four main Yap's in extent;
628 628
As would be expected, soils and vegetation exhibit meaningful patterning patterning meaningful exhibit vegetation and soils expected, be would As
Island area among the five study islands is not correlated with geographic geographic with correlated not is islands study five the among area Island
Elevations are typically higher in the Oceanic islands of the study region. region. study the of islands Oceanic the in higher typically are Elevations
The non-andesitic or Oceanic islands of the Pacific plate are composed composed are plate Pacific the of islands Oceanic or non-andesitic The
95.8 95.8
"savanna wetlands." In Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae interior upland soils soils upland interior Kosrae and Pohnpei Chuuk, In wetlands." "savanna
109.6 109.6
m in Kosrae (Douglas (Douglas Kosrae in m
km
1962:63-64). 1962:63-64).
2 2
km
(individual islands range from from range islands (individual
173 173
2 2
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
(Douglas (Douglas
min Yap with with Yap min
There are three such island groups in Micronesia: Chuuk, Chuuk, Micronesia: in groups such island three are There
1960:34). 1960:34).
1969:398-404; 1969:398-404;
5 5
1969:398-404). 1969:398-404).
km
439 439
2
• •
Pohnpei is is Pohnpei
1963). 1963).
min Chuuk (on Toi), Toi), (on Chuuk min
79.3 79.3
Yap's area, about about area, Yap's
h ac sad hv salw sub shallow have islands arc The
122 122
Among the non-andesitic islands islands non-andesitic the Among
34.2 34.2
1964:92:241 1964:92:241 ).
km
325.1 325.1
m on Babelthaup in the Belau Belau the in Babelthaup on m
2
; ;
km
Chuuk's eleven eleven high islands Chuuk's
km
2 2
(Toi) to to (Toi)
2 2
1981). 1981).
in area, and Kosrae's Kosrae's and area, in
Recent geophysical geophysical Recent
791 791
78 78
1.6 1.6
min Pohnpei Pohnpei min
km
Pandanus. Pandanus.
km
2
, ,
1954: 1954: 14-
s re a is
2 2
396.3 396.3
(Fala (Fala 13 13
cited cited
Pohnpei Pohnpei and
Cyrtosperma) Cyrtosperma)
1959:241 1959:241
indicates indicates general a
(6.0). (6.0).
there, there, as opposed to
is is cultivated. A com
has has altered the coastal
Manchester Manchester
1980-83) 1980-83)
1989) 1989)
Colocasia Colocasia
on on Belau, and for the Marianas
1961:70; 1961:70;
1989) 1989)
Khosrowpanah Khosrowpanah unpubl.). This infor
1988). 1988).
& &
is a a is major cultigen, may represent farming a
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma chamissonis)
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
respectively) respectively) are intermediate. In Belau's case it appears
respectively) respectively) and the lowest in Kosrae
17.1, 17.1,
24.7, 24.7,
and and Hunter-Anderson
All the the islands the in present All study have their at margins soils such
regarding regarding Chuuk and Masse (
and and
and and
1988 1988
1967). 1967).
1984) 1984)
(23.1 (23.1
(17.6, (17.6,
Coastline Coastline geomorphology and its developmental processes have not been
The The present moderate proportion bottomlands of soils in interesting is Belau
While While laterization produces poor for soils cultivation on uplands, associated
Laterization Laterization a is process ofleaching under heavy rain and high temperatures
farming farming systems. The history of changing island coastlines relative to adjacent
mation mation is important for understanding development and change in indigenous
see see Butler
Parker Parker (
still still occurring rather rapidly and coastal plains are yet quite narrow.
sidence sidence has apparently slowed down and allowed coastal alluvium to build up. ing ing prehistoric settlement patterns been considered in detail (but see King &
indicate indicate its younger geological status relative to Chuuk, where the rate of sub well documented documented well in the study islands nor have their implications understand for
uplift. uplift. On the other hand, Pohnpei's moderate amount bottomland of could soils
adaptation adaptation to a change in soil hydrological conditions since the recent Holocene
The The Chuuk case contrasts greatly with Kosrae, where subsidence is apparently
in in light of the prevalence of inland cultivation of
coastal coastal lowlands where
water-fed water-fed taro patches in Belau, which are sited inland of the presently narrow
are are commonly grown only in coastal swamps. The complex systems of surface
Yap Yap and Chuuk where aroids (almost exclusively the salt-tolerant
Belau Belau
expected expected in this geologically ancient archipelago.
configuration configuration of alluvial soils, decreasing the proportion that otherwise might be
that that late Holocene uplift of several feet (see Masse servation servation Survey Soil reports Service for Micronesia,
parison parison of simple percentages of "bottomlands" soils (see large fold-out maps Chuuk Chuuk
here here that the giant swamp taro ( older older islands, i.e., those in the west. The highest percentages occur in Yap and
tendency tendency more for extensive bottomland areas of to soils occur on the geologically
14 14
on on for many millions of years longer than those of the eastern side. Mangroves,
and and a finer classification system used in the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Soil Con
reed reed marshes, and swamp forests are supported by these alluvial soils, and it is
rill rill and sheet wash erosion produce large clay sediment accumulations at the
and and in bottoms valley but in the western islands these processes have been going
in Nason Nason in
of of high fertility have accumulated (Barrau
lower lower elevations. Where adequate catchment basins exist, "hydromorphic" soils
lateritic lateritic soils their characteristic red color. Barrau's model refers to such areas
recognized recognized in Fiji (Brookfield & Overton
the the poor nutrient status of such soils may be quite ancient as has been recently
as as iron and aluminum compounds in high concentrations. Iron oxidation gives
wherein wherein soluble bases and silicas are reduced, leaving nonsoluble materials such as as having been degraded by human farming practices in the prehistoric past but
si h csso h setptt ad asv huh t hv oeit Mi into come have to thought cassava and potato sweet the of cases the in as
also implies a receptiveness to later introductions from these neighboring areas, areas, neighboring these from introductions later to receptiveness a implies also
cronesia from the New World via Manila during the early Spanish colonial era. era. colonial Spanish early the during Manila via World New the from cronesia
an integral part of the cultural repertoire of the earliest settlers of Micronesia. Micronesia. of settlers earliest the of repertoire cultural the of part integral an
cultigens and techniques appropriate to their cultivation in tropical islands was was islands tropical in cultivation their to appropriate techniques and cultigens
Anderson 1990). An Old World derivation implies that the knowledge of the the of knowledge the that implies derivation World Old An 1990). Anderson
& &
huad er yhriutrlfsig epe h utmtl drv fo in from derive ultimately who peoples horticultural-fishing by years thousand
to assume that the islands in the study area have been inhabited for some four four some for inhabited been have area study the in islands the that assume to
sular southeast Asian populations to the west and south of Micronesia (Shutler (Shutler Micronesia of south and west the to populations Asian southeast sular
in Chuuk. Chuuk. in
been reported to the author regarding Tol Island in Chuuk. Stemmerman and and Stemmerman Chuuk. in Island Tol regarding author the to reported been
of tidal influence by wall construction to kill mangroves prior to cultivating taro taro cultivating to prior mangroves kill to construction wall by influence of tidal
building practices for contemporary creation of coastal taro growing areas have have areas growing taro coastal of creation contemporary for practices building
Proby (unpubl., quoted by by King quoted (unpubl., Proby
been no survey of the extent of this "made land" on Yap nor a determination determination a nor Yap on land" "made this of extent the of survey no been
rsnl n ln ceto o ti sr i tkn pae atog smlr land similar although place, taking is sort this of creation land no Presently
it was converted from an estuarine to a completely freshwater regime. There has has There regime. freshwater completely a to estuarine an from was converted it
of the time scale of this activity but it appears to be areally quite extensive. extensive. quite areally be to appears it but activity this of scale time the of
trient status and organic structure of the soil been enhanced and maintained as as maintained and enhanced been soil the of structure organic and status trient
n ntins no hs oligfaue ahtm i an. hshv h nu the have Thus rains. it time each lowlying features these into nutrients and
dation. According to Yapese tradition, over months and years the walled areas areas walled the years and months over tradition, Yapese to According dation.
of land for growing giant swamp taro. Runoff from inland brings additional soil soil additional brings inland from Runoff taro. swamp growing giant for land of
vnuly iln hm ster ieccedpns n h tdl atwtr inun water salt tidal the on depends cycle life their as them killing eventually
have been filled with organic debris, a deliberate process to increase the amount amount the increase to process deliberate a debris, organic filled with been have
by the deliberate creation of cultivable swamps in former mangrove areas (see (see areas mangrove former in swamps cultivable of creation deliberate the by
sea walls several feet high to prevent seawater from entering the mangroves, mangroves, the entering from seawater prevent to high feet several walls sea
Hunter-Anderson, 1983, 1986). This has been accomplished by building stone stone building by accomplished been has This 1986). 1983, Hunter-Anderson,
Anderson 1983, 1986). Other changes in the coastline of Yap have been caused caused been have Yap of coastline the in changes 1986). Other 1983, Anderson
of stone groins perpendicular to the shore, which function as sand traps (Hunter traps sand as function which shore, the to perpendicular groins of stone
grove tree stump whose upper few centimeters are regularly exposed during low low during exposed regularly are centimeters few upper whose stump tree grove
date (Beta 16249). 16249). (Beta date
tide on the sandy beach of Waned Village in northeastern Map yielded a modem modem a yielded Map Village northeastern in of Waned beach sandy the on tide
coastline changes can occur. Radiocarbon analysis of a sample from a large large man a from sample of a analysis Radiocarbon occur. changes can coastline
in northeastern Map Island, indicate the relatively rapid rate at which major major which at rate rapid relatively the indicate Island, Map northeastern in
tation changes from mangrove to sandy beach, within living memory of of residents memory living within beach, sandy to mangrove changes from tation
oayosrain, uha aeeifrat conso eetcatl vege coastal recent of accounts informant Yapese as such observations, porary
u udrtnig fpeitrc ua ln uepten oe tm. Contem time. over patterns use land human prehistoric of understanding our
land and sea level is a subject about which accurate information would enhance enhance would information accurate which about subject a is level sea and land
Shutler 1975; 1975; Hunter in studies Shutler see several physical also anthropological of the
From the available linguistic and archaeological evidence it is probably safe safe probably is it evidence archaeological and linguistic available the From
The Yapese state that sandy coastlines have been increased by the placement placement by the increased been have coastlines sandy that state Yapese The
Initial Human Settlement and the Conditions under which Micronesian Micronesian which under Conditions the and Settlement Human Initial
Horticulture Dispersed and Differentiated Differentiated and Dispersed Horticulture
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
& &
Parker 1984:69) 1984:69) manipulation recent the Parker report
It It 15 15
Hendy Hendy 1971,
& &
and and arrowroot. These sug
Pandanus Pandanus
the the coral islands were inhabited during
If If
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
Another Another implication of increased tropical storminess for the successful dis
It It is also possible that different climatic conditions prevailed in the tropical
Similarities Similarities in the crops grown among the different islands are understand
nities, nities, as well as the use of land crops most suited to high annual rainfall and
modation modation to the species composition of high energy near-shore biotic commu
Under Under these conditions, fishing and farming strategies would reflect an accom
high-energy coastal coastal habitats, high-energy with in surface greater the islands. high rates runoff of
persion persion of the Micronesian horticulturalists is a greater incidence than today of
radiation radiation and dispersion into the tropical Pacific islands.
nearby nearby atolls only later-not because the reasoning is different; high islands are
because because they propose a dynamic rather than a static adaptive context for human
vironmentally vironmentally more diverse high islands would have been settled first and the
generally generally better places for sustaining human populations than coral ones-but
more more salt- and wind-tolerant species like
such such climatic conditions, their land food yields may have been limited to the
gestions gestions contrast in a sense with Goodenough's (1957) idea that the larger, en
lens lens an unsuccessful farming strategy.
and and high waves would make atoll farming dependent upon a stable fresh water
human human radiation into the region. On the other hand, frequent destructive winds
conditions conditions islands low may have served as supporting links in the successful first
have have occurred, at times, at least on the some atoll islands. of Under climatic wetter
settlements settlements need not have been confined to the larger high islands but also may
pecially pecially in the low islands. On the one hand, this implies that the first human
destructive destructive winds and tidal salt water intrusion into groundwater reservoirs, es
annual annual rainfall and higher groundwater levels but more incidences per decade of ing conditions conditions ing for cultigens, if suggestion Finney's 1985) of periods ( of increased
cited cited in Finney Times of more 1985). frequent tropical storms would mean higher
tropical tropical storminess ca. 3500 yrs B.P. is confirmed (see Wilson
Pacific when when human Pacific expansion into Micronesia occurred, creating grow different
have have operated as they do today.
ferent ferent crop emphases, although basic soil and slope constraints probably would
history history under higher densities. More extensive methods may have involved dif
ods, ods, often associated with low human density, than those practiced later in pre
relatively relatively great for the first few hundred years of settlement, assuming a normal
growth growth rate. This may have resulted in the use of more extensive farming meth
have have provided no help from already established groups arrivals. the for new Under
these these demographic conditions, the amount of land available would have been
have have been empty of competing human populations. But empty islands would
at at the time of the initial human radiation into Micronesia, all the islands would
culture culture has been practiced in these islands have not been constant. For example,
16 16
particular particular it would seem that the demographic conditions under which horti
components, components, was different than in the ethnographic present in Micronesia. In
able able given the assumption of a common cultural tradition and similar overall
earlier earlier times the regional configuration of subsistence systems, including farming growing growing conditions among tropical islands. However, it is possible that during
joined. joined.
tlement expansion into previously unused areas or islands. Again, the hydrological hydrological the Again, islands. or areas unused previously into expansion tlement
ie iln apoce sm trsod au, hr wud e rsue o set for pressure be would there value, threshold some approached island given odtos nuig sad amn scesi h suc aes ol rne pre- render would areas source the in success farming island ensuring conditions
human population growth would occur. As increasing population density on a a on density population increasing As occur. would growth population human
human settlement of the region. For example, during wetter climatic phases faster faster phases climatic wetter during example, For region. of the settlement human
with island hydrological conditions which encourage or inhibit farming success. success. farming inhibit or encourage which conditions hydrological island with
It can be applied to later prehistoric times in Micronesia as well as to initial initial to as well as Micronesia in times prehistoric later to applied be can It
rpcl aii hnvr prpit dmgahc n ciai cniin con conditions climatic and demographic appropriate whenever Pacific tropical
quent westerly winds in sailing eastward and it seems inevitable that humankind humankind that inevitable seems it and eastward sailing in winds westerly quent
nweg o rcs iln lctos Ad o hs h "sitne o oe fre more of "assistance" the this to Add locations. island precise of knowledge
should have radiated into (if not "conquered" as Bellwood 1979 has put it) the the it) put has 1979 Bellwood as "conquered" not (if into radiated have should
areas and emigration occurs. An increase in the frequency of voyages eastward eastward voyages of frequency the in increase An occurs. emigration and areas
population threshold this creates intolerable competitive conditions in the source source the in conditions competitive intolerable creates this threshold population
increases the chances of some emigrants finding land even in the absence of of absence the in even land finding emigrants some of chances the increases
ditions in direct response to a more reliable and abundant food supply. At some some At supply. food abundant and reliable more a to response direct in ditions
annual rainfall associated with the high storm frequency, provides the "push" "push" the provides frequency, storm high the with associated rainfall annual
for increased voyaging from source areas to uninhabited islands. Simply put, put, Simply islands. uninhabited to areas source from voyaging increased for
was accomplished with great skill and flexibility. flexibility. and skill great with accomplished was ore ra ua ppltos rw atr ne mr fvrbe amn con farming favorable more under faster grow populations human area source
ditions for tropical farming in Southeast Asian source areas, due to the higher higher the to due areas, source Asian Southeast in farming tropical for ditions
destructive winds and waves limited the types of farming and fishing that could could that fishing and farming of types the limited waves and winds destructive
be pursued in the small islands, initial human expansion into the remote Pacific Pacific remote the into expansion human initial islands, small the in pursued be
rates in the larger islands of southeast Asia and Melanesia, brought about by by about brought Melanesia, and Asia southeast of islands larger the in rates
may have been a deciding factor, a kind of demographic imperative. If frequent frequent If imperative. demographic of kind a factor, deciding a been have may
by human groups into the more remote Pacific islands. Higher human growth growth human Higher islands. Pacific remote more the into groups human by
higher rainfall and thus more favorable farming conditions in these source areas, areas, source these in conditions farming favorable more thus and rainfall higher
less difficult, it probably was not the sole reason for the first eastward radiation radiation eastward first the for reason sole the not was probably it difficult, less
creased frequency of tropical storms in the past could have made eastward sailing sailing eastward made have could past the in storms tropical of frequency creased
wind attempting to compensate for drift by knowledge of island locations and and locations island of knowledge by drift for compensate to attempting wind
the annual wind reversal to make trips to the northeast, or they tack into the the into tack they or northeast, the to trips make to reversal wind annual the
urns Tu, hl icesd rqec o wsele ascae wt a in an with associated westerlies of frequency increased while Thus, currents.
ad aln (.. aant h pealn nrhat rd wns cn e accom be can winds) trade northeast prevailing the against (i.e., sailing ward
rdtoa nvgto i Mcoei (.. iny 96 hms 99 ht east 1989) that Thomas 1976, Finney (e.g., Micronesia in navigation traditional
plished even without unusually frequent westerly winds. Sailors simply wait for for wait simply Sailors winds. westerly frequent unusually without even plished
more remote Pacific islands. islands. Pacific remote more
than have prevailed over recent decades and years in the tropical Pacific. He He Pacific. tropical the in years and decades recent over prevailed have than
hence encouraged exploratory voyaging that resulted in new settlements in the the in settlements new in resulted that voyaging exploratory encouraged hence
emphasized that more frequent westerlies made eastward sailing less difficult and and difficult less sailing eastward made westerlies frequent more that emphasized
and character of human settlements. settlements. human of character and
sociated with more frequent westerly winds associated with stormier conditions conditions stormier with associated winds westerly frequent more with sociated
high winds. In turn such accommodations may have affected the size, placement, placement, size, the affected have may accommodations such turn In winds. high
The demographic growth model incorporates climatic oscillations associated associated oscillations climatic incorporates model growth demographic The
eorpi got mdl ae o hgl fvrbe yrlgcl con hydrological favorable highly on based model growth demographic A
iny 18) ugse ta te ua rdain no oyei ws as was Polynesia into radiation human the that suggested (1985) Finney
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
It It
seems clear from recent sailing experiments with with experiments sailing recent from clear seems 17 17
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
The The archaeological data do not really support a simple two-pronged settle
Another Another tack taken to investigate the and origins spread the Micronesians of
A A detailed consideration of the archaeological implications of the demo
Over Over time can we anticipate "pulses" of rapid expansion into such habitats
ment ment scenario several (see articles in Hunter-Anderson Belau in 1990). the west
including including the atolls, and the high islands of Kosrae, Pohnpei and Chuuk. These
closely related related closely nuclear Micronesian languages.
people people were speakers of the eastern branch of Austronesian which became the
populated populated the Gilberts, the Marshalls, and the central and eastern Carolines,
Somewhat Somewhat later a second wave of immigrants, originating in eastern Melanesia,
first from from first the west (southern Philippines and Indonesia) to populate Yap, Belau,
which which evolved into the very distinctive languages of these three island groups.
separate waves of human human separate of waves immigrants came into the Micronesia (Alkire 1977:12),
and and the Marianas. These were speakers of the western branch of Austronesian
Chuuk, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae (Bender and cited 130; see 1971, in Bellwood 1979:
related related to each other and to the "nuclear" Micronesian languages spoken in
Alkire Alkire 1977:10-12). To account for this pattern it has been suggested that two
family family or phylum; however, Belauan and Yapese appear to be only distantly
All the the of Micronesia All languages belong to the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian)
and and by implication their farming systems is in the study the of languages. Pacific
and and to determine its relationship to human adaptive strategies in the Pacific.
model recognizes that that the environments tropical model recognizes Pacific have not over been stable
out out the necessity to archaeological document this paleoenvironmental variability
the the last ten thousand (nor years indeed throughout the and Pleistocene), it points
donments donments and contractions of the A.D. 1600s-1800s, do not contradict it. The
ological ological record is beyond the scope of this paper. it Suffice to say that the ar
expansion expansion and cultural elaborations of the A.D. 1000s-1500s, and on the aban
chaeological chaeological data on early Micronesian settlement, on the great settlement
graphic graphic growth model and relevant empirical trends in the Micronesian archae
inappropriate inappropriate farming techniques leading to ecosystem failure, as has been sug
factors factors that have nothing to do with mismanagement of natural resources or
gested gested by and 1984, 1988) Kirch ( others.
human human population expansion and decline responding to external environmental
lynesia. lynesia. These occupations and abandonments may represent cases of regional
provides provides a clue to understanding the so-called "mystery islands" of remote Po
a a mechanism for human settlement expansion throughout the tropical Pacific
and and periods of partial or complete withdrawals from them. The model provides
land land food species while growing breadfruit and taro on the largest islets where 18 18
In In the islands, low people could have relied heavily upon salt- and wind-tolerant
groundwater groundwater levels would be at maximum height.
crops in some areas of the the in crops nutrient-poor areas some of upland the andesitic of islands. soils high
techniques techniques well known to tropical farmers, such as mulching, green manuring,
and and subsoiling, could be applied, making it possible to grow rainfall-dependent
and and Under farm. adequate rainfall and groundwater conditions, improvement soil viously viously marginal island habitats more appealing to those land seeking to inhabit
**Yapese **Yapese
Breadfruit Breadfruit
Banana Banana
Yams Yams
Polynesian Arrowroot Arrowroot Polynesian
Aroids Aroids
Coconut Palm Palm Coconut
Common Name Name Common
limited and cannot be relied upon except for a most cursory overview. All have have All overview. cursory most a for except upon relied be cannot and limited
Again, such a finding seems to reflect the most recent configuration but does not not does but configuration recent most the reflect to seems finding a such Again,
terminological differences occur between the east and western sides of Micronesia. Micronesia. of sides western and east the between occur differences terminological
necessarily mean it is also ancient. ancient. also is it mean necessarily
current linguistic usages, not those of the past. Some sketch maps made by Barrau Barrau by made maps sketch Some past. the of those not usages, linguistic current
parisons cannot be made. made. be cannot parisons
( 1961, 1963) of the current distribution of certain cultigens indicate that most most that indicate cultigens certain of distribution current the of 1963) ( 1961,
ihu seiiain st wih sads te cm fo, ota dtie com detailed that so from, come they island(s) which to as specification without
with some additions. additions. some with
the larger list provided by Massal & Barrau (1956:Appendix 1) and appears here here appears 1) and (1956:Appendix Barrau & Massal by provided list larger the
the vernacular names for major food plants. Table 2 has been abstracted from from abstracted been has 2 Table plants. food major for names vernacular the
history of the movements of people over long time ranges. ranges. time long over people of movements the of history
contemporary linguistic patterns do not necessarily indicate the entire regional regional entire the indicate necessarily not do patterns linguistic contemporary
shalls yielded very early dates while those for the outer islands of Yap and Chuuk Chuuk and Yap of islands outer the for those while dates early very yielded shalls
n ale bgnig ae hn t niho t te et Bkn Aol n h Mar the in Atoll Bikini west. the to neighbor its than date beginning earlier an
States are later than the high islands. Perhaps a lesson to be learned here is that that is here learned be to lesson a Perhaps islands. high the than later are States
was first occupied at about the same time as Kosrae and Pohnpei, and Yap has has Yap and Pohnpei, and Kosrae as time same the about at occupied first was
*Puluwatese term (Manner (Manner term *Puluwatese
Archaeological data from the five island groups in this study are extremely extremely are study this in groups island five the from data Archaeological
Other linguistic evidence of Micronesian cultural affinities may be found in in found be may affinities cultural Micronesian of evidence linguistic Other
term, term,
R. Hunter-Anderson, field field Hunter-Anderson, R.
Table 2. Some Micronesian terms for common cultivars. cultivars. common for terms Micronesian Some 2. Table
Hunter-Anderson: Hunter-Anderson: Micronesian Traditional Horticulture
It It
Artocarpus Artocarpus a/ti/is
M. troglodytarum troglodytarum M.
& &
Musa spp. spp. Musa
M. M.
D. nummularia nummularia D.
D. bulbifera bulbifera D.
D. esculenta esculenta D.
D. a/ata a/ata D.
Dioscorea Dioscorea spp.
Alocasia Alocasia macrorrhiza
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma chamissonis Tacca Tacca /eontopetaloides
Colocasia Colocasia sp.
Cocos Cocos nucifera
shows the terms recorded in Micronesia, unfortunately unfortunately Micronesia, in recorded terms the shows
Mellon 1989) 1989) Mellon
It It
paradisiaca paradisiaca
is also important to note that such tables only reflect reflect only tables such that note to important also is
Botanical Name Name Botanical
notes notes
lemae, leme, mai, me, meduu, meduu, me, mai, leme, lemae,
atu, chotda, dinai, uch, ut, wis wis ut, uch, dinai, chotda, atu,
arai, arasech, kakach, karaj, karaj, kakach, arasech, arai,
dai, kika kika dai,
kapner kapner
apuereka, belloi, palai, rok, yoi yoi rok, palai, belloi, apuereka,
gabgab, makamaka, mogmog, mogmog, makamaka, gabgab, dago, duok, ep, kap, kep, telngot telngot kep, kap, ep, duok, dago,
baba, babai, brak, iaraj, lok, lok, iaraj, brak, babai, baba,
bisech, fole, ke, lai, oht, piga, piga, oht, lai, ke, fole, bisech,
ioth, kotak, kukau, ma!, ot, oni, oni, ot, ma!, kukau, kotak, ioth,
lius, Ju, ni, niu, niyong niyong niu, ni, Ju, lius,
sou, sou,
karat karat
pwelok pwelok muk, sobosob sobosob muk,
oio, o-o, muga mok-mok, mokimok,
wot, fine• fine• wot,
muang, mwang, puna, pula, pula, puna, mwang, muang,
ori, sawa, woot• woot• sawa, ori,
thow** thow**
Micronesian Micronesian
(?), (?),
sep, thaap•• thaap•• sep,
Name Name 19 19
Hunt Hunt cf. 1988; Terrell
& &
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
Terrell Terrell (1978) with the Lapita Cultural Complex. Green
& &
Terrell 1978:301). As an an As experimental Terrell alternative 1978:301). to the nar
& &
Terrell Terrell (1978, and see Terrell 1981, 1986, have 1990) recognized
& &
In western Micronesia, Takayama ( 1982:96) and and In others western have Micronesia, 1982:96) Takayama noted ( similar
Clark Clark
Previous models of population population Previous models of radiation from island southeast into Asia the
"influences" "influences" upon one or more interacting ethnic Takayama groups. pointed out
Such a Such implies usually linkage "trade" of actual items like pottery or to cultural
the Philippines, Melanesia, and eastern Indonesia, i.e., apparent apparent and Indonesia, lapitoid eastern affinities. i.e., Philippines, Melanesia, the
ities in ities the Marianas Impressed "Lime-filled, Trade Ware" and in ceramic wares
non-narrative non-narrative alternative to the four experimental models of Clark and Terrell,
"which "which may more realistically account for the evidence," the Coloniser Model
of of Whitehouse (unpubl., cited in Green 1982:16).
models such as Clark and and pointed had Terrell formulated. later another also to Clark He as such models
ing "proved "proved ing productive" reasonably and having provided the for empirical bases
(1982) responded responded to these criticisms (1982) the by defending narrative approach hav as reconstructions reconstructions in Pacific prehistory. He used a similar modeling approach to
that that used by Clark
plified "working models" which are in principle testable. In a related work, Terrell Terrell work, related a In testable. principle in models" are which "working plified
(1981) has specifically questioned questioned many the has of specifically assumptions (1981) underlying linguistic
rative rative form of historical reconstruction, these authors have recast certain of the
prevailing prevailing historical scenarios for the Lapita Cultural Complex into four sim struction" struction" (Clark
1990), whose pottery whose pottery and 1990), other material remnants are seen as marking the trail
"more "more scientific methods of presentation, hypothesis testing, and logical con
that that the "scenario form of historical model building" needs to be replaced by
this this problem. to Referring the above models and variations thereof, they suggest
cesses. cesses.
liest liest island Pacific by archaeological assemblages reference to adaptational pro
has has and taken over precedence explaining similarities differences among the ear of of human migration. With this interpretive framework dominant in ar Pacific
chaeological studies studies for nearly chaeological a decade, identification of "lapitoid" assemblages
indulged indulged in prehistorical narrations a reflecting belief in an ethnic entity called
the the "Lapita Cultural Complex" (Green 1979, Kirch
adventure adventure or the love of exploration and sea travel. Assuming these factors un
derlay derlay the initial human expansion into the tropical have archaeologists Pacific,
Pacific islands islands Pacific have been limited to considerations of probable aboriginal mar
itime itime skills and and knowledge of motivations psychological like the desire for
entered entered and subsequently occupied.
islands islands which propose the kinds of environments into which humankind first kinds kinds and configuration of archaeological sites available for observation. Such
information information important also is particular for past in settlement modeling scenarios
need need for such studies is critical. For example, archaeologists need to know what
effects Holocene Holocene effects sea level fluctuations, uplift, and subsidence have had on the morphological morphological studies of island coastlines have not yet been undertaken, the yet
the the earliest occupation on any island. Earlier sites may be buried or destroyed
through through a variety of processes, cultural and natural. As indicated above geo
yielded B.C. or near-B.C. dates, although no site can be said certainly to certainly dates, said represent although can be no site or near-B.C. B.C. yielded 20 20
grow the hardwood forests which can form extremely dense canopies. Falanruw Falanruw canopies. dense extremely form can which forests hardwood the grow
(unpubl.) has termed the forests on Yap and elsewhere in Micronesia (and see see (and Micronesia in elsewhere and Yap on forests the termed has (unpubl.)
the process described above. At the heads and along the upper reaches of valleys valleys of reaches upper the along and heads the At above. described process the
Raynor 1989) "agroforests," referring to the fact that their species composition composition species their that fact the to referring "agroforests," 1989) Raynor
tained plots for the water-loving aroids such as as such aroids water-loving the for plots tained
Yap many of these plots have been "reclaimed" from mangrove forest through through forest mangrove from "reclaimed" been have plots these of many Yap
( 1985) has reviewed the international development literature on kitchen gardens; gardens; kitchen on literature development international ( the 1985) reviewed has
and edible vines, herbs, and shrubs, fruit and nut trees (e.g., banana, coconut, coconut, banana, (e.g., trees nut and fruit shrubs, and herbs, vines, edible and
unfortunately Micronesia was not included in this recent study. study. recent this in included not was Micronesia unfortunately
breadfruit, betel nut), yams, sweet potatoes, taro, and medicinal plants medicinal and taro, sweet potatoes, yams, nut), betel breadfruit,
eieta stlmns wee ay oetctd lns r cliae i or in cultivated are plants domesticated many where settlements, residential
namental and "kitchen gardens." They usually consist of an array of decorative decorative of array an of consist usually They gardens." "kitchen and namental
Hibiscus, Scaevola Scaevola Hibiscus,
and intermingle with coconut strand forest. forest. strand coconut with intermingle and
as in Belau and Yap. In these situations sandy beaches are absent or intermittent. intermittent. or absent are beaches sandy situations these In Yap. and Belau in as
When present they support communities oflow shrubs and vines (e.g., (e.g., vines and shrubs oflow communities support they present When
various mangrove forest complexes, some following deeply indented coastlines coastlines indented deeply following some complexes, forest mangrove various
terning as well. At the outer margins (and lowest elevations) of the islands grow grow islands the of elevations) lowest (and margins outer the At well. as terning
zones on each island tends to be concentric, following the island form. Because Because form. island the following concentric, be to tends island each on zones
fsi ad lvto dfeecs tee r vria znto ad reua pat irregular and zonation vertical are there differences, elevation and soil of
species prehistorically (see Fosberg 1960). The spatial distribution of vegetation vegetation of distribution spatial 1960). The Fosberg (see prehistorically species
have been introduced by human settlers, and the majority of the introduced introduced the of majority the and settlers, human by introduced been have
ena. It cautions us not to assume a static past, and thus a narrow view of the the of view narrow a thus and past, static a assume to not us cautions It ena.
present variability in these systems. systems. these in variability present
bu Mcoein amn ytm ngnrl sclua eouinr phenom evolutionary cultural as general, in systems farming Micronesian about
against the backdrop of a dynamic model of climatic oscillations and human human and oscillations climatic of model dynamic a of backdrop the against
population growth responses shows it to be a potential source of information information of source potential a be to it shows responses growth population
present, the above consideration of the Micronesian archaeological record arrayed arrayed record archaeological Micronesian of the consideration above the present,
Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae (see Athens 1990a, 1990b). 1990b). 1990a, Athens (see Kosrae and Pohnpei, Chuuk,
perhaps Pohnpei) and the abandonment early in prehistory of pottery making in in making pottery of prehistory in early abandonment the and Pohnpei) perhaps
lack of such influence in the ceramics of the other Micronesian islands (except (except islands Micronesian other the of ceramics the in influence such of lack
that insular southeast Asia seems to have been the source area for early human human early for area source the been have to seems Asia southeast insular that
populations in the Micronesian islands. Perhaps more provocative is the apparent apparent is the provocative more Perhaps islands. Micronesian the in populations
That early Asian influences are manifested this pottery is not surprising given given surprising not is pottery this manifested are influences Asian early That
been at work rather than the actual movement of Asian ceramics to the Marianas. Marianas. the to ceramics of Asian movement actual the than rather work at been
Asian influences in the form of ideas of how to make and design pottery had had pottery design and make to how of ideas of form the in influences Asian
been locally manufactured (Takayama 1982:96). The inference would be that that be would inference The 1982:96). (Takayama manufactured locally been
that the prehistoric Lime-Impressed Trade Ware found on Rota appears to have have to appears Rota on found Ware Trade Lime-Impressed prehistoric the that
In the lowlying swampy soils near island margins are found specially main specially found are margins island near soils swampy lowlying the In
Just inland from the coastal plant communities are found most of the present present of the most found are communities plant coastal the from inland Just
Much of the present vegetation of the islands in the study region appears to to appears region study the in islands the of vegetation present the of Much
While the focus of this study is on horticultural patterns in the ethnographic ethnographic the in patterns horticultural on is study this of focus the While
Present Vegetation and Horticultural Patterns Patterns Horticultural and Vegetation Present
sp., sp.,
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
Vigna marina, marina, Vigna
and and
lpomoea pes-caprae), pes-caprae), lpomoea
Colocasia Colocasia
and and
Cyrtosperma. Cyrtosperma.
which grade into into grade which
. .
Pandanus, Pandanus,
Brownrigg Brownrigg
In In 21 21
and and
fern, fern,
a a to
Colocasia Colocasia
years. years. In contrast,
reports some of these these reports of some
00 00
Species other other Species than yams
(1989) (1989)
G/eichenia G/eichenia linearis,
1985). 1985).
is also grown also grown in is "dryland" plots in
and and Athens (unpubl.) report similar
(1980) (1980)
Colocasia Colocasia
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
on on the other hand, has given general forest descrip
reports reports that formerly in Yap fire was prohibited in these
1959) 1959)
(1960:27-28), (1960:27-28),
The The less-salt-tolerant
Defngin Defngin (
In In islands where yams are traditionally important (Yap and Pohnpei), the
Some Some but by no means all of the non-forested areas of Yap are cultivated
As As in Babelthaup Island in Belau, the low interior hills of the Yap island
Pandanus. Pandanus.
secondary secondary forest replacement occurs after about thirty years. It is not known
plants. plants. Use of these mixed gardens is not intensive at this time and normal ture ture conditions, and stage of succession, for example, bananas, taro, papaya,
breadfruit, breadfruit, squashes, cassava, pineapples, and various ornamental and medicinal
are are sometimes grown in Yapese gardens, hillside depending on slope, mois soil,
historic historic times personal (Kugfas, communication
that that an firing area would have been grounds for capital punishment during pre
gardens gardens and that used; tree only was ringing another Yapese informant indicated in Yap a swidden plot is abandoned Yap abandoned a in plot is swidden annual three two after or successive harvests.
agroforests have agroforests been in continuous production for up to I
breadfruit. breadfruit. From recent survey a in Pohnpei, Raynor slash from from slash machete-cut undergrowth is piled up and burned prior to planting the
yams yams at the base of trees. In Pohnpei the favorite tree support for yams is the
allows allows light to penetrate the forest canopy in selected areas to be planted. The
ically ically the larger trees are ringed and/or fired to force their leaves to drop. This
forested forested are slopes used for this crop in a swidden-type fashion wherein period
some some commercial pepper farms which utilize chemical fertilizers can be found
in in these open areas close to the road.
findings with with findings to respect open, fem-covered areas in Pohnpei; sites archaeological
are are rare absent, or and the claim people these areas never were farmed. Presently
supported supported crops. Ayres and Haun
or or have been in the past (in yams, sweet potatoes and cassava); others, for ex
ample, ample, the fem-dominated, weathered highly lateritic appear soils, never to have
of of
varies varies from nearly homogeneous distributions of
a number a number endemic of and introduced and scattered grasses clumps or individuals
forest. forest. Non-forested areas are present on all the islands in the study region but
are are most pronounced in Belau and Yap. Typical vegetation in these open areas
portion portion the of main island (also Yap) called supports a dense tropical hardwood
complex are generally unforested and unforested although elevated the northern generally more rugged are complex
Cyrtosperma. Cyrtosperma.
extent extent in the eastern islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae.
interior interior where settings soil moisture such as is sufficient, in and Belau to a lesser
settlements. settlements. In these eastern Caroline Islands swampy depressions on forested
hillsides hillsides and wet areas in and by stream beds are used for both
fruit trees planted on steeply sloping ravines ravines and inland planted valleys fruit from sloping trees coastal on small steeply
pecially notable notable pecially in Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae are numerous varieties bread of
"secondary "secondary forest on slopes," and "montane rain forest and cloud forest." Es
tices. tices. Fosberg
tions tions based on presumed successional stages, such as "lower primary forest,"
is consciously is consciously maintained through traditional management principles and prac 22 22
the earth oven and then pounding the cooked starch into a sticky paste sticky a into starch cooked the pounding then and oven earth the
the crop. They also dominate in the culturally prescribed methods of cooking cooking of methods prescribed culturally the in dominate also They crop. the
breadfruit is by far the most important staple, men have the responsibility for for responsibility the have men staple, important most the far by is breadfruit and preparing the fresh breadfruit. Men are responsible for roasting the fruits in in fruits the roasting for responsible are Men breadfruit. fresh the preparing and
adult women tend staple root crops. Thus in Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae where where Kosrae and Pohnpei, Chuuk, in Thus crops. root staple tend women adult
systems in which adult males plant and harvest tree crops and those in which which in those and crops tree harvest and plant males adult which in systems
in the study area, the overall organization oflabor contrasts between horticultural between horticultural contrasts oflabor overall organization the area, study the in
plemented by shellfish and sea turtles. turtles. sea shellfish and by plemented
marine-the diverse reef, lagoon, and to a lesser extent, deep water fishes, sup fishes, water deep extent, lesser a to and lagoon, reef, diverse marine-the
crabs are regularly eaten. The most important sources of protein, however, are are however, protein, of sources important most The eaten. regularly are crabs
habitants. habitants.
ens, and rats, and possibly cats, were likely first brought by the aboriginal aboriginal the by brought first likely were cats, possibly and rats, and ens,
tacts starting in the 16th century (see Yen 1974). On the other hand, dogs, dogs, chick hand, other 1974). the (see On Yen 16th century the in starting tacts
is ot,de)wr nrdcd oteMcoein sad i uoen con European via islands Micronesian the to introduced were deer) pigs, goats,
domesticated plants and animals (for example, squashes, papaya, cassava, cattle, cattle, cassava, papaya, squashes, (for example, animals and plants domesticated
growing taro, is the highest of the five study cases, close to Yap's proportion of of proportion Yap's to close cases, study five the of highest the is taro, growing associated with high annual rainfall and steep slopes. slopes. steep and rainfall annual high with associated
23.1
and those more dependent on breadfruit, exhibits considerable reliance on both both on reliance considerable exhibits breadfruit, on dependent more those and (24. 7) of bottomland soils, which could could which soils, (24. bottomland of 7)
geographically in the middle, between the islands heavily dependent on tubers tubers on dependent heavily islands the between middle, the in geographically taro and breadfruit. In this regard it is of interest to note that Chuuk's percentage percentage Chuuk's that note to of is it interest regard this In breadfruit. and taro
oh rs ad i-rsre, s rnucd n one ad ore Chuuk Kosrae. and Pohnpei on pronounced is pit-preserved, and fresh both
a lesser extent in the other islands in the study region. The reliance on breadfruit, breadfruit, on reliance The region. study the in islands other the in lesser a extent
and "hard" "hard" and
year-round. In addition to yams, both "soft" ( ( "soft" both yams, to addition In year-round.
purposes are left in the ground more than one year and thus can can thus and year one than more ground the in left are purposes
Yap the harvest is seasonal while on Pohnpei the large large the is seasonal yams grown while on Pohnpei for harvest Yap the ceremonial
A difference between these two cases with respect to yam cultivation is that on on that is cultivation yam to respect with cases two these between difference A
the past was stored on Yap and possibly elsewhere. elsewhere. possibly and Yap on stored was past the
New World tuber tuber World New sian chestnut chestnut sian
mularia, D. pentaphylla pentaphylla D. mularia,
bananas bananas
issonis issonis
in Pohnpei and Kosrae are regarded as wild reserves and are not actively culti actively not are and reserves wild as regarded are Kosrae and Pohnpei in
vated. vated.
whether the intensity of swiddening of presently-forested areas was once greater, greater, once was areas presently-forested of swiddening of intensity the whether on all the Pacific islands, including those in this study (see McArthur 1967; 1967; McArthur (see study this in those including islands, Pacific the all on
prior to the presumed population declines suffered after initial European contact contact European initial suffered after declines population presumed the to prior Underwood 1964). The "cloud forests" such as are found on the higher elevations higher elevations the on such found as are 1964). forests" "cloud The Underwood
. .
Roughly corresponding to climatic and crop differences among the islands islands the among differences crop and climatic to corresponding Roughly
It is believed that sweet potatoes potatoes sweet that believed is It
As mentioned above yams are especially emphasized in Yap and in Pohnpei. Pohnpei. in Yap and in especially yams are emphasized above As mentioned
Presently the staple crops in the study islands are coconuts ( ( coconuts are islands study the in crops staple the Presently
A pronounced emphasis on breadfruit in Kosrae, Pohnpei and Chuuk is is Chuuk and Pohnpei Kosrae, in breadfruit on emphasis pronounced A
with some cultivation of of some cultivation with
(Musa (Musa
Native fruit bats are present and are relished as a delicacy, and land land and delicacy, a as relished are and present are bats fruit Native
(Cyrtosperma) (Cyrtosperma)
(lnocarpus edulis) edulis) (lnocarpus
spp.), taro (mainly (mainly taro spp.),
Xanthosoma sagittifolium), sagittifolium), Xanthosoma
Hunter-Anderson
or or
taros are grown extensively in Belau and Yap and to to and Yap and Belau in extensively grown are taros
cumingz), cumingz),
Alocasia macrorrhiza macrorrhiza Alocasia
is an important supplementary tree crop and in in and crop tree supplementary important an is
: :
Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional
Colocasia esculenta esculenta Colocasia
and breadfruit breadfruit and
(lpomoea batatas) batatas) (lpomoea
be be
an indicator of appropriate areas for for areas appropriate of indicator an
Colocasia, Alocasia, Xanthosoma) Xanthosoma) Colocasia, Alocasia,
yams yams
(Artocarpus altilis). altilis). (Artocarpus
and the recently recently introduced the and
Docraaaa D num D. alata, (Dioscorea
and and
and a number of other other of number a and
ytsem cham Cyrtosperma
Cocos Cocos nucifera)
be be
harvested harvested
. .
Several Several
Polyne
in
23 23
, , , ,
hydroponic" hydroponic"
.. ..
cultivation. cultivation. No data are avail
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
is is not known to what extent this work was or is seasonal. King
pit pit gardens does the labor in cultivation appear to be intensive.
It It
would would tend also certain sacred taro patches. On grown these plots was
of this this of feature such that rainfall and through the runoff surface flow rocks,
men men
Co/ocasia Co/ocasia
In In Yap boys and older men participate in seasonal yam gardening (as do
Men Men help with initial heavy labor in preparing garden plots in all the study
Labor Labor expended in the growing of staples is another area in which only
Parker Parker (1984) suggest that from artifactual evidence (i.e., an early lack of
Cyrtosperma. Cyrtosperma. that that a shift in methods of food preparation took place rather than a major shift
breadfruit-dependent breadfruit-dependent "Tonachaaw Pattern" not was It also suggested. possible is
& &
historic historic development; what the crops may have been prior to the onset of the
breadfruit breadfruit pounders) that the emphasis on breadfruit in Chuuk was a late pre
devote devote to gardening until they had married and established a separate residence
at at about age 35. In Chuuk adult men plant, tend, and harvest the taro, mainly
Young Young Yapese men, who lived in bachelor groups in each village, traditionally
were were in engaged and fishing public works and thus apparently had little time to
the the taro to be consumed by older, high status males; as such they could not be
entered entered for any purpose by females except those of extremely advanced age.
stances stances in which many of the traditional cultural proscriptions are no longer in
supplies supplies a significant portion the of starch calories. Prior to the present circum
foi;ce, foi;ce,
women women and In girls). the author's experience, during the harvest period this crop
locations. locations.
residence, residence, indicating the tendency to hide ceremonial yam plantings in remote
Pohnpeian Pohnpeian crops, yam plant density did not decrease with distance from the
Figure 2 shows a rock wall protecting a protecting rock wall shows 2 Figure a yam plant; note the almost
which which also trap water-borne sediments. Raynor (1989) found that unlike other
design design
islands. islands. In Pohnpei growing the large ceremonial yams is the prerogative and
responsibility responsibility of adult males. The location of a man's yam plants is kept secret.
able able on labor expended in swidden gardens.
siderable, siderable, and care must be taken to ensure that the plantings do not become
with with breadfruit tree culture and with
water-logged or or too dry. water-logged In contrast, very labor low costs appear to be associated
returned returned and the new crop planted in it. Weeding labor also appears to be con
Prior Prior to planting new cormlets, all the soils must be removed and green-manure
brought brought from elsewhere applied to the base of the pit, after which the soil is
lauan lauan
impressionistic impressionistic comparative information is available. However, only in the Be
and and Pohnpei.
compared compared to that devoted to breadfruit preparation for consumption in Kosrae
to to taro preparation for everyday consumption appears to be in less these islands
a large vessel. Although Although vessel. no quantitative large a data on exist this topic, the time devoted
as as prepare this food for their families, usually by steaming the peeled corms in
other other hand, women's labor is dominant in the root-crop staple systems in Yap
and and Belau. There the women plant and maintain numerous taro gardens as well
hours hours can be devoted to these food preparation tasks on a given day. On the 24 24
dertaken by archaeologists but most have noted their presence (see, for example, example, (see, for presence their noted have most but archaeologists by dertaken
Hunter-Anderson 1983, 1986, Intoh and Leach 1985, Cordy 1986). 1986). 1985, features Leach These 1983, Cordy 1986, and Intoh Hunter-Anderson
abandoned well prior to European contact in the late 1700s; Osborne ( ( 1700s; Osborne 1966: late the in 152- contact European to well prior abandoned
chaeological terraces and suggests these artificial constructions of soil and stones stones and soil of constructions suggests artificial these and terraces chaeological
once were used to grow taro. Masse ( 1989) believes the Belauan terraces were were terraces Belauan the ( believes Masse 1989) taro. grow to used were once
that such terraces were used to obtain and try out new varieties from seed (which (which seed from new varieties out try and obtain to used were terraces such that
plots (McKnight (McKnight plots
do not do well in swamps), prior to planting the desired root stock in lowland lowland in stock root desired the planting to prior swamps), in well do not do
he observed "wild taro plants or taros that have sustained themselves," growing growing themselves," sustained have that taros or plants taro "wild observed he
the andesitic islands and some smaller terraces on the rock islands. Of the latter latter the Of islands. rock the on terraces smaller some and islands andesitic the
on them (Osborne 1966:423). This is interesting in light of the Belauan statements statements 1966:423). light of Belauan in the is interesting (Osborne This them on
lands presently is limited mainly to Belau and Pohnpei (but see see Hunter-Anderson (but Pohnpei Belau and to mainly is limited presently lands
155) suggests abandonment after the 1800s. 1800s. the after 155) suggests abandonment
as the social contexts of eating changed. changed. eating of contexts social the as
in the staple crop, for example, from simpler to more complex treatment of foods of foods treatment complex more to simpler from for example, crop, staple the in
1986, 1987). In Belau, Osborne (1966) described extensive hillside terraces on on terraces hillside extensive described (1966) Osborne Belau, In 1987). 1986,
n a n sseai ivsiain f otclua faue hs en un been has features horticultural of investigation systematic no Yap In
h acaooia ouetto o otclua faue i h suy is study the in features horticultural of documentation archaeological The
Figure 2. Yam plant inside rock enclosure, Kiti, Pohnpei. Pohnpei. Kiti, enclosure, rock inside plant Yam 2. Figure
Archaeological Investigations of Horticultural Features Features Horticultural of Investigations Archaeological
& &
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
bk 908.Lcig 18)hs tde te eaa ar Belauan the studied has (1984) 1960:8). Lucking Obak 25 25
grown grown in
Parker Parker (1984),
& &
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
90 90 yr B.P. (Beta 16782)
± ±
Haun Haun (1980, unpubl.) have conducted
cultivation cultivation pits, breadfruit fermentation
& &
Haun Haun (1980, unpubl.) to be of agricultural
& &
Used Used for only one or two plants (not identified),
• •
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
2
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
90 90 yr B.P. (Beta from 16783), 2.0 m and 2.7 m depth, respectively.
± ±
The The pits determined by Ayres
In In Pohnpei Athens' (unpubl.) survey in 1979 the central Palikir area located
In In Chuuk the subsistence base of the earliest settlers versus the inhabitants
narrow, level soil areas soil areas narrow, level in talus formed piled by roughly stones on the downslope
function function include yam pits,
side. side. No indication of what may have been grown in them was given by the
authors. authors.
water and and taro create for mud wet water cultivation soils not (genus fourth indicated). A
races") races") are associated with a large wall and in series serve to spread the stream
terrace terrace type is the comparatively small "talus slope" terrace. These are generally
large terrace terrace large type is found along small stream courses. These features ("wet ter
substantial substantial downslope Only wall. some of these are presumed to have been used
features. features. These large terraces are found at lower to middle elevations. Another
for growing crops; others are paved paved others crops; are and association found with residential in close growing for
typically and typically commonly are found large areas of well-drained soil retained by a
this this terrace type is found on steep slopes at middle to upper elevations. More
amount amount than soil, less of m 10
sures, sures, walls, and a variety of pits. However, they estimate that at least half the
frequently frequently encountered type is a short alignment of stones retaining a small
terraces terraces located are not "agricultural in function." Of the remainder the most
features features and techniques. They identified terraces, water control features, enclo
Pohnpeian sites, implying that it was not a preferred area for habitation habitation for area preferred not growing a that or was implying Pohnpeian it sites,
archaeological archaeological investigations which include studies of traditional horticultural
during during World War II. This part of Pohnpei has a low density of traditional
crops. crops. In the Awak area, Valley Ayres
several several horticultural features, all attributable to Japanese farmers prior to and
stream stream beds and adjacent to streams often have rocks placed at the base of the
tuber tuber 4). (Fig.
study study (Hunter-Anderson 1987), the author found that
plants, plants, apparently to slow the flow of water and to hold soil in place over the
features features has been carried out in this island group. In a freshwater management
No No detailed archaeological documentation current of or prehistoric horticultural
nographic nographic present, did not characterize the earliest aboriginal in lifeway Chuuk.
who who have that suggested heavy dependence on breadfruit, known from the eth
at at the time of European contact has been addressed by King
Pollen Pollen in the sediment cores from which the dates were obtained indicate that
the the transition to a fresh water marsh began at a depth of m 1.3 (Ward unpubl.).
fresh fresh water regime. The uncorrected dates are 1550
apparently apparently accumulated under mangrove forest conditions prior to the current
and and 2100
taro taro patch in Waned Village, Map Island, from organic mud. These deposits
swidden mounds, mounds, swidden and mounds that grasslands growing in used mainly are for now
relatively late. The The author late. relatively obtained radiocarbon coastal two in a dates from coring
sweet potatoes potatoes sweet (Fig. 3). There are indications that some coastal taro patches are
include coastal coastal taro include taro hillside several acres, small patches of pits, hillside forest 26 26 Figure 3. Sweet potato mounds, Map, Yap; (a) fallow (b) newly planted. planted. newly fallow (b) (a) Yap; Map, mounds, potato Sweet 3. Figure
Micronesica (24)1, 1991 1991 (24)1, Micronesica
cultivation cultivation pits.
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
Haun Haun were not (1980) investigated as they outside were the survey area.
Figure Figure 4. Giant swamp taro planted on stream side, Weno, Chuuk.
& &
In In addition to the above features, a number and of different walls enclosures
Water Water control features located by Ayres and Haun in Awak included both
several several lowland areas mentioned by and Gulick 1857) noted ( by others cited in
Ayres Ayres
but but are believed to date to the post-contact period. The long earthen mounds in
were were recorded by Ayres & Haun; most are presumed to have been agricultural
features, features, and
the irrigated irrigated the terraces described above, drainage ditches associated with residential
is is being used but not to full capacity (Fig. 5).
lined lined breadfruit storage pit in Kiti, Pohnpei, which may be ancient; presently it
constructed; constructed; some are predominantly of earth, others are stone-lined, and others
pits, pits, and pits for growing taro plants in very rocky areas. They are variously
are are surrounded of stone?). by The "walls" present ( writer recorded a large stone 28 28
as parts of the Thilenius 1913-1938 expedition). These ethnographic field field studies ethnographic These 1913-1938 expedition). Thilenius of the as parts
given. given.
study region date to the late 19th and early 20th centuries (for example, Kubary Kubary example, (for centuries 20th early 19th and late the to date region study
These "typically are immediately adjacent to dwelling sites." No dimensions are are dimensions No dwelling sites." to adjacent immediately are "typically These
At regular intervals of 200 m the mound is cut through by ditches (1.0-1.5 m m (1.0-1.5 ditches by through cut is mound the m 200 of intervals regular At
prehistoric horticulture on the main island: retaining walls walls grad or along retaining streams island: main the on horticulture prehistoric
given are 50.0 m (average width) by 1.0 to 2.0 m (height); the mound extended extended mound the (height); m 2.0 1.0 to by width) (average m 50.0 are given
period artifacts; a definite functional interpretation was not offered. offered. not was interpretation functional definite a artifacts; period
ual ridges, terraces on slopes, and drainage channels associated with swamps. swamps. with associated channels drainage and slopes, on terraces ridges, ual deep, 4.0-5.0 wide), some of which are bordered by alignments of boulders. The The boulders. of alignments by bordered are which of some wide), 4.0-5.0 deep,
"from the mangrove swamp edge into the interior" (Ayres (Ayres interior" the into edge swamp mangrove the "from
mound soil was found to be rich in organic materials and had some historic historic some had and materials organic in rich be to found was soil mound area of earth with level upper surface and transverse ditching. The dimensions dimensions The ditching. transverse and surface upper level with earth of area
However, a similar mound feature was recorded and test-excavated: a a long test-excavated: raised and was feature recorded mound similar a However,
1885, 1895, Mueller 1917, Sarfert 1919; the latter two references were published published were references two 1919; latter 1917, the Sarfert 1895, 1885, Mueller
The earliest systematic accounts of the western Micronesian cultures in the the in cultures Micronesian western the of accounts systematic earliest The
For Kosrae, Cordy ( 1982: 131) mentions the following sites as relating to to relating as sites following ( the 1982: Cordy Kosrae, mentions 131) For
Figure 5. Large stone-line breadfruit pit, Kiti, Pohnpei; preserved fruit under rock rock under fruit preserved Pohnpei; Kiti, pit, breadfruit Large stone-line 5. Figure
pile in center in pile
Hunter-Anderson
Ethnographic Accounts and Descriptions Descriptions and Accounts Ethnographic
. .
: :
Traditional Micronesian Micronesian Horticulture Traditional
& &
Haun 1980: 1980: 196). Haun 29 29
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
Under Under this educational system island youth are not home during the time
In In the past food ten imports years, (notably canned rice, meat and sugar, fish,
Ethnographic Ethnographic accounts in the recent past, from the Japanese and American
may may have arisen due to these circumstances. Nonetheless, many aboriginal tech-
even even documenting the differences from traditional horticultural practices which
riety riety of native and imported crops), such studies have been conducted under
Extension Extension bulletins containing advice and instruction in the cultivation of a va
resources resources (see Fisk 1986). Thus, although various aspects of horticulture have
essentially essentially modern circumstances and often without regard to understanding or
practices practices with regard to particular crops, as well as Trust Territory Agricultural
Territory Office of the Staff Anthropologist Anthropologist the of working Territory Staff papers devoted Office to customary
McCutcheon McCutcheon 1981 for Belau, Raynor 1989 for Pohnpei, and the earlier Trust
been been investigated recently in some detail on some islands (see, for example,
crops crops which further alters the traditional relationships among people, land, and
and and Pohnpei, for instance) there been has a push toward the development cash of
activities, except for the the summer for activities, except months (Belau and vacations. brief cases In some
1949, Goodenough Goodenough 1949, 1951, Riesenberg 1950, Schneider Wilson 1949, Lin 1968,
mainly mainly government jobs, has removed effectively many adults from subsistence
they they otherwise would receive instruction and practice in traditional subsistence
continue continue through their teens; some go on to college.
Children Children attend American-style schools beginning around age five or six and
in in the provision- of municipal services and satisfaction of basic dietary needs.
tasks tasks and has resulted in some population relocations with attendant problems
commercial commercial exploitation marine of have resources, common. become work, Wage
Micronesia Micronesia under the American administration. the Also use of imported fishing
salt, flour) have increased greatly in the five study study have they the have islands in as increased five throughout flour) greatly salt,
equipment equipment with nets along some and boats, power gear, as diving lightweight such
on on Belau, Yap, and Chuuk).
culary during during from and fortification War II, World bombardment culary acute (especially
industrial industrial technology and concepts, the introduction of new cultigens and asso
with with the introduction of new diseases, the introduction of metal tools and other
apparently apparently stem from significant population declines and disruptions associated
ciated ciated techniques, and in some cases massive environmental destruction, parti
countered by Europeans and Americans a hundred years ago or more. more. countered The or changes Europeans and hundred by Americans a ago years
document document more or less radically changed cultural systems from those first en
periods (for example, see Nishida 1915, Okabe 1940, 1943, Yoshino Yoshino Barnett Nishida Okabe example, periods see (for 1940, 1943, 1940, 1915,
nomena nomena were recorded. Nonetheless these accounts are very important for the
genfelter genfelter 1975, Labby 1976, Marksbury 1979, Smith 1977, McCutcheon 1981)
available available from later this century after considerable outside influence.
present present study as they indicate more clearly the aboriginal conditions than those
culture culture system, was not carried out, and only the general outlines of such phe
field field periods. However, as the scope of these studies was comprehensive and
European European scientists that of time able to observe were them during relatively short
broad, broad, focused work on any one cultural aspect, such as the traditional horti
contain contain information on material culture, ritual, beliefs, language, and customs as 30 30
and (4) (4) and
the least desirable land within the patch where the family's daily taro is grown, grown, is taro daily family's the where patch the within land desirable least the
usually a large area where taro for the head of the family is grown, 3) 3) grown, is family the of head the for taro where area large a usually
of irrigated plot subdivisions are designated. Omeliakl Omeliakl designated. are subdivisions plot irrigated of
patch layout in Peleliu (a non-volcanic island south of Babelthaup). Four kinds kinds Four Babelthaup). of south island non-volcanic (a Peleliu in layout patch
others): 1) 1) others): gardening. Sugiura was told that previously the taro patches were "looked after after "looked were patches taro the previously that told was Sugiura gardening.
illustrate the customary divisions show oval and rectilinear patterning in taro taro in patterning rectilinear and oval show divisions customary the illustrate
five including the following plus "orak," which they say is planted before the the before planted is say they which "orak," plus following the including five di visions of the taro patches and plot types and other information about taro taro about information other and types plot and patches taro the of di visions
they were not so well kept (Sugiura 1942:7). Drawings made by Belauans to to Belauans by made Drawings 1942:7). (Sugiura kept well so not were they
at least once a day, either morning or evening" whereas when he worked on Belau Belau on he worked when whereas or evening" morning either day, least once a at
Knight Knight
dams along which had been built pathways where streams sometimes ran. A A taro ran. sometimes streams where pathways built been had which along dams
Omeliakl Omeliakl
taken from Kramer (1926, Sketch 37) is shown in Figure 6 6 Figure in shown is 37) Sketch (1926, Kramer from taken
swamp would be made up of about 20, 30 or more small fields or plots. plots. or fields small more or 30 20, about of up made be would swamp
growing in low swampy areas in fields "very artistically and ingeniously laid out" out" laid ingeniously and artistically fields "very in areas growing low swampy in
tatoes. Taro (both (both Taro tatoes. mangrove swamps surrounding most of the island of Babelthaup. An illustration illustration An Babelthaup. of island of the most surrounding swamps mangrove
papaya, soursop, guavas, watermelons, chili peppers, gooseberries and sweet po sweet and gooseberries peppers, chili watermelons, guavas, soursop, papaya,
(Kramer 1926:49, Human Relations Area Files trans. p. 133), generally near near generally 133), p. trans. Files Area Relations Human 1926:49, (Kramer
stepped, such that water could flow from one to the next, and were separated by by separated were and next, the to one flow from could water that such stepped, yams, sugar cane, turmeric, limes, lemons, pineapples, gourds, tapioca, corn, corn, tapioca, gourds, pineapples, lemons, limes, turmeric, cane, sugar yams,
(1917-1926) contain some information about the cultivation of taro (principally (principally taro of cultivation the about information some contain (1917-1926)
n id o adn tlzd cos rw n ter ceuig adnn tech gardening scheduling; their and grown crops utilized; garden of kinds on
data are missing. Below are island-by-island discussions. Information was sought sought was Information discussions. island-by-island Below missing. are are data
nology; and labor organization in planting, garden maintenance, and harvesting. harvesting. and maintenance, garden planting, in organization labor nology; and
Colocasia) Colocasia)
is available in the literature about traditional horticultural practices and where where and practices horticultural traditional about literature the in available is
traditional farming in the study region through anthropologically-informed field field anthropologically-informed through region study the in farming traditional
from various Micronesian islands, there is still much that could be learned about about learned be could that much still is there islands, Micronesian various from
Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae, and from talking with Univ. of Guam students students Guam of Univ. with talking from and Kosrae, and Pohnpei, Chuuk,
studies. studies.
discussed by older people. Judging from the author's personal experience in Yap, Yap, in experience personal author's the from Judging people. older by discussed
niques and strategies are still used and can be knowledgeably demonstrated and and demonstrated knowledgeably be can and used still are strategies and niques
Later ethnographic descriptions ( ( descriptions 1942, e.g., ethnographic McKnight Sugiura Later
The German ethnographic accounts of Belauan horticulture by Kramer Kramer by horticulture Belauan of accounts ethnographic German The
One of the aims of the present study has been to ascertain what information information what ascertain to been has study present of the aims of the One
& &
urars-a urars-a
& &
bk 90ad cucen 91 rvd mr dtis bu sub about details more provide 1981) Mccutcheon 1960-and Obak
uleboi/-on uleboi/-on
and brief mention of other crops such as coconut, breadfruit, bananas, bananas, breadfruit, as coconut, such crops of other mention brief and
ats nul-hc cnan abeitd ettmns f Mc of restatements abbreviated contains unpubl.-which Santos
small area where taro for the head or other family members is is members family other or head the for taro where area small
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson: Colocasia esculenta esculenta Colocasia
the best irrigated land; taro used for celebrations, 2) 2) celebrations, for used taro land; irrigated best the
Separate Island Discussions Discussions Island Separate
BELAU BELAU
and and
Cyrtosperma chamissonis) chamissonis) Cyrtosperma
& &
Santos (unpubl.) list list (unpubl.) Santos
. .
These fields were were fields These
& &
Obak 1960, 1960, Obak
ulegaro
was seen seen was
b/u 31 31
had had
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
was was a border
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma (brak)
Alocasia Alocasia
was was taken by the middle
subdivisions subdivisions are given by
Kramer Kramer in Kramer 1926: (
. .
mesei mesei
("to ("to step," as in dancing) was located
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
"'*-" "'*-"
plots plots are near the and edge tend to surround
ulecharo ulecharo
l,_!11.i~A,W.laT,_...., l,_!11.i~A,W.laT,_....,
area area was subdivided into several small plots of
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
u/egaro u/egaro
where where the water enters. This was the point of entry into
were were carefully planned and named;
Perhaps Perhaps such subsistence alternatives altered
plots plots are narrow strips or confined to a very small area.
ulecharo ulecharo
were were grown "more or willy less nilly."
mesei, mesei,
is possible possible is that this change altered reflects consumption patterns,
urars urars
(mesei) (mesei)
Taro Taro patch complex, Belau; after drawing by E
It It
was planted planted was irregularly in unused swamps. The between differences
subdivision subdivision were cultivated in rotation. The other subdivisions of
Obak Obak as follows. The
each. each. These served as the household's main food supply, with a few
. .
2 2
Colocasia. Colocasia.
Sketch Sketch 37).
& &
plots plots
m
brak brak
5 5
Figure Figure 6
Dimensions Dimensions and spatial organization of
Twenty Twenty years later, in the observations of McKnight & Obak 1960) only (
u/echaro u/echaro
Alocasia Alocasia (bisch)
tubers tubers every days few harvested for daily consumption. The various plots within
the the
at at the head of the
around around
McKnight McKnight
the the taro patch. The
dependence dependence as well.
shortage shortage of
tration tration encouraged the planting cassava of and potatoes sweet to alleviate a severe
such such as a decrease in total taro consumed, or that demand for
devastating devastating typhoon and "great taro epidemic" of 1912, the German adminis
lessened lessened since early in the century. McCutcheon (1981:169) noted that after a
Kramer's Kramer's observations and McKnight and Obak's are not great but there is some
Co/ocasia Co/ocasia of the the century. of
indication indication that less care in the growing of
and and
crop crop and
the the other types;
grown. grown. In these drawings the 32 32
that much goes to waste. This contrasts with accounts of pit- and above ground above and pit- of accounts with contrasts waste. This goes to much that
temporary breadfruit preservation, rather that all fruits tend to be so plentiful plentiful so be to tend fruits all that rather preservation, breadfruit temporary
preservation of breadfruit on Belau given by Kramer a century earlier. earlier. century a Kramer by given Belau on breadfruit of preservation
payas, coconuts, oranges, avocados, and soursop. No mention was made of of con made was mention No soursop. and avocados, oranges, coconuts, payas,
(Areca), (Areca),
tural practices. practices. tural far from residences. Trees used in house site landscaping include betel nut palm palm nut betel include landscaping site house in used Trees residences. from far
perta mdr cniin aepouig leain i rdtoa horticul traditional in alterations producing are conditions modern that appear copra. Some mahogony now is being raised for sale as lumber, on interior plots plots interior on lumber, as sale for raised being is now mahogony Some copra.
associated with rice and other imported starches gaining in use. Again it would would it Again use. in gaining starches imported other and rice with associated conuts were traditionally grown as sources of food, drink, and oil, later for export export for oil, later and drink, as of sources food, grown were traditionally conuts
clining, along with an overall trend away from taro growing altogether. This is is This altogether. growing taro from away trend overall an with along clining, trees used in house site landscaping, and mixed forest-gardens forest-gardens mixed and landscaping, site house in used trees
gardens in Belau is apparently on the increase and use of of use and increase the on apparently is Belau in gardens
from from lpomoea aquatica, aquatica, lpomoea
fallow for at least ten years in order to recover. The quality of the taro is poorer poorer is taro the of quality The recover. to order in years ten least at fallow for
are minimal but that the land cannot be used beyond three years, needing to stay stay to needing years, three beyond used be cannot land the that but minimal are
could be grown. McCutcheon notes the labor requirements for a a for requirements labor the notes McCutcheon grown. be could
that Babelthaup has many perennial streams in the interior where such crops crops such where interior the in streams perennial many has Babelthaup that
(weeding and other tasks) and the use of irrigation. irrigation. of use the and tasks) other (weeding and
was controlled through mulching at two different depths, continuous maintenance maintenance at mulching two continuous different was through depths, controlled swamp." In such locations other crops are grown "here and there:" there:" and "here grown are crops other locations such In swamp."
"originates either from a degenerating degenerating a from either "originates The The
of taro growing altogether. According to McCutcheon ( ( 1981: McCutcheon to 186), According a altogether. growing taro of irrigated farming farming irrigated
is more prevalent on Belau now, within the overall trend toward abandonment abandonment toward trend overall the within now, Belau on prevalent more is
McCutcheon's work represents some of the most thorough coverage of Microne of coverage thorough most the of some represents work McCutcheon's
and during the 1970s. Along with Raynor's more recent study in Pohnpei, Pohnpei, in study recent more Raynor's with Along 1970s. the during and
the inside of U-shaped U-shaped of inside the on land use, contains much information on traditional horticulture historically historically horticulture traditional on information much contains use, land on
during the 1960s. 1960s. the during sian high island gardening extant in the literature. Both dry farming farming dry Both literature. the in extant gardening island high sian
for special occasions like money raising, weddings, or funerals. funerals. or weddings, raising, money like occasions special for the taro from the the from the taro
averaging around 7 7 m averaging around
"between") subdivision was supposed to be about twice the size of the the size of the twice about be to supposed was subdivision "between")
the the supply against some special special demand. some against supply
ary") plots extended as borders about five five about as feet borders plots extended wide; ary") as they were a reserve planted
murr. Uleboil Uleboil murr.
mesei (blu, urars, urars, (blu, mesei
McCutcheon discusses four tree crop types: coconuts, commercial forestry, forestry, commercial coconuts, types: crop tree four discusses McCutcheon
McCutcheon's (1981) study of Belauan land tenure, because of its emphasis emphasis its of because tenure, land Belauan of study (1981) McCutcheon's
mesei mesei
dechel dechel
breadfruit, berries berries breadfruit,
plots required the most work but the quality of taro grown in them them in grown taro of quality the but work most the required plots
gardens than that grown in the the in grown that than gardens
plots average some 46 m 46 some average plots
uleboil uleboil
(mesei) (mesei)
Hunter-Anderson
wild turmeric, ginger and bananas. bananas. and ginger turmeric, wild
2
• •
and and
It It
and other reserve plots was sometimes sold to the market market sold the plots was to reserve sometimes other and
urars urars
of of
was not itself subdivided. Harvests in these plots were were plots these in Harvests subdivided. itself not was
(Mungtingia calabra), Spondias pinnata, pinnata, Spondias calabra), (Mungtingia
uleboil) uleboil)
Co/ocasia Co/ocasia
plots; their harvests are for the large feasts called called feasts large the for are harvests their plots;
: :
Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional
eepatd s reserves as planted were
Uleboil Uleboil
2
were carried out at the time of her study. study. her of time the at out carried were
• •
As an indication of changed conditions, conditions, changed of indication As an
mesei mesei
(referring to hugeness) plots occupy occupy hugeness) plots (referring to
mesei. mesei.
or from a wooded uncultivated uncultivated wooded a from or
Dechel Dechel
Nonetheless use of of use Nonetheless
It It
should be remembered remembered be should
farming of of farming
mesei mesei
. .
The The
(chereomel). (chereomel).
Urars Urars
gardens is de is gardens
dechel dechel
Cyrtosperma, Cyrtosperma,
blu blu
aaa, pa bananas,
(dechel) (dechel)
dee dee he/
Colocasia Colocasia
(meaning (meaning
("bound
ulecharo, ulecharo,
garden garden
dechel dechel
plot plot
Co
and and 33 33
(Ma
wild" wild"
.. ..
and and cro
the the non
trained trained to
chereomel, chereomel,
ked, ked,
and and pineapple
the the
ked, ked,
and and Tahitian chestnut
cassava, cassava, green onions,
(Piper (Piper betle),
is is used as a border plant
Co/ocasia), Co/ocasia),
are are made the by firing natural
taro taro (
(Cordyline (Cordyline terminalis)
kid kid
Colocasia, Colocasia,
ti ti plants
(Terminalia (Terminalia catappa)
(Cymbopogon (Cymbopogon citratus)
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
Hibiscus, Hibiscus,
(lpomoea (lpomoea batatas),
is is the kitchen or household garden. McCutcheon's
should should be mentioned that non-coastal residential sites
It It
. .
dechel dechel
Lemon Lemon grass
sweet sweet potato
and and
In In addition to producing fruits and nuts these trees are sources of
which which are cultivated. Gardens in the
mesei mesei
as as many cultivated species descend from wild ones, and many cultivars
ked ked
Labor Labor in Belauan horticulture is usually provided by women, working in
Another Another garden type distinguishable from those in the
McCutcheon McCutcheon describes another type of garden, made in the
The The mixed forest-gardens are reportedly hard to distinguish from
nutrient nutrient depletion and insect infestations. Pig and chicken manure are added to
fruit fruit and Tahitian chestnut are seasonal and do not involve much care; coconut
vegetable vegetable crops while men tend the trees as necessary. Tree crops such as bread
small small groups of relatives. They are responsible for planting and caring for the
house house sites in coastal villages do not necessarily have as much room for gardens
household household garden area is repeatedly used in a crop rotation that cycle minimizes
pumpkins, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomatoes, cabbage, and pole beans may be grown. The
as as those now abandoned.
were were occupied prior to this century when warfare was endemic and that present
the the soil for fertilizer
fruits fruits such as sweet potatoes, hot peppers,
this this plant is well-guarded and protected. If there is enough room, vegetables and
tons. tons. People always have at least one pepper leaf vine
nihot nihot esculenta),
variously variously colored varieties of
roads roads and paths and as boundary markers of household property. These are the
descriptions descriptions household of gardens include decorative plants along used edgings as
and and the
these these plots can be continuously cultivated under crop rotations for up to twenty
betel betel nut quid, the pepper leaf sometimes becomes scarce and thefts occur, so informant, informant, with proper crop rotation (i.e., alternating root and non-root crops)
grow grow up a coconut or betel nut tree in the yard. An essential ingredient in the
in in the
cited cited in Mccutcheon On ). the other hand there 1981 are more areas grassy fertile,
plants, plants, club moss and pink orchids can grow there (noted by Kramer 1917:243,
years. years.
forested forested rugged interior of Babelthaup. Certain parts of this open area are un
for plot plot for definition and retention soil mulch. as According to McCutcheon's well as
(Ananas (Ananas comosus).
cultivable cultivable due to extremely poor, eroded, acid soils; only pteris ferns, pitcher
laws. laws.
had jurisdiction jurisdiction had over the forested land; now hunting regulated is by conservation
(believed (believed to have been introduced by prehistoric human settlers) and native fruit
growth, growth, hoeing horizontal contoured ridges and then planting with cassava
introduced introduced to after Belau apparent prehistoric extirpation (Masse chickens 1989),
lumber lumber for building, for canoes, and dead branches for firewood. Feral pig, re
(lnocarpus). (lnocarpus).
mango, mango, breadfruit, tropical almond
forest forest
34 34 bats bats were at one time hunted in these forests and were shared with the who chief grow grow unattended in interior forests. Economically important forest trees include
The Yapese land tenure system finely divides all land into small parcels and plots, plots, small parcels and into finely all system land divides tenure land Yapese The
the traditional land tenure system and associated cultural attitudes and practices. practices. and attitudes cultural associated and system tenure land traditional the
owned by separate estates. An estate's horticultural lands are dispersed, occupying occupying dispersed, are lands horticultural An estates. estate's by owned separate tions of traditional farming techniques as they relate to the prevention of erosion erosion of prevention the to relate they as techniques farming traditional of tions
and environmental degradation in Yap. Yap. in degradation environmental and
r aalbe n tngahc ok sc a Melr (1917) Mueller as such works ethnographic in available are am upb. ad naa (nul) Flnu (nul) nlds descrip includes (unpubl.) Falanruw (unpubl.). Untaman and (unpubl.) Paam
been systematically and comprehensively studied although general descriptions descriptions general although studied comprehensively and systematically been interchange of information about root crops resulted in two relevant pamphlets, pamphlets, relevant two in resulted crops root about information of interchange
crops (yams and taro) and their associated beliefs and practices (see Defngin Defngin (see practices and beliefs associated their and taro) and (yams crops
Lingenfelter (1975), Labby (1976). In addition In (1976). Labby (1975), Lingenfelter
further filter the remaining runoff and enable the lagoon to continue to be a zone zone a be to continue to lagoon the enable and runoff remaining filter the further
and prevent it from entering the lagoon. The mangrove and seagrass beds zones zones seagrass beds and mangrove The lagoon. the entering from it prevent and
of clear water. water. clear of
much of the sediment continually being brought down from the uplands as runoff runoff as uplands the from down brought being continually sediment of the much
function just as natural coastal marshes and swamps do. The taro patches trap trap patches taro The do. swamps and marshes coastal natural as just function
agroforest and cyclical gardens. Similarly, coastal taro patches perform a silt trap trap silt a perform patches taro coastal Similarly, cyclical gardens. and agroforest
similar
are intact, the ecological functions of the natural and horticultural zones are are zones horticultural and natural the of functions ecological the intact, are
areas. Falanruw (unpubl.) maintains that when biological and cultural systems systems cultural and biological when that maintains (unpubl.) Falanruw areas.
only occasional; the inference is that uplands in Yap also can contain non-forested non-forested in also Yap can contain uplands is inference that the occasional; only
and sometimes a zone of native forest on the highest ridges. Open savanna is is savanna Open ridges. highest the on forest native of zone a sometimes and
grow yams. A similar profile of an idealized Yap island is shown by Falanruw Falanruw by shown is island Yap idealized an of profile similar A yams. grow coastal taro patch zone adjacent to a hilly area of agroforests and cyclical cyclical of and gardens, agroforests a hilly area to adjacent zone patch taro coastal
and the mangrove; landward of the mangrove and proceeding inland are the the are inland proceeding and mangrove the of landward mangrove; the and
are the reef flat and lagoon, the seagrass beds, the coastal mangrove depression, depression, mangrove coastal the beds, seagrass the lagoon, and flat reef the are
to function in the traditional food production systems. The marine communities communities marine The systems. production food traditional the in function to not depicted although the occurrence of native forest on the ridges is shown as as shown is ridges the on forest native of occurrence the although depicted not
(unpubl.); the divisions are of biotic communities on Yap as they are postulated postulated are they as Yap on communities of biotic are divisions the (unpubl.);
den gardens on the hillsides, and finally the non-forested zone partially used to to used partially zone non-forested the finally and hillsides, the on gardens den
1959, 1959, Kim
The agricultural zones include the coastal taro patches at the bottom of the top the of bottom the at patches taro coastal the include zones agricultural The
ographic depression behind the beach berm on which houses are sited; the swid the sited; are houses which on berm beach the behind depression ographic
dening and garden output studies have not been conducted in Belau nor in the the in nor Belau in conducted been not have studies output garden and dening
Mccutcheon noted that as married women live patrilocally they tend not to make make to not they tend live patrilocally women as married that noted Mccutcheon
crops are planted in household garden areas, such as pole beans and cucumbers. cucumbers. and beans pole as such areas, garden household in planted are crops
in the family and the produce is usually consumed there. Presently some market market some Presently there. consumed usually is produce the and family the in other islands in the study. study. the in islands other
trees are harvested year-round. Household gardens can be cultivated by anyone anyone by cultivated be can gardens Household year-round. harvested are trees
emnn ipoeet t ter oshl gres Tm epne i gar in expended Time gardens. household their to improvements permanent
Prior to a review ofYapese horticulture it may be helpful briefly to describe describe briefly to helpful be may it horticulture ofYapese review a to Prior
Other than Falanruw's recent work, traditional horticulture in Yap has not not has Yap in horticulture traditional work, recent Falanruw's than Other
Barrau (1961:Figure 12) depicts major land-use zones in Yap seen in profile. profile. in seen Yap in zones land-use 12) major depicts (1961:Figure Barrau
. .
Where native forest can serve as a rainfall buffer zone, so can a zone of of zone a can so zone, buffer rainfall a as serve can forest native Where
& &
Defngin 1960), and a Trust Territory program of field training and and field of training program Territory Trust a 1960), and Defngin
Hunter-Anderson
: :
Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional
YAP YAP
, ,
there are detailed accounts of two two of accounts detailed are there
, ,
Schneider (1949), (1949), Schneider 35 35
a a plan view sketch made in when 1884
1), 1),
Micronesica (24)1, 1991 1991 (24)1, Micronesica
The species composition composition The species and layout ofYapese house
after after Kubary Fig. (1889: I).
hillsides, in in hillsides, swampland, and on "made land" adjacent to mangrove shoreline;
Figure Figure 7. Plan of Piengin Estate, Gagil, Yap; note various types of plantings on
(lpomoea (lpomoea aquatica).
A A complex ranking system and notions of ritual purity and contamination
The The earliest graphic depiction a of Yapese residential site and its surround
served served for their use, younger men from others, young women from others, etc.
the the adjacent This hills. wall/pathway may have served originally the to choke off
residential residential area from a large, irregularly shaped taro patch lying at the base of
According to Defngin (1959:40), a a traditional household Yapese to Defngin (1959:40), have should According four
of of persons. Very old males must eat the produce only from certain gardens re
from from individual taro and yam gardens be restricted to the appropriate category
resulting resulting in age and sex distinctions require that the consumption of produce
runoff runoff from the hills behind the taro patch.
inflow of tidal tidal saltwater and of helped later to contain inflow the sediments and water fresh
and and canoe landings. A stone wall that also serves as a pathway separates the
from from a mangrove shoreline, upon which have been built several stone structures
The drawing (Figure 7) shows an an apparently shows attempt The 7) (Figure drawing successful to create dry land
the the author was living at the estate called Piengin in the village of Amun, Gagil.
ings ings is found in Kubary (1889:Fig.
hold hold gardens appears to be similar to that described by McCutcheon for Belau.
kong" kong"
tubers, tubers, and some introduced newly Japanese like and vegetables eggplant "kang
the the living quarters. Plantings in residential areas consist of fruit and nut trees,
or or just on slopes behind it, a where variety of cultivars are grown in and around
36 36
groves. groves. Also belonging to each estate is its residential land plot, near the shore
crops, taro patches, yam gardens, sweet potato potato taro sweet "agroforest," crops, gardens, yam patches, gardens, and coconut
estate possesses individually individually named estate possesses land plots appropriate the for various Yapese portions portions of all the major vegetation zones from the coast to the interior. Every Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture 37
kinds of yam gardens: for the father, for the son who had reached manhood, for the mother and children, and for the daughter who had reached sexual maturity. The segregation in gardens applies to labor in them as well; young women should not work in an old man's taro patch or yam garden, older men should not enter the gardens of women or children, etc. (see Schneider 1949: 129). Strict adherence to these cultural proscriptions is no longer observed among most Yapese families. The crop most noted by outside observers and much emphasized by the Yapese themselves is the giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis), called in Yapese, lak. This aroid is grown in naturally moist settings: coastal swamps, pits dug into hillsides where there are springs, and in level areas along streams from the interior to the coast. Immediately after World War II some bomb craters were planted to swamp taro. Colocasia esculenta (ma/) is a lesser crop sometimes interplanted with Cyrtosperma. It is planted more often on the edges oflarge taro patches where water is less brackish and the soil somewhat better drained. Kim and Defngin (1960:56-57) describe a method of planting not presently common in which Colocasia is interplanted with Cyrtosperma for three consecutive yearly harvests of Colocasia, after which the originally planted Cyrtosperma is left to grow alone. Cyrtosperma grows slowly and is seldom harvested before three years and can be left to grow for up to ten years. The amount harvested at a time is just enough for the family's needs for two or three days. Harvests for special occasions such as ceremonial exchanges, may be larger. As each tuber is harvested, more are planted, resulting in most taro patches having plants of various ages. The taro patch in Yapese is called mu'ut. It can be as small as a ping pong table or as large as a football field, in which case it is subdivided into several smaller patches not always clearly marked. The large coastal taro patches appear to be modified natural swamps where a stream drains into the sea. In many areas of Yap coastal land for taro growing has been created through mangrove shoreline reclamation. The Yapese view taro, particularly lak, as an important staple as well as a reserve food, planting more than enough for current needs. "Harvest one and be sure to plant two" is the old Yapese adage reflecting this precaution. Yams (Dioscorea alata, D. esculenta, D. nummularia) are classified by the Yapese into two types: prestige yams which are fit for ceremonial presentation, and non-prestige or ordinary yams fit for everyday consumption. Varieties of D. esculenta (dal) and D. alata (du'og) are considered prestige crops while those of D. nummularia (thap) are not. Over thirty varieties of yams are grown, mainly in forested areas. A garden will be used for one or two years and then left fallow until the secondary forest fully recovers. As noted above, clear cutting is avoided and the larger trees are not felled, only made to lose their leaves through ringing and applying soil to the bare ringed portion or by firing the base of the tree. Varieties of D. esculenta are said to be best grown at the boundary of "savanna" and forest. In the open the vines must be supported with bamboo poles and leaders; in forested settings bamboo leaders guide the vines up to the tree, their design and size depending on the kind of yam. Some yams are planted inside a betel nut log filled with loose soil and dry leaves (see Defngin 1959:52-54 for detailed descriptions of these planting techniques). the
;
on the
.
(dapal)
tayid
grows individually
a possible reference
cm square are cut from
ted,
50
fruit as "starvation food,"
or
Pandanus
tayid
Pandanus
Micronesica (24)1, 1991 (24)1, Micronesica
are harvested also during this period. The latter be can planted
Aerial view, sweet potato mounds bordered by agroforest, Map, Yap
.
means "contaminated." Some cassava is grown in the
ay
'
Figure 8
ta
Yams are seasonal Yap, in planted during the driest months (March to May) The optimal time for planting sweet potatoes in the grassy mounds is June
38
least desirable soils. In some parts of the interior or in small clusters and is considered a good place to catch fruit bats when the
(lpomoea batatas) near the house, as are some yams. More frequently sweet potatoes are planted used to kill the grass prior planting.to grass Rather,the this killincorporated organicmaterial to used is in rectangular raised plots forming grid-like complexes in grassy, treeless areas into the With soil. a wood or metal stick, blocks about in the interior (Fig. 8). This area is called the and the exposing rhizomes to the sun. Loose soil that has eroded from the upper word part of the mounds over the last year and has accumulated in the ditches sepa rating therating mounds scoopedis into small baskets and placed on the top of mounds fruits are ripe. The Yapese speak of the referring to times past when there were food shortages. and harvested during the months of November through May. Sweet potatoes and July when the summer rains keep the new roots wet. sufficiently Fire is not
the top cm 15 of the mound and overturned in place, burying the grass stalks to its primary use as a burial zone and for menstrual seclusion sites
as well. After a few days the sweet potato cuttings are planted in this loose soil
ondary crop of of crop ondary
o ii te egt fteetes aru 91 oe te motne sa sec a as importance ( the 1961) Barrau noted trees. these of height the limit to
considered a staple crop except during this brief time. It has been noted that that noted been has It time. brief this during except crop staple a considered
August, the rapid growth of the fruits an apparent response to the rains. rains. the to response apparent an fruits of the growth rapid the August,
trees bear throughout the year. Breadfruit is most abundant during July and and July during abundant most is Breadfruit year. the throughout bear trees
It It are available seasonally. Chestnuts can be stored for several months, and some some and months, several for stored be can Chestnuts seasonally. available are
ennial and are consumed in all stages of maturity while breadfruit and chestnut chestnut and breadfruit while maturity stages of all in consumed are and ennial
heights. Although the fruits are thus out of easy reach the Yapese do not attempt attempt not do Yapese the of easy reach out thus are fruits the heights. Although
longevity (Catala 1959:62). In Yap the breadfruit trees now grow to considerable considerable grow to now trees breadfruit 1959:62). the Yap In (Catala longevity
breadfruit is highly sensitive to drought but recovers rather quickly, and that if if that and quickly, rather recovers but drought to sensitive highly is breadfruit
(Artocarpus (Artocarpus
have been less sweet and less productive than those grown today. today. grown those than less productive and sweet less been have
located near a reliable source of underground water can attain great size and and size great attain can water underground of source reliable a near located but was unable to show the author examples in the field. They are supposed to to supposed are They field. the in examples author the show to unable was but
the advent of those introduced from Manila during the 1600s. An informant from from 1600s. the informant during An Manila from of introduced those advent the
The Yapese claim to have had at least two varieties of sweet potatoes prior to to prior potatoes sweet of varieties two least at had have to claim Yapese The
and fallowed all their plots until some of them lost forest cover entirely. Tech entirely. cover forest lost them of some until plots their all fallowed and
Map Island named two of these earlier types, called in Yapese Yapese in called types, earlier these of two named Island Map
from from what was always practiced to grow yams in grassland areas prehistory. during
potatoes in open, non-forested areas may in fact be ancient and not very different different very not and fact be in ancient may areas non-forested open, in potatoes
niques similar to those described by Sherman and now used in Yap to grow grow to sweet Yap in now used and by Sherman described those to similar niques
monsoonal islands of western Micronesia, must have always slashed-and-burned always slashed-and-burned have must Micronesia, of western islands monsoonal
on the assumption that all tropical farmers, including those living living andesitic, the those in including all farmers, tropical that on assumption the
preparing the mounds for planting rice. rice. planting for mounds the preparing
soiling to replenish the soil without the use of fire. Such information casts doubt doubt casts fire. information of Such use the without soil the replenish soiling to
aa ae rdto o lnig n rsymud, sn ucig n sub and mulching using mounds, grassy in planting of tradition a have Batak
upslope and are brought by hand to the top of the mounds by the farmers when when farmers the by mounds the of top the to hand by brought are and upslope
may come from the sediments that are always eroding into the ditches from from ditches the into eroding always are that sediments the from come may
material provides continuous nutrient inputs to the rice plants. Other nutrients nutrients Other plants. rice the to inputs nutrient continuous provides material
in these mounds, and that through the action of soil micro-organisms this rotten rotten this micro-organisms soil of action the through that and mounds, these in
harvesting, he suggested that a certain proportion ofrhizomes are are always decaying ofrhizomes he suggested harvesting, proportion a certain that
for the apparent lack of nutrient depletion in spite of continuous planting and and planting continuous of spite in depletion nutrient of lack apparent the for
fallowing in the traditional cultivation of upland rice in grasslands. To account account To grasslands. in rice upland of cultivation traditional the fallowing in
preparation and planting techniques, along with the lack of fertilization and of of and fertilization of lack the with along techniques, planting and preparation
year after year with no loss in productivity. productivity. in loss no with year after year
where the soil is poorly drained and forms small depressions, some some depressions, small forms and drained poorly is soil the where
and tubers have started to form. form. to started have tubers and
may be planted in these places. The Yapese state that these mounds may be used used be may mounds these that state Yapese places. The these in planted may be
matter of two or three weeks the mounds are completely covered in new growth, growth, new in covered completely are mounds weeks the three or of two matter
matrix and weeded occasionally at the beginning of the growing season. In the the In season. growing the of beginning the at occasionally weeded and matrix
is seen as an "old people's food" today. Other trees of minor importance for for importance minor of trees Other today. food" people's "old an as seen is
Of the tree crops the most important are coconut coconut are important most Of the tree crops the
It It
Among the Toba Batak of Sumatra, Sherman (1980) observed similar mound mound (1980) similar Sherman Batak Among of Toba observed the Sumatra,
is instructive to learn that Old World tropical farmers such as the Toba Toba the as such farmers tropical World Old that learn to instructive is
altilis) altilis)
Crataeva speciosa (abich) (abich) speciosa Crataeva
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
and Tahitian chestnut chestnut Tahitian and
If If
the ground is is mounds, wet the between ground enough the
which can be preserved by sun-drying. sun-drying. by preserved be can which
(lnocarpus edulis). edulis). (lnocarpus
(Cocos nucifera), nucifera), (Cocos
oous r per are Coconuts
aw-aw aw-aw
breadfruit breadfruit
Colocasia Colocasia
and and
It It
is not not is
giliy giliy 39 39
(nas), (nas),
cited cited by
(the (the beach
and and soursop
(where (where much
pokak pokak
Sarason Sarason 1953:53).
& &
and and much of the harvest
andfooson andfooson
compare compare
chomwochomw chomwochomw
Pelzer Pelzer unpubl., Pelzer 1947).
ras), ras),
(Panguim (Panguim edule),
& &
pween; pween;
is is the staple crop in Chuuk and
tree tree
(mai) (mai)
(mangrove), (mangrove),
rowal rowal
CHUUK CHUUK
chiya chiya
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
(coastal (coastal flatlands),
slightly widened widened slightly at end one to form a narrow shovel-blade.
piyepi piyepi
another another important crop, tree relatively are abundant but now
(nu), (nu),
(Areca catechu), catechu), (Areca
Coconuts Coconuts
Chuuk's Chuuk's horticulture has been summarized by Goodenough (1951(1978):3-
Another Another land use profile is provided by King and Parker (1984:Figure 14)
Barrau ( 1961 :Figure :Figure depicts 12) 1961 Barrau a ( generalized profile of land use zonation
The The traditional farming implement of Yap is a digging stick of betel nut
have have been prior less to European encouragement copra of production for export.
coconut coconut forest to plant potatoes sweet and manioc. Total coconut plantings may
Pelzer Pelzer (1947) states that the Japanese eradicated many acres of breadfruit and
the the largest pit was three times the size of the smallest. Only during particularly
According to to According Pelzer every (1947), family had three sizes of breadfruit pits
is stored stored pit using is fermentation. There "little" a is breadfruit in season December
abundant abundant years were the largest pits used.
does does well on the steep slopes. The fruits are seasonally abundant, from July
and and January which supplements the stored supply (Gladwin mediate mediate post-World War II assessments (Hall
24) based based 24) on early German sources (Kubary Kramer 1889; and 1932) some im
through through August (the main harvest season is called
According According to these accounts breadfruit
distinctions distinctions need not be made.
in generalization generalization in gained in is gross pattern-recognition; for the purpose here finer
area. area. In directing attention to these simple of profiles land use zones what is lost
exists from from island exists to island and even within the same island throughout the study
forested. forested. It is important to remember that micro- and macro-habitat variability
covered according according covered to this scheme whereas Barrau's drawing ofFefan them shows
of the traditional traditional the of farming The occurs). inland mountain grass typically are slopes
Pelzer (1947), (swampy (1947), (swampy Pelzer area suitable for taro), growing
or or edge of the sea),
purposes purposes the important zones are
terminology terminology and translation provided indicates the native classification; for our
of of Weno (Moen) Island, Chuuk, where these authors worked. The Chuukese
forest are forest shown to dominate the highest slopes, and no grasslands are depicted.
along along with swiddens of bananas, yams, and coconut trees. Scrub and secondary
patch patch depression. In Fefan breadfruit trees are concentrated on the lower slopes
are are shown and the houses are sited on the slopes landward of the coastal taro
sited sited in Fefan supports only strand vegetation. Also unlike Yap, no mangroves
on on Fefan Island, Chuuk. The elevated beach berm on which Yapese houses are
and and blades served this purpose. Weeds were and still are pulled by hand.
durability. durability. machetes Steel are employed cutting for the bush; formerly adzes shell
Now Now heavy iron rods are commonly used in gardening for their strength and
wood wood
(Annona (Annona muricata).
food food are mango, various citrus, the 40 40
the Trust Territory Truk District Handbook oflnformation ( ( 1965:5) as consisting oflnformation Handbook District Truk Territory Trust the
extensive lowland swamp taro-growing areas that are now abandoned on Weno, Weno, on abandoned now are that taro-growing areas swamp lowland extensive in the literature search. search. literature the in
among the breadfruit and coconut trees, where yams are also planted. There are are There planted. also are yams where trees, coconut and breadfruit the among
under the forest cover. Graphic depictions of Chuukese gardens were not located located were not gardens Chuukese of depictions Graphic cover. forest the under
the mangrove-fringed shore; shore; mangrove-fringed the
tends upland to approximately 600 meters, along with some dryland tuber crops crops tuber dryland some with along 600 meters, approximately to upland tends
n ciiis r ocnrtd n oln aeswiebedri cliain ex cultivation breadfruit while areas lowland in concentrated are activities ing
vegetables are rare. From these descriptions, it appears that residential and farm and residential that appears it descriptions, these From vegetables rare. are
lagoon islands the forest is not cultivated. Household gardens are described in in described are gardens Household cultivated. not is forest the islands lagoon
Yams sometimes may be left in the ground for over a year and harvested as as harvested and year a over for ground the in left be may sometimes Yams
where modernization is relatively pronounced. On the highest elevations of the the of elevations highest the On pronounced. relatively is modernization where
wild one one wild
odueo h si eore ihu wsigte olad xoigi o accel to it exposing and soil the wasting without resources soil the of use good
danus, oranges, and limes. limes. and oranges, danus,
harvested all year but most heavily when breadfruits are out of season. season. of out are breadfruits when heavily most but year all harvested
sweet potatoes, bananas, sugar cane, squash, papaya, and citrus. Fresh green green Fresh citrus. and papaya, squash, cane, sugar bananas, potatoes, sweet
r o cniee vr orsig te sret ehne es od.Te fol The foods. feast enhance to serve they nourishing; very considered not are
in Chuuk Chuuk in
of individual crop plants and small plots near the residence: breadfruit, coconuts, coconuts, residence: breadfruit, the near small plots and plants crop of individual
is the most frequently propagated and best liked of the four aroid genera grown grown genera aroid four the of liked best and propagated frequently most the is
placed arrowroot as a starchy alternative when breadfruit is unavailable; arrow unavailable; is breadfruit when alternative starchy a as arrowroot placed
needed. Alex (unpubl.) notes that that notes (unpubl.) Alex needed.
the Japanese during the war and planted to sweet potatoes." potatoes." sweet to planted and war the during Japanese the
instances of erosion that the writer observed were found in areas deforested by by deforested areas in found were observed writer the that erosion of instances
not available. Only two varieties are recognized, the common yam yam common the recognized, are varieties two Only available. not
on the high islands, could very easily have been touched off here. The only only The here. off touched been have easily very could islands, high the on
(Alex unpubl.) and are regarded as a reserve food, when other starch crops are are crops starch other when food, reserve a as regarded are and (Alex unpubl.)
erated erosion, which, in view of the high rainfall and the steepness of the slopes slopes of the steepness the and rainfall high of the view in which, erosion, erated
come back. Hall and Pelzer (unpubl.) noted that the Chuukese economy "makes "makes economy Chuukese the that noted (unpubl.) Pelzer and Hall back. come
oigfut r rae a ncs aaa, age,sgrae aaa, pan bananas, sugarcane, mangoes, papayas, snacks: as treated are lowing fruits
munu, munu, hardwood forest trees (e.g., (e.g., trees forest hardwood
root now is regarded as an emergency food. Cooking bananas are common but but common are bananas Cooking food. emergency an as regarded is now root
in small gardens which are abandoned after a year or so. According to Pelzer Pelzer to According so. or year a after abandoned are which gardens small in
also also called
introduced recently), sweet potatoes, manioc, and arrowroot arrowroot and manioc, sweet potatoes, recently), introduced
escu/enta, A/ocasia macrorrhiza, macrorrhiza, A/ocasia escu/enta,
As in the other study islands coconut meat is viewed as an accompaniment to to accompaniment an as viewed is meat coconut islands study other the in As
(1947), if these gardens are left fallow long enough and are not burned over, over, burned not are and enough long fallow left are gardens these if (1947),
starch foods, to be used when fish are not available. available. not fish are when used be to foods, starch
Although Goodenough (1951 (1951 (1978):24)) Although Goodenough yams are it, grown in denied Chuuk
The taro swamps swamps for taro The
The relatively recently introduced manioc (cassava) plant has largely re largely has plant (cassava) manioc introduced recently relatively The
Other important crops crops important Other
the wild variety growing in the forest), and lately lately and forest), the growing in variety wild the
(pwech); (pwech);
Tacca Tacca /eontopetaloides; mokmokin
(Cyrtosperma, Colocasia (oni), Alocasia (ka, (ka, Alocasia (oni), Colocasia (Cyrtosperma,
these are identified in Alex (unpubl.) only as as only (unpubl.) Alex in identified are these
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
aFe aFe
Calophyllum, Cynometra, Parinarium) Parinarium) Cynometra, Calophyllum,
Colocasia, A/ocasia A/ocasia Colocasia,
the the
and and
Cyrtosperma chamissonis (puna (puna chamissonis Cyrtosperma
aroids aroids
Xanthosoma Xanthosoma
and and
Colocasia Colocasia
Cyrtosperma chamissonis, Colocasia Colocasia chamissonis, Cyrtosperma
Chuukese). Chuukese). These crops are planted
are grown in hillside gardens gardens hillside in grown are
(as elsewhere in Micronesia, Micronesia, in elsewhere (as
are in lowland settings near near settings lowland in are
Xanthosoma. Xanthosoma.
the cultivated variety; variety; cultivated the
(Tacca pinnatifidia, pinnatifidia, (Tacca
Dioscorea spp. spp. Dioscorea
in Chuukese) Chuukese) in
(ep) (ep)
eventually eventually
These are are These
and a a and 41 41
Xan
because because the swamps
are are only grown in dryland
are are grown in either dry or wet
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
(Hadley (Hadley unpubl.). According to Had
Alocasia Alocasia
and and
are are grown on Pohnpei but the latter is the
is is also planted, and the recent cultigen
POHNPEI POHNPEI
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
Colocasia Colocasia
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
and and
or or machete made widely available after World War
Colocasia Colocasia
is is the primary tool used in horticulture, along with
Alocasia Alocasia
Xanthosoma Xanthosoma
and and
(ot) (ot)
Colocasia Colocasia
(sapsap) (sapsap)
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
is treated is treated as a variety of
Both Both
Breadfruit Breadfruit is the staple crop of Pohnpei, forming extensive groves, even
Bath ( 1984:Figure 3) depicts of depicts generalized island "ecozones." profile a 3) 1984:Figure Pohn Bath (
The The digging stick
Labor Labor in the planting, harvesting, production and preparation of breadfruit
rainfall averages averages rainfall mm) 345 better is for planting
year. However, However, year. the "dry" season November of through February (when monthly
conditions. conditions. Little care is required and planting can take place at any time of the
land land (swamps) whereas
ley ley (unpubl.), both
1984:24). These These patches may represent 1984:24). abandoned or agroforest neglected nearing
thosoma thosoma
preferred preferred crop of the two.
noted noted for aroids and yams in the western islands.
bility bility seems to be a common practice among Micronesian farmers, as can be
of of breadfruit. Deliberate selection for crop staple genetic and phenotypic varia
developed a considerable considerable developed a variety ofbreadfruit to types lengthen bearing the period
trees trees can be found in fruit throughout the year. Apparently the Pohnpeians have
months, months, with a lesser crop in the winter, during the trade wind season. This is
study study (Raynor 1989). The greatest harvest is taken in the northern summer
a a similar pattern to that experienced on Chuuk, as noted above. However, some
forests, as described described as forests, an early by observer (Gulick and confirmed 1858) by recent a
are are generally not used for growing food species.
elements. elements. Mango and Tahitian chestnut are exploited seasonally. The uplands
tains tains mainly breadfruit trees and includes coconut and bananas as important
and and farming areas. According to Bath (1984:27), the mixed-managed forest con
orographic orographic effect. The coastal fringe and lower mountain slopes are settlement
managed managed forest containing breadfruit and some rainforest and species, on finally
poorly poorly developed strand vegetation, giving way to secondary growth and mixed
pei's pei's vegetation zones begin at the shore with mangrove forest. Just inland is
central central mountains some rise two thousand in feet elevation, creating a substantial
the the end of its maximum use-span of about years 100 (Raynor 1989). Pohnpei's
(Glassman (Glassman 1952:22; Stemmerman in Ayres & Haun unpubl., cited in Bath
the the highest slopes upland rainforest with patches of secondary forest growth
other. other. The flat end is used in planting and harvesting while the sharp end serves
II. Pelzer ( 194 7) 7) describes the II. digging stick 194 Pelzer as ( flat on one end and sharp on the
as as a coconut husker when implanted in the ground.
the the long bush knife
Chuukese Chuukese diet through gleaning the reef at low tide.
participate participate in taro growing but also provide the majority of seafood in the
sequent sequent pounding occupies two or three men working together for several hours
two or or three two Pelzer (Hall unpubl., & days week a cited in Women Alkire 1959:29).
is is provided by men. Preparation of breadfruit by earth-oven roasting and sub 42 42
techniques, as shown in Table 3. 3. Table in shown as techniques,
dle to late teens (Bath 1984: 104), are responsible for breadfruit cultivation and and cultivation breadfruit for 1984: responsible (Bath 104), are teens late to dle residence in these islands whereas in Belau and Yap the taro gardens tend to be be to tend gardens taro the Yap and Belau in whereas islands these in residence
requirements involved in the growing of breadfruit on Pohnpei using aboriginal aboriginal using Pohnpei on breadfruit of growing the in involved requirements
Another early observer, Cheyne (1852), noted that many yams could be seen seen be could yams many that noted (1852), Cheyne observer, early Another been invited. Barrau (1961) reports that large yams are grown in special soil that that soil special in grown are yams large that reports (1961) Barrau invited. been
are today and only presented during ceremonies to which Cheyne may not have have not may Cheyne which to ceremonies during presented only and today are
nutrients from the decaying tree to fertilize the yam left to grow for several years. years. several grow for left to yam the fertilize to decaying tree the from nutrients
ceremonial yams can weigh several hundred pounds. On the other hand Cheyne Cheyne hand other the On pounds. hundred several weigh can yams ceremonial is sometimes ringed, which kills the tree. According to Barrau this allows the the allows this Barrau to According tree. the kills which ringed, sometimes is
throughout Pohnpei but were small. This is different than the present when large large when present the than different is This small. were but Pohnpei throughout has been enriched with organic debris, and that the tree supporting the yam plant plant yam the supporting tree the that and debris, organic with enriched been has most other gardening, as in Chuuk and Kosrae. Bath (1984:103) estimated labor labor (1984:103) estimated Bath Kosrae. and Chuuk in as gardening, other most
may not have chanced to see large yams if they were then grown in secret as they they as secret in grown were then if they see large yams to chanced have not may
petition in Pohnpei, the use of pigs, apparently is a post-European practice (Intoh (Intoh practice is post-European a of use pigs, apparently the Pohnpei, in petition
tts ht h epai o ym utvto i Phpi s rltvl recent relatively a is Pohnpei in cultivation yam on emphasis the that states
them in the ground for up to a month. month. a to up for ground the in them
majority are planted in drier months to avoid a fungus disease. Bascom ( ( Bascom 1948) disease. fungus a avoid to months drier in planted are majority
Raynor ( 1989) found that while yams may be planted at any time of year, the the year, of time any at planted be may yams while that ( 1989) found Raynor
ceremonial crop as well as an everyday food) and other minor dietary cultigens. cultigens. dietary minor other and food) everyday an as well as crop ceremonial
of sugar cane, which is used in ceremonial prestations, yams (also an important important an (also yams prestations, ceremonial in used is which cane, sugar of
post-European phenomenon. It can be noted that another aspect of prestige com of prestige aspect another that noted be can It phenomenon. post-European
destroyed much of the the of much destroyed
in the event of typhoons (one may add that the leaf hopper insect has evidently evidently has insect hopper leaf the that add may (one typhoons of event the in
Some storage of the corms of of corms the of storage Some
These may be near the home or not, depending on the location of his lands. lands. his of location the on depending not, or home the near be may These
context for taro other than coastal swamps is a small dammed-up stream that that stream dammed-up small a is swamps coastal than other taro for context
for the young plants. Later they are cut back to let in more sun. Another planting planting Another sun. more in let to back cut are they Later plants. young the for of of
allowing trees such as as such allowing trees on dry land. Hadley (unpubl.) lists twenty-four varieties of of varieties twenty-four lists (unpubl.) Hadley land. dry on
water common, common, water Each man will have more than one taro garden, as well as other garden plots. plots. garden other as well as garden, taro one than more have will man Each
provides an artificial swamp for the plants. As rainfall is so plentiful and standing standing and is so plentiful As rainfall plants. for the swamp artificial an provides
is seasonal, appearing around December and January. This pest is thought to to thought is pest This January. and December around appearing seasonal, is
that harvests of this crop are more seasonal than in Yap, Chuuk, or Belau. Belau. or Chuuk, Yap, in than seasonal more are crop this of harvests that
are frequently flooded at other times making the work difficult. This may indicate indicate may difficult. work This the making times other flooded at frequently are
have been introduced recently. recently. introduced been have
ocasia ocasia
1986). 1986).
Colocasia. Colocasia.
Adult males, beginning to be truly productive on their own around the mid the around own their on productive truly be to beginning males, Adult
Breadfruit groves and other garden plots can be located far from the family family the from far located be can plots garden other and groves Breadfruit
There are several varieties of yams on Pohnpei, wild and domesticated. domesticated. and wild Pohnpei, on yams of varieties several are There
Swiddening in the secondary forest is practiced in small gardens consisting consisting gardens small in practiced is forest secondary the in Swiddening
Planting technique in the taro swamps involves clearing undergrowth but but undergrowth clearing involves swamps taro the in technique Planting
is best planted in March through may to avoid the taro leaf hopper which which hopper leaf taro the avoid to may through March in planted is best
He suggests suggests that He
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture Horticulture Micronesian Traditional Hunter-Anderson:
Hibiscus tiliaceus tiliaceus Hibiscus
Colocasia, Colocasia,
Colocasia Colocasia
is successfully grown in roadside ditches and even even and ditches roadside in successfully grown is
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
further enhancing the value of of value the enhancing further
and and
to remain, as they provide needed shade shade needed provide they as remain, to
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
is viewed as a reserve food supply supply food reserve a as viewed is
is practiced by burying burying by practiced is
Cyrtosperma Cyrtosperma
Cyrtosperma). Cyrtosperma).
and nine nine and
Col
43 43 , ,
in in
seka seka
or or
or or bamboo).
is is mentioned by Sarfert
00 00
00 00
.
.
was an an important was crop used
10.00 10.00
104
218
Piper Piper methysticum
Parker Parker for Weno in Chuuk; and
kava) kava)
& &
Pandanus Pandanus
the the Lolo-Wukat (Sarfert Valley 1919).
Manhours Manhours
in in
2.00 2.00 104.00
2.00 2.00
0.19 0.19
4.19 4.19
Dracaena Dracaena terminalis
KOSRAE KOSRAE
Per Per Week Per Year
the the Polynesian
Micronesica (24)1, 1991 (24)1, Micronesica
sakau, sakau,
Table Table 3. Labor requirements for breadfruit in growing Pohnpei.
: :
Harvest Harvest
Planting Planting
Totals
Travel Travel time Activity Activity
Weeding Weeding
Land Land preparation
plants plants were also cultivated. Bananas grew everywhere. Of note is that a
On On the mainland some gardens were located quite far from the household
At At the tum the of century the areas farmed were the swampy lowlands and
Bath ( 1984: Figure Figure 1984: 5) depicts Bath ( a generalized profile of Kosrae's "ecozones."
ritual ritual but today is not.
Lolo Lolo Mountain, Sarfert noted small fields adjoining kitchen houses and what and and were said to have been guarded by a watchmen" '"field who stayed in huts
sometimes sometimes by fences of shrubs (e.g.
ofland ofland was seen as a kind of enclosure, distinctively bounded by stone or walls
person's person's or a village's fields were not contiguous but dispersed. At the foot of
streams. streams. Sugar cane was grown on drier soil and on mountain slopes where the
Taro Taro was seen growing everywhere but chiefly in coastal swamps and along appeared appeared to him as similar facilities in the abandoned ruins of Lelu. Every plot
the the mountain near slopes the coast and
in in seka seka
Kosraean Kosraean Pohnpeian, (in
is is not indicated in this early account. The vine
( 1919) as as having 1919) been ( propagated from twigs but whether it was used for food
banana, banana, sugar cane, breadfruit and coconut.
food plants food plants appear grown to be in the Coastal Lowland zone. They taro, are yam, a a shallow and wide topographic depression landward of the beach berm. Here
on on the highest is a slopes zone of primary forest. The most important traditional
of the the of marsh is a drier zone of secondary forest; upslope of this forest is a small
have have been accomplished with shell cutting tools, adzes and knives.
They include include They a mangrove beach zone, a berm low on which houses are sited, and
Pohnpei. Pohnpei. Prior to the introduction of the machete and steel ax, clearing would
grassy zone, zone, grassy similar to that depicted by King
erature review although Raynor (1989) provides a schematic view of typical plants plants typical of provides schematic view Raynor a although (1989) erature review
close close to the residential areas. No depictions of gardens were located in the lit
at at various canopy levels. A digging stick is the primary planting implement in
44 44 just just behind the berm another mangrove zone occurs, grading into marsh. Inland
done with fire and a shell ax; precise details are not given. Now iron axes are are axes iron Now given. not are details precise ax; shell a and fire with done
used to break the ground, and weeds are pulled by hand and left on the ground. ground. the on left and hand by pulled are weeds and ground, the break to used
yams, or they were cut into pieces which were each planted. The bush was a a was bush The planted. each were which pieces into cut were they or yams,
where there is frequent tidal alternation of fresh and salt water. Taro was was of salt water. regarded Taro fresh and alternation tidal where is frequent there
source of new varieties of yams. Land preparation for a garden plot was was formerly plot garden for a preparation Land of yams. source new of varieties that Kosraeans prefer the flavor of breadfruit preserved in pits in these settings settings these in pits in preserved breadfruit of flavor the prefer Kosraeans that
of breadfruit. The top of the corm was replanted at harvesting, similarly with the the with similarly harvesting, at was replanted corm of the top The of breadfruit.
as a backup against the regularly anticipated yearly time of no or low low availability or of no yearly time anticipated regularly the against backup a as
breadfruits and bananas grew in the rear of this compound. compound. this of rear the in grew bananas and breadfruits
use, located in the mangrove zone next to a small stream. The author was told told was author The stream. small a to next zone mangrove the in located use,
portion of the fruits was preserved in pits. Figure 9 shows two breadfruit pits in in pits breadfruit two shows 9 Figure pits. in preserved was fruits the of portion
spetfl vr ot. rafut sad a h sal rp ad oe pro some and crop, staple the was and is Breadfruit month. every plentiful is
residential compound drawn during his 1828 1828 his areas where during indicates coconuts, visit drawn compound residential
by walls five feet high), family residential compounds included walled-in walled-in gardens. by included walls five compounds feet high), residential family
artificial island built during prehistoric times upon the reef flat and surrounded surrounded and flat reef the upon times prehistoric during built island artificial
prevent thievery as well. well. as thievery prevent
at the farm sites. Scaffolding was constructed around coconut tree trunks to to trunks tree coconut around constructed was Scaffolding sites. farm the at Each compound was about seventy by thirty feet. Lutke's plan of a high ranking ranking high a of plan Lutke's feet. thirty by seventy was about compound Each
Planting and harvesting are done throughout the year on Kosrae, as rainfall rainfall as Kosrae, on year the throughout done are harvesting and Planting
Early descriptions of Kosrae (Lutke 1835 (1971)) indicate that on Lelu (an (an Lelu on that 1835 indicate (1971)) (Lutke Kosrae of descriptions Early
Figure 9. Streamside breadfruit pits (arrows) in mangroves, Likinlulum, Kosrae. Kosrae. Likinlulum, mangroves, in (arrows) pits breadfruit Streamside 9. Figure
Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Micronesian Horticulture Traditional Hunter-Anderson: 45 45
and and
(ko) (ko)
They They performed much of
This This appears to be a deliberate
. .
met met orekma.
these these have been displaced by the spade and
Micronesica Micronesica (24)1, 1991
(panak); (panak);
Concluding Concluding Remarks and Summary Comments
A A significant similarity among all the cases reviewed is the cultivation of
From From these brief island-by-island discussions based upon a review of the
Traditional Traditional Kosraean farming implements were the digging stick
methods, methods, destructive highly were island of and soils caused massive deforestation
in in the past.
erosion erosion and imply the incorrectness of earlier views that "primitive" farming
tubers, tubers, nuts, and tree fruits. Typical ground preparation, planting, and harvesting
in in production is storage, usually in pits, but also in above-ground facilities, of
Another Another practice related to recognition a both of and regular irregular fluctuations
and and wild foods are utilized as "back-ups," some previously also as famine foods.
Both Both tree and root crops are important in all the islands, and certain cultigens
purposes purposes under conditions of climatic, edaphic, and topographic heterogeneity.
strategy strategy to maximize genetic and phenotypic variability in crops for security
several several varieties of each basic subsistence crop gardless gardless of the length of the gardening cycle. These techniques tend to minimize
disturb disturb the ground surface and prevent exposure or large areas of bare soil re
techniques techniques are of the "low impact" type, using simple tools which minimally
knowledge knowledge of Micronesian island farming systems is to study them in the field
past. past.
also also may reveal more about the practice of island horticulture in the prehistoric
can can be only partially overcome. It appears now that the best way to increase our
early early sources are limited in scope and focus, and the limitations of this literature
in in the eastern islands where this is a staple. However, the fact remains that the
breadfruit breadfruit production, with implications for understanding tree crop strategies
on on the various islands, informative are especially about tubers and aroids. Recent
indigenous indigenous crops and their cultivation, written in conjunction with local people
where where and while this is still possible, and to pursue archaeological studies which
traditional traditional horticultural systems of Belau, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae.
work work by an agronomist in Pohnpei has shown the modem traditional aspects of
well-described. well-described. The Trust Territory District Anthropologist papers on various
tural tural context is fullest for Belau while the other islands are ethnographically less
Contemporary Contemporary and earlier works relating to traditional island farming in its cul
available available literature it is clear that much remains to be learned concerning the strenuous strenuous work and "lower class" people who worked for the aristocrats. The
fish through through fish a variety of methods.
in in Pohnpei and Chuuk, frequently gleaned the reef capturing flats, and fish shell
the fishing as well as as the the as well fishing farm labor. Men were in generally charge gardening of
workers workers or common people were called
prior prior to European contact: "aristocrats" who shunned farm labor as they did all
metal metal knife or machete. There appear to have been two social classes on Kosrae
the the trees near the house and the mixed tree and tuber plots inland. Women, as
the the small oyster shell knife 46 46 Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture 47
Two overall patterns emerge in terms of major environmental differences for horticulture between the eastern and western high islands in the study region. One is the contrast in staples between root crops in the west and tree crops in the east. In Belau and Yap there. is a pronounced dry season but apparently somewhat less inter-year variation in annual rainfall than in the east. (As the periods of record for annual rainfall data are very short, these figures must be used with caution, however, and may change.) The subsistence bases in these western islands emphasize aroids and yams. The aroids are harvested throughout the year and thus are available when yams are not yet ready to harvest. Breadfruit plays a minor role in the farming systems of Yap and Belau at present but may have been more important in the past. In the east (Pohnpei and Kosrae), the seasonal wet-dry alternation is less pronounced, overall amounts of rainfall are higher, and there appears to be a wider range of variation in annual rainfall. The latter is reflected in a greater standard deviation in annual rainfall on Pohnpei (Kosrae's weather records are too short for this measure to be meaningful), although again because of short periods of record, caution must be used in interpreting even these data. The subsistence bases in Pohnpei and Kosrae emphasize tree crops, breadfruit and bananas, but plantings of aroids are made and yams are also grown, especially in Pohnpei. Pit ensilage of the seasonally abundant breadfruit extends the period of availability of this important food. Chuuk, situated between the eastern and western islands, is similar to the eastern islands in emphasizing breadfruit and in practicing pit ensilage although there is a pronounced wet-dry season. Bread fruit does well in Chuuk because of the relatively high rainfall but extensive plantings of giant swamp taro in coastal marshes appear to have provided security against drought as they do in Yap and Belau. The other pattern related to the east/west geographic division marked by the Andesite Line is the length of time in which a forest garden is kept in con tinuous or active cultivation. In the western islands the "lifespan" of swidden gardens made in the forest, which are primarily planted to yams harvested sea sonally, is relatively short, at most about three years, with a mandatory fallow period of at least 15 years. In the eastern islands and in Chuuk an agroforest garden, mainly planted to breadfruit and bananas, evidently continues to be useful as a source of produce for a much longer time, in Pohnpei up to 100 years, by which time it has reverted to wild forest from neglect. In all islands in the study area farmers maintain more than one agroforest plot at a time. In the eastern islands through deliberate sequencing of tree plant ings and astute selection of varieties that flower and fruit at different times, they extend the time in which breadfruit may be harvested within the year and prevent disruptions in food supplies over longer time ranges. In Pohnpei yams are planted in pits on slopes. The large ceremonial yams are protected by a rock wall that allows surface water to flow through but traps soil. Staggered yam plantings can yield tubers year-round, and planting stock placed in multiples of four or five merge and grow to enormous size if left in the ground for several years. 48 Micronesica (24)1, 1991
In the western islands, a heavier reliance on seasonal yam harvests (and formerly above-ground storage of the tubers) is associated with maintaining a wide variety of yam varieties capable of producing tubers in several kinds of agroforest settings. Micro-habitat differences are appreciated and planned for, which practice, as in eastern islands, tends to minimize disruptions in harvests over the course of a year and at longer time ranges. It may be that prehistorically in the context of increasing the yam harvest or of producing especially desired varieties requiring full sun that mound gardens were made in the interior grass lands. In Belau, in addition to long-fallow agroforest swidden plots, crop rotations in the same garden are practiced using mainly introduced cultigens; it is not clear whether this was an aboriginal practice as well but it may have been at least during periods ofadequate rainfall. In Yap, some parts of the non-forested interior are used for more or less continuous sweet potato cultivation on a seasonal basis; as suggested above, this gardening technique could be ancient. As staples in the western islands, the aroids Cyrtosperma and Co/ocasia are grown in a variety of settings, wherever soil and water conditions permit. The tolerance of these plants for salinity, soil structure, and soil nutrient status are apparently well-understood by Micronesian farmers but this knowledge has not been systematically studied by western science. The particular advantage of Cyr tosperma in the high island contexts we have been investigating, as a staple and as a back-up crop, is its ability to grow continuously for up to ten or even more years, in brackish water, and with relatively little care. When climatic factors such as a regular dry season limit the soil moisture in other than swampy settings, this plant becomes extremely important, as in Yap. Under such conditions water dependent tree crops are less reliable and are not extensively planted or relied upon. In Chuuk the climate is also seasonal but there is more rain than in Yap. Cyrtosperma is cultivated in the coastal swamplands. However, because rainfall is adequate, and a high proportion of sloping ground and thin soils limits some types of dryland gardening (e.g., Colocasia plantings such as are seen in Belau with a similar rainfall regime but more rolling topography) extensive breadfruit plantings and thus large harvests of the fruits, some of which can be put into storage, are possible. Furthermore, deliberate selection of breadfruit varieties which bear beyond the usual summer season has increased the security of the Chuukese subsistence base. Coupled with the practice of pit fermentation-storage, the adverse effects of normal dry season periods and frequent irregularities in rainfall from year to year can be reduced. A/ocasia is a dryland crop and tends to be regarded as less desirable substitute for Cyrtosperma and Colocasia. It seems to be an important back-up, perhaps as pandanus was once regarded as a "star vation" food in Yap. In the eastern Caroline Islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae rainfall amounts are greatest and as in Chuuk there is much steeply sloping land. The subsistence emphasis is on breadfruit in several varieties. Nonetheless, root crops (taro and yams) are also grown and play what appears to be a "'back-up" role in the sub sistence base. As noted above climatic data are not long-term for Kosrae and Hunter-Anderson: Traditional Micronesian Horticulture 49 therefore only tentative comparisons could be made with other islands. However, the greatest standard deviation in rainfall among the study cases is found in Pohnpei (see Table 1), and possibly Kosrae experiences similar deviations from being located in a zone with similar climatic controls. Farming implements are simple but effective in the study islands. Prior to the introduction of metal tools, shell and wood were the primary materials avail able. The digging stick, made from a hardwood such as Areca (betel nut), was designed to penetrate soft soil with minimal disturbance to surrounding plant growth, thereby lessening the possibility of erosion in sloping secondary forest areas. Pearl shell knives and adzes of clam and other hard shell were used for cutting plant growth. Hand-pulling of weeds was another non-disturbing tech nique used. Tree-ringing and fire were judiciously applied to individual trees in swidden gardens to allow light into the newly planted area while minimizing erosion through retention of the existing tree root structure. The fallow period is ideally long and the planting-harvesting period relatively short. The fallow lengths known ethnographically should be regarded with caution, however, as the intensity of land use in the past was greater than today when aboriginal popu lations are still well below some pre-contact estimates. Expansion of gardening into marginal zones under pressure to increase food production seems also to have been a response taken in the past. Future field research into the past and present horticultural systems of the study islands, as well as into the traditional farming practices in the Marianas, Marshalls and Gilberts, is likely to reveal important new information and a firmer factual basis from which to theorize about the underlying causes of variations in Micronesian culture. The Micronesian cases appear to contradict established as sumptions about a linkage between the degree of social complexity and the in tensity of horticulture. More archaeological research into this issue is obviously appropriate. It should also result in less speculative models of the causes for the present distribution of vegetation on the Micronesian high islands. Finally, ad ditional field research into traditional Micronesian farming systems should help assess the potential of these small island cultures to respond to the local mani festations of large scale environmental processes such as global climate and sea level changes.
Acknowledgements I thank the staff of the Micronesian Area Research Center for assistance during the bulk of the research for this project in 1984-85. My thanks go also to Mr. Conrado Redila for help with the illustrations, to Dr. Yigal Zan for computer advice, and to Micronesian Archaeological Research Services for additional tech nical support.
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