Models for the Explanation of Extrasensory Perception

MODELS FOR THE EXPLANATION OF EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION

PRINTED IN BELGIUM 1 MODELS FOR THE EXPLANATION OF EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION ! CHARLEST. I I One of the difficulties for many scientists listening to fades out, but if he backs up in accepting the existence of extrasensory the reception slowly comes in again. We perception (ESP) is that it does not make may "explain" this by saying it is like sense in terms of what we know about the dropping a stone in a lalte. The radio waves ! physical universe. We do not have any com- are lilte the ripples that spread out, and a prehensive theories, any good models, or rock sticking up from the surface is like the any sort of generally accepted explanation steel buildings : there will be a small area of the phenomena. Unfortunately, I cannot of calmness behind the rock as it interrupts fill this vacuum. I have no model or theory the ripples, but a little further in back of the that will explain the facts of parapsychology. rock the ripples join again. It is the same I shall be concerned then, with problems, for radio waves and the steel building. This rather than attempt to give answers, and is an analogy to something familiar. It maltes point out where models and theories in this us feel more comfortable, it maltes us feel area are needed. we "understand" the behavior of our radio IGIy presentation of models must be rather set. ilnother common example of "hori- .' limited due to space. It will not be possible zontal" explanation occurs in teaching people to cover all the phenomena that have been about the flow of electricity, where we reported in the laboratory, much less those compare it to water flowing through a pipe : reported in spontaneous cases, nor can I the electrical voltage is like the pressure cover all the problems connected with model behind the water, the electrical amperage is making for those phenomena I do talk about. like the quantity of water flowing, and the

As a final limitation, in talking- about some electrical resistance is like the effect of past attempts at model building in this field obstructions in the pipe. What we are I cannot be comprehensive, but only men- basically doing is saying that the unknown tion a few attempts. is similar to the known (with the implication To begin, I have to make clear exactly that you understand the known). what I mean by a model and by a theoty, as There is another use of the term explana- I shall discuss both of these. We all want tion, however, which I will refer to as models and theories to "explain" things : "vertical" explanation. This is where you

but what exactly does the word "explain" ic explain" the unlcnown by talking about mean in this context? We use the term explain events on a different level than those you in two senses. One of these is what we might want to explain, it is an abstract type of call "horizontal" explanation: it is a matter explanation. For example, to give a vertical of drawing comparisons with something explanation of the flow of electric current familiar, of pointing out that what you are we do not talk about the flow of water in puzzled about is like something else that you pipes: instead we talk about a thing called are already familiar with. For instance, ------someone may ask for an explanation of the * Asst. Professor of Psychology, Dept. of Psychology, fact that when he carries his transistor radio Univ, of California. Davis. Calif. behind a steel building the station he is Received for pttb/iLatio,l: ~ebnta~I 8, 1966. 488 an electron, about the transfer of electrons if you want to call it a scientjfic theory, your the possibility from one orbital shell to another across inferences and conclusions must have ob- come along tk atoms, about electrical force fields on the servable consequences. That is, your theory for (predict) : atomic level, about number of electrons must say that given conditions A, B, and C, or modifying passing through a unit volume in a unit of you will observe effect D. If you do not to so-called s time as measuring the flow of electric observe D, so much the worse for your I law is simply current, and the like. We have gone to a theory ! I duced data cc 4 more abstract level, a more basic level of Science, then, is a continuous alternation has predicted explanation. between observing things (or, if you prefer, of instances. Now this sort of explanation, vertical finding "facts"), theorizing about the struc- gravity" is sin explanation, is usually of more general ap- ture of things at some more abstract level, of two mass plication than drawing an analogy to some- making predictions based on the postulated absence of int thing familiar, and people generally feel that structure of reality at this more abstract millions of o it is a "truer" or more "basic" sort of ex- level, and then going out and checking your objects fall to planation. In many instances, however, it predictions. The observations may agree is subject to may not be a more tlsef~lsort of explanation. with the theory, which is always rewarding. consistent ob: For example, a man might tell me that he If they disagree, you modify your theory or Now here is is designing a bridge to cross a stream, and abandon it. You are always going back and a theory and s tell me about the nuts and bolts, girders and forth between observing things, theorizing many of the I beams, he will build it from. I could say to from these, and checking the inferences us: it can org: him, "Oh, come on now. You are being about as yet unmade observations: this is "understandin fooled by the surface appearance of things! the essence of scientific method. portant" obsc You know that a beam is not a basic concept. models often You should talk about the molecules of Now a scientific theory is what I have : tage over at steel in these things, or be even more 'basic' been calling vertical explanation, a going to amuse us ! Tl about this and talk of the sub-atomic particles a more abstract level than the one on which build to mo and fields that make up the molecules !" By you make your observations, from which usually much and large, however, I would prefer to cross you predict back to your observation level. But, the cruci a bridge that was built by an engineer who A model in science, on the other hand, is and a theory knows how to calculate stresses in those what I have called a horizontal explanation. predict incorr surface manifestations called girders and I shall make the distinction between them have to redo i beams, nuts and bolts ! The point is to avoid clearer in a moment, but let me first talk to alwq~sbe about what theories do. any idea that a vertical explanation is necess- b predictions. I arily "better" in all instances. Theories perform several functions in tween flowinj In science we use both of these kinds of science. They help us organize observations, in pipes is a1 explanations. This will be clearer if I say what I like to call the "filing cabinet func- purposes, but t a few u-ords about the nature of science. tion." Instead of memorizing ten thousand wrong in sol Science is basically a set of rules for collecting separate observations you memorize a theory you put too data and the kind of inferences you can from which you can predict these obser- the wire will make from these data. If you want to play vations, which is quite a savings in work. of water thro the Science Game, the first basic rule is that They also predict in what areas to look for make it hottc the data you collect must be pmblic, i.e., that "important" data-data of practical or model, thou) any qualified person should be able to repeat theoretical significance. Because of the con- only a mode the steps you took to make your observation tinuous alternation between observation and advantages fc and make the same observation. The second theorizing, their continuous interaction, electricity far - basic rule is that you may make any sort of theories are al~uq~ssubject to revision or short, then, inferences or draw any sort of conclusions disproof. No scientific theory is ever final: models and t on the basis of these data that you wish, but you must always hold your mind open to ., : theory, your the possibility that some observation will thrown out (or take up the humbler status ust ,e ob- come along that the theory cannot account of models). , yc. - theory for (predict) and which calls for rejecting Where do we stand in parapsycho- A, B, and C, or modifying the theory. This applies even 10g.v with resDect to models and theories? U I I you do not to so-called scientific "laws." A scientific I regret to say that we are in a dismal lrse for your law is simply a theory that no one has pro- position. By and large, we just do not have duced data contradictory to, a theory that any good theories or models. I use the has predicted correctly in untold thousands 1s alternation adjective "good" here to mean a theory of instances. Thus the so-called "law of if you prefer, which organizes a reasonable number of gravity" is simply a theory about the effects ~utthe struc- observations atzd makes testable predictions. of two masses upon each other in the lbstract level, We do have some theories in parapsychology, absence of interfering forces. It summarizes he postulatetl but they are too general, too "cosmo- millions of observations that unsupported lore abstract logical" in scope. They are concerned with objects fall to the earth. But even this "law" hecking your whether the world is a mental and physical is subject to repeal or modification if in- ; may agree duality or only physical, whether ESP is consistent observations are made. qs rewarding. physical or nonphysical, spiritual or material, Now here is the crucial difference between lur theor!. or etc. These are all very noble problems but a theory and a model. A model can perform ing back and they do not lead to any predictions whereby many of the same functions as a theory for ;s, theori~ing you could make a choice between alternative us: it can organize data, give us a feeling of le inferences theories. They are philosophical positions "understanding," and predict where "im- :ions : this is rather than scientific theories. We need portant" observations can be made. Also, d. theories in parapsychology that are con- models often have something of an advan- siderably less grand in scope, but are test- what 1 have j tage over abstract theories in that they able. 3, a going to amuse us! The little machines that people me r- which build to model their understandings are What I will spend the rest of my time on, frL which usually much more fun than abstract ideas ! then, is a survey of what badly needs to be tvation level. But, the crucial difference between a model theorized about and modeled in parapsycho- :her hand, is and a theory is that the theory map uever logy. I will present some general models in explanation. predict incorrectly, otherwise we scrap it or the course of doing this, but note that these etween them have to redo it, but we don't expect a model are models of the current state of our me first talk to always be true, to always malce correct ignorance, rather than models of how things predictions. For instance, the analogy be- actually happen. Eunctions in tween flowing electricity and water flowing Let us begin with the phenomenon called 2bservations, in pipes is an excellent model for teaching clairvoyance. The basic observation to zabinet func- purposes, but its predictions are completely which the name clairvoyance is attached is :en thousand wrong in some instances. In electricity if that human beings sometimes exhibit overt xize a theory you put too much current through a wire behavior from which we infer a knowledge these obser- the wire will get hot, but increasing the flow on their part of events or conditions of igs in work. of water through a pipe will not obviously objects in the real world, when you can rule i to look for make it hotter. You don't throw out this out any currently known form of physical practical or model, though, because you realize it is energy transfer or logical inference that : of the con- only a model and has limitations, but its would account for this knowledge. I have ervation and advantages for teaching certain aspects of sketched a "model" of clairvoyance in xaction, electricity far outweigh these limitations. In Figure I. The rectangular blocks in this revision or short, then, the basic distinction between figure and subsequent figures indicate "pro- s ever final: models and theories is that the latter must cesses'' or "mechanisms" of some sort where ind open to 2 always predict correctly, otherwise they are information is transformed or utilized. The INTERNATIONALJO~JRANL OF NEUROPSYCNIATRY

Model I: CLAIRVOYANCE target cards w you go to an ex ment, beyond green and whj there were sign scoring associai - cards than othe b these particula Conscious Mind perties of some distinctive to t Another dis. A between active perties, a distil physical and pc By an active 1 Unconscious which is emittj BEHAVIOR 4 Brain 4 r\ Mind by its intrinsic desk lamp has emitting light

Noise - Physical Object o r Channel Decoding L arrows indicate the direction of information or state of affairs, the "target" about which I flow within the model. we wish to acquire information. Any object e Glancing at the model as a whole, we has a certain set of physical properties which begin with a physical event or state of affairs constitute its nature, its uniqueness. The from which information reaches the subject ruler on my desk, for instance, has a set of via a channel of transmission. After reaching physical properties, such as mass, elasticity, the subject the information is decoded, that the ability to reflect certain wavelengths of is, put in a form in which it may act on the light (color), etc., which make it a particular "post brain and/or the unconscious mind and/or ruler. In addition to these physical properties, the conscious mind of the subject, and we should also allow for the possibility that eventuates in some sort of observable be- an object may possess "psychical" properties, havior from which we infer that the in- properties which would be very convenient formation about the object or state of affairs in understanding some of the more curious reached the subject in the first place. Now parapsychological phenomena. For example, let us look at these various steps and pro- J. G. Pratt has talked about the "focusing cesses in some detail. effect" on certain target cards in the research , We may begin with the physical object he and Dr. Ryzl have done. Physically these target cards were identical objects (unless hand, is a passive object in this respect: if you go to an extremely fine level of measure- there were no light impinging on it from ment, beyond that of the unaided senses), the outside that it reflected back, I would green and white pieces of cardboard, yet not be able to see it. there were significantly higher levels of ESP In Figure 2 I have sketched the different scoring associated with some of these target classes of object in clairvoyance tests. The

I cards than others. So we may postulate that object may have active properties, either P these particular cards have psychical pro- physical or psychical properties, which are perties of some sort which make them more simply picked up or detected because they distinctive to the clairvoyant process. are constantly being "radiated" from the , Another distinction I want to make is object or event. (I use "radiated" in the . between active properties and passive pro- broadest sense here, without meaning- to perties, a distinc.tion which applies to both imply electromagnetic radiation.) On the physical and postulated psychical properties. other hand, the object might have only By an active property I mean something passive properties as far as the clairvoyance onscious which is emitting some sort of information process is concerned, and only be clair- Mind by its intrinsic nature or state of being. My voyantly detectable because some sort of desk lamp has an active property, that of activating "energy" is impinging on it and emitting light rays. My ruler, on the other being "reflected". This "energy" might be

THE TARGET OBJECT

Noise

'Active" Object Channel b to Decoding bout ~vliich

Anv ol~jec! b :rties which eness. The las a set of ;, elasticity, elengths of r Activator II a particular passive" Object properties, sibility that properties, convenient Channel b to Decoding Jre curious > ,r example, "focusing he research t ically these -, Noise something that specifically results from a ties associated with them by virtue of their ties, that process within the subject, analogous to the history, by virtue of what they have been conveyed ( way a radar set sends out a scanning beam in spatial proximity to, and, of course, that tortion by of electromagnetic energy, or it might be a these psychical properties are psychically energy cor general baclrground activating energy that detectable (albeit quite imperfectly at pre- consider at does not specifically depend on human sub- sent) by human subjects. This leads to a discussion. jects for its origin, analogous to the way testable prediction. If you systematically vary noise is ne most objects are visible during the day the associational history of an object you of informa because of the baclrground radiation of the should make it more or less psychically it, while ot sun, daylight. Now this first step in the detectable in proportion to the differences noisy. Noi clairvoyance process is where we need some in its history. That is, if I have one object a channel, 1 models and theories, and very much need that has been carried for years in the poclret tion energ the assistance of physicists in constructing of a very colorful person, a real adventurer, the channc them. There are a number of basic questions and another physically identical object that formation. here that must be answered before we can has simply sat in a drawer for the same Given t begin to theorize, all concerned with the length of time, a pysychically gifted person clairvoyant nature of the information that is detected in should have a higher degree of success questions : the process of clairvoyance. What properties discriminating these objects by some form logical the of an object or event are psychically detect- of clairvoyance than he would have in clair- of the char able? We do not lcnow whether every known voyantly discriminating two identical physic- simply on physical property of an object is detectable al objects that have both sat in the same subject, or by clairvoyance: it might be, for instance, drawer for their whole history. While we medium b that clairvoyance can detect surface patterns have not begun to adequately test this all we lin on an object but not be able to tell us any- theory yet, it does fit accounts of spontane- ' possible if thing about its internal molecular structure. ous "psychometry" or object reading, and it and object We need to know what sorts of psychical illustrates a small-scale but objectively test- there is w properties there are, whether they interact able theory. Can you in with physical properties, whether there are We now have some information available the channc passive psychical properties that can be act- for the clairvoyance process to detect. Be- from inter ivated by some form of external "energy," cause the object or state of events is in a formation whether they can be deactivated by some different spatial locale from the subject, we Is there an method. Is there. any Bind of process which must postulate some sort of channel over it? The on might destroy the clairvoyant detectability of which the information travels to the subject. worlred w an object? We have so many unanswered This is no known physical channel, because distance, n questions here that useful theorizing is we rule that out by the definition of ESP. effect (altl virtually impossible now. As I warned you, We have no idea what the nature of this to). Work though, I am only going to point out where channel is. There is a "cosmological" level the Americ the basic problems are, since I cannot give theory here that say the concepts of "space" in New Yc any answers! and "time" are illusory productions of our but at the On a more positive note, though, let me own minds rather than conditions in the real nothing a give you an example of a small-scale, but world: if you accept this you need ask no clairvoyan testable, theory in parapsychology concern- questions about the nature of the channel, ible noise ing the nature of psychically detectable as there is nothing for a channel to bridge. is apprecia objects. This is a theory originated by W. G. Until someone tells us how to translate this that if the Roll of the Psychical Research Foundation idea into testable predictions, though, we vicinity o and which I was able to help put in final cannot consider it a scientific theory, so we "mental n form. The theory postulates that physical shall stick with the idea of a channel. feres witE objects have some sort of psychical proper- All channels have two important proper- crease or irtue of tlleir ties, that of noise and loss: information not know. Again, modeling and theorizing :y have heen conveyed over a channel is subject to dis- are difficult here for sheer laclc of basic data. c e, that tortion by noise, and attenuation of the Also, in investigating particular stages in : paychically energy conveying the information. We may the clairvoyance process, such as the channel, ectly at pre- consider attenuation a form of noise in this it may be difficult experimentally to differ- s leads to a discussion. In some particular channels the entiate where the procedure you apply has natically vary noise is negligible compared to the amount its effect in the process. For example, you '3 I object you of information transfered and we can ignore may find scores in clairvoyance tests decline ; psychically it, while other sorts of channels may be very with distance, but this may be due to the e differences noisy. Noise may vary from time-to-time in beliefs of the subjects (or the experimenter) e one object a channel, but as long as the ratio of informa- rather than having anything to do with the n the poclcet tion energy signal to noise energy is high, nature of the channel.

adventurer, the channel is useful for transmitting- in- We now have information originating at 1 object that formation. an object or event and flowing through a ,r the same Given that we need a channel for the channel. Now it goes into a bloclc in Figure I ;ifted person clairvoyant information, a number of basic I have labelled decoding. We can be rather of success questions arise as a prelude to parapsycho- sure that the information impinging on the some form logical theorizing here. What is the nature subject is not in a suitable form for directly lave in clair- of the channel? Does it, for instance, depend affecting him: it does not consist of known ltical physic- simply on space existing between object and physical energies nor of neural impulses that in the same subject, or do you need a known physical could stimulate the nervous system, so we . While we medium between object and subject? For must have a process to transform or decode .x- test this all we know, clairvoyance might be im- the information from whatever unknown I£ spontane- ,I posslble if there is no air between subject form it is in to an adequate stimulus for ding, and it and object, but be much more reliable if affecting the subject. It must be put into the ctivel! test- there is water between subject and object. proper form for being handled in the interal Can you interfere with information flow over information processing circuits of the human on \-ailable the channel, and distinguish such an effect subject. Now we can think of the outcome detect. He- from interference at the source of the in- of this decoding process as series of neural ents is in a formation or at later stages in the process? impulses or, if you are more mentalistically subject, we Is there any kind of shielding that will affect inclined, as mental images or thoughts or iannel over it? The only sort of shielding that has been feelings': as both points of view can lead to

the subject. e worked with to any extent is sheer spatial testable propositions I feel no need .to join nel, because distance, which does not seem to have much one side or the other of the mind-body on of ESP. effect (although psychological distance seems controversy, or speculate about which is ure of this ' to). Work being done by Dr. Karlis Osis at more "basic." gical" level the American Society for l'sychical Research To make this discussion more concrete, of "space" in New York may indicate a distance effect, let me point out that you are using a de- ions of our but at the moment we really know almost coding mechanism right now: it is called s in the real nothing about the effects of distance on the eye, and it enables you to see this page eed ask no clairvoyance. We know nothing about poss- It takes light rays, which in themselves are lie channel, ible noise in the channel, even whether there not suitable for stimulating the nervous I to brldge. is appreciable noise : it might be, for instance, system, and turns them into (decodes into) anslate this that if there are a number of people in the sequences of neural impulses which in turn hough, we vicinity of the subject that they create a are somewhere turned (decoded) into your :or)', SO we "mental noise? on the channel which inter- mental experience of' seeing the page. feres with information flow. Can we in- What sorts of questions must we ask at nnel. \ Int proper- . .) crease or reduce the channel noise? We do this point before we can theorize? What is the nature of the decoding process? Does it logy. The first is that it is a purely behavior- a high le~ have a specific locus, or is it a function of istic or physiological approach, and so can formation the whole central nervous system? The be a way of approaching the problem for of relaxat answers to these questions require help those who do not like the mentalistic con- your appr from psychologists and biologists, as well cepts of consciousness and the like. More havior of as physicists. Our known senses have specific important, however, is that we have ob- workings receptors organs (decoders): is there a servations in some spontaneous cases that behavior j specific "organ" for detecting clairvoyant suggest that this was the route taken by the Let me 1 information? As another way of aslcing the extrasensory information, i.e., the subject's istic appr question, is there a specific mental structure behavior suggests ESP of some sort but the work do1 for decoding? subject reports no conscious experience of Scott in Another fact about decoding processes or any sort accompanying this behavior. An Canada. 7 mechanisms should be noted: a decoder not analogous laboratory observation occurred ESP can only transforms information from a non- in an experiment I carried out a few years tinuous t useful to a useful form, it has a limited ago, in which a subject was sitting in a and this i capacity for decoding information. Your sound-proof chamber (normally used for facts abo~ eyes, for instance, with which you see this sensory deprivation work) while his physio- case the t page decode light rays into useful, neural logical reactions (brain waves, skin re- informatic impulses, but they are also limiting organs : sistance, and heart rate) were being con- all the in you cannot see infrared light or the ultra- tinuously recorded. Down the hall, in an- encoded 1 violet. Thus decoders limit information and other soundproof chamber, an agent (sender) case the give it particular characteristics. The sensa- was electrically shocked at random intervals, continuo1 tion of "red" is a particular quality made and I analyzed the subjects' physiDlogical ,,, relevant a possible by the operation of a decoding reactions during the times the agent was < ( , In the fin mechanism, your eye, but this decoder also being shocked. The subjects showed signif- continuo1 makes it impossible for you to experience the icantly greater reactions indicative of activa- tors have sensation we might call "ultra-red," which tion while the agent was being shocked, distingui: would arise from "seeing" infrared radiation. compared to control periods, yet their correct, a From this point on we are inside the conscious guesses of when they thought yet, they human subject, and now have several poss- something was happening bore no relation approach ible routes of information flow. In actual to the shoclc periods. Thus we have a form fruitful. cases they probably all operate to various of behavior, internal activation of the central Now 1t degrees, but we shall look at each one nervous system, suggesting the operation of inforr separately. of ESP, but with no indication of conscious scioz/s ?nil The first possible route is where informa- mental participation, a flow of ESP infoyma- phasize c tion flows directly from the decoder to the tion directly from decoding mechanism to sciousne: brain and eventuates in overt behavior. As brain. brain to an everyday example of this route, if some- Given the possibility of this route, there logical F one behind you suddenly fired a pistol you are many questions to answer before we can quires pc would jump out of your chair, and we could adequately model it. What is the neural spon tane talk about the decoding of the intense pathway from the decoding mechanism to consciou sound waves into a barrage of neural im- the eventual behavior? This, of course, is a ESP infc pulses in the ear and their direct effect on very general question for psychophysiology, that he t various startle mechanisms within the brain but we can make the question more specific : We can resulting in your behavior of jumping from is this the same neural pathway as is used the link: your chair. in non-paranormal processes? What sorts of and con: Modeling this particular route of informa- general brain conditions can affect this de- consciou

tion flow has two advantages in parapsycho- coder-to-behavior pathway? For example, is ,.., I , istics aff a high level of activation favorable to in- Dr. Schmeicller's work on the effects of 1 so can formation flow along this route, or a state belief and disbelief on ESP performance 1 ,r of relaxation? In being "behavioristic" in deals with this question, as does Rhea White's ;tic -.,,I- your approach, you may focus on the be- recent review of various conscious activities c. 1ZIore havior of the subject, letting the exact engaged in by high-scoring subjects in the :1ve 011- workings of the brain leading to that past. What sorts of conscious acts can aid ses that behavior in the hands of others. information flow from decoder to conscious- n 11). the Let me point out an example of a behavior- ness? Mental relaxation? An attitude of iul~ject's istic approach to modeling here, similar expectancy? Free play of imagery? Occult hut the worlc done independently by Christopher exercises? If there is an activating mechanism ience of Scott in England and Remi Cadoret in within the subject needed to pick up in- ior. ;in Canada. They postulate four ways in which formation by clairvoyance from passive ob- )ccurrccl ESP can occur. In the first you have con- jects, what sorts of conscious acts make this w years tinuous transmission of ESP information mechanism or process function? We have ij; i 11 :L and this information consists of all relevant no laclc of questions to answer before we can scd tor facts about the target material. In the second theorize about this route ! physio- case the transmission is continuous, hut the A third possible route that can be modeled It111 re- information itself is not comprehensive, i.e., is from decoriel- to ~~~zcoi~scio~~smijzd to 6t.nirl to 1: 1: con- all the information you want is not being behavior. By unconscious mind, I refer to the 111 ;111- encoded into the transmission. In the third conventional concept of a dynamic area of (sc11cIcr) case the information transmission is dis- the mind which significantly influences our ~ter\.als, continuous, but when ~t does occur all the behavior and feelings but which is generally oIogical relevant aspects of the target are transmitted. inaccessible to conscious inspection. Call it 'J 'J :I1 t \V>LS 4 In the final case the information flow is dis- a Freudian or Jungian unconscious if you I signif- continuous and incomplete. Both investiga- will. The basic observation which requires activa- tors have proposed statistical techniques for us to postulate such a route consists of cases IlO( ', distinguishing which of these models is where a subject's behavior suggests that t 1. -~r correct, and while they have not been tested ESP is operating, that this behavior seems 110~1~11t yet, they do illustrate a purely behavioral to be affected by unconscious drives or relatiot~ approach to explaining ESP which may be affects, and there is no conscious representa- ;I form fruitful. tion of the behavior sequence. To make this central Now let us examine another possible route more concrete, consider a subject who has )eration of information flow, from decoder to coz- been hypnotized and told that he will not l-lSClOUS scior~s mimi to brain to behavior. I will em- hear the experimenter's voice after awaken- ~forrna- phasize questions about the decoder to con- ing, but that whenever the experimenter says sciousness llnk here, as the consciousness to some key word the subject wiil twitch his brain to behavior link is a general psycho- hand. After awakening the experimenter :, there logical problem. The observation that re- says the key word. The subject's hand ne can quires postulating this route is that in many twitches, yet on questioning he swears he neural spontaneous cases of ESP the subject has a did not know his hand twitched and did not llsln to conscious experience which contains the hear the experimenter say anything. We also se, is a ESP information, such as a vision or feeling, observe that the hand twitch took the form iology, that he then tells about (the overt behavior). of a thumbs down gesture, congruent with lecific : We can aslc questions about the nature of an unconscious resentment by the subject is ~~sed the linkage between the decoding process over being manipulated in this manner. ;arts of and consciousness. We can aslc what sorts of With the parapsychological area, the his cle- conscious mental attitudes and character- phenomena oE psi-missing suggests such an j.. nple, is istlcs affect the flow of ESP informat~on. information route. Psi-missing refers to the observation that some subjects score signifi- through experience had learned to interpret have many cantly lower than chance expectancy. This this as indicating that a relative had recently Let us could only occur if they were utilizing ESP died. p henomenc on an unconscious level: you can not give Numerous questions arise about this in- is appropri an excess of wrong answers unless you formation route. There is the general- many ways "know" what the right ones are. The in- psychological question of how information of the clai formation is thus received on an unconscious passes from the unconscious mind to the servation 1 level and processed, in accordance with conscious mind. There is the more specific L able. to sig conscious and/or unconscious attitudes, to question of how this happens with ESP , -of physica come out as a wrong answer. information and whether this differs from simply wi: All sorts of questions arise over the other kinds of information. What sorts of b and such a functioning of this information flow route. conditions in the conscious mind facilitate involves tk How does the unconscious affect behavior the flow of information from the uncon- and willin) in general, as well as with particular respect scious? What sorts of conscious conditions up more fr to ESP information? Is there enough re- minimize the distortion that seems to occur by chance. gularity in the way ESP information is as information passes from one level to an effect ]r transformed and distorted that we might another? Etc., etc., etc. ! as the ove learn to "decode" or translate the final We have looked at four discrete pathways tence of cl output and get back to the original message? that information might flow through after laboratory There has been one attempt at theorizing reaching the subject's decoding process. In occasional about this route. I refer to Carl Jung's the typical spontaneous case of ESP, prob- convincing theory of Synchronicity, which postulates ably several of these pathways are simul- an essential connection between potent taneously active, thus complicating our task archetypal constellations in the unconscious of understanding what happens. mind and ESP events, but, by and large, Let me point out several other features Jung's theorizing has not yet been developed of this model before we leave it and move to the point of being able to make a priot-i on to the next. I have introduced this as a predictions on this basis. model of clairvoyance, but in many ways it The fourth possible information flow is far more general than that. For instance, route 1s from decoder to zmconscio~4s mind to it is a model of ordinary visual perception. consciou~mind to brain to behavior. The basic My ruler is a passive object that emits in- observation here is that many conscious re- formation by virtue of the background presentations that contain ESP information radiation of light in the room. The channel also show signs that the information has of space between us conveys the information been distorted in ways which are congruent in the form of light waves to a specific de- with what we know of unconscious dy- coding mechanism, my eye. The neural Unconsc namics. Dreams which convey ESP infor- impulses from the eye somewhere eventuate Minc mation are an excellent example of this. in the conscious experience of seing a very Some dreams that subjects report are specific thing, a ruler. straightforward pictures of a situation ap- This model can also be a model of pre- parently perceived by ESP, while others are cognition, if you "simply" allow the channel a symbolic representation that the subject the property of extending through time as '6 '6 translates," thereby obtaining the i'nforma- well as space. It can be a model of telepathy tion. For example, a woman I knew had if you think of telepathy as being the clair- several times dreamed of the death of re- voyant perception of the state of someone latives, but she never dreamed of this else's brain. directly: rather she would dream of taking I have gone over this model in con- a train trip while dressed in black, and siderable detail because the other models o interpret have many features in common with this one. I have "modeled" our problems in this ~d recently Let us now turn our attention to the area in Figure 3. Note here that we start phenomenon'of psychokinesis or PIC, which with an external stimulus or item of in- ut tlrls in- is appropriate to discuss at this point as, in formation, viz. the experimenter's request e general many ways, the model for it is the reverse to the subject to make a particular die face formation of the clairvoyance model. The basic ob- come up as frequently as possible. This nd to the servation here is that subjects seem to be information, the flow of which is again )re specific 6 able to significantly influence the outcome represented by arrows, is processed internally with ESP J of physical events by paranormal means, by brain, conscious mind, and unconscious ffers from simply wishing that they happen in such mind, and ends up in a process I have called it sorts of D and such a way. The typical PIC experiment the converter or power generator. From d facilitate involves throwing dice by hand or machine this point on I have used heavy arrows to he uncon- and willing that selected target faces come indicate that some sort of "power" flows conditions up more frequently than would be expected over a channel and finally affects a physical is to occur by chance. The evidence that there is really object or process. We shall now consider : level to an effect here is nowhere nearly as strong this model in detail. as the overwhelming evidence for the exis- Within the subject, that is, between the : pathwa!s tence of clairvoyance and telepathy, but the initiating information and the output of the :)ugh after laboratory evidence, in conjunction with power generator, we can conceive of four >recess. In occasional spontaneous cases, is still quite possible routes of information flow, as well IS I], prob- convincing. as the possibility of simultaneous operation are simul- g our task Model 11: PSYCHOKINESIS 2r features and move I t' is a ny \..iys it r instance, >erception. Conscious : emits in- Mind 0 0 ackground t?;,";' <------1 '. I he channel I I Iformation I pecific de- I External I 'he neural Stimuli I Unconscious (3 I eventuate Mind Brain Insert Clairvoyance Model ing a very here for feedback control 1t'Zil $::,";' I I lel of pre- I lle channel I I :h time as I I f telepathy .C Noise I the clair- Converter Physical f someone or Object Power or :I in con- Generator (Medium of Transmission) Process ~ermodels and interaction among the routes, just as we that stand in the way of adequate theorizing influence t did for the clairvoyance model in getting and modeling. if they dc information from the decoder to overt be- Just to complicate things a little more, or, vention. T havior. Starting with the external stimulus more accurately, to reflect the complexity the only tl in every case, the first route is directly from that undoubtedly exists in reality, I have skull at all, brain to power gelzerafo~: this is a behavioristic drawn in an arrow within each process area to influenc or pl~ysiologicalapproach. I do not know of the organism (conscious mind, uncon- feet away, of any observations offhand that suggest scious mind, brain) labeled "internal stimuli," focused. ? this route may function, but if we can devise to reflect the fact that there are more events a process experiments in PI< using animals we might than the experimenter's request to influence command have something here, or if we someday the dice operating in the information pro- form of pc found that direct electrical stimulation of cessing. For example, there may be some that die. some brain area produced psycholiinetic spontaneous discharge or "noise" within I use t effects we would have evidence for such a the brain that interferes with information broadest s route operating in isolation. flow to the power generator. Or you may signate so: The second possible route of information consciously dislike the experimenter, so can change that while he tells you to make the dices flow is from bl-nin to cotzsciow n/ilrd to PO~PCY I do not re gerzel.ator.. This is what ostensibly happens in come up fours, you mentally say "Nuts to and I do everyday PI< experiments : the subject is you", even while trying to do so because whether t consciously aware that the experimenter has of the obligation imposed on you by virtue physical" requested that he exercise PIC, and he of participating in the experiment. Or you "spiritual" consciously tries to operate whatever me- may be consciously cooperative, but on an what is tl~c chanism does the job. Obviously this unconscious level the experimenter reminds it operate, mechanism is mysterious indeed, in that no you of someone you dislike, and the un- To conc subject has ever been able to say that when- conscious mind alters or interferes with the that I am ever he does conscious operation S he in- flow of information designed to set the now : the variably gets a PI< effect. Thus so~/iething power generator into action. You can informatio intervenes between the conscious desire to imagine a complex situation with all sorts are activat produce a PI< effect and the effect, although of these factors working such that you score genera tor this may not be necessarily so in all con- terribly on the dice, but the machine that set of mu ceivable instances, and we can conceptualize throws the dice mysteriously breaks down ! this page a a direct effect of conscious mind on the Thus you may have complied with the between 1 power generator. request to exercise PIC (the machine break- mechanism ing) while also expressing your hostility im~ulsesi The third route takes into account the toward the experimenter, but not being somewhert mysterious .romethirzg that intervenes, for the consciously aware that you are anything but route is brain to conscioris mind to mzco?zscioz/.r tion and ur a cooperative experimental subject. This is ar nlir~dto power gcrrerator. The fourth possible Most of our experimental problems at which, if route is from brairz to zit~co~zsciowmitzd to this stage are ones for psychologists and fantasticall power generator, with no conscious involve- neurophysiologists, matters of how to activ- many of ment. This final route is again largely a ate the power generator, given the complex since it is theoretical possibility, and I cannot produce nature of human beings. as a myste a clearcut example to illustrate it. - Now let us turn our attention to this Going t All the questions that we raised about the mysterious process I have been calling the have many interaction among these possible routes for power generator. We need to hypothesize about its the clairvoyance model apply here. I shall some sort of process or mechanism here center for not detail them again but simply remind you simply because the lcnown electromagnetic energy (w of the vast number of fundamental questions or chemical energies of the brain cannot first place theorizing influence external events of any magnitude electrical or chemical operations? And what if they do not do it via muscular inter- is the nature of the power generated by it? n- or, vention. The electrical field of your brain is Are there known forms of physical energy on-lLJ~cxity the only thing that really gets through the generated in conjunction with or as an kr, I have slcull at all, and it is just too impossibly weak aspect of the PI< power? xess area to influence the course of a falling die ten With regard to the latter question, there -1, uncon- feet away, even if it could somehow be must be a yes answer in some form. No I stimuli," focused. Thus we need a power generator, matter how unknown tlie basic form of )re events a process of converting the informational PI< energy is, at its point of application it influence command to influence that die into some affects physical objects, and so must have tlon pro- form of power that is capable of influencing some sort of physical energy component. be some that die. We are totally ignorant of the nature of " within I use the word "power" here in the the PI< force, much less the nature of the 'ormation broadest sense of the word to simply de- generator, and obviously our theorizing and you may signate something that can do work, that modeling here is negligible. To illustrate :nter, so can change the state of things or processes. how we might develop some fruitful theo- tlie dices I do not refer to any lcnown form of energy, ries, though, let me indicate the substance "Nuts to and I do not feel it is fruitful to argue of some discussions I have had with Mr. ) because whether this is a "physical" or "non- Edward Cox of the Parapsychology Labor- 13y virtue physical" form of power, whether it is atory at Dulce University over the past . or YOU "spiritual" or "material" : tlie question is couple of years. He has invented some new LI~on an what is the nature of this power, how does types of machines for testing- PIC. These reminds it operate, what things affect its operation? machines involve the subjects attempting to the un- To concretize all this, let me point out influence a very large number of moving \\lit11 the that I am using a power generator right particles, such as drops of falling water, ions set the now: the nerve impulses conveying the moving through a solution between two ' can information 1 want to get across to you electrodes, etc., and he has been getting a11 are activat~nga particular form of power some good results, in terms of statistical :ou score generator called a muscle, in fact, a whole significance, from these devices. I felt that tune that set of muscles, which enable me to write his devices offered a chance to test two :s down! this page and eventually, to bridge the space alternative formulations of the nature of u~it11 the between us and activate your decoder the psychokinetic force. One formulation le brealc- mechanism, your eve, again producing neural would be that PK is a spatially discrete 110s tility impulses in your nervous system, which "push" or "jab." The other is that PK is ~,tbeing somewhere end up as the conscious registra- uniformly spread out over a fairly wide

-hing but • tion and understanding of what I am writing. volume of space rather than spatially dis- This is an example of a normal process crete. If tlie former theory is correct, we which, if you think about it, is actually would expect maximum success in PI< tests ;ists and fantastically complex and not understood in 'involving single objects. If the latter, many to activ- many of its most important aspects, but objects moving through this wider field 1 complex since it is so familiar, who ever thinks of it would utilize the PI< force more effectively as a mystery? and thus give greater success. Let me I to this Going back to our power generator, we emphasize though that this is not a formal .lling the have many fundamental questions to answer theory as yet, but an illustration of how a 2othesize about its nature. Is there a special brain small-scale theory might be developed and ism here center for it? Is it some form of "mental" tested. magnetic \ \energy (whatever mental energy is in the Now let us consider the nature of the I i cannot ,/first place)? Does it consist of specific channel, by which I mean the medium through with the power is transmitted from Then there is the question of whether or not telepath the point of generation to the point of these properties can be altered by physical psychok application. As a normal example, if I lift manipulations. And, if objects may have brain ! my ruler, the molecules of the skin of my psychical properties, as' we postulated in the Let c hand serve as the channel or medium of clairvoyance model, perhaps they have model I transmission whereby the power from my psychical properties that allow. PI< to operate pathy. T. muscles is applied.. to the ruler. Some on them: it sounds like we will be right in will not energies, such as radio waves or light, the midst of magical and occult rituals next, ation of require only space as a channel, others re- where the charmed dagger could be con- All the I quire a physical medium, as, e.g., sound trolled by the magician at a distance! If the about g waves require air to travel. data turn out to call for these properties in power g Note another feature of a channel, which order to be understandable, however, we here to t I have labeled noise to maintain compar- should not avoid them because they have tion to ability with the clairvoyance model. YOU become unfashionable in the modern world. mechani: could think of this noise as loss, distortion, If a magician comes into my office and says by neurz or "slippage". In shooting an arrow at a that if he performs his particular ritual then into a fo target, e.g., any wind blowing across the X will happen, we can be perfectly scientific sion. Th range constitutes noise, for it deflects the in observing whether or not X does happen tween de power in the arrow from being applied at given the ritual, even if we prefer another occur in the point you intended. explanation (a theory that appeals to us Given these characteristics of the channel, more) of 1u41 the events were related. we may ask many questions about the Let me add a final complication to this nature of the channel in PK. Is it just space, PI< model, which I have drawn in as a or must there exist a physical medium be- dotted line from the object back to the tween subject and PI< target? Can PI< human subject. If you think about it, how operate through a vacuum, or under water? can you possibly influenc a falling, tum- Is any kind of shielding possible? Is there bling, spinning die to land with a given face any loss of PIC force with distance? Can up just by exerting a momentary or contin- PIC operate forward and/or backward in uous push on it? Obviously you have to time, or only in the present? Does the know exactly where the die is and all the nature of the channel limit the amount of components of its velocity, linear and angu- PI< force that can be transmitted through lar, at the moment you are ready to "push" it? Note that we are now asking questions so that you can push with just the right that we must have the assistance of physicists amount of force in just the right direction. Uncons (paraphysicists?) to answer. Thus for the case of falling dice we have to G! At last we arrive at the object to be insert the whole clairvoyance model as a 1 affected, usually a die spinning through the form of informational feedback between dice air. We can immediately ask what physical and subject in order to make it a workable (or psychical) properties an object must system! I will not even attempt to point out possess in order to be affected by PI<. We the way that this multiplies the possible have long worked with an implicit as- interactions within the subject, but is it sumption that almost any convenient object any wonder that the results of PI< tests will do for PI< tests, but, aside from some have generally been slight? early exploratory work on dice size, there In the course of leaving the PI< model, has been no systematic exploration of the let me note two other things. We can use effects of various properties of objects on this model as a model of normal action, if PI< effects. Perhaps metals, e.g., cannot be you think of muscles as the power generator. affected by PI<, while ceramics can, etc. You can also think of this as a model of her or not telepathy if you conceive of telepathy as occurred in the clairvoyance model. Then y physical psychokinetic action on someone else's too, while the diagrams here look the same, m lave brain ! this does not necessarily imply that the ltecl In the Let us now briefly consider the third identical mechanisms or processes are used hey have model I want to present, a model of tele- as in the PI< or clairvoyance processes, to operate pathy. This is sketched in Figure 4. You only that similar functions must be per- )e right in will notice immediately that it is a combin- formed. tuals next, ation of the clairvoyance and PK models. Let me bring things together now by .1 be con- All the previously mentioned considerations discussing the most popular "theory" of ice ! If the about getting information to activate the telepathy, and showing you why it is a )perties in power generator in the PK model apply model and.not a theory. I refer to the idea vever, we here to the problem of getting the informa- that telepathy is a form of mental radio. I they have tion to be transmitted into the encoding will sketch this conception from my point 2rn worltl. mechanism, the mechanism or process where- of view as a "ham" radio operator and ignore e and saps by neural or mental information is turned psychological considerations. ritual then into a form suitable for telepathic transmis- Basically, the theory of mental radio ; scientific sion. Then all the problems that arise be- postulates that the encoding mechanism is bes happen tween decoding and the final overt behavior an electrical network in the brain which :r another occur in the person acting as receiver, as functions like a vacuum tube radio trans- :als to LIS ted. In to tllis Model IU: TELEPATHY n in 2s a ck to the LI~it, lion. linq, turn- g face or contin- Conscrous Conscrous Mind Mind LI hnve to Internal ncl all tlle 'dSt~rnul~ and angu- A to "push" the right direction. Unconscious Unconscrous Bra~n Brarn 4 f\ Mind ue have to lnternal Internal lode1 as a v Stlrn~ll If Stlrn~ll tween dice i workable

) point out e possible Norse v but is it PK tests Encodrng PI< model, Ve can use 1 action, if generator. , AGENT SUBJECT ( "sender" (li~ecerver") I model of mitter, feeding the human body as an an- better than others, and improve with prac- radio i tenna, just as commercial radio stations tice. "Explanation" : some radio operators indefer broadcast. The channel of transmission is learn to listen through the noise on radio then ordinary space. The decoder is an sets and receive much more of a message To s electrical network in the brain which func- than others. Further, some receivers have the nat tions like a vacuum tube receiver, again special circuits built in that reduce noise. out wl using the subject's body as an antenna. This The mental radio position also performs for an' conception "explains" or makes us feel the functions of a scientific theory in sug- models comfortable with all sorts of observations gesting where we might look for observa- basic p about telepathy-it forms analogies with tions that are important. For instance, we voyanc mentio them. Here are some of these things : might see if a higher antenna helps (raising the subject high above the earth), if some that ha people act as directional antennas (they do W ha Observation: subjects have to get in the well on telepathy tests if the other person tioned mood, "warm up" sometimes before they is in a particular direction from them), difficul can do well in telepathy tests. "Explana- whether a good ground connection helps phenor tion": the tubes in both transmitters and (connect the subject to earth), and whether rent th receivers have to heat up and circuits stabi- reducing- the noise from nearby sources im- For m: lize before they function well. proves reception (get your subject away introvt Selective Tratzsmissiotz : from the mental noise generated by nearby many Observation: some pairs of subjects are people). view c good in telepathy experiments, others are The mental radio position, then, is a good vitally not. "Explanation" : only transmitters and model. It makes the unfamiliar facts about fit the receivers that happened to be tuned to the telepathy analogous with the familiar ones facts ! ' same frequency will transmit information. about radio, and even suggests other things this an Incomplete Tt-ansmissiot?: to look for. It fails as a scientific theory, for the Observation: only parts of the target however. As I stated earlier, a scientific of pa: material are sometimes received. "Explana- theory must al~uqsmake correct predictions, scatter1 tion" : radio transmissions are subject to and the mental radio position fails miserably the in. atmospheric static and attenuation that was- on three important predictions. First, it all, an hes out part of the message. : would predict a square-law falling off of organi: telepathic effect with distance, which has Agent Diff eretzces : Yet not been observed. Second, it would predict Observation: some subjects are much qua te that electromagnetic shielding of either more successful as agents (senders) in tele- work . agent (sender) or subject (receiver) should pathy experiments than others. "Explana- reduce or eliminate telepathic effects, but tion" : some transmitters are more powerful this has never been observed-indeed, there than others and can send on more frequen- is some suggestion that shielding enhances cies. the effect! Third, and finally, the known S~ibjectD ff ere lzces : radiation of electromagnetic energy from the Observation: some people are better sub- human body (primarily the brain waves or jects (receivers) than others. "Explanation" : electroencephalogram) is so weak with some receivers are more sensitive and cover respect to the ambient noise level that exists wider frequency ranges than others. on earth that it arould be wellnigh impos- Training for Telepathic Abilig : sible to conceive of an'electronic instrument Observation: some subjects seem to be that could detect this radiation even a few able to sort out telepathic messages from inches from the head, much less at a dis- the background noise of their own minds tance of miles. Thus the idea of mental : wit11 prac- radio is a good and intriguing model, but theorize, e.g., about the nature of the energy o operators indefensible as a scientific theory. involved in PIC when you do not linow if se radio To summarize, then, I have talked about there is a distance effect, whether it can be E a l~lessage the nature of models and theories, pointed shielded, etc.? How can you test the manner :eivers have out where we have the most pressing need in which various factors affect telepathy and Ice noise. for and greatest difficulty in constructing clairvoyance if you are dealing with such so performs models and theories with respect to the a small scale and unreliable effect that you basic parapsychological phenomena of clair- have to put in tremendous amounts of ex- voyance, PIC, and telepathy, and briefly perimental time to check out even one nstance, we mentioned some of the models and theories factor? On the other hand, how can you clps (raising that have been proposed in this area. train subjects to produce the phenomena th), if some at a higher rate, making its study easier, What are our prospects here? As I men- las (they clo - - when you do not have models or theories ~tlierpel-son tioned at the beginning many scientists have to guide you in this endeavor? We are ronl them), difficulties in accepting ESP because the caught in a vicious circle of not having :ction helps phenomena malie no sense in terms of cur- enough ideas of how it works to malie it incl wliethet rent theories about the nature of the world. worli so we can get some idea of how it sources im- For many people who Carl Jung called the works, etc., etc., etc., around and around ! .~l,ject n\\-a\- introverted intellectual type (which covers I do not like to end on a pessimistic note, tl 1,)- nearl,!. many scientists), having a comprehensive especially after spending my time "model- view of things, an all inclusive theory, is ing" ignorance, but we are in a bad position. ;n, is ;I goo(\ vitally important, and if the facts do not What we need in parapsychology are small- t':1cts ;lI~oLlt fit the theory, so much the worse for the scale theories, testable theories. We are not ~n~ilial-ones facts! Thus we badly need some theories in ready to tackle the big questions of spiritual otlier things this area for that reason. A further need is versus material and the like. The total tific tl~eor!,. for theories and models to organize the data amount of research in parapsychology is a ntific of parapsychology : there are so many negligible compared to almost any other pre~~~ctions, scattered observations and literature that field of science, so this situation is not sur- ils rniseral~l!. the investigator can not hope to digest it prising. But if we have the opportunity to IS. First, it all, and we badly need some theories to expand our research efforts, we can at least lling off of organize all this material. take the more optimistic position that in \\:liich has Yet how can we hope to construct ade- view of our tremendous ignorance we have oulcl predict quate theories and models if the data we the opportunity to make really significant ; of e~ther work with are so unreliable? How can you and revolutionary discoveries. 11.a) s11c)~lld effects, but ndeecl, there ng enhances the kno\vn rgy from the in waves or wealc with el that exists nigh impos- c instrument even a few :ss at a dis- I of mental