YEAR 12 ANCIENT History Anne Gripton & Peter Roberts

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Book 1 Ancient History.indb 1 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 - Core StudY Chapter Cities of Vesuvius Pompeii Herculaneumand

Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introduction evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the ÎÎ inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views. glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lava flow. The city walls followed the path of the lava flow. Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of the site is currently excavated. SURVEY ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a after the eruption. cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 4 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY ÎÎ-The most famous casualty was Pliny the Elder, who was Chapter SURVEY killed in the Bay of Naples while trying to save people from THE ERUPTION OF 79 CE AND ITS IMPACT the burning shores of Stabiae, although this is speculative. ON POMPEIICities AND HERCULANEUM of VesuviusIt is doubtful that Pliny the Younger would have recounted the death of his mentor and uncle in a negative light. Pliny ÎÎArchaeological and written evidence suggests there was himself admits his limitations, stating ‘it is one thing to a volcanicPompeii eruption of Vesuvius and in 79 CE. While Pliny the write a letter, another to write history’. Also, it must be Younger suggests, in his letter,Herculaneum that it was August there is remembered that he was recalling events as they applied evidence to suggest otherwise, including a denarius (coin) to Misenum and Stabiae so it is not certain how relevant found in the House of the Golden Bracelet detailing a both letters are to Pompeii and Herculaneum. victory of the Emperor Titus. New evidence almost ÎAgricultureÎDio tells us was that the some cash of crop the andash reachedintensive Rome, farming messaging was Introductioncertainly proves the eruption was in November. It was evidencedthe extent everywhere, of the disaster even to on the small people garden there. plots It is insideestimated the first volcanic eruption to be described in detail. thethat city at walls. times the volcanic ash column was 32 kilometres tall. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the ÎÎWe know that Vesuvius was an active volcano, with about ÎÎ inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano ÎTheÎIn processing 1910 the director of agricultural of excavations, products Spinazzola, is evidenced was in able 200 explosions over the past 2000 years. Pompeii’s building did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities manyto reconstruct small workshops the façade in Pompeii. of houses Pompeii and demonstrate was an how undermaterial a layer and of ash paving and lava,was therebymade from preserving lava and the grey remains tuff. importantthe buildings industrial were and buried, trading as wellcentre as andrecreating port according the ÎofÎ Vesuviustwo vibrant, had prosperous caused a severe Roman earthquake towns. By methodical in 63 CE but it to Strabo,original as structures well as a resortaccurately. for wealthy Romans. This studyappears of the that ruins many and inhabitantsartefacts of theseremained sites, in historians the area. ÎattractedÎWe also Roman have evidence investment that as people they enjoyed returned the to climate Pompeii andThere archaeologists is speculation have by been some able historians to gain a asunique to whether andafter magnificent the explosion sea views. to salvage what they could. Afterwards glimpsePompeii into was life inin aeconomic Roman town, decline. and Note:by extension The date the of ÎÎPompeiiscavengers city is came an oval to theshape site, and digging rests onand a looting,prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. 63 CE has been accepted only recently. Some historians lavadestroying flow. The andcity pillaging,walls followed until the it was path almost of the forgotten lava flow. still refer to it as occurring in 62 CE. Pompeiiand only covers the 66name, hectares Civitas, and remained. about three quarters of ÎÎThere was a smaller earthquake in 64 CE as mentioned ÎtheÎPliny’s site is descriptioncurrently excavated. of the eruption has been supported by SURVEYby Suetonius in his biography of Nero. ÎÎPompeiithe work was of completely Haraldur Sigardsson, covered and an hermetically Icelandic volcanologist. sealed THEÎÎThere GEOGRAPHICAL was an immense eruption SETTING with lava, AND ash, pumice by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURALand lapilli FEATURES covering the Campanian OF CAMPANIA area. The worst fragments)Î Key QUESTIONand pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in affected areas were the towns under Vesuvius. Stabiae, 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeiiHerculaneum is situated and 20 other kilometres places southeastto the southeast of Naples were on pumice.2 Outline Other the cities eruption to the ofsoutheast 79 CE and were its also impact buried, on the theburied Bay of inNaples, lava. on the western coast of the Italian includingcities Stabiae, of Vesuvius. Herculaneum and Oplontis. ÎpeninsulaÎIt is unknown in the region how many of South people Campania. died in Pompeii Today it and lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, notAnswer just ash p. 30 twoHerculaneum. kilometres inland Over from 1000 the casts coast have due been to lavarecovered from the in and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanicand around eruption Pompeii, of Mt Vesuviuswith the scatteredin 79 CE bonesspreading of another into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the100 sea. or so. The remains of about 332 bodies have been mud SURVEY(about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎThefound Apennine at Herculaneum. Mountains areArchaeologists to the east of are Pompeii, unsure what toEARLY excavate DISCOVERIESand about four city ANDblocks THEare so CHANGINGfar Mt Vesuviuspercentage is these to the numbers north and are the of theSarno total River populations (ancient or completed.NATURE OF EXCAVATIONS IN THE 19TH Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth total dead of the towns. Research done on these remains ÎÎTheAND city 20TH of Resina-Ercolano CENTURIES was built on the site above of theindicated Sarno deathRiver, bya broad, thermal navigable shock, fallingriver important debris, hot in ash Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’sand poisonous commercial gas. history. ÎwasÎAfter the main the eruption industry of of 79 CE Herculaneum. some Pompeians returned ÎÎInÎ ancientThe poisonous times Herculaneum cloud of ash andwas debrislocated that directly hurtled on down ÎÎTheto retrieve area of Pompeii what they was could. known There as Civitas followed, or The scavengers City, theonto Bay theof Naples people on of Pompeiia steeply issloping known spur as a endingpyroclastic in a flow. afterhunting the eruption. for treasures, workers who uncovered the Îcliff,ÎMany bordered people on left both Pompeii sides byat thedeep first ravines. sign of trouble. occasional artefact or parts of the amphitheatre, forum and temple, and 15th century well diggers who uncovered ÎÎMartialThere praises was pandemonium the area under in Vesuvius the streets as asfavoured the situation by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii a statue at Herculaneum. ‘Bacchus,worsened Venus, and Herculespeople tried and to the get Satyrs’. to the Thewater, rich covering and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agriculturaltheir heads area with under pillows Vesuvius (according is a fertile to Pliny plain the of Younger). the Empire amphitheatre: open-air venue used for games and ÎphosphorusÎMany people and triedpotash. to hideThe cropin cellars yield or of places the plains such was as the entertainments (andHouse is) six of times the Fugitives, that of the where rest ofmany Italy. remains Florus stateswere found, that ‘Campania’sbut were poisoned coastal area by sulfuris the finest,gas. Others not only dragged in Italy treasures but forum: centre of Roman social and economic life in theto the entire water world. to save Nowhere what they is the could, climate losing gentler. their Spring lives Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the under the falling pumice and suffocating smoke. In 1Î ÎOutlineFrom the the 15th geographical through to setting the 18th and century natural Naples had soil richer’. Herculaneum piles of bodies were found near the water’s featuresbeen intermittently of Campania. under the rule of various European ÎÎ Theedge main where agricultural they were products buried ofby Pompeiithe lava flow.were olive oil countries including France, Spain and Austria,Answer the p. 30rulers ÎandÎHuman wine but remains its industries have been included found sheepnear many products, of the gates of which mined Herculaneum and Pompeii for treasures. millstones,of Pompeii, indicating fish sauce (garum that), people perfume, were and attempting a cloth and to The early target was the theatre at Herculaneum which, dyeescape industry when of unknownthey died. commercial importance. beginning in 1716, was stripped of statues, frescoes and marble. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 5

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 54 18/1/19 5:18 pm ÎÎIn 1734 the French King Charles VII appointed a Spanish ÎÎIn 1882 director August Mau categorised the frescoes military engineer Rocque Joachim de Alcubierre to into ranges of decorative styles. continue excavations at Herculaneum. The workers ÎÎIn 1910 Vittorio Spinazzola took over as head of excavations. tunneled through houses and walls, destroying artefacts He worked systematically from the west of the city to the and frescoes. By 1748 treasure was harder to find and so east and uncovered many buildings along the Via attention was turned to Pompeii, with limited success. dell’Abondanza. He reconstructed the facades of buildings, ÎÎThe king then appointed the Swiss architect Karl Weber, complete with balconies, upper floors and roofs. considered one of the fathers of archaeology, to supervise ÎÎHe demonstrated how the buildings were buried and the the digs. Despite his best efforts the excavations were messy original structure and appearance of the buildings. This and damaging, although his work in recording maps and emphasis on restoration began a new age in Pompeian plans has been helpful to present-day archaeologists. His excavation as Spinazzola demonstrated that accurate approach led to the discovery of the Villa of the Papyri. restoration was possible. ÎÎIn 1763 Johann Winckelmann, a Prussian, was appointed ÎÎHowever, Spinazzola’s work has been criticised for only chief supervisor of Roman antiquities. His appointment excavating facades. This placed pressure from the volcanic saw the introduction of the first scientific methods in detritus on the fronts of buildings, causing weakening and archaeology and he is now regarded as the father of modern collapse. In addition, by only excavating the fronts he could archaeology. Winckelmann, however, was severely not be sure as to the kind of businesses behind the facades. restricted in what he could do. He was not allowed to ÎÎAmedeo Maiuri was a controversial leader of excavations sketch, keep a folio or conduct necessary research. The in the years 1926 to 1963. He uncovered the city walls and excavations were haphazard and kept secret. the necropolis along the south wall, and explored Regions I ÎÎIt was Winckelmann who showed that it was possible to and II. The excavation of Herculaneum began in 1927, understand ancient cultures through their artefacts, and with the aim to restore the town to its original appearance. he introduced order, systems and knowledge of art theory The House of the Bicentenary was uncovered as the largest into archaeology. His work was largely continued by his house in Herculaneum. When looking at Maiuri’s work it successors such as Ruggiero, De Patra and Sogliano. is important to consider his context in working at a time Their priorities continued to be preservation, particularly of Italian fascist nationalism under Benito Mussolini, of wall paintings and the restoration of house roofs. which included highlighting the sites’ connections to ÎÎIn 1863 Giuseppe Fiorelli became site director and ancient Rome to attract government funding. He also introduced revolutionary methods of excavation. He used staged some finds and used concrete in his restorations, scientific methods, drew detailed maps of the entire area which has ended up damaging some of the buildings. and conducted systematic excavations. His plan was to ÎÎMaiuri returned his attention to the insulae which were excavate the whole city systematically, working from the abandoned after they were looted. He is considered to top of Pompeii down to its lowest levels, reversing the have brought in a new age in Pompeian archaeology. Part earlier system of excavating from: to this point street level of his aim was to recreate the atmosphere of the interiors up to the tops of houses. by leaving utensils in situ. However, his restorations of ÎÎFiorelli also revolutionised the practice of creating plaster walls and ceilings were considered underfunded and casts from the cavities where bodies had decayed. While messy, and the project was abandoned. Despite this he is this has allowed us to glimpse the Pompeians at their justly famous for his research into the under 79 CE moment of death it has also obscured other evidence. (destruction) level of Pompeii. Plaster has a similar density to bone so it is difficult to scan ÎÎMaiuri sacrificed some of the 79 CE level to shed light on any human tissue remaining to extract more information. the earlier phases of the history of Pompeii. His stratigraphic ÎÎFiorelli’s methods made more preservation possible, as sequencing was innovative but not rigorous or systematic. well as keeping objects in their original place. He introduced ÎÎIn 1964 Alfonso De Franciscis was director of excavation improved data on restoration and kept a detailed journal and concentrated his efforts on restoration of buildings of discoveries. He divided the site into regio, insulae, already uncovered. This ‘consolidation’ approach was also domus and shop residences so every artefact would have adopted by later directors such as Baldassare Conticello, three corresponding numbers. ushering in a new age of archaeological conservatism. ÎÎIn 1980 an earthquake closed the sites to the public but villa: an upper-class house; could be found in either they have since been reopened. rural regions or on the outskirts of urban areas ÎÎPietro Giovanni Guzzo was superintendent from 1995 regio: a region of a town, such as in Pompeii until the early 2000s. He placed a moratorium on new insulae: an apartment block from Roman times; also a excavations, and also secured tourist revenue to fund block of housing, shops, and so on, as part of a regio in conservation. Guzzo also developed relationships with Pompeii and Herculaneum international teams such as the Packard Humanities

6 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 6 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY ÎÎPresently 44 hectares of Pompeii’s 66-hectare site have ÎÎ-Pompeii has made appearances in other popular culture Chapterbeen uncovered. It is generally agreed by experts that the media; for example, The Simpsons episode ‘The Italian remaining 22 hectares should remain uncovered for further Bob’ has the family visiting the town and seeing the generationsCities of archaeologists of who will Vesuvius have the benefit of plaster casts. A 1960s British television series called Up technologies and methods thus far unimagined. Pompeii was a farcical comedy with the episodes working towards the eruption. In 2008 the Dr Who series had a set of episodes, ‘The Fires of Pompeii’, that showed the Î KPompeiiey QUESTION and HerculaneumDoctor and his companion blowing up the volcano to 3 Describe the nature of early discoveries and how save the world from an alien. They also saved Caecilius archaeology has changed over time at the cities Jucundus, a prominent Pompeian who is believed to have of Vesuvius. Agriculturedied in the was eruption, the cash in crop an example and intensive of how farming popular was Introduction Answer p. 30 evidencedhistory caneverywhere, ‘play’ with even historical on small evidence. garden plots inside ÎtheÎPompeii city walls. has also been recorded in song: ‘Pompeii’ by ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the ÎÎ British band Bastille makes reference to the plaster casts inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in did moreSURVEY than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities manyand small the eruption: workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an underREPRESENTATIONS a layer of ash and lava, thereby OF POMPEII preserving the AND remains importantAnd the industrial walls kept and tumbling trading down centre and port according to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This ofHERCULANEUM two vibrant, prosperous OVER Roman TIME towns. By methodical In the city that we love study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attractedGrey clouds Roman roll investment over the hills as they enjoyed the climate ÎandÎThe archaeologists earliest representation have been ableof Vesuvius to gain a is unique in a fresco of andBringing magnificent darkness sea views. from above. glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the Bacchus from the House of the Centenary, showing the ÎÎPompeiiÎThere cityhas isbeen an ovala range shape of digitaland rests reconstructions on a prehistoric of Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. volcano as a mountain. The citizens of Pompeii and lavaPompeii flow. The and city Herculaneum walls followed in the path21st century.of the lava Google flow. Herculaneum often represented themselves in art in the PompeiiStreet coversView allows 66 hectares a virtual and walking about three tour throughoutquarters of form of frescoes and statues. thePompeii, site is currently while Lund excavated. University has created a Î SURVEYÎSince its rediscovery in the 18th century Pompeii has ÎÎPompeiireconstruction was completely of the housecovered of andLucius hermetically Caecilius Iucundus.sealed THEprovided GEOGRAPHICAL inspiration for artists SETTING and writers. AND by Therea seven-metre are also interactivelayer of volcanic maps ash,which lapilli provide (rock 360 NATURALÎÎEdward Bullwer-Lytton FEATURES wroteOF CAMPANIAthe novel The Last Days of fragments)panoramas and of pumice sites throughout (heavy rock) both from Pompeii Vesuvius and in Pompeii in 1834, keeping a skull from the site on his desk 79 CE.Herculaneum About three that to have four beenmetres commissioned of the blanket by was the ÎÎ Pompeiias he wrote.is situated The 20book kilometres is a moralistic southeast tale ofabout Naples the on pumice.Herculaneum Other cities Conservation to the southeast Project. were also buried, thedestruction Bay of Naples, of the on decadentthe western society coast of of Pompeii, the Italian much like including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. In the novel ÎÎHerculaneumÎ Key QUESTION was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash twothe kilometres survivors inland are early from Christians, the coast reflectingdue to lava Hanoverian from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanicconservatism eruption and of Mtpiety. Vesuvius There havein 79 CE been spreading numerous into film Vesuvius.4 How Ithave was Pompeii buried again and Herculaneumin 1631 by hard been solidified theversions sea. of the novel. mud represented(about 18 metres). over time? It has been much more difficult ÎÎ Answer p. 30 ÎTheÎRobert Apennine Harris Mountains wrote Pompeii are to inthe 2003. east Thisof Pompeii, looks at the to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuviuslast days of is Pompeii to the north through and the Sarnoeyes of River a young (ancient Roman completed. Samusengineer River) who is in has the been south. sent Pompeii to investigate lies at thewhy mouth the water ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of thein the Sarno area River, is drying a broad, up. It navigable focuses on river political important corruption in Herculaneum, FOCUS OF later STUDY hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’sand changes commercial in society. history. wasINVESTIGATING the main industry ofAND Herculaneum. INTERPRETING THE ÎÎ ÎInÎ ancientArt from times the NeoclassicalHerculaneum era was shows located digging directly taking on place, ÎÎTheSOURCES area of Pompeii FOR was POMPEII known as CivitasAND , or The City, theas Bay well of asNaples the arrangement on a steeply ofsloping skeletons spur into ending tableaux in a for afterHERCULANEUM the eruption. cliff,the bordered entertainment on both of sides tourists. by deep One ravines. example is Francois ÎÎMartialMazois’s praises Ruins the of area Pompeii. under Vesuvius as favoured by garumÎÎIt must: a salty be fermentedremembered fish that sauce, Pompeii popular was in a Pompeiifairly Î‘Bacchus,ÎRomantic Venus, art often Hercules focused and on the the Satyrs’. tragedy The of rich the eruption and insignificantHerculaneum city and in some Roman (though times. not In comparisonall) parts of with agriculturalor the eroticism area under of the Vesuvius bathhouses. is a fertileExamples plain to of investigate the Empirethe great cities of the empire it hardly rated a second phosphorusinclude Karl and Bruillov’s potash. The The cropLast yieldDay of of Pompeii the plains, Theodore was thought or mention and, when it is mentioned, it is a (andChasseriau’s is) six times Woman that of in the the rest Tepidarium of Italy. Florus and Christen states that rather cursory and offhand reference. ‘Campania’sKøbke’s The coastal Forum, area Pompeii is the finest,with Vesuvius not only in in the Italy Distance. but ÎÎThe written sources are few, mainly passing references, in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION ÎÎThere have been other representations on film including except for the description of the volcanic eruption in a comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the the BBC’s 2003 production Pompeii: The Last Day, which 1 Outlineletter from the Plinygeographical the Younger setting to Tacitus. and natural The real wealth soil richer’. fused drama with documentary. In 2014 the film Pompeii featuresof evidence of Campania. is archaeological. ÎÎ Thewas main released agricultural as a big-budget products historicalof Pompeii disaster were olive film. oil Its ÎÎThe detailed evidence here is vital not onlyAnswer to understanding p. 30 andrepresentation wine but its industries of the town included was credited sheep products,as being quite Pompeii; that is, how a small Roman town was structured millstones,historically fish accurate sauce (garum but its), portrayal perfume, of and women a cloth was and and functioned, but also because of the light it throws on dyeheavily industry criticised. of unknown commercial importance. our understanding of the whole Roman-Italic world. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 7

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 74 18/1/19 5:18 pm ÎÎWritten sources can always be misleading. This is because things taken for granted as understood in the Roman Villa of the Mysteries Vesuvian Gate House of world are far from being as well understood today. Because House of House of the M Lucretius the Vetti Silver Wedding Fronto House of of this, all written sources have the limitation of being Julia Felix House of written in and for a social and cultural context, which Pansa can make references and meaning subtly misleading or Herculaneum enigmatic and obscure. Gate ÎÎArchaeological sources have the limitation of being public baths uncovered or discovered as ruins and relics. The evidence Forum is usually incomplete, fragmentary or destroyed, and Temple of hence misleading or perplexing. One piece of the puzzle Apollo calls for another piece, which begs the discovery of yet Sea Gate another. The result of this is the ever-present danger of Basilica gymnasium misinterpretation at any stage. amphitheatre theatre ÎÎWhat Pompeii gives us, despite the fact that it was an Triangular Stabian Gate Forum insignificant town and the fact that the written records give it no importance, is a semi-intact diorama of everyday Figure 1.2 Map of excavated Pompeii life in a Roman town. Much is revealed, from sanitation ÎÎThe range of sources is extensive. and drainage to opulent lifestyles, advertisements, public comment and private aspirations. ÎÎThe layout and streetscapes of the towns reveal connections to Greek colonisation with their grid ÎÎFor the first time the artefacts reveal a clear vision of the systems and their use of local materials, such as volcanic ancient world as represented in one of its less imposing stone, for their roads. Everyday lifestyles are revealed towns. through the abundance of amenities such as shops, ÎÎ‘The town’ was a microcosm of the Roman world and its streets, bakeries, bars, inns, stables and brothels morality, culture, society, representations of the state and intermixed with housing. religion. As such, Pompeii represents the empire, which ÎÎThe main roads were approximately 8.5 metres wide was made up of such small villages and towns. while smaller roads varied between 3.5 and 4.5 metres Insignificant in itself, the window Pompeii gives us on wide. Roads often had ‘cat’s eyes’ in them to assist in the Roman world is of immense importance. walking at night. The evidence provided by the range ÎÎThe main roads in Pompeii had the edges worn down of sources from trade carts passing in and out of the town. ÎÎEach insula was approximately 35 by 90 metres. ÎÎOn the grand scale there are the public and private FORUM DECUMANUS MAXIMUS buildings which reveal the wealth, concerns, priorities, ambitions, organisation and identity of a people: the temples, theatres, amphitheatres, baths, city offices, courts, private villas and gardens. ÎÎThere are the writings of the major Roman authors such THERMAE as Pliny, Epistle, 6.16, 6.20; Dio, 66.21–23; Martial, 4.44; Tacitus, Annals, 15.22.2; Seneca, 6.1; Strabo, 5.4.8; Cato, PALAESTRA Agr.,135.1–3; Livy, 9.38.2; Appian, 1.39, 1.50; Cicero, Pro Sulla, 60–62; and Florus, Brief History, 1.11.36. ÎÎOfficial inscriptions label buildings and provide valuable and reliable records, giving us insight into the political life and familial connections in the towns. ÎÎGraffiti, mainly of a personal nature, tells us something THERMAE about people with the time and interest to record scribblings on walls referring to gambling, drinking and AREA SACRA and HARBOUR political campaigns. Advertisements show us what people liked to eat and how they liked to relax, making Figure 1.1 Street map of Herculaneum references to gladiator games, gambling and drinking. Graffiti also shows personal grievances and love.

8 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 8 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY ÎÎOn a lesser scale but no less important is the wealth of - Chapterevidence that lies in the wall paintings, mosaics and domestic art, all of which detail the interests and concerns of Pompeians,Cities including their of fantasy Vesuviusand actual worlds, and their outside cultural influences. They also bring to stark reality things not experienced by us such as the violencePompeii of the gladiatorial contests. and They detail working situations, spare time, occupations,Herculaneum gods and religion while statues also reveal mythology, religion and social status. Figure 1.3 The macellum ÎÎThere are also the human remains which give us insight ÎÎFurther south, the building of Eumachia raises questions into the health of the people of the towns and the manner Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was as to its purpose. It is large, and has similarities to a temple, Introductionof their death. Animal remains indicate diet as well as evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside and yet it is uncertain what it was used for. Theories how they were used in a social and economic context. the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the range from a slave auction venue to a headquarters for Plant remains found in gardens and villas reveal cultural ÎÎ inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano Thethe processing fullers’ guild of agricultural or a storehouse. products is evidenced in influences as well as economic and lifestyle priorities. many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities ÎÎOn the opposite side of the forum there is an olitorium ÎunderÎLabels a layer on containersof ash and lava, show thereby trade preservingconnections the andremains the important industrial and trading centre and port according where dried pulses and cereals were sold. Built into the of lifestyletwo vibrant, of the prosperous consumer. Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This adjoining wall of the Temple of Apollo was a mensa ÎstudyÎSeals of and the ruinsamphorae and artefacts show the of extentthese sites, and wealthhistorians of trade. attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique andponderaria magnificent where sea views.weights and measures were checked in ÎÎDomestic artefacts are abundant and include kitchen line with Augustus’s rule. glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric utensils, loaves of bread, potters’ supplies, millstones, ÎÎ Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lavaThroughout flow. The city the walls forum followed there were the path other of stalls the lava selling flow. charred nuts and fruits, and jewellery; for example, the goods such as shoes or surplus produce from market signet rings identifying the House of the Vettii. Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of thegardens site is currently throughout excavated. the city and its surrounds. This is shown in a frieze from the praedia of Julia Felix. SURVEY ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed amphorae: pottery vessels used for holding wine or oil ÎÎ by Thea seven-metre basilica played layer anof volcanicimportant ash, role lapilli both (rock in the THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND commercial and civil life of the town: lawyers, teachers, NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in 79 CE.artists About and othersthree to sought four metres clients ofhere. the blanket was Î Key QUESTION ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on Rolepumice. of Othertrade cities to the southeast were also buried, the5 BayOutline of Naples, the value on the and western limitations coast of the Italianancient including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. ÎÎFrom the work of Jay Mackenzie-Clarke we know that peninsulasources in thein relation region of to: South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneumPompeian pottery was covered was traded by heavy throughout rock fill, thenot empire, just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the a layout and streetscapes andwith pumice amphorae as in Pompeii, being found due into Middlesexits proximity in toEngland as volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into b public and private buildings Vesuvius.well as ItFrance was buried and Spain. again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea.c mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ancient writers ÎÎWarehouses from the port of Pompeii reveal anchors and ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far d official inscriptions fishing gear. Mt Vesuviuse graffiti is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎEvidence suggests that the most popular exports were f frescoes, mosaics and statues ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in wine, olive oil and garum. g human, animal and plant remains. Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. Answer p. 30 Rolewas the of maincommerce industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎTheÎCommerce area of Pompeii refers wasto the known buying, as Civitasselling ,and or The trading City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a afterof goods. the eruption. cliff,The borderedeconomy on both sides by deep ravines. ÎÎPompeii was a busy commercial city or town (the ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by Role of the forum garumpopulation: a salty fermented size is not fishexactly sauce, known). popular According in Pompeii to the ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich ÎÎ and numberHerculaneum (over 600and sosome far) (though and distribution not all) parts of bakeries, of agriculturalThe forum area played under a centralVesuvius role is ina fertile the economy, plain of holding the Empireshops, bars, inns and small workshops, Pompeii was a phosphorusmarkets and and other potash. commercial The crop activities.yield of the It plainscould bewas city of small-scale manufacturing and commerce. (andblocked is) six offtimes to wheeledthat of the traffic rest ofdue Italy. to the Florus high states level ofthat ÎÎ ‘Campania’spedestrian coastal activity. area Saturday is the finest, was market not only day. in Italy but There is a good deal of graffiti evidence advertising ÎinÎ theThe entire macellum world. was Nowhere on the northeastern is the climate side gentler. of the Spring forum Î Kwine andey QUESTION taverns: in Pompeii more than 130 hot food comesand withhoused its flowersa bustling twice fish a and year meat there. market, Nowhere and is possibly the shops (thermopolia) and 20 taverns (caupona) have 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soilfruit richer’. and vegetables as well. Large deposits of animal and been excavated. features of Campania. ÎÎ fish bones underneath the pool indicate that produce was The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 andgenerally wine but cleaned its industries and prepared included at thesheep market products, and included praedia: a person’s property or estate millstones,lamb, beef, fish pork, sauce poultry (garum and), perfume, veal. A room and a within cloth andthe thermapolium: a cook shop where hot food was sold dyemacellum industry wasof unknown richly decorated commercial and importance.suggested uses caupona: an inn or tavern

include a money changer, banquet area or auction room. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 9

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 94 18/1/19 5:18 pm ÎÎWooden tablets from the house of banker Lucius ÎÎEvidence from the villas at Boscoreale indicates they had Caecilius Jucundus show receipts for rent and loans. storage facilities for up to 50 000 litres of wine, which ÎÎTablets from the House of the Sulpicii (freedman were kept in dolia in the ground to help preserve it. financiers) show sale contracts, IOUs, loans and leases. There are also references to court proceedings. The tablets dolia: a large earthenware vase or vessel used for storage also shed light on the role of women in financial dealings, or transport of goods showing them to wield substantial economic power. ÎÎA well-preserved wine shop next to the House of the ÎÎProstitution was common in Pompeii and Herculaneum Neptune mosaic has been found in Herculaneum. but, based on the work of Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, the number of identified brothels has dropped significantly. ÎÎOil was used for perfume and cooking and was generally There is now considered to be only one brothel, the produced on farms, although some oil presses have been Lupinar, in Pompeii, with other prostitutes working in found in the towns. Cato referred to Pompeian olive single rooms at the back of taverns and private houses. presses (made from volcanic stone) as being the best. They can be identified by a small cell, with a low stone ÎÎFlower and market gardens were popular. Work done by bed, in a small laneway. Wilhemina Jashemski shows that even rich estates had ÎÎProstitution was taxed and all prostitutes had to be market gardens and flower gardens to support the registered with the aediles. perfume industry. Evidence of glass and pottery bottles from the Garden of the Fugitives would support this. Role of industries ÎÎBread was a basic staple food of the Romans and bakeries are among the most common shops found. Thirty-three have been found in Pompeii alone. ÎÎThere is evidence of at least ten different bread products, including offellae (a kind of pizza) and paniscibarius (a round bread divided into sections). Standard loaves were flat and about five centimetres thick. ÎÎThe Bakery of Modestus had three small mills for grinding flour and one large baking oven. Eighty-one carbonised loaves of bread were found there. ÎÎBread was made and sold on premises or from stalls at the markets. ÎÎTwo donkey skeletons found still harnessed to mills in Herculaneum indicate the use of animals in bread production. ÎÎA seal in a bakery in Herculaneum refers to ‘Sextus Patulcus Felix’ and his capacity for making excellent cakes. ÎÎPompeii was famous for its production of garum. ÎÎUmbricius Scaurus is the most well-known of garum providores, with over 30% of garum jars found coming from his workshop. His house, with its two atria and Figure 1.4 A wine shop from Herculaneum private baths, is testament to the popularity of the sauce. ÎÎ The economies of both Pompeii and Herculaneum were ÎÎGarum came in different flavours depending on the type based on agriculture and fishing. The large number of and quality of the fish. Red mullet was preferred, followed farms (villa rusticae) and vineyards in the surrounding by tuna, mackerel and sardines, with anchovies used in areas indicate a thriving oil and wine industry. less popular sauces. ÎÎ Herculaneum was smaller but had a fishing fleet that ÎÎIngredients were sourced from local fishermen. Salt was supplied fish, crustaceans and other seafood to the area. produced near the coast outside Pompeii, where water This was also useful in the production of garum, washed up into a shallow basin where it evaporated, Pompeii’s famous fish sauce. leaving behind sea salt. ÎÎTextiles were an important industry in both production aediles: Roman magistrates responsible for public and cleaning. A range of people, including children,were buildings, public games and corn supply employed in its manufacture. Wool was taken from the villa rusticae: rural farms sheep on surrounding farms, then cleaned, carded, spun and woven. It was then dyed and distributed to cloth merchants. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

10 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 10 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY ÎÎFulleries were used to dye clothes as well as clean the ÎÎ-Tannery vats and tools of bronze and iron have been Chapterwhite togas of Roman citizens. uncovered. ÎÎSeveral fulleries have been found in Pompeii, with some ÎÎThere was a demand for accountants and bookkeepers. being quiteCities large and containing of a number Vesuvius of vats. Some ÎÎThe uncovering of 1800 rolls of papyrus manuscripts has laundries were also found in the front rooms of private revealed some of the literature of the time and the ideas houses. In total, 13 offices processed raw wool, seven of their writers. handledPompeii spinning and weaving, and nine were dedicated to ÎÎOther occupations included bronze smiths, ironmongers, dyeing and 18 were used for washing.Herculaneum perfumers, farmers and glass workers. ÎÎThe Fullery of Stephanus is the most well-known. It was ÎÎOne could be employed in the theatre or as a musician elaborately decorated in the Fourth Style and had mosaic and entertainer. floors. It was fully restored in 2015. Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introduction ÎevidencedÎThere is everywhere, also evidence even of precision on small instrumentsgarden plots whichinside ÎÎThe building of Eumachia, patron of fullers, is located thewould city walls. have required instrument makers with skills in ›› Thein the volcanic forum eruption and is thoughtof 79 CE wasby some a disaster historians for the to be ÎÎ and knowledge of optics, valves and seals. inhabitantsthe headquarters of Pompeii for and the Herculaneumfuller’s guild, butalthough the volcano this is The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in ÎÎ didnot confirmed. more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities manyIn thesmall service workshops industry in therePompeii. were Pompeii barbers, was prostitutes, an importantmasseurs industrial and bath and attendants. trading centre and port according ÎunderÎMetalworking a layer of ash was and another lava, thereby industry preserving in the thetowns, remains as of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This evidenced by finds of iron, copper, bronze and gold along study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate with tools, braziers and fish hooks. More than ten metal Î Key QUESTION and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views. workshops have been found in Pompeii and one (complete glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎ6 Explain the main features of the economy in with forge) in Herculaneum. Pompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lava flow.Pompeii The andcity wallsHerculaneum. followed the path of the lava flow. Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quartersAnswer of p. 31 the site is currently excavated. SURVEY ÎÎ PompeiiThe social was completelystructure covered and hermetically sealed THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA Men,fragments) women, and pumice freedmen (heavy and rock) slaves from Vesuvius in 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎ FigureIn ancient 1.5 The times Fullery Herculaneum of Stephanus was located directly on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a after the eruption. Rolecliff, borderedof occupations on both sides by deep ravines. ÎÎMartialÎEvidence praises exists the for area marble under workers, Vesuvius woodworkers as favoured by and garumFigure: 1.6 a salty Statue fermented of Balbus fish (Marcus sauce, Nonius popular Balbus) in Pompeii from ‘Bacchus,furniture Venus, makers Hercules constructing and the items Satyrs’. for The both rich public and andHerculaneum Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agriculturalprivate decorations area under and Vesuvius furnishings. is a fertile plain of the Empire ÎÎThe basic social unit was the familia (household) which ÎphosphorusÎGardening and was potash. big business The crop and yield there of was the aplains strong was included members of the family and slaves. The familia (anddemand is) six timesfor horticulturalists that of the rest to of design Italy. Florus and attend states the that was headed by the paterfamilias. ‘Campania’sprivate gardens. coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but ÎÎ ÎKThreeey QUESTION general social classes can be found in the towns: ÎinÎ theOne entire could world. be a priest Nowhere or priestess is the climate in the templesgentler. Springbut this comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the freeborn, freedmen or ex-slaves (sometimes referred to as occupation was only for the city’s elite. 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. liberti) and slaves. Your social status generally depended ÎÎPublic and private statues were carved by sculptors features of Campania. ÎÎ on that of your mother at your time of birth but there Theworking main agricultural in marble orproducts bronze. of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, were exceptions to this. ÎÎ millstones,Potters’ ovensfish sauce have ( beengarum discovered), perfume, along and witha cloth potters’ and dyesupplies, industry providing of unknown evidence commercial for the importance. domestic use of liberti: another term for freedmen

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4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 11

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 114 18/1/19 5:18 pm ÎÎWithin the freeborn class were members of the Roman Some constructed buildings and tombs, while others senatorial patrician class who held estates in the area, were priestesses. It is known through graffiti that women such as Proconsul Nonius Balbus who commissioned the supported electoral candidates and tomb inscriptions Suburban Baths in Herculaneum. He has a statue and altar reveal that many received honorary statues and tombs. erected in his honour there. The Villa of the Papyri is thought ÎÎEumachia was the daughter of Lucius Eumachius, a to have been owned by Julius Caesar’s father-in-law. maker of terracotta. She inherited a large amount of ÎÎThe freeborn also included the local elite such as Marcus money from him and was able to commission the Holconius Rufus and Lucius Caecilius Jucundus, both of building in the forum dedicated to the Concordia whom were wealthy landowners and businessmen. It also Augusta. This seems to emulate the Porticus Livia and included small business owners, farmers and artisans. provides an example of how the wealthy would try to ÎÎFreeborn citizens had full legal rights, could hold model themselves on the Imperial family and their political office, had privileged seats in the amphitheatre works. Eumachia was a priestess of Venus, patron of the and theatre, and could receive honorary statues and fullers’ guild and built herself a magnificent tomb (the tombs. They wore the toga as a sign of their status. largest in Pompeii). It is interesting to note that despite her work Eumachia did not receive a public funeral as ÎÎFreedmen could achieve social standing through gaining did other benefactors. wealth and patron–client relationships but they could not become citizens. Their children, however, could be citizens ÎÎMamia was also a priestess, although it is unsure of which if they were born after the slave was freed. cult, and she paid for the Temple of the Lares. She received a seat tomb outside the Herculaneum Gate by decree of ÎÎSlaves became free through the wishes of their owner or the town council. through saving enough money to purchase their own freedom. They could raise this money by charging for ÎÎJulia Felix owned a large villa that took up a whole insula tasks performed for their owner’s friends and associates. in Pompeii. While it received some damage from the 63 CE Upon being freed, they took their owner’s surname. earthquake it was repaired and parts of her estate were Freedmen generally wore a tunic. adapted into apartments, taverns, shops and even baths. There is an advertisement on the front of the property ÎÎFreedmen were a large and important part of society in which announces its availability for rent. Some historians the towns as many of them ran workshops and small have seen this as evidence that the Pompeian economy businesses. The Vettii were freedmen who became was in decline after the earthquake, while others see it as involved in the wine industry. a sign of the city’s burgeoning commercialism. ÎÎIt is thought that slaves made up approximately 25% of the population and performed a wide range of duties. Slavery was an everyday part of Roman life. Î Key QUESTION ÎÎSlaves’ duties could include household work as cooks, 7 Describe the social structure of Pompeii and maids or child carers. Educated slaves could work in their Herculaneum. owner’s business or as tutors for children. Slaves on villa Answer p. 31 rusticate were manual workers. Duties included pressing wine or olives, picking fruit and working with animals. In the towns they could be owned by the local council Local political life and work as bath attendants and tax agents. ÎÎUpon becoming a colony in 80 BCE Pompeii adopted ÎÎSome slaves were gladiators while others worked as and followed the Lex Iulia Municipalis, a law which set dancers or entertainers. regulations for Italian municipalities. ÎÎGraffiti from the basilica indicate one attitude to slaves: ÎÎThis saw the establishment of three political institutions ‘Take hold of your servant girl whenever you want to; in Pompeii: the comitium (the people’s assembly), the it’s your right’. Ordo Decurionum (the legislative body which was ÎÎThe Herculaneum Tablets tell the story of Petronia Vitalis, governed by the quattorivirior or Board of Four) and the a freedwoman who sued for custody of her daughter magistracy. from her former owners. The case was pending at the ÎÎCompetition for such positions was fierce. Cicero suggested time of the eruption. it was easier to be a senator in Rome than a councillor ÎÎWomen were active in the town communities but could in Pompeii. not hold public office. They were under the legal control of fathers or husbands (until they had three children) but comitium: a building or open-air space which served as could own property and conduct business. Once they had a meeting place for assemblies or elections born three children they could leave the house without a Ordo Decurionum: town council of usually 80 to 100 men chaperone but were not completely independent. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

12 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 12 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY Decuriones -on patronage, guilds and kinship. The graffiti was ÎChapterÎThis contained between 80 and 100 members, all of whom formulaic and spoke of the candidate’s qualities, referring were at least 25 years old. It was drawn from freeborn to ‘goodness’, ‘modesty’ or ‘honesty’. Some graffiti, citizensCities of good reputation. of Members Vesuviushad to be of a however, refers to other significant aspects, such as that suitable profession so actors, gladiators, and so on could for Gaius Polybius (‘He brings good bread’) or Marcus not be councillors. Marcellus (‘Great giver of games’). Pompeii and ÎÎOther graffiti mentions the giving of games by candidates ÎÎMembers had to have enoughHerculaneum wealth to manage the expenses of the position. or magistrates: ‘20 pairs of gladiators furnished by Decimus Lucretius Satrius Valens, perpetual priest of Nero, son of ÎÎThe group regulated all aspects of public life. This included the Emperor, and ten pairs of gladiators furnished by taxation, finances, public religion and buildings along AgricultureDecimus wasLucretius the cash Valens, crop hisand son, intensive will fight farming at Pompeii was with commercial regulations (e.g. weights and measures). Introduction evidencedApril 8, everywhere,9, 10, 1, and even12. There on small will gardenbe a big plots hunt inside and They also had the power to grant public burials and theawnings. city walls. Aemilius Celer wrote this by the light of the ›› Thetombs volcanic to prominent eruption of citizens. 79 CE was a disaster for the ÎÎThemoon’. processing That itof was agricultural written by products the ‘light is ofevidenced the moon’ in ÎinÎhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The group may have met in the curia in the forum at manysuggests small thatworkshops sponsoring in Pompeii. the sign Pompeii was a legal was activity an but didPompeii more than but take no curiathousands has yet of beenlives: excavatedit sealed the in cities under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains importantwriting industrialit was not. and trading centre and port according Herculaneum. of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical ÎtoÎ Strabo,Research as undertaken well as a resort by Liisa for Savunenwealthy Romans.indicates thatThis women Magistratesstudy of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attractedwere very Roman active investment in political as campaigns: they enjoyed 54 politicalthe climate posts and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views. ÎÎQuinquennial Duumvir was elected once every five are made by women supporting some 28 candidates, and glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii52 of these city is were an oval in the shape women’s and rests names on alone.a prehistoric Empire,years; ashe it carried was lived out nearly the census 2000 years of the ago. population. This was seen as the highest position. lavaInterestingly, flow. The city there walls is followedlittle or no the gender path of differentiation the lava flow. in Pompeiithe language covers 66used hectares to support and aboutthe candidates. three quarters of ÎÎDuumviri (or duovir) were two senior magistrates, ÎtheÎ site is currently excavated. elected yearly, who administered the electoral rolls and After the earthquake of 63 CE some of the leading wealthy SURVEY heard civil and criminal cases. ÎÎPompeiifamilies was left completely Pompeii, creatingcovered anda vacuum hermetically filled by sealed the ‘new by rich’,a seven-metre which included layer of many volcanic freedmen. ash, lapilli The (rockfreedmen THEÎÎAedile GEOGRAPHICAL were two junior magistrates, SETTING elected AND yearly, who fragments)supported and the pumice office holders(heavy rock)who then from (begrudgingly) Vesuvius in NATURALwere in charge FEATURES of games, OFmarkets, CAMPANIA public buildings and 79 CE.became About indebted three to to four them. metres of the blanket was public order. ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, Comitium ÎtheÎDecurion Bay of Naples, was a ontown the councillor. western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. ÎÎThis was the electoral assembly. It is unknown how many ÎpeninsulaÎMilitary in Tribune: the region awarded of South by popularCampania. demand, Today thisit lies was ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash members it contained. twoan kilometres honorific inlandtitle given from to the worthy coast citizens; due to lava for example,from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to ÎÎ volcanicMarcus eruption Tullius ofat Mtthe VesuviusTemple of in Fortuna 79 CE spreading Augusta is into listed Vesuvius.The comitium It was buried met once again a year in 1631 in March by hard to elect solidified the aediles theas sea. a Military Tribune. mudand (about duumviri. 18 metres). It is speculated It has been that much they met more in difficultthe building ÎÎTheÎPrefect Apennine was an Mountains emergency are office, to the held east after of Pompeii, times of disaster, to excavateknown as and the aboutcomitium four in city the blocks forum are although so far this building Mt Vesuviussuch as after is to the the earthquake north and of the 63 CE. Sarno River (ancient completed.is seen as too small to hold the number of members. They may have met in the forum, theatre or amphitheatre. ÎSamusÎThe River)priests is were in the appointed south. Pompeii for life andlies theat the flamens mouth priests ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in (who served particular Roman gods) were major social MunicipalHerculaneum, buildings later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’sand religious commercial figures. history. ÎwasÎThere the main are three industry buildings of Herculaneum. at the south end of the forum ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎPolitical office gave status to its holders and, for Romans, ÎÎThewhich area ofare Pompeii presumed was to known have been as Civitas municipal, or The buildings. City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a status was a defining attribute. To be in office required afterThese the eruption.are the curia and offices for the aediles and duumviri, cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. great wealth and the elites affected a disdain of money, although this interpretation is not universally accepted. ÎÎMartialbelieving praises it to the be area a ‘necessary under Vesuvius evil’. as favoured by garumÎÎThe: a comitium salty fermented is in the fish southeast sauce, popular corner ofin thePompeii forum and ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich ÎÎGraffiti often spoke out about the people’s political and isHerculaneum more of an open and somespace. (though It contains not twoall) partsrostra of where agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of favourites and who to vote for in elections for the the Empireorators could speak to the crowd. phosphorusmagistracies. and Thepotash. graffiti The indicates crop yield open of the but plains frenzied was and ÎÎThe basilica also played a role in the political life of the (andviolent is) six political times that contests. of the Votingrest of Italy.was, asFlorus elsewhere, states thatbased ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but town. Some cases were heard there and it is thought that in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Ksmalley QUESTIONcells at one end were used as a makeshift prison. comescuria :with an assembly, its flowers council twice aor year court there. in which Nowhere public is the or A magnificent basilica has also been uncovered at 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soilofficial richer’. issues were discussed and decided Herculaneum, commissioned by Marcus Nonius Balbus, featuresalthough of some Campania. historians contend it may have been used ÎÎTheQuinquennial main agricultural Duumvir products: a census of Pompeii taker who were determined olive oil as a temple. Answer p. 30 andcouncil wine membershipbut its industries every included five years sheep products, ÎÎ millstones,duumviri :fish a pair sauce of magistrates, (garum), perfume, elected andannually, a cloth in and a As a court of law, the basilica issued fines and thus kept dyeRoman industry colony of unknown or municipality commercial importance. a treasury of confiscated money and goods. This would

have helped pay for the running of the town of Pompeii. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 13

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 134 18/1/19 5:18 pm ÎÎAtria generally contained a lararium, a family shrine Î Key QUESTION dedicated to the household deities. 8 Outline the main features of politics, including ÎÎAccording to archaeologist Joanne Berry, the atrium was elections. a public space to conduct business and political dealings. Answer p. 31 Success was characterised by the number of visitors who could be seen, which would explain the open plan of the houses. Everyday life ÎÎThe atrium was expensively fitted and expanded by the Housing Romans. In the Roman tradition it displayed the statues Houses of the rich of the family along the walls. Death masks were also displayed in cabinets. Bedrooms, storerooms, the dining ÎÎThe wealthy of Pompeii and Herculaneum built houses room and the kitchen opened off the atrium. or villas in the Roman style with distinguishing Hellenistic ÎÎ features. These features copied the cultural lifestyles of Archaeologist Penelope Allison contends that atria were the Greeks. The established architectural styles were not limited to politics and business but were also maintained even after the cities became Roman colonies domestic spaces, as shown through a survey of houses in 80 BCE. and their contents. Domestic objects such as pots, utensils, spinning equipment and toys were found in ÎÎThe houses belonged to the successful merchants, many of the atria cupboards. businessmen and bankers of the city. The houses include the Houses of Sallust, the Mysteries, the Surgeon, the Vettii, ÎÎBeyond the atria were a triclinium (dining room) and the Dancing Faun, the Pansa, the Centenary, Jucundus, the cubicula (small rooms). A triclinium usually contained Moralist, the Silver Wedding and the Large Fountain. three raised benches or couches around a space where a ÎÎTwo-thirds of the buildings in Pompeii were private table would be set with food. Some houses had two, a dwellings. summer triclinium overlooking the peristyle, and a winter triclinium located near the tablinum. ÎÎMost of the homes were destroyed in 63 CE and rebuilt and redecorated; for example, the House of Jucundus, with its precious reliefs. It was in the process of being lararium: a shrine to the guardian spirits in a Roman redecorated at the time of the eruption. household ÎÎBecause Pompeii was a busy commercial city much space triclinium: the dining area in a domestic house, usually was needed for work and retail shops, often built in the containing three reclining couches front of houses and facing the street. cubicula: a room in a Roman house used as a bedroom or for other purposes The Roman villa and Greek architecture peristyle: a Roman garden, usually surrounded by ÎÎThe houses of Pompeii were demonstrations of status and columns or walkways wealth. There was really no ‘typical’ dwelling, except that tablinum: a room off an atrium in a Roman house often the Pompeian domus was a single-family dwelling with a used as an office courtyard, but many have features in common. ÎÎVillas included courtyards, gardens, fountains and ÎÎCubicula could be used as storage or sleeping areas. They watercourses that all replicated Greek civilization and were often decorated, but windowless, and it is possible referenced Greek classical art and mythology. to discern where the bed was from the configuration of ÎÎIn general the houses were big and faced inwards, with a the mosaic on the floor. shop or façade facing the street. This buffered noise, dust ÎÎBehind the atrium was the formal garden with its and heat, and also provided rental income. The reception colonnade (covered walkway) and peristyle (courtyard). area was called the atrium and opened to the sky to This was also a Roman extension of Greek architecture. provide air and light. It was most impressive after the ÎÎThe tablinum was between the atrium and the peristyle modest street entrance. Most rooms opened off the and was most likely used as a reception area. Family atrium. The impluvium or pool caught the rainwater rooms opened onto the colonnade and contained lavish from the atrium opening, known as a compluvium. wall paintings, marble floors, expensive furniture, fountains, tapestries and statues. atrium: a large open-air or skylight-covered space ÎÎ surrounded by a building Many of these rooms contained standing lamps, candelabra, and rich bronze and wooden tables. impluvium: a cistern for collecting water ÎÎ compluvium: a space left unroofed over the court of an The House of the Merchant had many wall paintings of atrium through which the rain fell into the impluvium everyday life, displaying working situations, spare time

14 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 14 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY ÎÎSome houses, however, gave in to economic necessities ÎÎ-In fact the house is modest and unassuming compared Chapterand were converted into workshops for textiles and cloth with its neighbour, the House of the Vestals. The cleaning. The House of Sallust was a business property; architecture, decoration and flooring of this house are others includedCities shops, offices of and accommodation. Vesuviusvery ordinary. The impluvium is made of the local tufa ÎÎHouses of the wealthy included lavish interior stone, there is no proper peristyle and the garden behind decorations and the entrance floor usually had a the atrium is shallow. beautifullyPompeii crafted mosaic. Many and houses in Pompeii and ÎÎThe House of the Surgeon remained much the same size Herculaneum have ‘Beware ofHerculaneum the dog’ illustrations. throughout its history. There was only one minor extension ÎÎAn important feature of these houses that has recently while other homes, such as the Vestals, expanded and come to light is that they were displayed as ‘stage sets’ to redecorated with the increased prosperity of the owners. impress visitors. The decoration and layout was a ‘stage’ Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introduction August Mau and the four styles for the status of the owner to be appreciated and a setting evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside ÎtheÎThe city decorative walls. styles of Pompeian houses were classified ›› Thefor volcanic the magistrate eruption and of 79patron CE was to aplay disaster out their for the roles. ÎÎ into four ‘systems’ (or ranges of style) by August Mau inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in in 1882. Housesdid more and than Villas take thousands of the Vettii, of lives: Faun, it sealed Large the Fountain, cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an Mysteriesunder a layer and of ashSurgeon and lava, thereby preserving the remains ÎimportantÎFirst: the industrial structural and or trading incrustation centre style and portof 200–80 according BCE. ÎofÎ Thetwo vibrant,House of prosperous the Vettii Romanhad a street towns. entrance. By methodical The front to Strabo,Typical asof wellthis asstyle a resort is the forstucco wealthy and Romans.marble-like This effects studywas of windowless the ruins and or artefactswas rented of theseas shops. sites, historians attractedbased onRoman decorations investment found as inthey Greek enjoyed temples. the climate This style ÎandÎThe archaeologists House of the have Vettii been was able the tohouse gain ofa unique two wealthy andcan magnificent be found atsea the views. Houses of the Faun and Sallust. glimpsemerchant into brothers.life in a Roman It contained town, and luxurious by extension wall decorations the ÎÎPompeiiÎSecond: city the is architecturalan oval shape style and ofrests 80–25 on a B prehistoricCE which Empire,and a asgarden it was full lived of nearly marble 2000 and years bronze ago. statues, 12 as lavacontains flow. The architectural city walls followed elements the such path as of columns the lava and flow. fountainheads spouting water. The paintings deal with Pompeiistoas, coverscombined 66 hectares with mythological and about threeand occupational quarters of mythical and heroic subjects, and even the obscene. themotifs. site is currentlyFrescoes inexcavated. this style can be viewed at the Villa SURVEYPriapus (Roman god of fertility) is seen resting his giant ÎÎPompeiiof the wasMysteries completely and the covered Villa ofand P Fanniushermetically Synistor sealed at THEphallus GEOGRAPHICAL on a pair of scales, SETTING with an inscription AND apparently by Boscoreale.a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURALused to keep FEATURES away evil. OF CAMPANIA Îfragments)ÎThird: the and ornate pumice style (heavy of 25–35 CE. rock) from This Vesuvius style imitated in ÎÎThe House of the Faun is probably the most important 79 CE.the Second About threestyle butto four with metres the use of of the miniatures, blanket was thinner ÎÎPompeiihouse isconsidering situated 20 its kilometres size (it occupies southeast an entire of Naples city block),on pumice.columns Other and cities brighter to the colours. southeast It saw were the also introduction buried, of thebeautiful Bay of Naples, decorations on the and western architecture. coast of Itthe contains Italian the includingsome Egyptian Stabiae, imageryHerculaneum and can and be Oplontis. seen in the Villa of peninsulaamazing in mosaic the region art of of the South Battle Campania. of Alexander Today and it liesDarius ÎÎHerculaneumAgrippa Postumus was covered at Boscotrecase. by heavy rock fill, not just ash twoIII. kilometres It was built inland at the from height the of coast the Samnitedue to lava civilisation from the ÎandÎFourth: pumice the as fantasticin Pompeii, or intricate due to its style proximity after 63 CE. to volcanicand represents eruption Hellenicof Mt Vesuvius architecture in 79 CE as a spreading fusion of Italicinto Vesuvius.Typical here It was is buried the ‘unreal’ again aspectin 1631 of by the hard mural solidified art, the theand sea. Samnite. mudhigh (about decorative 18 metres). styles It and has the been use much of other more artforms. difficult ÎÎTheÎVisitors Apennine were Mountains greeted by are the to comforting the east of wordsPompeii, ‘Have’ to excavateExamples and can about be found four incity the blocks House are of so the far Vettii. Mt Vesuvius(relating to is the to the idea north of ‘profit and theis joy’) Sarno and River the household (ancient completed. Private gardens Samuslares River) (gods) is are in enshrinedthe south. highPompeii up on lies the at thewall. mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above Îof theÎThe Sarno House River, of the a Largebroad, Fountain navigable is river of Eastern important (Egyptian) in ÎHerculaneum,ÎThe preserved later gardens hampering and houses its excavation. of Pompeii Fishing are unique. Pompeii’sdesign. commercialIt is famous history.for its mosaics of birds, arabesques wasWealthier the main residents industry couldof Herculaneum. linger in their gardens and enjoy the fresh open air, the fountains and the statues, all ÎÎIn ancientand its large times fountain Herculaneum with water was locatedflowing directly from the on mouth ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, reminiscent of a Greek sanctuary. Windows of the houses theof Bay a marine of Naples goddess. on a steeply sloping spur ending in a after the eruption. looked onto the garden which was like the heart and Îcliff,ÎThe bordered House ofon the both Mysteries sides by was deep a largeravines. suburban villa lungs of the house. ÎÎMartiallocated praises just outside the area the under walls Vesuvius of Pompeii. as favoured It contains by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ÎÎRelaxing in one’s garden was a major private leisure ‘Bacchus,facilities Venus, for grape Hercules crushing and butthe isSatyrs’. better The known rich for its and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of activity, and the garden was revered as an essential space agriculturallarge and areaornate under frescoes Vesuvius in the is triclinium a fertile plain. The of frescoes the Empire phosphorusare thought and to potash. represent The initiation crop yield rites of ofthe the plains Dionysian was of the house, complete with a covered walk or colonnade, (andmysteries, is) six times although that of some the resthistorians of Italy. argue Florus they states relate that to Greek motif statues and splendid greenery and blooming ‘Campania’smarriage. coastalThe frescoes area is were the finest, restored not in only 2015. in Italy but flowers. ÎinÎ theThe entire House world. of the Nowhere Surgeon, is unlike the climate most ofgentler. the buildings Spring ÎÎ ÎKDueey toQUESTION the work done by Wilhelmina Jashemski in making comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the casts of root systems, we know that the Pompeians grew of Pompeii, was built of massive blocks. The rubble walls 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. violets, roses and hyacinths along with medicinal herbs of the majority of buildings could not withstand features of Campania. ÎÎ such as bay, acanthus, myrtle, box and juniper. Theearthquakes main agricultural and volcanic products eruptions. of Pompeii This were house olive was oil Answer p. 30 andnamed wine but for itsthe industries surgical instruments included sheep found products, in one of ÎÎThe House of Pansa and the praedia of Julia Felix both millstones,its rooms. fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and contained large produce gardens. dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 15

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 154 18/1/19 5:18 pm Other urban housing ÎÎThe importance of the amphitheatre and gladiator games ÎÎShops and workshops often had one to two room cannot be underestimated. The amphitheatre was located residences above or behind. on the eastern edge of the city. Macus Holconius Rufus, an eminent Pompeian, along with his brother, renovated ÎÎThere are examples of apartment blocks, such as those the amphitheatre on a grand scale in keeping with over the House of the Trellis in Pompeii. Augustus’s emphasis on civic building. In doing so they Suburban and rural housing earned the gratitude of the town. They left three ÎÎThe villas of the rich were built in the ‘new rich’ areas inscriptions of their work around the amphitheatre. outside the city called suburbia. Probably settled by Sulla’s ÎÎGladiators were very popular contestants at the amphitheatre. veterans and the rich of the city, these areas were to the They had the status of superheroes, with Celadus being northeast, outside the Gates of Hercules. very popular with the women according to the graffiti. ÎÎThe old centre remained fashionable for the elite but the Gladiators might only contest two or three times a year density of the city drove people further out, where they so if they were skilled they could have a successful career established luxurious retreats or lived in terraced houses and eventually earn enough to buy their freedom. southwest of the city wall. ÎÎThe local contests were fierce and sometimes riotous. ÎÎThe Villa of the Mysteries is the best example of a The local derby between Nicer and Pompeii ended with luxurious suburban house complete with farm annex. the spectators invading the arena in 56 CE and causing a Once a luxury villa, it was then converted into a riot. Nero banned contests for ten years but relented functional farmhouse. It contains large frescoes depicting when his wife, Poppaea, pleaded for leniency, leading to scenes of Dionysian cult practices. the reopening of the games after only three years. Because of this Poppaea, a native of Pompeii, became the ÎÎThe Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum is another example of suburban housing. It stretched for almost 250 metres town’s hero and much graffiti praised her. along the shoreline and contained four levels, two ÎÎPompeii produced much wine, which was exported to peristyles and a swimming pool. Rome, and there were numerous wine shops in Pompeii ÎÎThe villa rustica was a country house which served as a as well as taverns and bars. Wine merchants used giant residence and farm management centre. It usually consisted stone jars for storage. Wall paintings show people of an urbana (main house), agricultural centre and the drinking wine with friends and there is much graffiti to rusticana (farm area). support this. The Bar of Salvius contains a picture depicting two men playing dice. One shouts ‘Six!’ while ÎÎExamples include the Villa Regina and the Villa of P Fannius his opponent holds up two fingers and says, ‘No, that’s Synistor at Boscoreale. not a “three”; it’s a “two”’. Another picture by the door of Leisure activities the bar shows a short man driving a group of men out. ÎÎPompeii and Herculaneum were prosperous at the time Above his head are the words, ‘Go on, get out of here! of the eruption. There was a proliferation of entertainment You have been fighting!’. areas and people’s leisure time was valued and much enjoyed. ÎÎDrinking was a pleasurable and popular pastime. The ÎÎPublic entertainment included the Grand Theatre and a wine god Bacchus (Dionysus) was a favourite and the smaller covered theatre, the Odeon, adjacent to it in the Pompeians indulged in his favourite activity. The Triangular Forum. The Odeon could seat about 1200 people. Dionysus cult was well patronised and celebrated. There are many wall paintings and mosaics showing ÎÎWall paintings also suggest that cockfighting and dice supports holding up a canvas roof for protection. playing were popular pastimes, and birds and fish were ÎÎThe Grand Theatre accommodated 5000 and included kept as pets and for food. entertainment such as miming, acting, clowning, ÎÎIt was originally thought that Pompeii had over 35 brothels dancing, juggling and musical entertainment. but the work of Andrew Wallace-Hadrill has reduced that ÎÎThis theatre was equipped with a sporting complex, to one, the Lupinar. athletic school and open-air arena. ÎÎThe Lupinar had ten beds, five cramped rooms and two ÎÎMany wall paintings and mosaics show street musicians, entrances. The beds were built into the walls. There were cymbal players, dancers and flute players performing. five bedrooms on the upper floor featuring wall scenes of The ‘pin-up boy’ and a favourite with the female audience the erotic services provided in particular rooms. These was Activum. Many admiring messages were written for are now considered to be a stimulus for clients rather him on the walls of the theatre. than a ‘menu’ of what was on offer. No brothels have been identified in Herculaneum. ÎÎThe Grand Palaestra was adjacent to the amphitheatre and was a place where people could exercise and take palaestra: an exercise area part in sports such as discus and javelin throwing along with wrestling and boxing, before taking a bath and © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8 having a massage.

16 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 16 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY Food and dining ÎÎ-Both men and women wore loincloths and there are ÎChapterÎMany kinds of food were sold. These included nuts, beans, frescoes depicting women wearing a bikini-style band chickpeas, grains and fruits, all of which were preserved around their breasts when exercising. after theCities eruption of 79 CE. of Pompeians Vesuvius could also buy ÎÎCT scans of plaster casts in 2015 revealed more detail onions, cabbages, barley, wheat and beans in the market about the woven wool tunics that were worn. gardens, as well as grapes, olives, herbs, honey, fruit, eggs ÎÎWomen were shown in frescoes as having paler skin, andPompeii chickens. and indicating it was desirable to show the impact of an ÎÎWritten sources mention the keepingHerculaneum of sheep and pigs indoor lifestyle. Cosmetics were used, including lead while paintings also show eggs and chicken was the last mixed with honey or oil as a foundation, cinnabar for the unfinished meal of some temple priests. lips, and eye shadow extracted from mica, malachite or Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was ÎÎOne inn advertised food for sale. This included cheese, azurite. A ‘sparkle’ derived from crushed mica was Introduction evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside bread, ale, onions, wine, dates and leeks. commonly used by Romans although there is little direct the city walls. ››Î TheÎA few volcanic large eruption hotels were of 79 located CE was near a disaster the city for gates, the forum evidence of this from Pompeii and Herculaneum. ÎÎ inhabitantsand amphitheatre. of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in Healthmany small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an ÎdidÎBakeries more than produced take thousands many different of lives: typesit sealed of breadthe cities stuffs under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains ÎimportantÎResearch industrial into the andhealth trading of the centre residents and portof the according towns for both local consumption and export. of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo,has been as undertaken well as a resort by Estelle for wealthy Lazer, Romans. Sarah Bisel This and ÎstudyÎHouses of the in ruins both and towns artefacts had three of these couches sites, for historians eating and a attractedLuigi Carpasso. Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate andthree-sided archaeologists dining have table been called able a to triclinium gain a unique in a separate ÎandÎIn magnificent 2010 about sea50 skeletonsviews. which had been unearthed at eating room. The room could be sumptuously decorated glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeiiOplontis city in is thean oval1980s shape were and re-examined. rests on a prehistoricOf some interest with wall paintings, tapestries, statues, lamps, candelabra Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lavawere flow. twin The girls city whowalls were followed thought the pathto have of thesyphilis. lava flow. This and richly decorated tables. People reclined while eating. Pompeiiwould covers contradict 66 hectares previous and thinking about three that syphilisquarters came of ÎÎThe Satirycon by Petronius is a satire of a dinner party thefrom site is South currently America excavated. in the 16th century. These findings thrown by Trimalchio, a pretentious freedman. It provides SURVEY ÎÎPompeiiare somewhat was completely contentious covered as they and havehermetically not been sealed interesting insights into what was considered luxury by presenteda seven-metre for academic layer of volcanic investigation. ash, lapilli (rock THEfood; GEOGRAPHICAL for example, honeyed SETTING dormice and AND a whole hog Îfragments)ÎThis research and pumice indicates (heavy a good rock) level from of general Vesuvius health in due NATURALstuffed with FEATURES meat and sausages. OF CAMPANIA 79 CE.to the About high threeintake to of four seafood metres and of vegetables, the blanket and was the lack ÎÎ ÎÎPompeiiThe kitchen is situated had 20a charcoal kilometres fire southeast for cooking. of Naples The food on pumice.of sugar Other in the cities diet. to the southeast were also buried, Pompeians ate is amply displayed in paintings and the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian ÎincludingÎLazer, Bisel Stabiae, and Herculaneum Carpasso have and noted Oplontis. strong muscle written sources and from physical remains. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneumdevelopment was though covered there by isheavy disagreement rock fill, not as to just why. ash Clothingtwo kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the andBisel pumice and asCarpasso in Pompeii, look dueto physical to its proximity labour while to Lazer volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into ÎÎPompeians dressed as the Romans dressed, with the bulk Vesuvius.suggests It itwas might buried be dueagain more in 1631 to athletic by hard training. solidified the sea. of our evidence coming from frescoes and statues. Since ÎmudÎThe (about 2015 18CT metres). scans reveal It has the been inhabitants much more had difficult good teeth ÎÎ Thethese Apennine usually Mountains depict the areelite to there the east is limited of Pompeii, evidence of to excavatealthough and there about is some four wear city blocksalong the are gumsso far due to grit in Mt Vesuviusthe clothing is toworn the bynorth the andworking the Sarno classes River and (ancientslaves. completed.the bread. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎMales wore a tunic, the basic item of clothing, which was ÎÎTheÎResearch city of Resina-Ercolano from 2011, using wasfaecal built matter on thefrom site Herculaneum, above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in something like a long t-shirt. It was worn under the toga. Herculaneum,revealed figs later and hamperingdormice figured its excavation. heavily in Fishing the diet. Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎStatus was distinguished by stripes and colours. A wall ÎÎLazer’s research reveals a post-menopausal condition which ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on painting from a lararium in Pompeii shows the tunica ÎÎTheindicates area of Pompeiithat there was was known good lifeas Civitas expectancy, or The for City, women. the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a laticlavis (or the senatorial tunic) with broad stripes ÎafterÎ the eruption. cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. In Pompeii a skull mosaic was used as a table top to extending from the shoulder to the hem. It also shows remind diners of the brevity of life. The skull motif was ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by the toga praetexta of the curule magistrates. This was an garumcommon: a salty on fermented cups and fish in dining sauce, areas.popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich off-white toga with a broad purple border. andÎÎ Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of For general health issues there were trained doctors, mostly ÎÎTogas were worn for public occasions and usually in the the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was Greek slaves, along with midwives and independent freeborn forum. The toga was the ‘national dress’ of the Romans. (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that doctors. However, as Pliny, Martial and Cato tell us, these Î‘Campania’sÎThe toga wascoastal a large, area oval-shapedis the finest, piecenot only of cloth, in Italy usually but self-trained doctors were often regarded as charlatans. in thewool, entire worn world. as the Nowhere ‘standard’ is Romanthe climate garment. gentler. Spring ÎÎ ÎKWomeney QUESTION used a range of products for cleansing, including ÎcomesÎRoman with women its flowers only twice wore a togas year tothere. signify Nowhere disgrace, is the with a face mask of crushed broad beans. Ovid describes 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soilthe richer’. implication being that they were not ‘womanly’ enough, another cream of broad beans, lupins and wine that made features of Campania. ÎÎ while prostitutes wore coarse woolen togas. Married the skin ‘smoother than a mirror’, while another mix of The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 andwomen wine but wore its aindustries stola, a long included woolen sheep gown products, that was usually lentils, barley, iris bulbs, honey and powdered deer antler millstones,pleated. Womenfish sauce also (garum wore ),a perfume,longer tunic, and with a cloth or withoutand whitened and softened the complexion. dyesleeves. industry Wealthy of unknown women commercial had ornately importance. dressed hair, and gold ÎÎIn most families the paterfamilias was responsible for the

and glass bead jewellery has been found in both towns. health and doctoring of his family members. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 17

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 174 18/1/19 5:18 pm ÎÎEach household probably contained a set of surgical ÎÎThe discovery of 1300 lamps suggests that bathing was instruments, as found in the House of the Surgeon and also a night-time activity. at 27 other sites around the city. Water supply and sanitation Baths

Figure 1.8 A water fountain, Pompeii Figure 1.7 The apodyterium ÎÎFresh water was carried to Pompeii, via an aqueduct, ÎÎBathing was a communal activity for both sexes but the from springs in the Apennine Mountains. baths were segregated. In the public baths one could relax ÎÎPompeii’s main water tower was the castellu maquae, which and talk amid the stucco, mosaics and marble tiling. was built on high ground. This then fed water to three water ÎÎPompeians could enjoy the comfort and conviviality of courses: the public baths, private homes and fountains. one of three public baths (the Forum, Suburban and ÎÎFresh water was brought to some private homes in Pompeii Stabian Baths). At Herculaneum there were the Central via lead piping and a nozzle. The water ran continuously and Suburban Baths. The Stabian Baths also included a but many of the wealthy homes had impluvia to collect playing field, or palaestra, and a swimming pool. rainwater as well. The residents paid water rates based on ÎÎBathing was a concise process of entering the tepidarium the size of the nozzle. Pipes had the owner’s name etched (warm room), the caldarium (hot room) and the onto them to ensure that people did not steal water. frigidarium (cold room), with water and air heated by a ÎÎThe bathroom of most private homes was a pool of water. central heating plant consisting of a great furnace. Some homes had a water closet and some water closets had seats and a cistern. Latrines were often located in ÎÎ The baths included an apodyterium (locker room) and kitchens so that scraps could be easily thrown away; some also had a reading room, along with massage, however, this may have led to the spread of disease. resting and even teaching rooms. Strigils (scrapers) and ÎÎMost toilets were a rectangular hole in the floor joined by oil were used for cleaning and massage. pipes to the subterranean cesspool. There was a stick and ÎÎBaths were highly decorated (often with erotic art in the sponge in a bucket of salt water for personal cleansing. locker rooms). While some historians have connected ÎÎHouses with (pre-eruption) broken sewage pipes have this with prostitution in the baths others have suggested been uncovered, indicating that the Romans had a high that it was merely a way for people to remember where tolerance for unpleasant smells. they had stored their belongings. ÎÎImages of the goddess Fortuna have been found in the ÎÎ The water for the baths was conducted from the aqueduct toilets at the Suburban Baths, indicating that it was felt and wells, and pumped through lead pipes to where it luck was needed in using public toilets. was needed. Slaves heated the water in the hypocausts ÎÎFor the public, water was fed into large, open stone tanks (central heating systems). located out on the streets. Notches acted as an overflow outlet. The tanks were fed continuously through lead pipes. tepidarium: the warm-water pool in a Roman bath These public fountains were usually 70 to 80 metres apart. caldarium: the hot pool in a Roman bath ÎÎSanitation was satisfactory with waste from households frigidarium: the cold pool in a Roman bath flowing along gutters in the streets and then into the apodyterium: the changing room in Roman baths underground drains (hence the need for stepping stones strigils: instruments with a curved blade, used to scrape in Pompeii). In Herculaneum the streets sloped down sweat and dirt from the skin in a hot-air bath towards the sea, and wastewater and sewage were carried aqueduct: a water course constructed to convey water via underground drains. This removed the need for

18 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 18 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY ÎÎThe baths were centres for spreading disease and - Chapterinfection. There was no water filtration or circulation and sitting in a germ-laden pool of water had its own health risks. Cities of Vesuvius Î KPompeiiey QUESTION and 9 Describe everyday life in PompeiiHerculaneum and Herculaneum. Answer p. 32

Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was IntroductionReligion evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside the city walls. ››Î TheÎReligion volcanic in eruptionPompeii ofcomprised 79 CE was of a disasterdifferent for cults the showing ÎÎ inhabitantsinfluences of from Pompeii throughout and Herculaneum the Empire. but Religion the volcano was an The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in didimportant more than aspect take thousands of life as the of lives: Romans it sealed believed the cities it many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an underbrought a layer prosperity of ash and and lava, peace. thereby Religion preserving was the also remains reflective important industrial and trading centre and port according Figure 1.9 Altar from the Temple of Vespasian of oftwo social vibrant, and prosperous political status. Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians ÎattractedÎThe Temple Roman of investment the Capitoline as they Triad enjoyed was important the climate to Householdand archaeologists gods have been able to gain a unique andshow magnificent the town’s sea connection views. to Rome and its prominent ÎglimpseÎTraditional into life ancestor in a Roman worship town, was and practised by extension in Pompeii the as ÎÎPompeiiplace incity the is foruman oval is shape a reinforcement and rests on of a that. prehistoric It was found Empire,evidenced as it was by the lived abundance nearly 2000 of years family ago. statues and death lavato flow. be in The a state city ofwalls disrepair followed when the excavated path of the but lava historians flow. masks. This was part of the traditional Roman religion. Pompeiiare divided covers as 66 to hectares whether and this about was due three to quartersthe temple of ÎÎThe wall paintings of gods demonstrate that religion in thefalling site is outcurrently of favour excavated. by 79 CE or extreme looting in the SURVEYPompeii was practised as opposed to an abstract concept. ÎÎPompeiiaftermath was completelyof the eruption. covered and hermetically sealed THEReligion GEOGRAPHICAL was practised to assureSETTING continued AND abundance ÎbyÎ Venusa seven-metre was the layerpatron of goddess volcanic of ash, Pompeii lapilli as(rock she was the from the fields and, from there, abundance in the city NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments)patron of and Sulla, pumice who established(heavy rock) the from Roman Vesuvius colony in in and in the home. 79 CE.80 BCE. About Her three main to temple four metres was near of thethe Marine blanket Gate was and was ÎÎPompeiiÎReligion is situated was a statecraft 20 kilometres but also southeast very much of Naples practised on at pumice.being Otherrestored cities after to the the earthquake southeast were of 63 CE. also buried, She is also thestreet Bay of level. Naples, The on household the western and coast public of shrines the Italian (e.g. the includingrepresented Stabiae, in statues Herculaneum and frescoes and Oplontis. throughout the town. peninsulaSanctuary in theof Lares region Publici of South) are Campania. evidence of Today a religion it lies ÎÎHerculaneumÎThe Imperial was cult covered was an by important heavy rock political fill, not statement just ash in twowhich kilometres was simply inland formatted from the butcoast represented due to lava a fromreal living the andprovincial pumice as towns: in Pompeii, wealthy due citizens to its proximitywould build to temples volcanicand continuing eruption of experience. Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius.dedicated It was to the buried emperor again and in 1631 his family by hard to solidifiedshow their ÎtheÎThere sea. was much interest in promoting Pompeii’s mudloyalty (about and 18 also metres). to highlight It has been their much own statusmore difficultwithin the ÎÎTheabundance Apennine as Mountains a blessing are from to the eastgods. of If Pompeii, people failed to to excavatecommunity. and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuviuskeep up religious is to the observances north and the there Sarno was River a danger (ancient of Îcompleted.ÎThere are three Imperial cult buildings in Pompeii as Samuslosing River) this divineis in the favour. south. The Pompeii symbol lies of at ‘plenty’ the mouth was the ÎÎTheoutlined city of Resina-Ercolanobelow. was built on the site above of thesymbol Sarno of River,the city a broad,and ‘plenty’ navigable had toriver be importantassured through in Herculaneum,• The Temple later of hampering Fortuna Augusta, its excavation. built by Fishing Marcus Pompeii’severyday commercial religious observances. history. was theTullius, main wasindustry regulated of Herculaneum. by duumvir but managed by ÎÎInÎ ancientAnother times important Herculaneum symbol was was the located wreath directly of fruit, on ÎÎThe areafreedmen of Pompeii and slaves.was known as Civitas, or The City, theindicating Bay of Naples the agrarian on a steeply origins sloping of Roman spur ending religion in and a after• theThe eruption. Temple of Vespasian is thought to have been built cliff,society. bordered The onconnection both sides between by deep reproduction, ravines. fruitfulness earlier than the time of Vespasian by Mamia, a public and survival was confirmed in devotion to the gods. priestess, most likely to the genius (divine nature) of ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii Augustus or Pompeii. It contains a marble altar depicting Î‘Bacchus,ÎAs in Roman Venus, households, Hercules and the the father Satyrs’. was The the rich private and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of a scene of a bull being sacrificed to the emperor. agriculturalpractitioner area of under these Vesuviusdevotions, is religious a fertile plainrites andof rituals. the Empire phosphorusHe was responsible and potash. for The the crop ceremonials, yield of the duties, plains daily was • The Sanctuary of the Public Lares has been somewhat (andprayers is) six and times religious that of offeringsthe rest of to Italy. the householdFlorus states gods. that controversial as its purpose and identification is ‘Campania’sHe was the coastal priest area within is the the finest, home. not only in Italy but uncertain. It is generally thought that the building saw in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Keythe QUESTION worship of the public Lares, the guardian spirits of Templescomes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the Pompeii, but there were niches for statues of the Imperial 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural ÎsoilÎPompeii richer’. had numerous temples in the forum, which was family, thus perhaps linking it to the Imperial cult. features of Campania. ÎÎ the centre of worship. The most important were the Temple ÎÎAnother building has been connected to the Imperial The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 andof wine Jupiter, but Junoits industries and Minerva included (the sheepCapitoline products, Triad), the cult: the building of Eumachia on the forum, which was millstones,Temple of fish Vespasian sauce (garum (incorporating), perfume, the and Imperial a cloth cult),and dedicated to the Concordia Augusta and Piety, which were dyethe industry Shrine of to unknown the Lares incommercial the marketplace importance. and the Temple linked to Augustus and the Imperial family. This was a

of Venus Pompeiana and the Temple of Apollo. way for Eumachia to promote herself. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 19

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 194 18/1/19 5:18 pm ÎÎOther temples in Pompeii are those of Aesculapius, ÎÎThere were 12 daily ceremonies in the Temple of Isis. The patron of doctors and healing, Hercules (thought to be presence of lamps in the temple may indicate the practice the Doric temple), and Venus. There are thought to be of some secret ceremonies. Water from the Nile was kept other temples, as yet unexcavated, to Mars, Mercury, underneath the temple to be used as holy water. Diana and Ceres. ÎÎIt is important to note that the cult is not exclusively ÎÎIn Herculaneum no temples as such have been excavated. represented in house decorations. Even though elements However, there was an inscription found which reveals of the cult are in abundance it exists alongside of the that the Emperor Vespasian restored the Temple of the Capitoline Triad, as evidenced in the House of Cn Mater Peum, a life-size statue of Aphrodite has been Poppeus Habitus. found, and a painting shows tonsured, white-robed ÎÎDionysus was also incorporated into decorations and priests of Isis performing their rituals. garden displays. In the House of the Mysteries there are ÎÎAlso at Herculaneum a College of Augustales has been scenes from the life of Dionysus and Ariadne in the located. The college was comprised of 21 men who ‘initiation chamber’. The left frieze shows stages in the life carried out duties in the worship of Augustus. The college of Dionysus while the one on the right shows the initiation was built by the brothers A Lucius Proculus and A Lucius whipping of a naked woman by a winged female. Iulanius and contains many pictures of Hercules. ÎÎThe House of the Figured Capitals contained a full ÎÎA sacred area has been found above the boatsheds on the painting program to Dionysus and his hedonistic lifestyle shore at Herculaneum. This contains ritual areas and there is a frieze in the Villa of the Mysteries which is associated with Minerva, Mercury, Vulcan and Neptune, thought to show initiation rites of the cult. and also a sacello (shrine) of Venus. ÎÎThe Roman state was not tolerant of the Dionysian cult. ÎÎPompeii was divided into districts and each one had a It had tried to eradicate it 200 years previously by shrine to their local guardian spirit, usually at a crossroads. executing all female adherents (over 7000 individuals). The frescoes make it obvious that the religion had not Foreign cults and religions been eradicated, though it had possibly changed so as not ÎÎThe state religion was dominated by Rome after the to appear conspiratorial or subversive to the state. occupation. The Temple of Jupiter was converted into the ÎÎWomen also celebrated the Veneralia in honour of Venus Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus, indicating Verticordia and Fortuna Virilis on 1 April. the sovereignty of Rome and its gods over the city. ÎÎThe ceremonials included a visit to the men’s baths, ÎÎ The Temple of Apollo worshipped the deities Apollo and burning incense and wearing myrtle wreaths. The Diana the huntress, and possibly Mercury, and shows the ceremonies and prayers were supposed to engender good Greek origins of the town. relationships, especially physical relations, with men. ÎÎThe Roman tradition existed alongside the foreign cults of Isis and Dionysus. Isis was the patron of sailors and the Tombs wealth and prosperity of Pompeii depended largely on ÎÎImages of skulls and skeletons abound in Pompeii and sea trade. Herculaneum, reminding the Romans of the brevity of life. ÎÎThe evidence for these cults is plentiful and displayed in ÎÎDuring the Augustan Age, Pompeians took to imitating archaeological remains as well as written and pictorial the Romans in funerary matters and built grand tombs records. However, there are no traces of Christianity or flanking the roads out of town. Traditionally the Pompeian the Mithras cult in the sources. cemeteries were enclosed and away from the roads but ÎÎThe worship of the Egyptian goddess Isis became the Roman Imperial culture changed these burial habits. state religion of the late nobility of Pompeii. It was ÎÎRoman burial customs meant that remains were cremated brought to Pompeii through trade links with Alexandria. and interred in terracotta or glass jars and placed in The temple was surrounded by high walls and the cult mortuary buildings. These usually belonged to households was considered a mystery religion. Although at first and included the family, slaves, and freedmen and women. favoured by slaves and freedmen it was a very wealthy ÎÎPeople who were too poor or without families often cult. This is obvious from the treasures found with the belonged to funeral clubs. corpses of its priests. A third of the names in cult ÎÎThere were eight necropolises outside Pompeii, with the inscriptions are female and women could attain high two largest being outside the Nucerian and Herculaneum positions within the cult. Gates. Sometimes there were shops and houses ÎÎThe Isis cult combined the celebration of wealth and intermixed with the tombs. pleasure in a majestic manner. The Temple of Isis was ÎÎPopular were the ‘altar tombs’ which recounted the quickly and completely rebuilt after the earthquake of achievements and wealth of the deceased, as well as his 63 BCE. Its benefactor, Numerius Popidius Celsinus, was political and social rank (only a handful of these tombs given a seat in the Senate for his contributions.

20 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 20 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY ÎÎNotable citizens could be awarded a public funeral or seat ÎÎ-A library of Greek work found in the Villa of Papyri Chaptertomb by decree of the town council; for example, Mamia, shows the esteem in which Greek philosophy was held. a public priestess, and even freedmen, such as Marcus ÎÎThe buildings included the larger theatre, the palaestra, NoniusCities Marcianus. of Vesuviusthe Temple of Isis, the first baths, the gymnasium of the ÎÎThese tombs expose the new competition for rank and Doric temple, the beginning of the forum and the paving status which was prevalent in the Imperial Age within of the main streets. PompeiiPompeii itself. By following theseand ‘streets of tombs’ ÎÎThe Triangular Forum had the character of a Greek travellers could learn about theHerculaneum city and its elite acropolis. inhabitants (the dominobiles) before they arrived. The ÎÎThe Greek influence in architecture is evidenced in the tombs were set like an introduction to the city and its Temple of Apollo, the ‘Doric’ temple in the Triangular prominent families and citizens. Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Forum with its 48 columns and in domestic housing, Introduction evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside ÎÎThe key elements were exhibition and self-promotion which copied Greek civilisation in its courtyards, gardens, the city walls. ›› Thewhich volcanic went eruption with public of 79 life CE andwas werea disaster celebrated for the in a rooms and watercourses. The themes of statues, vase ÎÎ inhabitants‘public’ style of Pompeii of death. and Herculaneum but the volcano Thepaintings processing and of floor agricultural mosaics wereproducts often is of evidenced Greek mythology, in ÎdidÎUnique more than to Pompeii take thousands were the of ‘bench’ lives: it orsealed ‘seat’ the tombs cities where manywhile small some workshops furniture in contained Pompeii. scenes Pompeii of classicalwas an art and undertravelers a layer could of ash sit and and lava, rest thereby outside preserving the city theand remains read and importantwere adapted industrial from andGreek trading carpentry centre and and masonry port according techniques. of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This ponder the life of some prominent person whose death ÎÎThe amphitheatre was in the east of the city. It was built study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate afforded their resting place. in 80 BCE and had two main entrances with external and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views. ÎÎNo tombs have been found in Herculaneum. stairs and ramps. It was built in the Hellenistic style glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. which was continued after the occupation. It is the oldest lavaknown flow. The amphitheatre. city walls followed the path of the lava flow. Î Key QUESTION Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of ÎÎThe forum represented both the Greek concept of space, the site is currently excavated. 10 Discuss the main features of religion in the cities of which respected democratic structures such as meeting SURVEY ÎÎ Vesuvius. Pompeiiplaces was and completely open areas, covered and the and Roman hermetically hierarchical sealed THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING ANDAnswer p. 32 by structurea seven-metre of society, layer ofas volcanicseen in seating ash, lapilli arrangements (rock in NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments)the theatre. and The pumice influence (heavy of rock)the Emperor from Vesuvius cult is obvious in 79 CE.in some About of thethree structures to four metres in the offorum. the blanket was ÎÎPompeiiThe influence is situated of 20 Greek kilometres and southeast Egyptian of Naples cultures on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, ÎÎEgypt became part of the Roman Empire in the late 1st the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. Art and architecture century BCE. As was usual, Rome adopted some of the peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎ ÎÎThe name ‘Herculaneum’ comes from the Greek hero Herculaneumfeatures and was interests covered of byits acquisition.heavy rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to Hercules. ÎÎArtistic influences can be seen in the Nile scenes in mosaics volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified ÎÎGreeks had occupied both towns around the 6th century BCE. in the House of the Faun, which feature Egyptian plants the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult and animals. ÎÎTheÎThe Apennine Greek architect Mountains Hippodames are to the eastlaid ofout Pompeii, the grid system to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuviusof Pompeii. is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient Îcompleted.ÎThe Alexander mosaic was created by Egyptian craftsmen. ÎSamusÎRomans River) highly is in prizedthe south. Hellenistic Pompeii culture. lies at the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above Îof theÎFrescoes Sarno incorporate River, a broad, Greek navigable columns, river mythology important (e.g. in ÎHerculaneum,ÎIsis was very later popular. hampering She features its excavation. in frescoes Fishing and statues Pompeii’sApollo) commercial and comedy history. and tragedy masks. The House of was(e.g. the inmain the industryHouse of of Octavius Herculaneum. Quatrio). Dozens of household shrines to Isis have been found and a shrine ÎÎIn ancientthe Faun times is an Herculaneum important source was forlocated evidence directly of Greek on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, to Isis, Serapis and Anubis was found in the House of theinfluence, Bay of Naples as seen on ina steeply representations sloping spur of Dionysus ending in and a the after the eruption. cliff,form bordered of a small on both Greek sides theatre. by deep ravines. Gilded Cupids. ÎÎ ÎÎMartialÎStatues praises (e.g.in the the area Villa under of Papyri) Vesuvius of gods as favoured and heroes by (e.g. garumThe: a Temple salty fermented of Isis in fishPompeii sauce, had popular a banquet in Pompeii hall and a ‘Bacchus,Hercules)are Venus, thought Hercules to and be copied the Satyrs’. from The Greek rich originals. and storeHerculaneum room for andNile some water (though used in notpurification all) parts rites.of This was badly damaged in 63 CE but was fully reconstructed ÎagriculturalÎPublic porticoes area under and Vesuviusbuildings is used a fertile three plain different of Greek the Empire by 79 CE. This cult was popular with women, sailors and phosphorusstyle columns: and potash. Doric, Ionic,The crop and yield Corinthian. of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that freedmen. ÎÎThe peristyle feature is a Greek structure. ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but ÎÎBes, the god of women and children, was also popular; ÎinÎ theThe entire theatre world. was an Nowhere ancient Greekis the climatecultural gentler.pastime. Spring Theatres Î Kstatuesey QUESTION and amulets of him have been found. comesalso withreflect its Greek flowers influence twice a yearand there.compress Nowhere all Greek is the 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soilelements richer’. (the Theatron, Orchestra and Skene) into one. Îfeatures Key ofQUESTION Campania. ÎÎ ÎOlder temples show Greek influence, such as the Temple The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 andof wine Apollo. but Someits industries retain Greek included names sheep while products, others are 11 How did Greek and Egyptian culture influence millstones,Romanised; fish forsauce example, (garum Aphrodite), perfume, became and a clothVenus. and Pompeii and Herculaneum? Answer p. 32 dyeTemple industry architecture of unknown was commercial also influenced importance. by the Greeks. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 21

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 214 18/1/19 5:18 pm FOCUS OF STUDY RECONSTRUCTING AND CONSERVING THE PAST

1 Changing interpretations

Impact of new research and technologies ÎÎInterpretations surrounding Pompeii and Herculaneum have been constantly changing as new research and technologies bring to light new possibilities. ÎÎUp until the 1970s it was thought necessary to excavate as much as possible. This was challenged by Superintendent Fausto Zevi, who placed a moratorium on digging at the site so what had already been uncovered could be preserved. Figure 1.10 Single-cell brothel This has meant that archaeologists have been challenged ÎÎIn 2004 Thomas McGinn challenged these criteria on the to look at old excavations in new ways and consider basis they were too narrow, as taverns and private houses different possibilities. could also operate as establishments for sex. This recalculation raised the number to 41. The Herculaneum scrolls ÎÎThese interpretations are important as it shows us what the ÎÎ The Herculaneum scrolls were carbonised papyrus scrolls Romans might have thought about sex and morals, and how found in a room at the Villa of the Papyri. Initially these we often frame history in terms of what we understand. For were manually unrolled or by using a basic machine but example, Wallace-Hadrill felt that 35 brothels was too these methods often destroyed the scrolls or the writing many but this number was not enough for McGinn. on them. In 1999 a new project was undertaken to use multi-spectral imaging (MSI) to scan the scrolls and in Who remained behind? 2009 a French project used X-rays and micro-computed ÎÎPreviously it was thought that only the old, infirm, women tomography to examine the internal structure of the scrolls. and children were left behind in Pompeii and Herculaneum. This revealed that if they were unrolled they would be between 11 and 15 metres long and densely packed, ÎÎWork by Estelle Lazer on the skeletons and casts have making them almost impossible to unroll. Since then the shown that there was a roughly equal distribution of men focus has been on scanning the scrolls, identifying letters and women, from a range of age groups. Few skeletons of and placing them in sequence in a project undertaken by children have survived. the National Centre for Scientific Research in Paris and ÎÎRecent CT scans have also dismissed some of the previous Google. It is challenging as the carbon ink does not show names given to plaster casts; for example, one of the up clearly on the carbonised scrolls but new research ‘pregnant women’ was found not to be so. Another one shows that some of the scrolls may be written in lead ink, was called ‘the beggar’ due to his holding a pouch in his which may open up new possibilities. left hand for collecting coins. The scanning revealed that ÎÎThese scrolls are significant as many scrolls from classical the pouch was nothing more than a blob of miscast plaster. literature have been lost. There is a chance that lost works ÎÎThe remains show generally good nutrition, which (or new works, previously unseen) may be among the challenges the notion that sick people were left behind. Herculaneum scrolls. They give us a glimpse into what ÎÎThis is important as it both challenges traditional some Romans were interested in reading, such as thinking and the importance of testing assertions. writings by the Greek philosopher Philodemus. Manner of death Brothels ÎÎ ÎÎPreviously it was thought that Pompeii contained over 35 It was traditionally accepted that the people who died brothels. This would mean approximately one brothel per did so of suffocation from the dust and gases. However, 71 males which would be a disproportionately high number. recent research indicates that people died in a range of In 1995 Andrew Wallace-Hadrill developed criteria for ways; for example, almost 400 died from falling rocks identifying brothels. These included structural evidence and collapsing buildings. of a masonry bed set in a small cell for ready access to the ÎÎWork undertaken by Pier Paol Petrone, Guiseppe public, the presence of paintings of explicit sexual scenes, Matrolorenzo and Peter Baxter shows that most of the and the cluster of graffiti lauding bene futui (good sexual people from both cities died almost instantaneously of partners). These criteria reduced the number of purpose- thermal shock, the result of exposure to temperatures of built brothels to one larger establishment (the lupanar) between 250 and 500 degrees. This is important for our © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8 and nine cella (single-cell brothels). understanding of the impact of volcanic eruptions.

22 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 22 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY Pompeii’s economy - ÎChapterÎAfter the earthquake of 63 CE the writer Seneca claimed Î Key QUESTION that some people left the area due to the quake’s severity 12 How has our understanding of life and death in the and longevity.Cities of Vesuvius cities of Vesuvius been changed by: ÎÎ There was extensive repair and restoration work undertaken a new research? though some historians argue that the earthquake changed b societyPompeii and the economy. Maiuri and claimed that a social new technology? Herculaneum Answer p. 33 revolution was taking place throughout Rome at the time and the earthquake exacerbated this. His evidence to support the claim that the wealthy upper class was slowly Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introductionbeing replaced by a lower commercial class is the 2 Issues of conservation and supposed selling off of parts of wealthy houses for use as evidencedreconstruction everywhere, even on small garden plots inside the city walls. ›› Theworkshops volcanic eruptionand shops, of 79which CE was he abelieves disaster shows for the economic ÎÎ inhabitantsdecline. Penelope of Pompeii Allison and Herculaneum confirmed this but interpretationthe volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in didin more 1994, than citing take the thousands number of lives:buildings it sealed that the were cities still many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an underunrepaired a layer of by ash 79 CE. and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according ÎofÎ However,two vibrant, John prosperous Dobbins Roman and the towns. Pompeii By methodical Forum Project to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This studyshowed of the that ruins the and city artefacts was undergoing of these sites, urban historians renewal, with attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate andnew archaeologists buildings and have restoration been able happening to gain a unique in the forum. and magnificent sea views. glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the This was supported by the research of the Menander ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. Insula Project, which showed that the house was being lava flow. The city walls followed the path of the lava flow. redecorated and transformed at the time of the eruption. Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of ÎÎIn 2003 Penelope Allison stated that the integration of the site is currently excavated. SURVEYworkshops and houses showed that houses were more ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed THEcomplex GEOGRAPHICAL spaces than previously SETTING thought AND and that home by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURALowners could FEATURES merely have OF been CAMPANIA exploiting their property fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in to expand their businesses. 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on Figure 1.11 Stray dog at Pompeii ÎÎThese debates are important as each contribution creates pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian a more complex understanding of the towns in the ÎincludingÎTable 1.1 Stabiae, outlines Herculaneum the major issues and Oplontis.surrounding peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies lead-up to the eruption. ÎÎHerculaneumconservation was at coveredPompeii by and heavy Herculaneum. rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to Tablevolcanic 1.1 Conservationeruption of Mt issues Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. Issue Problems Solution mud (about 18 metres). It hasEffectiveness been much more difficult ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt VesuviusWeathering is to This the covers north theand effects the Sarno of sunlight River (ancientThe Herculaneumcompleted. Conservation Work in Herculaneum has been Samus River) is inand the rain south. (including Pompeii acid lies rain) at asthe well mouth Project was initiated in 2000 by Andrew effective. as earth tremors. Wallace-HadrillÎÎThe and city the of Packard Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Pompeii still does not have Paintings are fading, floors are lifting Humanities Institute.Herculaneum, later hamperingdrainage. its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. and walls are damp ridden. It tackled issueswas of the rainwater main industry damage of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times ItHerculaneum has been estimated was located that by directly 1977 on by installingÎ ÎadequateThe area drainage of Pompeii and was known as Civitas, or The City, the Bay of Naplesapproximately on a steeply sloping50% of frescoes spur ending had in abuilding protectiveafter thestructures. eruption. cliff, bordered onbeen both lost sides (Descoudres by deep ravines. and Francis). It is also developing new technologies ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured byfor protecting exposed carbonised wood; roofs have beengarum placed: a salty over fermented much of fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich the sites to preventand Herculaneum further damage. and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorusPlants and Thirty-onepotash. The types crop of yieldparasitic of the plants plains wasThe University of Sheffield undertook While gardens that have been (and is) six timeshave that been of the found. rest of Italy. Florus states thata program between 1999–2007 to established are doing well (e.g. ‘Campania’s coastalThey area are isthreatening the finest, building not only in Italy butre-establish gardens and orchards to House of Venus), weeds continue help eradicate weeds. to flourish. in the entire world.foundations Nowhere and is the dislodging climate tiles,gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION mosaics and mortar. The Great Pompeii Project (est. 2015) comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the has also begun1 undertakingOutline the regular geographical setting and natural soil richer’. weeding programs.features of Campania. ÎÎThe main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Animals Stray dogs have been a problem in In 2010 the superintendent announced The adoption programAnswer has p. had 30 and wine but its Pompeii,industries inadvertently included sheep causing products, an adoption program. limited success as it is expensive millstones, fish saucedamage (garum to buildings), perfume, and being and a cloth andThere are also pounds which house and time consuming. dye industry of unknownaggressive commercial at times to tourists. importance. stray dogs. Pounds are overrun with dogs. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 23

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 234 18/1/19 5:18 pm Table 1.1 continued Issue Problems Solution Effectiveness Animals Pigeons have been a problem in The Herculaneum Conservation The falconry program has proven (continued) Herculaneum as their faeces is Project introduced the use of falconry successful and the pigeon problem acidic, which causes damage to to control the pigeon population. is slowly being contained. buildings and frescoes.

Previous Previous excavations (particularly Roman-style mortar has been The use of mortar has been excavations/ those by Spinazzola) and developed by the Herculaneum successful in creating more restorations restorations (e.g. Maiuri and the use Conservation Project. sympathetic restorations. of concrete) have seen the collapse Improved scaffolding has been used Scaffolding is helpful in supporting and deterioration of some buildings. to support buildings. buildings but it is still intrusive. The Great Pompeii Project is developing The Great Pompeii Project is still a survey of buildings to gauge need. in its early days so it is difficult to tell how successful it will be.

Site Until the 1970s emphasis was on Revenue from tourist takings has been In 2016 the Great Pompeii Project management excavation but this has changed to redirected into Pompeii and began in earnest, introducing a conservation. Herculaneum site management. range of new projects (see below). There have been charges of UNESCO has contributed over 100 Greater community involvement corruption and over-administration million Euros to the conservation of has seen greater stakeholder at all levels of government. Pompeii; the Italian government interest from a range of groups. There are problems with local announced in 2016 they would add populations who are not invested in to this. the sites. There has been a greater level of scrutiny from international community (e.g. UNESCO). The Herculaneum Conservation Project has been careful to work with the superintendent. The Great Pompeii Project is addressing issues of corruption and local communities.

Organised Organised crime groups profiteering In 2013 General Giovanni Nistri, a senior Some cases have been heard in crime from restoration work and then member of the Italian Carabineiri, was court and investigations continue. doing it badly has impacted on costs appointed to work against crime and and caused damage to buildings. corruption in the area. It is suspected that they have been The Great Pompeii Project is introducing behind the collapse of some buildings. better training of guards and There is a black market for antiquities functioning security cameras. so theft from the sites is also a problem.

ÎÎDifferent projects undertaken by various groups have ÎÎFrom 2003 original artefacts were moved to museums shown the range of Italian and international contributions and copies placed in situ. to the conservation and reconstruction of Pompeii, ÎÎGuides have been receiving better training to ensure Herculaneum and the other cities of Vesuvius, such as protection of the sites. Boscareale, Oplontis, Misenum and Boscotrecase. ÎÎIn 2016 the Italian government announced new funding Italian contributions and responsibilities for archaeological sites. Archaeological superintendence of Naples The Great Pompeii Project and Caserta ÎÎThe Italian government passed a law to develop an action ÎÎIn 1997 revenue from the sites was diverted back into site plan for a special urgent program of conservation, management. There was development of management maintenance, and restoration. This became known as the plans to rotate access to buildings to reduce stress, as well Great Pompeii Project. It was enacted in December 2015 as providing better signage and training of guards. and managed by Giovanni Mistri (Decree Law no. 34/2011 (Art. 2). ÎÎThe focus has moved from excavation to the use of digital technologies to record and preserve the sites. ÎÎIn 2012 the European Union agreed to provide funding © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8 to the Italian government to rescue Pompeii.

24 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 24 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY ÎÎIts aim is to enhance the effectiveness of the actions and 3- Ethical issues Chapterinterventions for protecting the archaeological area of Pompeii by developing a special urgent program of Excavation and conservation conservation, maintenance and restoration. Cities of VesuviusÎÎThere has been consistent tension between excavation and ÎÎ It will cost approximately 105 million Euros, funded conservation. There is the saying ‘to dig is to destroy’ between the ERDF (European Regional Development and there is much evidence to support this at Pompeii Fund)Pompeii and Italian national funds. and It aimed at the and Herculaneum. requalification for World HeritageHerculaneum Listing of the ÎÎIn the past the emphasis has been very much on excavation. archaeological site of Pompeii. Now it is accepted that conservation is preferable until ÎÎIt has a range of plans to conserve and consolidate Agriculturesuch time was as archaeology the cash crop has and advanced intensive to farming ensure was Introductionexisting excavations, and has restored and reopened the non-invasive investigations. Casa della Fontana Piccola (House of the Little Fountain), evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside ÎÎOne site which has caused considerable debate is the Casa di Paquio Proculo, Casa del Frutteto (House of the the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the Villa of the Papyri, with classical scholars deeply Orchard), Casa della Fullonica di Stephanus (House of ÎÎThe processing of agricultural products is evidenced in inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano interested in further excavations of another library. didthe more Fullery than oftake Stephanus) thousands and of lives: Casa it del sealed Sacerdos the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an ÎÎThe focus on re-examining existing materials has resulted underAmandus. a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according in some interesting new debates, as outlined above. ÎofÎ Ittwo has vibrant, been criticised prosperous for Roman taking towns.four years By methodical to begin the to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This ÎÎ studytender of the process ruins and artefactsfocusing ofon these grand sites, restoration historians rather attractedThere areRoman guidelines investment which as support they enjoyed reconstruction the climate and andthan archaeologists day-to-day havemaintenance. been able to gain a unique andexcavation. magnificent These sea views.include the Venice Charter and the glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeiiCharter city for is Protection an oval shape and andManagement rests on a of prehistoric Archaeological InternationalEmpire, as it was livedcontributions nearly 2000 years and ago. responsibilities lavaHeritage. flow. The The city Council walls followed of Europe the haspath also of theoutlined lava flow. Pompeiirecommendations, covers 66 hectares including: and about three quarters of Herculaneum Conservation Project the• site responsibility is currently excavated.begins with excavation ÎÎThe Herculaneum Conservation Project was set up by • no treatment to be used that may endanger the sites SURVEY ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed David Packard (Packard Humanities Institute) in 2001 • minimum intervention by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock THEwith GEOGRAPHICAL support from the British SETTING School at AND Rome, with the • use of current reversible techniques fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in NATURALencouragement FEATURES of Andrew OF Wallace-Hadrill. CAMPANIA It began as • all intervention should be detectable; that is, obviously 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was an emergency campaign but developed into a project to restored, and documented. ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, preserve and research Herculaneum. This has been done ÎÎSome contend that the site will inevitably collapse because: the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. all objects deteriorate and change is inevitable peninsulaby bringing in the in region more funding,of South safeguardingCampania. Today the site, it lies • ÎÎHerculaneum‘it is inappropriate was covered to byrestore heavy to rock a pristine fill, not state’ just (Pye, ash twodeveloping kilometres an inland overarching from the plan coast (in due consultation to lava from with the the • and pumice2001) as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanicsuperintendent), eruption of combining Mt Vesuvius old in and 79 CE new spreading technologies into Vesuvius.preservation, It was buried restoration again in and 1631 reconstruction by hard solidified can ‘offer theand sea. developing strong ties with the community so they • have a vested interest. mud (abouta highly 18 distorted, metres). Itfragmentary has been much version more of difficultthe past’ ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far ÎÎIt has attained success in its water management and (Stille, 2003) Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. drainage program; made discoveries at the Insulae • as stated by Mary Beard, the British classical historian, Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎ Orientalis, Villa of Papyri and Basilica Noniana; and The city‘it’s of had Resina-Ercolano a good innings was and built it wasn’t on the very site well above built to of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum,begin with’. later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’sfound that commercial the 79 CE history. shoreline was comprised of black volcanic sand (showing earlier eruptions). It also was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎ Study and display of human remains In ancientdeveloped times Roman-era Herculaneum mortar was for located restoration directly and on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, theinitiated Bay of Naples the use on of a falconry steeply sloping to control spur pigeons. ending in a ÎafterÎIt isthe necessary eruption. to consider the following questions when cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. examining the ethics of the study and display of human ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by remains. Î Key QUESTION garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and •Herculaneum Are skeletal and remains some just (though like other not all) artefacts? parts of agricultural13 Outline area the undermain issuesVesuvius relating is a fertile to conservation plain of and the Empire• Who has custodianship of the human remains? phosphorusreconstruction, and potash. and The what crop Italian yield and of the International plains was • How far can scientific specialists go to analyse human (and organisationsis) six times that are of doing the rest to manageof Italy. Florusthem. states that remains? ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not onlyAnswer in Italy but p. 33 • Should the interests of one group outweigh another’s? in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring ÎÎ ÎKIney Western QUESTION culture, and particularly in Italy, the display comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the of the dead has not been considered an issue. In places 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. such as Paris and Rome there are catacombs that have the features of Campania. ÎÎ bones of the dead displayed in patterns for tourists to see. The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, In many churches there are relics of saints’ fingers and millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and toes on display. At funerals, there is a choice for open dye industry of unknown commercial importance. caskets. These factors laid the foundation for the display

of the dead at Pompeii. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 25

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 254 18/1/19 5:18 pm ÎÎDr Estelle Lazer’s work has been vital in uncovering scientific and medical information about the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum, informing our understanding without making generalisations. ÎÎRecent CT scans of plaster casts from Pompeii have revealed that earlier conservationists inserted metal rods to keep the casts stable. ÎÎMuch of the relatively recent work on human remains has been guided by the Vermillion Accord of 1989. ÎÎSoren Holm, a philosopher and bioethicist, states that there are situations where the rights of the dead themselves should be taken into account. The decisive factor is whether a person is identifiable and therefore still has a reputation that can be damaged. Figure 1.12 Boatsheds from Herculaneum ÎÎIn early excavations it was common for skeletons to be Î Key QUESTION displayed in tableaux, or narrative scenes, to entertain tourists. 14 Outline the key issues relating to: ÎÎIn more recent times, with the growing sensitivity to the a excavation handling of human remains in response to concerns b the study and display of human remains. raised by religions such as Judaism and Islam, and Answer p. 33 indigenous cultures such as Native Americans and Aboriginal Australians, there has been an attempt to engage in more thoughtful displays. 4 Value and impact of tourism ÎÎAnother complication is that some do not consider the plaster casts to be remains at all but merely copies of Problems and solutions those once living, like a funeral mask. Often, too, the ÎÎAround three million tourists visit Pompeii each year. casts that are on display are not the originals but copies. In contrast, about 300 000 visit Herculaneum. ÎÎIn 2006 the International Council of Museums (ICOM) ÎÎWhile tourists bring in valuable revenue and recognition Code of Ethics for Museums was released; it provided there is concern that they are destroying the town of guidelines for the display and treatment of human remains. Pompeii. The footpaths are soft volcanic stone and are ÎÎ Human remains and casts are now often sectioned off in wearing down as a result, exposing pipes and breaking a separate area of museums or exhibitions with a sign curbstones. which warns that representations of human remains are ÎÎTourists are also deliberately damaging Pompeii, with present. At times, holographs have been used instead of modern graffiti and theft on the rise, including the actual remains. stealing of reproduction statues. ÎÎThe skeletons at Herculaneum have all been preserved in ÎÎAndrew Wallace-Hadrill has declared it the ‘second death appropriate conditions, with copies placed in the of Pompeii’ whereas Mary Beard has stated that ‘it doesn’t boatsheds (which are not open to display). really matter if tourists destroy’ Pompeii as ‘it wasn’t very ÎÎ Professor Mary Beard has said that the display of human well built to begin with’ and a third of the site is still remains is vital for creating interest and a connection to safely unexcavated. the past. ÎÎIn terms of studying the remains there is general Î Key QUESTIONS acceptance that there is much to be learned from the remains but debates arise as to how this might occur. 15 Discuss issues regarding the value and impact of ÎÎFor example, Sara Bisel’s work was criticised in that she tourism and the problems and solutions that exist. ‘storified’ the remains, creating narratives around them Answer p. 34 which could not be substantiated with evidence. Examples include ‘pretty lady’ or ‘slave girl’. This means that the individuals behind these remains were denied their true existence. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

26 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 26 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 - Core StudY HSCChapter Exam-TYPE Questions Cities of Vesuvius Now for the real thing! The following questions are modelled on the types of questions you will face in the HSC Examination. Think about it: if you get extensive practice at answering these sorts of questions, you will be more confident in answering them.Pompeii It makes sense, doesn’t it?and Another advantage for your examHerculaneum preparation is the format of the answers: they are deliberately structured to give you strategies on how to answer examination questions. This will help you aim for full marks! The Examiner Maximiser ( ) at the beginning of every suggested answer provides you with Examiner-type tips. Each short-answer question has a sample answer. Each extended-response question has a scaffolded sample Agricultureanswer. was the cash crop and intensive farming was IntroductionWhen you mark your work, highlight any questions you found difficultevidenced and earmarkeverywhere, these even areas on for small extra garden study. plots inside Note: Some of the sample answers may contain additional informationthe city to walls. that which is in the chapter. This provides you ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the with extra information on the topic and reflects the fact that ÎyouÎ are expected to draw your information from a range of inprimaryhabitants and of secondaryPompeii and sources. Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according Questionof two vibrant, prosperous 1 Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate Outlineand archaeologists the early have excavations been able to gain at a unique the sites of Pompeiiand magnificentand Herculaneum. sea views. (3 marks) glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lava flow. The city walls followed the path of the lava flow. Suggested answer Pompeiiwere under covers the 66 control hectares of and various about foreign three rulersquarters who of were themore site is interested currently inexcavated. the classical treasures that could be unearthed than in understanding the nature of the towns. EMSURVEY You will need to outline information here, which means ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed indicate the main features. Î THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by Froma seven-metre the 15th layerto the of 17th volcanic centuries ash, lapilliboth cities (rock were excavated. In 1734 the French King Charles VII appointed NATURALFor three marks FEATURES you will need OF to writeCAMPANIA a brief paragraph fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in with at least three clear, different points about early 79 CE.military About engineer three toRoque four metresJoaquin of de the Alcubierre blanket wasto continue ÎÎPompeiiexcavations is situated and the 20 archaeologists kilometres southeast of the time. of Naples on pumice.excavations Other atcities Herculaneum. to the southeast The excavatorswere also buried, tunnelled theYou Bay should of Naples, spend onaround the western 4–5 minutescoast of theanswering Italian this includingthrough Stabiae, houses Herculaneumand walls, destroying and Oplontis. artefacts and frescoes in the process. Karl Weber and Johann Winckelmann peninsulaquestion. in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash took more scientific approaches and recorded much of two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to what they found but also did much damage. It was not volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE until Fiorelli was placed in charge that a generally more the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult systematic and cautious approach was undertaken. ÎÎThe Early Apennine excavations Mountains at Pompeii are to and the eastHerculaneum of Pompeii, were to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuviusmore treasure is to huntingthe north than and archaeology. the Sarno River These (ancient areas completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in A quick note! All the major headings in this guide (like theHerculaneum, ones below) laterare basedhampering on the its excavation.syllabus dot Fishing points. Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎ In ancient SURVEY times Herculaneum was located directly on ContentÎ ÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, the THEBay GEOGRAPHICALof Naples on a steeply SETTING sloping AND NATURALspur ending in a AncientStudents investigate: Historyafter the Stage eruption. 6 Syllabus cliff,FEATURES bordered OF on CAMPANIA both sides by deep ravines. Survey ÎÎMartialÎ Pompeii praises is situated the 20 kilometresarea under southeast Vesuvius of Naples on as the favoured Bay of by • the geographical setting and natural features of Campania (ACHAH365, ACHAH371) Naples, on the western coast of the Italian peninsula in the region of • the eruptiongarum of AD 79: aand salty its impact fermented on Pompeii andfish Herculaneum sauce, popular (ACHAH367, in ACHAH372) Pompeii ‘Bacchus,South Campania. Venus, Today Hercules it lies two andkilometres the inland Satyrs’. from theThe coast rich • early discandoveries Herculaneum and the changing nature and of some excavations (though in the 19th not and all) 20th parts centuries of agriculturaldue to lava fromarea the under volcanic Vesuviuseruption of Mt isVesuvius a fertile in 79 CE plain of (ACHAH369) spreading into the sea. • representationsthe Empire of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time (ACHAH383) phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states thatFo cus of study ‘Campania’s FOCUS OFcoastal STUDY area is the finest, not only in Italy butRec onstructing and conserving the past RECONSTRUCTING AND CONSERVING THE PAST • changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies (ACHAH381, ACHAH385) in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes1 Changing with its flowers interpretations twice a year there. Nowhere is the • issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities1 Outline (ACHAH370) the geographical setting and natural soilImpact richer’. of new research and technologies • ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains (ACHAH370) Î features of Campania. ÎÎ Interpretations surrounding Pompeii and Herculaneum have been The mainconstantly agricultural changing as new productsresearch and technologies of Pompeii bring towere light olive oil• value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions (ACHAH370) Answer p. 30 and winenew possibilities. but its industries included sheep products, Î Up until the 1970s it was thought necessary to excavate as much as millstones,possible. Thisfish was sauce challenged (garum by Superintendent), perfume, Fausto Zevi, and who a cloth and placed a moratorium on digging at the site so what had already been dye industryremoved could of be unknown preserved. commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 27

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 274 18/1/19 5:18 pm

Ancient History Stage 6 Syllabus 63 Question 2

To what extent do Sources A and B provide a comprehensive picture of religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum? Support your response with reference to these and other relevant sources. (7 marks)

Source A: fresco of Hercules from the College of the Source B: inscription from the Temple of Isis, Pompeii Augustales, Herculaneum Numerius Popidius Celsinus, son of Numerius, rebuilt at his own expense from its foundations the Temple of Isis, which had collapsed in an earthquake, because of his generosity, although he was only six years old, the town councillors nominated him into their number free of charge. Source: Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Sourcebook, AE Cooley and MGL Cooley, Routledge, London, 2014

Source: image by Miguel Hermoso Cuesta, own work, [CC BY-SA 4.0], via Wikimedia Commons

Suggested answer Î Source B shows the political importance of religion in Pompeii. Numerius Popidius Celsinus, who was only six, EM The phrase to what extent requires you to make a apparently paid for the restoration of the Temple of Isis judgement of how much. You should spend 30–50% of your after the earthquake. As a result he was accepted into the answer focusing on how useful Sources A and B are in town council, showing the councillors’ gratitude for his telling us about religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum. actions. The Temple of Isis does appear to have been a Markers will be looking for what you can write about the popular foreign cult, showing Egyptian influence since values AND limitations of the sources; that is, both what Rome’s domination of Egypt in the 1st century BCE. The they can tell us about religion and what they cannot. temple was rapidly rebuilt after the earthquake, showing its importance to the people of the town, and artefacts For 7 marks you should spend around 12–15 minutes on this question. show it was a wealthy temple. Numerous amulets of Isis and Bes found throughout Pompeii also attest to their importance. KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE Î It is important to consider that the two sources focus on Î Sources A and B provide some indication of religion in public religion and its relation to politics and do not take Pompeii and Herculaneum but they are by no means into consideration the nature of private religion. Most comprehensive. houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum appear to have had Î Source A indicates the Greek influence on religion with a lararium, dedicated to the household spirits, with many its depiction of Hercules. Frescoes of the hero are small statues of the lares and family genii also being common throughout Herculaneum: this references the found. Daily prayers and offerings were led by the town’s Greek origins although the fresco itself is found in paterfamilia, and there were also dedications to Hestia, the College of the Augustales, which was dedicated to the the goddess of the hearth. The Villa of the Mysteries Imperial cult. This was a way for the town to cement its indicates involvement in the cult of Dionysius but this connections to Rome and the emperor, which was could be speculation. important politically. Î Private religion was also apparent in the seriousness with Î This cult was also found at Pompeii: the Temple of the which the residents approached death and burial. Tombs, Genius of Augustus/Vespasian contains an altar with a some elaborate and some simple, lined the streets from relief of sacrificial practices. Further consolidating this some of the gates of Pompeii. Many of these display connection with Rome is the Temple of the Capitoline statements on the occupant’s position in life and their Triad to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, so named when Sulla relations with others. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8 conquered the town in 80 BCE.

28 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 28 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY Î Religion was imbued into daily life and people could pray Î -Sources A and B also do not account for the range of Chapterto gods at many places, including the entrances to the gods worshipped. Apollo was worshipped at Pompeii and town and the forum. There were altars at crossroads and Venus was popular in both towns, with a temple and sacred gods inCities niches on streets in ofaddition toVesuvius hero worship and grove in Pompeii and a sacred area in Herculaneum. the depiction of gods in toilets, baths and bars. Much of She was the goddess of sailors and, with both towns being this attitude to private religion was based on the idea of ports, this was seen as significant. goodPompeii fortune. Herculaneumand Question 3

Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was IntroductionDoes the value of tourism at Pompeii and Herculaneum outweigh its impact? Support your response with reference to Sources C and D, andevidenced other relevant everywhere, sources. even on small (15 gardenmarks) plots inside the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the ÎÎ Sourceinhabitants C: image of Pompeii showing and Herculaneum modern graffiti but the on volcano a fresco SourceThe processing D: Mary of Beard agricultural extract products is evidenced in atdid Pompeii more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains importantIt does industrial not matter and if trading Pompeii centre is damaged and port according by visiting of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo,tourists, as Professorwell as a resort Mary for Beard wealthy has Romans. said, as Thisshe study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attractedargues Roman it would investment be ‘ghastly’ as they to enjoyed keep the the publicclimate and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique andaway magnificent from ancient sea views. ruins. glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeiiProf Beard,city is an a ovalCambridge shape and classicist rests on aand prehistoric leading Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lavaauthority flow. The oncity Roman walls followed history, the said path she of wasthe lava ‘culpably flow. Pompeiilaid back’ covers about66 hectares the crumblingand about three of houses quarters and of the walls,site is currentlyinsisting theyexcavated. must not be restricted to SURVEY ÎÎPompeiiacademics. was completely covered and hermetically sealed THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by aArguing seven-metre it is more layer ofimportant volcanic ash,the lapilliancient (rock world NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments)engages and the pumice imagination (heavy rock) of tourists, from Vesuvius keeping in them 79 CE.interested About three in history, to four she metres said of ‘The the worldblanket isn’t was going ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice.to stop Other if Pompeii cities to losesthe southeast a house’. were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies Source: www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/06/mary-beard-it-doesnt-really- ÎÎmatter-if-tourists-damage-pompeii/Herculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash Source:two kilometres Archaeology inlanddata services from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified Suggestedthe sea. answer KEYmud POINTS (about 18 TO metres). INCLUDE It has been much more difficult ÎÎ The Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, Îto excavateSource C and shows about intentional four city damageblocks are done so byfar tourists. Mt VesuviusEM There is isno to key the term north in this and question the Sarno but River it is asking (ancient completed.This is on the increase and, without sufficient supervision, Samusyou to River) make ais judgement. in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎThewill city continue. of Resina-Ercolano Tourists are was also built unintentionally on the site above damaging of theMarkers Sarno will River, be looking a broad, for references navigable toriver Sources important C and inD Herculaneum,Pompeii and later Herculaneum hampering with its excavation. the number Fishing of tourists Pompeii’sas well as commercial your knowledge history. of other sources. You need to wasfar the surpassing main industry anything of Herculaneum. the towns were meant for. The be clear and consistent on what you think about the ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThesoft area volcanic of Pompeii rock wasis wearing known away, as Civitas exposing, or The pipes City, and impact of tourism. A table has been provided below to crumbling kerbs. Tourists also touch frescoes and walls the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a after the eruption. cliff,assist bordered with weighing on both the sides evidence by deep ravines. and the oils in their hands causes damage. They also sit on walls and drop rubbish, which encourages stray dogs ÎÎMartialValue praises of tourism the area under VesuviusImpact as favoured of tourism by garumand: a vermin. salty fermented The main fish sites sauce, visited popular by tourists in Pompeii are the ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich 1997—revenue now channelled Damage, both and amphitheatre,Herculaneum andthe mainsome brothel (though and not the all) forum, parts of and many deliberate and agriculturalinto funding area the under sites Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empireshow little genuine interaction with the rest of the site. phosphorusIncreased awarenessand potash. and The crop yieldincidental of the plains was Î (andunderstanding is) six times of that the ofsites the and rest of of Italy.Theft Florus states that Source D is an extract from an interview with historian Mary Beard who thinks people responding to history is ‘Campania’shistory coastal area is the finest,Morbid not only fascination in Italy but more important than the site itself. Tourism generates a lot in theEducates entire tourists world. about Nowhere the is the climaterather than gentler. genuine Spring Î Key QUESTION of revenue for Italy—in 2016 it was 175 million Euros— comesnature with of archaeologyits flowers twice and the a year there.historical Nowhere interest is the fragility of the past 1 Outlineand this the goes geographical back into the setting management and natural of the sites. soil richer’. Little genuine Creates international interest, understanding of the featuresTourism of creates Campania. an interest in history and this can lead to ÎÎ Thethus main raising agricultural the towns’ products profile of Pompeiisites were olive oil support for the maintenance of the sites.Answer Beard also p. 30 andand wine support but its for industries their survival included sheep products, maintains that with one-third of the site still unexcavated millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and there is more material to work with in the future. dyeThis industry is a complex of unknown question commercial so you should importance. spend around 20–25 minutes on your answer. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 29

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 294 18/1/19 5:18 pm AnSWERS to Key Questions

in popular culture in television shows such as Doctor Who, in music Note: Some of the sample answers may contain additional (Bastille’s ‘Pompeii’) and the film Pompeii. This last example was not very information to that which is in the chapter. This provides accurate in its representations of the eruption but the scenes depicting you with extra information on the topic and reflects the fact city life were well conceived. Generally the nature of the towns has been that you are expected to draw your information from a range romanticised over time with the focus being on their tragic endings. of primary and secondary sources. Key question 5 p. 9 Key question 1 p. 4 Values and limitations of sources Campania lies to the south of Rome and is situated on the Bay of Values Limitations Naples. There is an extensive plain where the soil is extremely fertile due to its closeness to the volcano. The area is plentiful in water supply, Layout and streetscapes with spring and autumnal rains, and provided for by the Volturnus and Grid system shows Greek Do not show us the extent to Sarno rivers. The mildness of its weather and its fertile soil often allowed influence which people actually interacted for two harvests a year although some ancient writers claim three and The mixing of shops, housing or the population levels at possibly even four annual harvests. and other buildings shows different times Key question 2 p. 5 the intermingling of business The loss of second storeys in and personal life Pompeii has limited our The eruption of Vesuvius took place in 79 CE, possibly in August, but Gates and walls show how understanding of how houses most likely later: some historians have stated it was autumn, due to the Roman colonies organised and businesses were laid out heavy clothing found on the plastercast remains. The best-known evidence themselves for the eruption is from Pliny the Younger, who described it in a letter Graffiti, shrines, fountains and to Tacitus, many years after the eruption. It began with a shock of cloud wheel ruts suggest vibrancy rising into the atmosphere and then a rain of pumice which lasted hours. This caused buildings to collapse. Eventually the cloud collapsed, sending Public and private buildings a series of pyroclastic surges and flows over the area. Those who remained Public buildings show us Do not show how frequently behind died of thermal shock. Pompeii was affected mostly by what was important for the these buildings were actually pyroclastic flows of pumice, ash and gases while Herculaneum was hit functioning of the cities and used and how their function by flows and surges of hot ash and toxic gases that carbonised some also give an insight into the changed over time organic remains. Pliny’s description of the eruption has been supported religious, commercial and We do not know the exact by the work of Haraldur Sigardsson, an Icelandic volcanologist. political life of the cities functions of each of the political Private buildings give insight buildings Key question 3 p. 7 into domestic life as well as Our understanding of Roman Early discoveries were mainly in the form of chance discoveries at patron–client relationships domestic spaces is affected by Herculaneum that eventuated into treasure hunting throughout the Both public and private how we interpret our own area. This was sponsored by the rulers of the time, such as the French buildings give us an domestic spaces Bourbon, Austrian and Spanish kings. Initial work was rough but, as the understanding of Roman science of archaeology developed, so too did excavations improve. engineering and construction Winckelman introduced a methodical approach which was developed Ancient writers by others. In particular, Guiseppe Fiorelli is well known for the plaster casts of human remains he created from pockets in the ground where These provide an insight into Offer narrow perspectives; they bodies had decayed. He also recorded all finds, which has been helpful the mindset of the people of often wrote about Pompeii and for modern research. Fiorelli also systemised the location of finds by ancient Rome Herculaneum from a specific angle subdividing the town into regions, insulae and doorways. Spinazzola They also provide eyewitness Lack a ‘big picture’ view and do was also methodical; however, his excavations of the main street facades accounts and also indicate not have the same scientific caused damage due to his lack of understanding of the nature of excavations. fashions in decorations and understanding as we do He only excavated the fronts of buildings and over time this has caused changes in artistic tastes Pliny wrote his account many the volcanic debris behind to push out and thus cause damage. It should years later for a particular be noted though that his work was valuable in giving us an understanding purpose so it may be unreliable of an entire streetscape. Maiuri made some interesting discoveries but Official inscriptions his use of concrete to repair buildings did significant damage. In the 21st century there has been a moratorium on new excavations and the Provide information on Often only provide very basic focus has been on conservation and reconstruction instead. officials along with their roles information because their and contributions purpose was to perpetuate the Key question 4 p. 7 Provide information on memory of the person construction of buildings Inscriptions may have no The daily lives of the citizens of Pompeii and Herculaneum were represented provenance and thus no context on the walls of their houses. As an example frescoes, such as those in the Provide information about Praedia of Julia Felix, show activity in the forum. After the cities were familial connections and the rediscovered they became the focus of romanticised depictions with exotic importance of public paintings of the baths or the ruins, such as Mazois’s Ruins of Pompeii and benefaction in local society

30 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 30 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY Key- question 6 p. 11 Values Limitations The economies of Pompeii and Herculaneum were based on agriculture ChapterOfficial inscriptions and commerce. The main industries were olive oil, wine, garum, Provide informationCities on political ofThey Vesuvius may be woollen textiles and pottery, all of which have been found throughout structures and the existence of fragmentary and may the Mediterranean. This indicates strong levels of trade. religious colleges, such as Augustales not provide a complete There were a number of villa rusticae located outside Pompeii and HelpfulPompeii with dating as they andpicture of what or who Herculaneum which grew and made these products and these were sometimes mention emperors, Herculaneumwas involved supplemented by small market gardens within the city walls. Fishing and allowing us to cross-reference this garum were important industries and we have evidence for Scaurus’s with their period of rule ‘fine fish sauce’ being advertised. A number of fulleries have been found, such as that of Stephanus, as well as the building of Eumachia in Graffiti theAgriculture forum, which was contains the cash a statue crop to and her dedicatedintensive by farming the fullers’ was guild. There were some workshops that produced metalworks using bronze, IntroductionGives an insight into everyday It is personal so only evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside people’s lives provides the writers’ iron and silver. Commercethe city walls. was also an important aspect of the local economy, with wax ›› Is The plentiful volcanic and eruptionunique in ofscale 79 CEand was a disasterperspective for the ÎÎtablets detailing business loans, the sale of slaves and more. The food infoundhabitants in a range of Pompeii of internal and and Herculaneum It is butoften the biased volcano and The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in industry was also important with over 30 bakeries, 130 thermopolia and external locations unreliable because its many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities 20 cauponae being found in Pompeii alone. These businesses and others purpose was to ridicule, underHelps usa layer identify of ash the and purposes lava, thereby of preserving the remains wereimportant found mixed industrial in with and private trading housing. centre Business and was port often according transacted praise, damn, and so on ofsome two buildings, vibrant, prosperoussuch as taverns, Roman and towns. By methodical into the Strabo, forum asand well there as were a resort markets for in wealthy the macellum Romans. there. This studysuggests of thebehaviours, ruins and likes artefacts and of theseOften sites, fragmentary historians and attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate anddislikes archaeologists have been able to gainunclear a unique as to meaning Keyand question magnificent 7 p.sea 12 views. glimpse into life in a Roman town, and Humourby extension has changed the ÎÎThePompeii social citystructure is an in oval Pompeii shape and and Herculaneum rests on a prehistoricwas divided into over time Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. threelava broadflow. categories:The city walls freeborn followed citizens, the freedmen path of and the women lava flow. (liberti) Art: frescoes, mosaics, statues and slaves. In the freeborn and freedmen categories, the main social groupingPompeii was covers through 66 family,hectares with and the aboutfather asthree paterfamilias quarters of of the Provide an understanding of what Art is idealised and may family.the site This is currentlyunit included excavated. not just family members but also slaves. the SURVEY Romans found aesthetically not be an accurate ÎÎFreebornPompeii men was were completely the elite of covered Pompeii andand Herculaneumhermetically and sealed were pleasing or important; for example, representation oftenby a seven-metrewealthy landowners layer andof volcanicbusinessmen ash, who lapilli controlled (rock local THEEgyptian GEOGRAPHICAL frescoes and mosaics showSETTING Statues AND may be government.fragments) They and actedpumice as patrons (heavy to theirrock) ex-slaves from Vesuviusand businessmen in in NATURALexotic influences FEATURES OF CAMPANIAunnamed or incomplete the towns. One of the better known is Marcus Nonius Balbus, who had Provide information about clothing, and we may have no been79 CE. proconsul About and three built to the four Suburban metres Baths of the (although blanket Cooley was and ÎÎPompeiifood and ishousing situated 20 kilometres southeastrecord ofof where Naples a statue on Cooleypumice. challenge Other this cities notion to the as they southeast do not think were the also funerary buried, altar is theStatues Bay provideof Naples, insight on intothe western coastwas of found, the Italian making it sufficientincluding evidence Stabiae, for Herculaneum this). He was honouredand Oplontis. by the people of Crete difficult to identify after his governorship there so it has been suggested that he was patron peninsulaimportant membersin the region of society of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast Frescoesdue to lava were from damaged the of Herculaneum. Others were Marcus Holconius Rufus, a priest and All forms of art show the use of a patronand pumice of Pompeii as whoin Pompeii, also held thedue positions to its proximity of duumvir to and volcanicrange of technologyeruption of and Mt design Vesuvius in 79 CEby earlier spreading excavations into and are thus incomplete quinquennaleVesuvius. It, andwas Lucius buried Caecilius again inJucundus, 1631 by a banker.hard solidified Freeborn thetechniques; sea. for example, marble womenmud (about could run 18 businesses,metres). It such has as been Asellina much who more owned difficult a tavern. ÎÎsculpting and fresh plaster Others were priestesses such as Mamia and Eumachia. Many freeborn Theapplication Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient women would have had domestic duties, such as spinning and weaving, Shows that the towns changed over orcompleted. would have worked outside the home to supplement the family’s Samustime in River)tastes in is decor in the and south. artistic Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎincome.The city Evidence of Resina-Ercolano from wax tablets was shows built business on the transactions site above of thepractices Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in betweenHerculaneum, women. later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. Freedmen and women were ex-slaves who often went into business with Remains: human, animal and plant was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on their former masters and took their name. They could become wealthy Human remains reveal the health of Only a small percentage ÎÎinThe their area own of right, Pompeii such as was the knownVettii brothers. as Civitas Their, or children, The City, if born thethe Baycitizens of Naples of Pompeii on aand steeply slopingof spur human ending remains in a have afterafter they the becameeruption. free, could have citizenship status. Freed women cliff,Herculaneum bordered and on the both manner sides of by deep ravines.been discovered so it is could operate businesses, such as Naevoliea Tyche, or work outside the their deaths difficult to make home. These activities are well attested to on tomb inscriptions. ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii generalisations Slaves were an important part of Roman society and it has been ‘Bacchus,Human waste Venus, from Hercules sewers in and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agriculturalHerculaneum area has beenunder useful Vesuvius for is a fertileFew infant plain and of child estimated that they made up roughly 25% of the population. The discoveries regarding health and remains have survived the Empirebackground and skills of the slaves determined their roles; for example, phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was educated Greek slaves were popular as secretaries and tutors. Many disease, and insight into medical Plaster casts have (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that slaves were used as domestic help in workshops or on farms. Slaves treatment damaged much of the could also work at the baths or as entertainers or gladiators. ‘Campania’sRemains challenge coastal the area theory is the that finest, organicnot only material in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION only the old and sick were left behind There are limited animal Key question 8 p. 14 comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the Animal remains show what types remains so we do not 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soilwere richer’. kept as pets and as beasts of have a complete picture Political life is well attested to in Pompeii and Herculaneum through graffiti,features political of Campania. inscriptions on public buildings, tomb inscriptions and ÎÎburden of their roles The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil statues. Pompeii and Herculaneum were self-governingAnswer colonies p. 30who andPlant wine remains but showits industries us what types included of sheep products, had a patronus that could represent them in Rome. The patronus for millstones,fruit, vegetables, fish sauceflowers ( garumand trees), perfume, and a cloth and Herculaneum was Marcus Nonius Balbus while the patronus for dyewere industry grown, giving of unknown us an insight commercial into importance. Pompeii was Marcus Holconius Rufus. the economy and diet © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 31

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 314 18/1/19 5:18 pm Pompeii and Herculaneum were each governed by a town council, the Key question 10 p. 21 ordo decuronium, which was made up of 80–100 male citizens of good Religion was heavily influenced by Greek traditions although the Romans reputation. They were the legislative body that controlled all aspects of also adopted other cults. Religion was seen as an important aspect of public life such as finances, taxation and public religion. They also life as respectful worship of the gods ensured fertility and prosperity. It awarded tombs to celebrated citizens. The council was governed by two was also connected to politics with some cults being related to the emperor duoviri who oversaw law cases and paid for games at their own expense. and the imperial family. The main gods worshipped were Apollo, who They were elected annually. Cooley and Cooley write that these senior had a temple in the forum dating back as far as the 5th century BCE, magistrates presided over meetings of the council and were in charge of and the Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. fulfilling its decrees and approving public building contracts. They were Another popular god was Dionysus, as shown from the Villa of the assisted by two junior magistrates, or aediles, who were also elected Mysteries, while the number of frescoes of Hercules at Herculaneum annually. The aediles were responsible for administering the town and signify his importance. Venus was a popular goddess, with a temple in looking after temples, public buildings, roads, sewers, markets and Pompeii and sacred altar in Herculaneum. The emperor and imperial water supply. These positions were voted for by the electoral assembly, family had a number of temples in Pompeii: the Temple of the Genius the curia, which was made up of all Roman citizens of the towns. of Augustus and the Temple of Fortuna Augusta were both directly A quinquenniale was appointed every five years. This was a chief linked. In Herculaneum the College of the Augustales was connected to magistrate who determined who could be in the ordo decurionum, Rome and the emperor. It is unknown what the purpose of the Temple making this a powerful position. From graffiti we know that elections of the Public Lares was, with some historians speculating it was built for were hotly contested, with different guilds and individuals advocating the protection of the town after the earlier earthquake. for various candidates. Candidates usually ran on their personal Foreign cults also were popular, with the Temple of Isis in Pompeii qualities; for example, ‘He is a good man’, rather than on policy. Women being quickly rebuilt after the earthquake. Worshippers carried out were involved in promoting their preferred candidates but could not be rituals associated with Nile water and the restoration of Osiris. Some directly involved in politics themselves. evidence of the cult of Sabazius, a Thracian god of vegetation, has been Pompeii and Herculaneum had been made colonies in 80 BCE and found in both towns. Political changes in Rome in the 1st century BCE maintained their connection with Rome. In 59 CE there was a riot had an effect on cults in Pompeii; for example, the cults of Mercury and which caused the Emperor Nero to install a prefect to manage the town. Maia, worshipped by freedmen, became displaced by images of This was short lived and from this time on statues of the emperor and Augustus as the imperial cult grew. imperial family became more common. The Augustales were also an Private religion was carried out in houses by families. Most households important feature of political life. This was a cult dedicated to emperor had a lararium dedicated to lares, protectors of the household. This worship and it provided a way of expressing your wealth and larariumi was often shaped like a small temple and placed in or near the importance via your connection to the emperor. atrium. Each day the paterfamilias would lead the household prayers and offerings of fruit, flowers, incense or even cakes to ensure a good Key question 9 p. 19 day. The Romans also had another guardian spirit: the genius of the family. Death masks and statues of deceased family members were kept Quality of life in Pompeii and Herculaneum depended largely on wealth in the house and honoured on important family occasions. The penates and status. There was adequate food, water and entertainment. Water were the spirits of the pantry and were brought out at meal times. The was supplied via aqueducts and water towers, which supplied street family would often throw a morsel of food into the fire as a dedication. fountains. Wealthier citizens had water piped into their houses but this There were also neighbourhood cults involving shrines on street corners. was very expensive. The tombs of Pompeii were located outside the gates. No tombs from Food could be obtained at thermopolia or cauponae or there were Herculaneum have been found. The deceased was usually cremated and fresh-food markets in the forum. Wealthier citizens had kitchens in then placed in an urn which was interred in a tomb along a road. Most their homes and would have dinner parties in their triclinia. There was tombs contained multiple burials and while some were simple, others a range of food eaten but bread, olive oil, garum and fruit were staples. were elaborate with statues, reliefs and altars. Distinguished members of We know that the diet was quite healthy from the study of human society could have a funeral decreed by the town council, such as remains though the sewers at Herculaneum have revealed problems Mamia the priestess, who also had a seat tomb built in her honour. such as parasites and infections. Key question 11 p. 21 Games were provided at the amphitheatre as well as other entertainments at the Odeon. There are frescoes indicating that music was a popular Both Pompeii and Herculaneum were established as Greek settlements pastime. Gambling was popular, as shown through graffiti, frescoes and so Greek influence is apparent throughout the towns. Pompeii was laid mosaics, and usually took the form of dice games or animal fighting. out in Greek-style gridlines by the architect Hippodames and The baths were another common leisure activity with several public Herculaneum is similarly set up. Public architecture followed Greek baths being found in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. Men and women influence through its use of porticoes and columns as well as the generally did not bathe together and they went to the baths at different palaestra, while private buildings used features such as the peristyle. times of the day. Physical exercise at the palaestra was also common. Private buildings throughout both towns also heavily featured Greek This is supported by the physical evidence from human remains. mythology, with Venus (Aphrodite), Dionysus and Hercules being During a ‘typical’ day a resident may have worshipped at one of the represented. The theatres followed the Greek style by containing a public temples; for example, the temples of Isis or Venus. theatron, orchestra and skene, and temples were also modelled on Greek designs. Religion incorporated much of the Greek pantheon. The forum In terms of clothing, men generally wore a tunic, tied at the waist, or in Pompeii imitated the idea of the Greek agora, an open space for male citizens could wear the toga. They also had a signet ring which was meeting, temples and markets. used to seal documents. Women wore a long tunica and wealthier, married women wore a stola, a long sleeveless garment, over the top. If Egypt became part of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BCE and going outside they were expected to wear a palla (a rectangular cloak). Rome integrated aspects of Egyptian culture into its own. The most Evidence from frescoes and statues shows wealthy women with ornate significant influence was the popular cult of Isis. Her temple was quickly rebuilt after the earthquake of 63 CE and it contained frescoes hairstyles and jewellery. showing cult activity. The House of the Faun contains a mosaic of the Nile, while the Alexander mosaic was crafted by Egyptian craftsmen. Amulets featuring Bes, a god of women and children, have also been © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8 found in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

32 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 32 18/1/19 5:18 pm 1 Core StudY Key question 12 p. 23 The- Great Pompeii Project is run by the Italian government and funded by Italian and European Union contributions. The Herculaneum aChapter New research has provided us with a better understanding of life in Conservation Project is part of the Packard Humanities Institute and Pompeii and Herculaneum and of Roman society in general. It used contains both Italian and international members. There have also been to be thoughtCities that the atrium was ofa business spaceVesuvius for the paterfamilias; issues with animals such as stray dogs at Pompeii and pigeons at however, due to the work of Penelope Allison we now understand Herculaneum. The superintendent developed an adoption program as that the atrium was a shared space. Allison undertook a review of well as impounding stray dogs, while the Herculaneum Conservation the objects found in the atrium throughout both towns, which Project has been using falcons to eradicate the pigeons. includedPompeii objects related to spinning, and weaving, playing and more. This suggests that a wide range of Herculaneumpeople used those spaces. Another issue relates to damage done by previous excavations. Spinazzola, for example, only excavated the facades of buildings, which Research has also provided a more accurate picture of how the undermined their strength and has led to collapse. Maiuri used residents of the towns died during the eruption. For many years it concrete in restoring some buildings which has also led to damage. This was thought that the people of Pompeii died of suffocation while hasAgriculture resulted in repairwas the work cash using crop a specially and intensive recreated farming Roman mortar was the fates of those from Herculaneum were unknown as so few Introduction developedevidenced by everywhere,the Heculaneum even Conservation on small Project.garden There plots insidehave also remains had been found. It was also thought that only the elderly or been issues with organised crime and the Italian government has set up the sick remained behind. In the past two decades research by the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the a task force to work with the police to prevent this. Sarah Bisel and particularly Estelle Lazer has challenged this ÎÎThe processing of agricultural products is evidenced in inhabitantsnotion. Lazer’s of Pompeii work has and shown Herculaneum that a range ofbut people the volcano were killed in In the past reconstruction was problematic as it was based on predetermined didthe more eruption, than rangingtake thousands from children of lives: through it sealed to healthy the citiesmen and ideasmany or tosmall appeal workshops to tourists. Early in Pompeii. reconstructions Pompeii saw skeletonswas an arranged underwomen. a layer Work of ashby Pier and Paol lava, Petrone, thereby Guiseppe preserving Matrolorenzo the remains and toimportant set a scene industrialor housing andreconstructed trading centrebased on and the port work according of Vitruvius, which might not be applicable in all cases. Reconstruction has become of Petertwo vibrant, Baxter has prosperous shown that Romanpeople did towns. not suffocate By methodical but were killed to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This increasingly sophisticated and there are now stricter guidelines. studyby falling of the debris ruins and and thermal artefacts shock. of theseThis hassites, given historians us a better attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate The Venice Charter, the Charter for Protection and Management of andunderstanding archaeologists about have the impactbeen able of the to eruption. gain a unique and magnificent sea views. It was claimed by Maiuri that after the 63 CE earthquake the city Archaeological Heritage and the Council of Europe have stated that glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎtherePompeii should city be minimumis an oval intervention, shape and thatrests only on reversiblea prehistoric techniques Empire,went into as itan was economic lived nearly decline. 2000 His evidence years ago. for that was that grand houses incorporated shops and businesses into them. However, this shouldlava flow. be used, The and city that walls all intervention followed the should path be of detectable the lava andflow. idea has been challenged by John Dobbins and the Pompeii Forum documented.Pompeii covers Pye has 66 stated hectares that itand is ‘inappropriate about three to quarters restore to of a Project who have shown that repairs and construction work were pristine state’ as it could give a false impression of the past. Other groups suchthe assite Lund is currently University excavated. and Experiential Technologies Centre have SURVEYbeing carried out at the time of the eruption. This conclusion was supported by the Menander Insula Project. Penelope Allison has ÎÎundertakenPompeii was virtual completely reconstructions, covered using and 3D technologyhermetically to create sealed digital THEstated GEOGRAPHICAL that the mix of housing andSETTING business may AND indicate that versionsby a seven-metre of the House layer of Caecilius of volcanic Jucundus ash, and lapilli the Villa (rock of the Papyri. houses were more complex spaces that previous interpretations had NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA Keyfragments) question and 14 pumice p. 26 (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in allowed for and as such owners may simply have been exploiting 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was spaces and resources available to them for the purpose of profit. a ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. There Otherhas always cities been to athe debate southeast as to how were much also of Pompeiiburied, and Herculaneum should be excavated. Digs continued into the 1990s bthe Changing Bay of Naples, technology on hasthe increasedwestern ourcoast understanding of the Italian of what was read by the people of the towns; for example, the scrolls found at includinguntil superintendent Stabiae, Herculaneum Pietro Guzzo placedand Oplontis. a moratorium on new peninsulathe Villa inof thethe Papyri. region At of first South the scrollsCampania. were painstakingly Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneumexcavations in was 1995. covered Since then by theheavy focus rock has beenfill, not on restoration just ash twounrolled kilometres by hand, inland causing from damage the coast in the dueprocess, to lava and evenfrom then the andand pumice conservation. as in Pompeii, Added to this,due theto itsold proximity town of Herculaneum to sits below the populated town of Ercolano and cannot be excavated. volcaniconly fragments eruption could of Mt be read.Vesuvius The usein 79 CEof scanning spreading by the Frenchinto Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified theNational sea. Centre for Scientific Research and the National Science Another consideration is that Mount Vesuvius has not erupted for Foundation has enabled scientists to decode some of the writing mudsome (about time and18 metres). may do so It again has inbeen the future.much Whilemore thedifficult volcano is ÎÎTheand Apennine begin placing Mountains them into are structures. to the eastWe now of Pompeii, know the scrolls to excavatemonitored, and there about is no fourway to city protect blocks the townsare so from far a second Mt Vesuviusare works by is the to Greekthe north philosopher and the Philodemus. Sarno River (ancient completed.eruption. Some archaeologists and classicists have argued for further excavation of the Villa of Papyri as they are sure there is another SamusCreating River) plaster is in casts the of south. humans Pompeii has been lies an ongoing at the mouth project that ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of thehas helpedSarno usRiver, understand a broad, the navigablehealth and deathriver ofimportant those living in in library contained in it. However, the volcanic material is so dense Herculaneum,that there are concernslater hampering about the damageits excavation. that excavation Fishing would do. Pompeii’sPompeii. commercial Initially created history. by Fiorelli, they tended to be romanticised, with names such as ‘the sick man’ and ‘the pregnant wasThe the Venicemain industryCharter, the of Charter Herculaneum. for Protection and Management of Archaeological Heritage and the Council of Europe Conservation ÎÎIn ancientlady’. The times first attemptHerculaneum to analyse was the locatedremains directlywas done onby Estelle ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, theLazer, Bay ofwho Naples in 1994 on created a steeply a resin sloping cast to replacespur ending the previously in a have stated that today’s focus must be on minimal intervention afterand conservation. the eruption. cliff,used bordered plaster. The on bothresin sideswas transparent by deep ravines.and allowed more detail to be revealed though it has since clouded and it is no longer possible b In the past the remains of those found at Pompeii and Herculaneum ÎÎMartialto see praisesinto the casts.the area More under recently Vesuvius Lazer has as used favoured CT machines by to garumwere: a generally salty fermented not treated fish with sauce, respect popular and were in used Pompeii as props for ‘Bacchus,scan the Venus,casts and Hercules this has revealed and the some Satyrs’. interesting The rich finds. The and displaysHerculaneum or discarded and becausesome (though they were not not all)seen parts as valuable. of In terms of display, the recognition of the need for respect for human agriculturalteam detected area the under use of Vesuviusmetal rods isto a keep fertile the castsplain in of position the Empire phosphorusand it was shown and potash. that ‘the The pregnant crop lady’ yield actually of the had plains clothes was remains, as initiated and developed by indigenous cultures, has led bundled about her, which had since decomposed. It was also to more consideration being given to how remains are shown. For (andpreviously is) six times thought that that of through the rest being of Italy. a port Florus town Pompeii states thathad a example, the boathouse skeletons from Herculaneum have been ‘Campania’svery mixed coastalpopulation area but is Lazer’s the finest, use of not CT andonly DNA in Italy technology but removed and replicas installed in their place. The plaster casts from in thehas shownentire thatworld. the geneNowhere pool is is smaller the climate than first gentler. thought. Spring Î KPompeiiey QUESTION have been removed to a separate space and, when on comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the display, usually have warning signs located nearby. Despite this 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural Keysoil questionricher’. 13 p. 25 there are still some dissenting voices, with historian Mary Beard featuresclaiming thatof Campania. the display of human remains is important for ÎÎTheThe main issues agricultural relating to productsconservation of Pompeiiare damage were done olive through oil creating a sense of connection to the past. weathering, such as sunlight and rain, and weed growth. The Great Answer p. 30 Pompeiiand wine Project but andits industries the Herculaneum included Conservation sheep products, Project are both workingmillstones, on these fish problems sauce ( garumby creating), perfume, overhead andprotection a cloth and and undertakingdye industry a weeding of unknown maintenance commercial program. importance. A weeding program was

also initiated by the University of Sheffield. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENTCHAPTER HISTORY 1: CITIES OF VESUVIUS—POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM 33

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 334 18/1/19 5:18 pm With regard to the study of human remains, Sarah Bisel’s work in While some archaeologists feel that tourists are finishing what Vesuvius the 1980s on the boathouse skeletons was radical in that it placed started, others such as Mary Beard think that the sites help generate importance on the individual over objects though her work has interest in history. Site management in relation to tourism has improved since been criticised for romanticising the evidence. Much has been at both Pompeii and Herculaneum and one initiative, known as the Bad learnt through Estelle Lazer’s work, along with that of Carpassio, on Tourist Project, shows photographs of tourists damaging the sites to get the state of health of residents, their genetic make-up, medical the message across in a more humorous way. Different buildings and knowledge, manner of death and so on. It is generally now accepted houses in the towns are opened on a rotating basis so that the foot that the respectful study of remains can be informative. traffic is shared more evenly. The Great Pompeii Project has developed a better video surveillance system to more effectively monitor the sites. Key question 15 p. 26 They have also been working on more detailed maps and improved signage to enhance the visitor’s experience so they are less likely to Tourism is both a blessing and a curse for Pompeii and Herculaneum. In become frustrated or bored and damage something. 1997 the Italian government brought in a law that channelled all revenue from the sites back into them to allow for conservation work to be done. While this has brought much-needed funds to the sites it has meant that there is now a conflict of interest revolving around reducing numbers. In the year 2000 the total number of visitors to all the towns of the area was around 245 000. In 2016 it was up to 377 000. There is concern that visitors are destroying the towns: the soft volcanic stone footpaths are easily worn down and this exposes pipes and can cause the breaking of kerbstones. Tourists are also damaging Pompeii with graffiti while theft, including the stealing of reproduction statues, is on the rise. Tourists have also been known to splash water on frescoes to ‘freshen them up’, a practice that is sometimes recommended by tour guides. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

34 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 34 18/1/19 5:18 pm Sample HSC ExaminationQUESTIONS 1

Try to complete this paper as if it were the real thing. These are the instructions you need to follow in the HSC Exam.

General instructions Total marks: 100 • Reading time: 5 minutes Section I: 25 marks • Working time: 3 hours Section II: 25 marks • Write using black pen. Section III: 25 marks • A Source Booklet is provided at the back of this paper. Section IV: 25 marks

Section I: Cities of Vesuvius—Pompeii and Herculaneum Attempt Questions 1–3. Allow about 45 minutes for this section. The Source Booklet is required for this section.

Your answer will be assessed on how well you: • demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding relevant to the question • communicate ideas and information logically • use historical terms and concepts appropriately.

Question 1 (5 marks) Describe the changing representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time.

Question 2 (8 marks) Compare the economies of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Support your response with reference to Sources A and B and other relevant sources.

Question 3 (12 marks) Assess the value and limitations of art for investigating everyday life in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Support your response with reference to Sources C and D, your own knowledge and other relevant sources. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

336 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 336 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 Core StudY Section II: Ancient Societies - ChapterAttempt ONE question from Questions 4–7. Answer all parts of the question. Allow aboutCities 45 minutes for this of section. Vesuvius Your answerPompeii will be assessed on howand well you: • demonstrate historical knowledgeHerculaneum and understanding relevant to the question • communicate ideas and information logically • use historical terms and concepts appropriately. Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introduction evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the Question 4—Option A: New Kingdom Egypt society to the deathÎÎ of Amenhotep III (25 marks) inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in (a) Why were the king’s titles important? 3 did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an (b)under Ou atline layer what of ash is and known lava, therebyabout the preserving health of the Egyptians remains in this period.important industrial and trading centre and port according 5 to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This (c)of twoWh vibrant,at do myths prosperous reveal Romanabout Egyptian towns. By society methodical in this period? 7 study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate (d)and Exparchaeologistslain the relationship have been between able to gain the acult unique of Amun-Re and the andgrowth magnificent of empire. sea views. glimpseSupport into yourlife in response a Roman town,with reference and by extension to Source the E , your ownÎ knowledgeÎPompeii city and is other an oval relevant shape sources. and rests on a prehistoric 10 Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lava flow. The city walls followed the path of the lava flow. Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of the site is currently excavated. SURVEY ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, the Bay of Naples onSource a steeply E: slopingWadjet spur Hall endingat Karnak in a after the eruption. cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. Source: JMCC via Wikimedia Commons ÎÎMartial praiseshttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wadjet_Hall_of_Karnak_0128_d1.jpg the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION 1 337

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3374 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Question 5—Option F: Bronze Age—Minoan Crete (25 marks) (a) What is a tholos? 3 (b) Outline the importance of religious symbols in Minoan society. 5 (c) Explain the main features of the Minoan economic system. 7 (d) What does the architecture of Minoan palaces reveal about Minoan society? Support your response with reference to Source F, your own knowledge and other relevant sources. 10

One more question would seem worth attempting to answer. The ceremonial rooms or state reception rooms were located well above the ground floor. Why then was the lowest storey of the Residential Quarter placed at the ground level, in fact often considerably below the general ground level of the palace? … The explanation will, I think, be plain. The halls of the Minoan Residential Quarter could be opened wide, as we have seen, on to spacious and well-shaded porticoes, and from these one could pass into a pleasant open court or garden, sometimes provided, it may be, with descending terraces, and commanding a fine panorama over the sea and the mountains.

Source F: Extract from The Residential Quarter of the Minoan Palace by J Walter Graham, 1959

Question 6—Option G: Spartan society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 BCE (25 marks) (a) What was the role of the ekklesia in Spartan society? 3 (b) Explain what funerary customs and rituals reveal about Spartan society. 5 (c) Discuss the relationship between the helots and the Spartiates. 7 (d) How useful and reliable are Greek writers’ views for a historian studying Spartan society? Support your response with reference to Source G, your own knowledge and other relevant sources. 10

Lycurgus, on the contrary, instead of leaving each father to appoint a slave to act as tutor, gave the duty of controlling the boys to a member of the class from which the highest offices are filled, in fact to the ‘Warden’ as he is called. He gave this person authority to gather the boys together, to take charge of them and to punish them severely in case of misconduct. He also assigned to him a staff of youths provided with whips to chastise them when necessary; and the result is that modesty and obedience are inseparable companions at Sparta.

Source G: Extract from The Constitution of Sparta 2:2 by Xenophon Source: Xenophon, The Constitution of Sparta 2:2, from www.perseus.tufts.edu © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

338 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 338 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 Core StudY Question 7—Option H: Athenian society in the time of Pericles (25 -marks) (a)Chapter What was the role of the heliaea? 3 (b) DescribeCities the roles and status of of Athenian Vesuvius women in this period. 5 (c) What was the importance of religious architecture in this period? 7 (d) HoPompeiiw democratic was Athenian and democracy? Support your response with Herculaneumreference to Source H, your own knowledge and other relevant sources. 10 The people that gave rise to and practiced ancient democracy left us almost nothing but criticism of this form of regime (on a philosophicalAgriculture or theoretical was thelevel). cash Andcrop andwhat intensive is more, farming the was Introduction actual history of Athens in the period of its democraticevidenced government everywhere, is even marked on small by gardennumerous plots inside the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the failures, mistakes, and misdeeds—most infamously,ÎÎ the execution of Socrates—that would inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in did moreseem than to take discredit thousands the of lives:… modern it sealed theidea cities that democracymany leads small toworkshops good government. in Pompeii. Pompeii was an under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according Source H: Extract from What’s Wrong with Democracy? From Athenian Practice to American Worship to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodicalby Loren J Samons study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate What’s Wrong with Democracy? From Athenian Practice to American Worship and archaeologistsSource: Loren have J beenSamons, able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views., University of California Press, 2004, p. 6 glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lava flow. The city walls followed the path of the lava flow. Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of the site is currently excavated. SURVEY ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a after the eruption. cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION 1 339

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3394 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Section III: Personalities in their Times Attempt ONE question from Questions 8–12. Answer all parts of the question. Allow about 45 minutes for this section.

Question 8—Option A: Egypt—Hatshepsut (25 marks) (a) What was the purpose of Hatshepsut’s expedition to Punt? 5 (b) Explain how Hatshepsut was influenced by the origins of the 18th Dynasty. 8 (c) How effectively did Hatshepsut justify her claim to the throne? Support your response with reference to Source I, your own knowledge and other relevant sources. 12

Source I: Red granite statue of Hatshepsut Image © Anne Gripton

Question 9—Option B: Egypt—Akhenaten (25 marks) (a) Outline the function and layout of Akhetaten. 5 (b) How revolutionary were Akhenaten’s artistic developments? 8 (c) How effectively did Akhenaten manage foreign relations in this time? Support your response with reference to Source J, your own knowledge and other relevant sources. 12

The cuneiform correspondence known as the Amarna Letters tells us the story of the slow disintegration, of the Empire in Asia as a result of new forces in that area and of the indifference and preoccupation of the pharaoh.

Source J: Extract from The Culture of Ancient Egypt by JA Wilson

340 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 340 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 Core StudY Question 10—Option D: The Near East—Xerxes (25 marks) - (a)Chapter What do the Daeva inscriptions reveal about Xerxes’s religious policy? 5 (b) CompareCities Persian and non-Persian of imagesVesuvius and representations of Xerxes. 8 (c) To what extent was Xerxes a product of the social, political and military structures of the Persian Empire? SupportPompeii your response with referenceand to Source K, your own knowledge and other relevant sources. 12 They teach them the Herculaneumfundamentals of Zoroastrian religion, as well as to tell the truth, to exercise self-restraint in pleasures, and to be brave. Fear, for a Persian, is the equivalent of slavery. Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Source K: Extract from Xerxes, A Persian Life by R Stoneman Introduction evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside Source: R Stoneman,the Xerxes, city walls. A Persian Life, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2015, p. 64 ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the ÎÎ inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an Questionunder a layer 11—Option of ash and I:lava, Rome—Julius thereby preserving Caesar the (25 remains marks) important industrial and trading centre and port according (a)of twoWh vibrant,at do Caesar’s prosperous tactics Roman at the towns. siege Byof Alesiamethodical reveal about his leadershipto Strabo, ascapabilities? well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This 5 study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate (b)and Co archaeologistsmpare modern have and been ancient able to images gain a ofunique Julius Caesar. and magnificent sea views. 8 (c)glimpse Within into the life context in a Roman of his town, time and was by the extension assassination the of JuliusÎ CaesarÎPompeii justified? city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire,Support as it yourwas lived response nearly with 2000 reference years ago. to Source L, your own knowledgelava flow. andThe othercity walls relevant followed sources. the path of the lava flow. 12 Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of But when Cassius had argued for the assassinationthe not site only is currently of Caesar excavated. but also of Antony and SURVEY ÎÎ Lepidus, and a wholesale destruction of the dictator’sPompeii regime, was completely his case had covered been and overruled. hermetically sealed THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURALBrutus, FEATURES the other OFleader, CAMPANIA and the conscience of thefragments) conspiracy, and had pumice refused (heavy to rock) hear from of it. Vesuvius They in were conducting an execution, he had argued, not79 CE. a squalid About manoeuvre three to four in metres a political of the blanket fight. was ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on And Brutus had prevailed. For Brutus was known pumice.to be an Other honourable cities to the man, southeast and worthywere also to buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsulaserve in the as regionthe spokesman of South Campania. and avenger Today itof lies the Republic.ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the Source L: Extract from Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedyand pumice of the as Roman in Pompeii, Republic due to by its Tom proximity Holland to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified Source: Tom Holland, Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic, Abacus, London, 2003, p. 169 the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. QuestionSamus River) 12—Option is in the south.J: Rome—Agrippina Pompeii lies at the mouthYounger (25 maÎrks)ÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in (a) Which marriage was the most advantageous for Agrippina? Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing 5 Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. (b) Compare modern and ancient images of Agrippina. 8 ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, (c)the Bay To w ofhat Naples extent on did a steeply Agrippina sloping conform spur endingto the ideal in a of the imperialafter woman? the eruption. cliff,Support bordered your on bothresponse sides with by deep reference ravines. to Source M, your own knowledge and other relevant sources. 12 ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus,Pallas, Venus, proposing Hercules and Agrippina, the Satyrs’. emphasised The rich that the sonand she Herculaneum would bring and somewith her(though was not Germanicus’s all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorusgrandson, and potash. eminently The crop deserving yield of the of plains imperial was rank; let the emperor ally himself with a noble race (and is)and six times unite that two of branchesthe rest of Italy.of the Florus Claudian states that house, rather than allow this lady of proved capacity ‘Campania’sfor child-bearing, coastal area is the still finest, young, not only to transferin Italy but the glorious name of the Caesars to another family. in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a yearSource there. M Nowhere: Extract isfrom the Annals of Imperial Rome by Tacitus 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. Source: Tacitus,features Annals of of Campania. Imperial Rome, Penguin Books, London, 1996, p. 253 ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION 1 341

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3414 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Section IV: Historical Periods Attempt ONE question from Questions 13–16 (a or b). Answer all parts of the question. Allow about 45 minutes for this section.

Your answer will be assessed on how well you: • demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding relevant to the question • use relevant sources and interpretation to support your response • communicate ideas and information using historical terms and concepts appropriately • present a sustained, logical and cohesive response.

Question 13—Option A: New Kingdom Egypt to the death of Thutmose IV (25 marks) (a) Which pharaoh made the most significant contribution to this period? 25 OR (b) Compare Egypt’s relations with Nubia and Syria–Palestine. In your answer refer to Source N, your own knowledge and other sources. 25

By the close of Amenhotep II’s reign, the portrayal of the Mitanni, so recently the vile enemy of the king, was brought into line with Egypt’s other close allies … Clearly Amenhotep II considered this alliance to be a boon at home as well as abroad.

Source N: Extract from The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt by Ian Shaw Source: Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, New York, 2000, p. 298

Question 14—Option F: The Greek World 500–440 BCE (25 marks) (a) How did the Delian League change in the period 477 to 449 BCE? 25 OR (b) To what extent was Athenian imperialism a result of its democratic nature? In your answer you should refer to Source O, your own knowledge and other sources. 25

Perhaps more relevant to the relationship between democratic values and imperialism was the Athenians’ perception that the empire was necessary to bring the democracy to fulfilment.

Source O: Extract from ‘The Democratic Roots of Athenian Imperialism in the 5th Century BC’ Source: ‘The Democratic Roots of Athenian Imperialism in the 5th Century BC’, The Classical Association of the Middle West and South Inc., (CAMWS), Vol. 79, No. 2, 1984, p. 107 © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

342 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 342 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 Core StudY Question 15—Option H: The fall of the Roman Republic 78–31 BCE- (25 marks) (a)Chapter Who was most responsible for the outbreak of civil war in 49 BCE? 25 Cities of VesuviusOR (b) To what extent was Sulla’s legacy the main contributing factor to the fall of the Republic? In Pompeiiyour answer you should referand to Source P, your own knowledge and other sources. 25 Achievement in RomeHerculaneum was valued, but excessive greatness was feared. Many could share in power, but no one man could rule supreme. Only Sulla had done that—and he had soon retired. What reason was there to think that this wouldAgriculture ever waschange? the cash crop and intensive farming was Introduction evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside Source P: Extract from Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedythe city of walls. the Roman Republic by Tom Holland ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the ÎÎ inhabitants of Pompeii and HerculaneumSource: but Tom the Holland, volcano Rubicon: The TriumphThe andprocessing Tragedy of ofthe agricultural Roman Republic products, Abacus, London, is evidenced 2003, p. 169 in did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This Questionstudy of the 16—Option ruins and artefacts J: The Julio-Claudians of these sites, historians 14–69 CE (25 marks)attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate (a)and Co archaeologistsmpare the reigns have beenof Tiberius able to and gain Claudius. a unique and magnificent sea views. 25 glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ORÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lava flow. The city walls followed the path of the lava flow. (b) Assess the role of imperial women in connection with the problem of succession. Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of In your answer refer to Source Q, your own knowledge and other sources. 25 the site is currently excavated. SURVEY ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed As both Caesar and Gaius found, anyone in power was most at risk from those who were THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURALallowed FEATURES to come closestOF CAMPANIA to them: from wives and children,fragments) bodyguards, and pumice (heavy colleagues, rock) from friends Vesuvius in and slaves. 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast Sourceof the Italian Q: Extract from SPQRincluding by Mary Stabiae, Beard Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneumSource: Mary was Beard, covered SPQR , byProfile heavy Books, rock London, fill, not2015, just p. 329 ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a after the eruption. cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION 1 343

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3434 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Source Booklet

Sample HSC Examination 1

Source A Tablet of L Cominus Primus of Herculaneum, recording a transaction from 67 CE

In the consulship of Appius Annius Gallus and Lucius Verulanus Severus, on 4 November, I, Decimus Laelius Euphrosynus have written that I owe to L. Cominus Primus 20,000 sesterces which I received as a cash loan from him and L. Cominus Primus has promised that these 20,000 sesterces mentioned above are duly paid in good coin. I, Decimus Laelius Euphrosynus, have given a guarantee. Transacted at Herculaneum.

Source: AE Cooley and GL Cooley, Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Sourcebook, Routledge, London, 2004, p. 260

Source B A thermopolium, Pompeii

Image © Anne Gripton © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

344 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 344 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 Core StudY Source C - ExtractChapter from The Complete Pompeii by J Berry

It isCities clear that for two of centuries Vesuvius there was extraordinary innovation in wall painting and the use of elaborate decoration spread through all sections of Roman society. This phenomenon Pompeiihas been described as Herculaneumand emulation—the lower classes copy their betters, causing the upper class to innovate and experiment and to waste even more money in order to maintain their social distance and highlight their superior social status. Wall painting can be seen as a means of defining one’s place in society. Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introduction evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside Source:the city J Berry, walls. The Complete Pompeii, Routledge, London, 2013, p. 168 ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the Source D ÎÎ inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in Neptunedid more mosaic, than take Herculaneum thousands of lives: it sealed the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views. glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lava flow. The city walls followed the path of the lava flow. Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of the site is currently excavated. SURVEY ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice. Other cities to the southeast were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ImageÎÎThe © Anne city Gripton of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a after the eruption. cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION 1 345

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3454 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Sample HSC Examination AnSWERS

SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION 1

Section I: Cities of Vesuvius—Pompeii and Herculaneum

Question 1

Suggested answer KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE Î Representations from Pompeii and Herculaneum; for EM The directive term is describe, which means provide example, the fresco of Mt Vesuvius, frescoes of members characteristics or features. This is from the Survey section of society and statues of political figures. of the syllabus and as such will only require students’ own Î Early excavations and the romanticised view of knowledge. Pompeiian society; for example, Mazois’s Ruins of For full marks, students should try to present a range of Pompeii and Chasseriau’s The Tepidarium. representations that show change over time. Î Literary representations; for example, Bullwer-Lytton’s Last Days of Pompeii and Robert Harris’s Pompeii. Î Less serious popular culture representations; for example, The Simpsons, Doctor Who and the pop band Bastille. There was also the 2014 movie Pompeii, which was criticised for its inaccuracies.

Question 2

Suggested answer Î Source B: This is a thermopolium, examples of which were found in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. They EM The directive term is compare, which means show how were places to obtain food and were an important part things are similar or different. Students should note that of the commercial life of the towns. There were over 200 the two economies were different. food establishments, including thermopolia and cauponae Markers will be looking for explicit use of sources and an in the towns. Their prices are often found in graffiti on understanding of the similarities and differences in the the walls of the establishments, with some customers two economies. complaining about the cost. Î Student’s own knowledge: Workshops were found in Pompeii and Herculaneum as well as bakeries and KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE wineshops. While there is evidence of workshops and Î Source A: This source makes reference to a loan taken commercial activity in both towns, Pompeii had a larger out by Euphrosynus from a financier or banker known as trade economy, and Herculaneum was smaller and more Primus. These sorts of loans are referred to elsewhere in elite. Women were active in the economy in Pompeii, as Pompeii and Herculaneum, from sources such as L Caecilius shown through the building of Eumachia and the praedia Iucundus and the House of the Vettii. They may have of Julia Felix. There is not as much evidence for women’s been related to financing a business, purchasing slaves or participation in the Herculanean economy. some other business transaction. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

354 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 354 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 - Core StudY QuestionChapter 3 Suggested answer Î Other sources: Frescoes depict a wide range of subject Cities of Vesuviusmatters and styles and are valuable in showing us what EM The directive term is assess, which means students will the people prized; for example, Greek myths, Egyptian be required to make a judgement. Students will need to culture (such as the Nile fresco), religion, landscapes, thinkPompeii about how much art can inform and us about everyday food and nature. They also depict clothing, events and life. Art may include wall paintingsHerculaneum (frescoes), mosaics, housing. These factors provide us with good information statues and jewellery. about everyday life in the towns. They are limited, Markers will be looking for students to be critical about however, as they are often idealised representations and Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was IntroductionSources C and D and for the explicit use of other sources. may not reflect reality; for example, the frescoes in the evidencedVilla of theeverywhere, Mysteries even most on likely small represent garden plots some inside religious the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the ritual but we cannot be certain as to what that was. KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE ÎÎ inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano ÎThe Mosaics processing are similar of agricultural to frescoes products and they is evidenced have some in value Îdid The more value than of take Source thousands C is that of artlives: can it sealedtell us aboutthe cities social manyin showing small workshops us what was in Pompeii. highly thought Pompeii of, was such an as the understratification a layer of ash and and how lava, developments thereby preserving in art the took remains place due importantAlexander industrial the Great and mosaic, trading Scaurus’scentre and Garum port according jar mosaic of totwo the vibrant, wealthier prosperous trying to Roman innovate towns. in order By methodical to outdo the to Strabo,and the as Cave well canum as a resort mosaic, for wealthywhich give Romans. insights This into the studylower of theclasses. ruins It and gives artefacts us an indication of these sites, of how historians the various attractedprizing Roman of Greek investment history, money as they or enjoyed security. the However, climate andartistic archaeologists styles could have reflect been socialable to status. gain a unique andmosaics magnificent are limited sea views. in that often they contain less detail glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the Î Limitations include that the source does not mention ÎÎPompeiiand were city used is an asoval borders shape for and floors. rests onBecause a prehistoric of this they Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. what types of innovations took place or how widespread lavado flow. not Thereveal city much walls information followed the about path ofdaily the life. lava flow. this practice was. In addition this is speculation as we do ÎPompeii Sculpture covers is somewhat 66 hectares valuable and about in that three it canquarters show of us not know if this is how art was interpreted and used at thewhat site is individuals currently excavated.looked like along with their hairstyles, SURVEYthe time as part of everyday life. ÎÎPompeiiclothing was and completely uniforms. covered This provides and hermetically some information sealed THEÎ The GEOGRAPHICAL value of Source D, a mosaic SETTING of Neptune AND from the site by abouta seven-metre daily life layer for the of elite.volcanic However, ash, lapilli as sculptures (rock would NATURALof Herculaneum, FEATURES is that itOF shows CAMPANIA us Greek influences in fragments)have been and expensive pumice they(heavy are rock) most from likely Vesuvius idealised in everyday life in its subject matter as well as Egyptian-style 79 CE.portraits About and three as such to four might metres not ofgive the us blanket an accurate was ÎÎPompeiicraftsmanship. is situated It 20 is knownkilometres that southeast the Egyptians of Naples were onvalued pumice.portrayal Other of citiesthe subjects. to the southeast were also buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian for their expertise in creating mosaics. It reveals something including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. peninsulaof an aesthetic in the region appreciation of South or Campania. fashionable Today tastes it and lies it ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash twocould kilometres also reveal inland aspects from of the leisure, coast waterdue to supply lava from and status.the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Î The limitations of this source are that we cannot tell how Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. frequently Greek subjects were depicted in mosaics or mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult ÎÎTheeven Apennine how frequently Mountains mosaics are to themselvesthe east of Pompeii,were created. to excavate and about four city blocks are so far Mt VesuviusHowever, inis tocomparing the north with and otherthe Sarno sources River we (ancient know that completed. Samusmosaics River) were is in relatively the south. common Pompeii in liesthe attowns. the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. was the main industry of Herculaneum. ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThe area of Pompeii was known as Civitas, or The City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a after the eruption. cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 355

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3554 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Section II: Ancient Societies

Question 4—Option A: New Kingdom Egypt society to the death of Amenhotep III

(a) Suggested answer (c) Suggested answer

EM There is no directive term for this question, which EM EM There is no directive term for this question, which is requires students to think about what was significant asking students to connect the message of the myths with about the kings’ titles and names. Students do not need to Egyptian society. Students should not narrate the myths. know all the titles but should refer to their political and religious importance. For full marks, students should refer to specific myths and explain what they can and cannot tell us about Egyptian Markers will be looking for three separate, relevant points. society.

KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE Î The king’s titles represented his roles and responsibilities Î The creation myth shows the importance of the natural and set the tone for his rule. The Horus name, the oldest world via the ben-ben stone, which was the foundation of the titles, linked the king to the first king of Egypt and stone of Egypt, and the waters of chaos, as represented stressed the concept of divine kingship via being by the Nile. The Egyptians made sense of their world by connected to Horus. creating stories around what they could observe in nature. The creation myth also shows how religion was used for Î The Golden Horus name was also important as gold did not decay and so demonstrated the eternal nature of the political purposes; for example, the growing importance kingship. His personal name was the ‘Son of Ra’ name, of Amun demanded that he be connected to the creation showing his representation of the solar god. The kings’ myth. The marriage of brother-sister gods at the time of authority over Upper and Lower Egypt was stressed creation also set a precedent for the kings to follow. through the Nebty name and their connection to maat Î The Osiris myth shows the growth of personal piety and was shown through the Sedge and Bee name. the growing importance of the afterlife for all Egyptians. This myth outlines how the basic beliefs around the (b) Suggested answer afterlife formed, such as the importance of the sarcophagus, wrappings and decorations. EM The directive term here is outline, which means students should provide the main features of the health of Egyptians (d) Suggested answer in this period. To gain full marks, students should write a paragraph EM This question requires students to connect ideas and response which includes specific terms and concepts. information from across several areas. Students should approach this question thematically by looking at political, religious and economic impacts OR chronologically; that KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE is, by examining changes over time. Î Human remains from this period show that for average members of the population life expectancy was less than KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE 40 years. While some of the elite lived longer, even they Î showed signs of disease. Paragraph 1: The rulers of the Theban 18th Dynasty were connected to Amun. With their victory over the Hyksos Î Egyptian dental health was poor, with mummies often the new ruling dynasty was able to promote the cult of showing ground down teeth and cavities due to sand and Amun as a form of appreciation. stone grit creeping into food. They also show evidence of Î oral abscesses. Paragraph 2: Campaigns brought in wealth which was dedicated to the Temple of Karnak, as well as to other gods. Î Egyptians only had access to fresh fruit and vegetables This led to the growing importance of the cult of Amun- once a year during Shemu (the harvest). For the remainder Re. The Wadjet Hall (Source E) was built by Thutmose I of the year Egyptians relied on stored goods and this after his campaigns as part of his building program at prevented strong growth and contributed towards the Karnak to honour Amun-Re. Temples to other gods were development of arthritis. Remains also show high rates also built throughout Egypt. As centres for religion, law, of osteoporosis due to the lack of calcium. medicine and business they became increasingly Î Plagues and diseases were also widespread, with important to the economy and in the community. parasites, malaria, tuberculosis and dysentery being

356 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 356 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 Core StudY Î Paragraph 3: The expansion of the ‘empire’ led to the Î -Paragraph 4: In terms of the impact on kingship, as kings Chapterspread of the cult of Amun-Re, as shown through temples became more successful so the cult of Amun-Re became constructed in Nubia. more powerful. Later kings began promoting other gods Cities of Vesuviusto compensate for this. Pompeii and Question 5—Option F: BronzeHerculaneum Age—Minoan Crete (a) Suggested answer (c) Suggested answer Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was IntroductionEM There is no directive term for this question, which evidencedEM The directive everywhere, term iseven explain on ,small which garden means plots give reasonsinside requires students to provide their knowledge about the thefor city why walls. and/or how. Students should provide information ›› Thepurpose volcanic and eruptionstructure of of 79 a tholos CE was tomb. a disaster for the about how the economy worked. ÎÎ inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in Markers will be looking for three separate, relevant points. manyFor full small marks, workshops students in should Pompeii. refer Pompeii to specific was aspects an of did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities the economy and provide a structured response. under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according KEYof two POINTS vibrant, TO prosperous INCLUDE Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate Î A tholos was a type of tomb used by the Minoans. It was KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views. otherwise known as a beehive tomb due to its domed shape. Î Students should address the role of the palaces in managing glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire,These as tombs it was usually lived nearly contained 2000 years a chamber, ago. a doorway the economy. The palaces included storage rooms where (known as a stomion) and an entrance passageway (known lavaproduce flow. The gathered city walls from followed the surrounding the path of countryside the lava flow. was as a dromos).The chamber was made from corbelled stone. Pompeiistored coversuntil it 66 was hectares processed. and Theabout palaces three alsoquarters had of Tholos tombs have been found at Phylaki and Kamilari. theworkshops site is currently for producing excavated. pottery, metalwork, wine, oil SURVEY ÎÎPompeiiand perfume, was completely among othercovered products. and hermetically Evidence fromsealed THE(b) SuggestedGEOGRAPHICAL answer SETTING AND by Lineara seven-metre B tablets layer from of Knossos volcanic shows ash, lapilli that the(rock palaces also NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA fragments)kept records and ofpumice incoming (heavy and rock) outgoing from goods Vesuvius as well in as EM The directive term is outline, which means provide the 79 CE.rations About for workersthree to fourand tributesmetres ofto thedeities. blanket was ÎÎmain features. Students would not need to cover all the Pompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on Îpumice. Students Other should cities examine to the southeast the importance were also of theburied, navy/ thereligious Bay of symbols.Naples, on Instead the western they should coast choose of the Italiantwo or three including Stabiae, Herculaneum and Oplontis. and briefly explain why they were important. Students thalassocracy in maintaining a trading empire. Minoa peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneumhad trading was partnerships covered by throughout heavy rock the fill, Mediterranean, not just ash twoshould kilometres try to connect inland thefrom religious the coast symbols due to to lava wider from the Minoan society. andas pumice shown asthrough in Pompeii, Bronze due Age to shipwrecksits proximity that to have been volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into Vesuvius.discovered, It was as buried well as again Minoan in 1631 wares by found hard solidifiedin Egypt, To gain full marks, students should write a paragraph the sea. mudmainland (about 18 Greece metres). and It the has Levant. been much There more is evidence difficult of response which includes specific terms and concepts. ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavateMinoan coloniesand about in four the Cycladescity blocks Islands are so as far well as at Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient completed.Miletus in Asia Minor. Port towns were also important for KEYSamus POINTS River) TOis in INCLUDE the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎTheMinoan city of Resina-Ercolanotrade and these included was built Kommos on the site and above Amnisos. of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Î Minoan religious symbols served different purposes in ÎHerculaneum, The varying later industries hampering and what its excavation. they contributed Fishing to Pompeii’s commercial history. Minoan society. For example, the labrys served a practical wasMinoan the main society industry should of Herculaneum. also be examined. Pottery was a ÎÎIn ancientpurpose times in terms Herculaneum of the ritual was sacrifice located of directly bulls. It on also ÎÎThemain area industry of Pompeii and was the known Minoans as Civitasspecialised, or The in storage City, jars thehad Bay connections of Naples on to a agriculture,steeply sloping showing spur endingits importance in a after(pithoi the eruption.). Workers used stone to build houses and palaces. cliff,in borderedthis activity. on both sides by deep ravines. There were workshops for ivory and metal to create ÎÎMartial The natural praises worldthe area was under held Vesuviusin high esteem as favoured in Minoan by garumjewellery,: a salty sealfermented stones andfish votivesauce, objectspopular as in well Pompeii as ‘Bacchus,society Venus,as shown Hercules through and the the symbolism Satyrs’. The of representations rich and everydayHerculaneum goods and such some as combs. (though Purple not all) dye, parts made of from agriculturalof trees and area birds. under Birds Vesuvius were seen is a fertile as representations plain of of the Empirethe murex mollusc, was also produced in Minoa and was phosphorusthe gods and and trees potash. were The signs crop of yield fertility of the and plains regrowth. was highly sought after for its unique colour. (andSnakes is) six were times also that important of the rest as of their Italy. shedding Florus states skins that were ‘Campania’sa sign of renewal. coastal area In practical is the finest, terms, not they only were in Italy important but in thefor protectingentire world. the Nowhere grain supply is the from climate vermin. gentler. All Springof these Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the natural elements were important in showing different 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. priorities in Minoan society. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 357

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3574 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm (d) Suggested answer world along with their preoccupation with the natural world. EM There is no directive term for this question, which requires Î Paragraph 3: Political—home to the elite, which reinforced students to not just restate the features of the palaces but social structures. The evidence shows how they developed rather highlight what each aspect reveals about Minoan a social and political system that suited their needs and society. Students should try to connect the architecture of reflected their beliefs. Students should make reference to the palaces to society and outline why this was important. Source F in showing how the elite lived. Markers will be looking for a well-structured answer. Students Î Paragraph 4: Water, drainage and Minoan design shows could look at a particular feature in each paragraph and show advanced technology. For example, drainage took the its similarities and differences across different sites. To achieve form of stone channels, underfloor clay pipes and clay full marks students will need to use specific evidence. u-shaped tiles, incorporating channels and curves to slow the descent of the water and avoid splashing. Students KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE could refer to Source F here as showing Minoan understanding of climate control. J Walter Graham refers Î Paragraph 1: Economic—workshops, storerooms and Linear B text show how the society worked together in to the main residential area being below the ground level different capacities to create an effective economy. of the palace, with ‘shaded porticos’ and ‘pleasant open courts’, showing that the Minoans understood how to Î Paragraph 2: Religious—theatral areas and horns of create cool spaces in a hot Mediterranean climate. consecration show Minoan attempts to understand their

Question 6—Option G: Spartan society to the Battle of Leuctra 371 BCE

(a) Suggested answer Î There is little archaeological evidence of human remains and this fits with Plutarch’s statement about the Spartans EM There is no directive term for this question, which burying their dead inside the towns. However, Spartiates requires students to provide information on the role of the who died in battle were usually buried on the ekklesia in Spartan society. battleground. The exception was if their death occurred Markers will be looking for three separate, relevant points. in hostile territory; such casualties were returned to Sparta. These rituals reveal a focus on the deaths of warriors rather than other members of Spartan society, KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE showing their preoccupation with militarism. Î The ekklesia was made up of Spartan citizens over the age (c) Suggested answer of 30. It was the general assembly and met on a monthly basis. The role of its members was to elect ephors and EM The directive term here is discuss, which means identify members of the gerousia and to appoint generals. The issues and provide points for and/or against. Students should role of the ekklesia was limited as the members could not think about the issues with ancient sources and whether or debate issues. not the helots were as unhappy as they are presented. Students should also think about whether it was true that (b) Suggested answer the Spartiates were under constant threat from the helots and whether their means of control were effective. EM The directive term here is how, which means students will need to explain the role the treaty played in reshaping Markers will be looking for a detailed, well-structured Europe. response that uses evidence, and key terms and concepts. Markers will be looking for 3–5 valid points in order to award full marks. KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE Î Briefly identify who the Spartiates and helots were. KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE Students could differentiate between Laconian and Messenian helots. Î Funerary customs and rituals reveal that even in death the Spartans valued military achievement. Only men who Î Examine the role of the helots; for example, providing died on the battlefield or women who died in childbirth food for syssitia, working on the kleroi, and so on. were given marked graves. Kings were honoured for their Archaeological evidence shows that some helots lived status and service with a procession through the streets apart from Spartan villages and towns, showing they and the erection of a statue. People would strike their could be independent. Thucydides states they could keep heads and wail while women would beat on cauldrons. surplus produce. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

358 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 358 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 Core StudY Î Discuss the tension between the Spartiates and helots and -exemplary. He was exiled from Athens and was supported Chapterconsider the differing historical perspectives. Ancient by Sparta with a grant of land. He was also pro-oligarchic writers such as Thucydides state that the helots were and as such wrote very favourably of how the Spartan oppressedCities and kept under constantof watch. Vesuvius This has been constitution was constructed. His writings on the supported by modern writers such as Paul Cartledge. constitution are invaluable as they help historians However, other historians such as Stephen Hodkinson understand how Spartan law and society was structured. disputePompeii this, stating that Athenian and writers wished to show He also wrote a biography of a Spartan king, Agesilaus, how oligarchic and discriminatoryHerculaneum Spartans were when and the Hellenica, which helped to create the idea of the compared with their own democracy. Thucydides does ‘Spartan mirage’, which was an idealised view of the also state that the helots could own property and this, Spartans. Xenophon is very interesting as he provides combined with archaeological evidence that helots had Agriculturefirsthand wasknowledge the cash and crop understanding and intensive of farming Spartan wassociety. Introductiontheir own landholdings in some areas, indicates a degree evidencedHowever, everywhere, his pro-Spartan even onbias small brings garden his reliability plots inside into of independence. thequestion city walls. as he was inclined to record what he considered ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the Î Discuss methods of control; for example, the role of the ÎÎ the best aspects of Sparta and ignore its negative traits. inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in Î didkrypteia more than along take with thousands examples of lives:of helot it sealed uprisings. the cities Stephen manyThucydides small workshops was an Athenian in Pompeii. strategos Pompeii (general) was an who underHodkinson a layer of states ash and that lava, uprisings thereby preservingwere usually the local remains in importantlived during industrial the time and oftrading the Peloponnesian centre and port War according and of nature,two vibrant, with prosperousthe exception Roman of large-scale towns. By revoltsmethodical such as to Strabo,wrote about as well it inas ahis resort text Afor History wealthy of Romans.the Peloponnesian This studythose of duringthe ruins the and 460s artefacts BCE. of these sites, historians attractedWar. He Roman lived ininvestment Sparta for as a theytime enjoyedand this the gave climate him an and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique andinsight magnificent into their sea wayviews. of life. However, his Athenian (d) Suggested answer glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeiiprejudice city comesis an oval through shape in and seeing rests Sparta on a prehistoric negatively Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. lavawhen flow. compared The city walls with followed Athens. Hethe ispath considered of the lava somewhat flow. EM There is no directive term for this question, which reliable as he is known for being careful with his facts and requires students to provide an analysis of Greek writers’ Pompeii covers 66 hectares and about three quarters of thehis site views is currently are supported excavated. by other historians, although not views on Spartan society. Students should consider the always by archaeological evidence. His work is useful for contextSURVEY and motive of the ancient historians and the ÎÎ Pompeiishowing was an completely Athenian coveredperspective and and hermetically for the information sealed values and limitations of what they wrote. THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING AND by hea seven-metre provides about layer helots. of volcanic Thucydides ash, lapilli focused (rock on military NATURALTo gain full FEATURESmarks, students OF should CAMPANIA demonstrate sound fragments)systems ratherand pumice than everyday (heavy rock) life. from Vesuvius in analysis of a range of three to four historians in a well- 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was Î ÎÎPompeiistructured is situated response. 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice.Aristotle Other was cities a philosopher to the southeast from the were north also of buried, Greece who the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian includinglived in Stabiae, Athens, Herculaneum on and off, for and about Oplontis. 30 years. He was interested in many areas, including politics, biology, physics, peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE logic and rhetoric. He lived after the Peloponnesian Wars two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to and was pro-Athenian in outlook. He was critical of Îvolcanic For each eruption writer ofstudents Mt Vesuvius should in consider 79 CE spreading who they into were, Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified Sparta, noting that its women had too much wealth and thewhat sea. they wrote, why they wrote what they did and how mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult power. He also stated that Sparta was foolish to use helots ÎÎTheuseful Apennine these Mountainswritings are; are that to theis, what east ofthey Pompeii, can or cannot to excavate and about four city blocks are so far while they had hostile neighbours and that the Spartans Mt Vesuviustell us and is how to the reliable, north complete, and the Sarno accurate River and (ancient objective completed. spent so much time on militarism that it left no time for Samustheir River) work is.is inA thesample south. answer Pompeii focusing lies at on the Xenophon mouth ÎÎTheother city ofpursuits. Resina-Ercolano Aristotle’s Athenianwas built onbias the is siteevidence above in his of the(see Sarno Source River, G) is a provided broad, navigable below, followed river important by some in Herculaneum,criticism of thelater Spartan hampering constitution its excavation. and other Fishing matters. Pompeii’spoints oncommercial other writers. history. wasHowever, the main Aristotle’s industry ofwork Herculaneum. is useful as it provides unique Î Xenophon (Source G) was an Athenian who lived in Sparta ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎTheinformation area of Pompeii about was the knownGreat Rhetra as Civitas and, orhow The it worked,City, and fought with the Spartans. He wanted to record their the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a afteras thewell eruption. as information about the role of women. cliff,constitution bordered on and both way sides of life by as deep he thought ravines. both were ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of Question 7—Option H: Athenian society in the time of Pericles agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (a)(and Suggestedis) six times that answerof the rest of Italy. Florus states that KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but Î The heliaea was the supreme court of Athens. It had 6000 Î Key QUESTION inEM the There entire is world.no directive Nowhere term for is thethis climatequestion, gentler. which requiresSpring members, chosen by lot and drawn from the ten tribes. comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhereheliaea is the that students provide information about the . 1 OutlineOriginally the its geographical role was to judge setting the and archons natural but this changed soil richer’. Markers will be looking for three separate, relevant points. featuresover time of toCampania. a situation where the heliaea also heard ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil litigation for public, criminal and privateAnswer cases. It p. could 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, impose fines or corporal sentences. It also played a role millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and in allowing the citizens of Athens to participate in the dye industry of unknown commercial importance. running of the city. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 359

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3594 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm (b) Suggested answer Î Religious: Students should examine how some buildings demonstrate piety to the gods, seek blessings, avoid EM The directive term is describe, which means students punishment, and so on; for example, hero shrines and the are required to provide characteristics and features about Erechtheum. The Parthenon, in particular, was important the roles and status of Athenian women in this period. in showing the city’s devotion to Athena as it was built to Students should ensure they deal with both elite and house a large gold and ivory statue of the goddess. non-elite women, and their roles and status. Î Economic: Students should note how building programs To gain full marks, students should write a paragraph helped to stimulate the economy via increased employment. response which includes specific terms and concepts. The number of labourers and craftsmen needed increased due to the building program and this saw an influx of metics coming to work in Athens. This in turn saw a KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE housing boom and archaeological evidence shows an Î Athenian women did not have many rights and were increase in the number and types of housing being built generally subject to the rule of their fathers or husbands. in Athens at the time. Female citizens, including the elite, were expected to marry and have children and were provided with a dowry. (d) Suggested answer While the Greeks worshipped goddesses, and priestesses were venerable and highly respected, many Athenian EM There is no directive term for this question, which women lived rather secluded lives, only attending the requires students to think critically about the nature of occasional religious festival. Exceptions were working Athenian democracy. Students should consider what women, such as the hetaerae (female companions), who constitutes a democracy and use this as a criteria for mixed with men on social occasions and attained high evaluating Athenian democracy. status. Other women who mixed with men outside of Markers will be looking for a sustained judgement that their families included flute-players and entertainers at makes explicit use of evidence. men’s symposia. Greek drama, such as Lysistrata, casts doubt on this image of women as being without power KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE but corroborating sources are lacking. There were women who achieved prominence in Athenian society, such as Î Paragraph 1: Students should begin by showing the Aspasia, Pericles’s partner. Aspasia was a known positive side of Athenian democracy. Athenian democracy intellectual and influencer. Another was the artist allowed male citizens a say, although how much of a say Timarete, best known for her portrait of Diana at was based on wealth rather than social status. Law courts Ephesus. However, these women were the exception with paid juries allowed citizens to participate without rather than the rule. the loss of their usual income. Athenian men also enjoyed freedom of speech. There were attempts to reduce the (c) Suggested answer power of the aristocracy and political participation was encouraged. The thetes became more powerful over time, EM There is no directive term for this question, which requires which was important because it made Athenian politics students to not just think about what was built but also to somewhat more balanced. consider why it was built. Î Paragraph 2: To show balance, students should discuss Markers will be looking for a detailed, well-structured response the negative aspects of Athenian democracy. Athens was that uses key terms and concepts as well as evidence. not democratic as there was widespread corruption and the society was set-up to only allow the elite to participate KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE in politics. People who were not qualified had a say in decision making, leading to errors in judgements and Î Political: Students should address how religious architecture actions. The ostracism of Aristides the Just, who was sent shows the strength of the Athenian Empire and economy; away because citizens were sick of hearing him described for example, the Propylaea and Parthenon demonstrate as such, shows how poor decisions could be made on the that the Athenians were no longer as concerned with whim of the crowd. defences (e.g. the Long Walls) as these buildings were Î designed to impress rather than intimidate. The reliefs on Paragraph 3: Students should refer to Source H either to the buildings of the Acropolis depicted images that evoked support their argument or to argue against it, depending the Greek victory over the Persians. The majority of on the argument they choose to make. Students should buildings that were constructed or repaired were on the also refer to the views of ancient writers such as Acropolis, where they were situated in clear view of all. Thucydides in their response. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

360 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 360 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 - Core StudY SectionChapter III: Personalities in their Times QuestionCities 8—Option A: ofEgypt—Hatshepsut Vesuvius (a) Suggested answer rule by linking herself very closely to Amun-Re and his Pompeii and priesthood. Her inscription at the Temple of Pakhet at EM There is no directive term forHerculaneum this question, which Beni Hassan (Speos Artemidos) refers to restoring requires students to explain why Hatshepsut undertook temples as a result of Hyksos neglect and destruction. the expedition to Punt. Students should focus on political Î Military: Outline how the New Kingdom was born through and religious purposes to ensure a targeted response. Agricultureconflict and was how the cashHatshepsut crop and undertook intensive military farming was IntroductionStudents should write a well-structured paragraph that evidencedexpeditions everywhere, in order evento continue on small that garden tradition. plots inside makes use of historical terms and concepts. the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the ÎÎ(c) Suggested answer inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an KEYdid POINTSmore than TO take INCLUDE thousands of lives: it sealed the cities EM There is no directive term for this question, which requires under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according Î Hatshepsut’s expedition to Punt was undertaken for students to make a judgement about how effectively of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This political and religious purposes. This was a phase of Hatshepsut used changing imagery and ideas to justify her study of the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate consolidation in terms of empire so it appears she did not claim to the throne. Students should think about how well and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views. intend to conquer Punt but rather wanted to demonstrate Hatshepsut was able to conform to what was expected of a glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeiiNew Kingdom city is anpharaoh. oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire,Egyptian as it power was lived and nearly her upholding 2000 years of ago. maat . Egypt had traded with Punt since the Old Kingdom so this was a lavaMarkers flow. willThe be city looking walls followedfor a sustained the path response of the solava be flow. way of connecting Hatshepsut with the older dynasties Pompeiiconsistent covers in your 66 hectaresjudgement. and Students about three should quarters also of and further legitimising her rule. The trading mission theinclude site is specific currently evidence excavated. to support their argument. SURVEYwas also beneficial for the economy and brought back ÎÎPompeii was completely covered and hermetically sealed by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock THEmany GEOGRAPHICAL valuable goods, such SETTING as gold, frankincense, AND myrrh, KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE animal skins, woods, and so on. Many of these goods were fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in NATURAL FEATURES OF CAMPANIA Î donated to Amun-Re although Hatshepsut claimed she 79 CE. Paragraph About 1:three Religious to four and metres political of the issues blanket include was the ÎÎPompeiiundertook is situated the mission 20 kilometres on behalf southeast of her divine of Naples mother on pumice.Divine Other Birth cities and Coronation to the southeast scenes, were which also areburied, directly theHathor, Bay of Naples,who was on born the westernin Punt. coastBy donating of the Italian many of the includingrelated Stabiae,to the god Herculaneum Amun-Re. These and Oplontis. reliefs show that Hatshepsut was specifically chosen by her father, peninsulaobjects infrom the the region mission of South Hatshepsut Campania. further Today legitimised it lies ÎÎHerculaneum was covered by heavy rock fill, not just ash Thutmose I, and she was born of the god Amun-Re. twoher kilometres rule through inland connection from the coastwith her due divine to lava parents. from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to Divine birth was not a completely new idea (as shown volcanicHatshepsut eruption also of used Mt Vesuviusmany of thein 79 CE trees and spreading materials into Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified through divine birth scenes of King Senruset III of the thefrom sea. Punt in her mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri. mud (about 18 metres). It has been much more difficult Middle Kingdom) but Hatshepsut articulated it clearly ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far for the first time. Hatshepsut’s building program at Karnak, (b)Mt Vesuvius Suggested is to the northanswer and the Sarno River (ancient completed. her use of oracles and the development of festivals Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above EM The directive term is explain, which means students are connected her to the cult of Amun-Re. These activities of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in Herculaneum, later hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’srequired tocommercial give reasons history. for why and/or how Hatshepsut was would also have increased her standing with the people, influenced by the early 18th Dynasty kings and queens. waswho the wouldmain industry have enjoyed of Herculaneum. the celebrations and ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on For full marks, students should write a sustained response ÎÎTheopportunities area of Pompeii to connect was known with as the Civitas gods., or The City, the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a that incorporates evidence and historical terms and Îafter the eruption. cliff, bordered on both sides by deep ravines. Paragraph 2: In terms of foreign relations and the warrior concepts. pharaoh image, by undertaking military expeditions and ÎÎ Martial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garumthe: atrading salty fermented mission to fish Punt sauce, Hatshepsut popular showed in Pompeii she could ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and upholdHerculaneum prosperity and andsome maat (though, thus not legitimising all) parts herof rule. KEYagricultural POINTS area TO underINCLUDE Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the EmpireÎ Paragraph 3: Examine changing imagery and how, as Îphosphorus Political: Examineand potash. the The role cropof queens yield ofin theestablishing plains was the queen, Hatshepsut conformed to the ‘standard’ imagery. (andNew is) Kingdom.six times that Hatshepsut of the rest would of Italy. possibly Florus have states identified that Over time her representations became increasingly ‘Campania’sherself with coastal queens area such is the as finest,Ahhotep not and only Ahmose- in Italy but masculine, conforming to the expectations the people in theNefertari entire andworld. the Nowhere increased is role the thatclimate royal gentler. women Spring had. Î Key QUESTION had of their king. This is the section where students comesStudents with itsalso flowers need to twice consider a year Hatshepsut’s there. Nowhere need is to the 1 Outlineshould referthe geographical to Source I. setting and natural soilconnect richer’. herself to earlier royal bloodlines. Î featuresStudents of need Campania. to explain how successful Hatshepsut was, ÎÎThe Religious: main agricultural Trace the products development of Pompeii of the cultwere of olive Amun-Re. oil or was not, when they examine the factorsAnswer outlined p. 30 in the andThe wine Theban but its kings industries had praised included Amun-Re sheep products, for his role in three points above. millstones,their victory fish sauceso Hatshepsut (garum), attempted perfume, andto legitimise a cloth and her dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 361

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3614 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Question 9—Option B: Egypt—Akhenaten

(a) Suggested answer Akhenaten was also shown as a sphinx and often depicted wearing the blue khepresh, both of which were typical EM The directive term is outline, which means students warrior pharaoh representations. In addition, others had should include the main features of the function and explored the concept of realism prior to Akhenaten. layout of Akhetaten. Students should not just describe the layout of the city but also show how each aspect of the city (c) Suggested answer demonstrated a particular purpose. EM There is no directive term for this question, which Students should write a well-structured paragraph that requires students to make a judgement about how well makes use of historical terms and concepts. Akhenaten managed foreign relations. Students should consider the bigger picture of the Mediterranean, Levant KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE and Egypt at the time, as well as the idea that historians are not in consensus regarding the sequencing of the Î Akhetaten represented a new direction in Egyptian Amarna letters. religious policy. Although the Aten had been mentioned during the time of Akhenaten’s grandfather, Thutmose IV, Markers will be looking for a sustained response so be consistent in your judgement. Students should also it had grown in influence due to the perceived need to include specific evidence to support their argument. . stress the concept of divine kingship. Other kings had shifted the capital to make a new start and this was Akhenaten’s intention with Akhetaten: to put the focus KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE on himself and reduce the influence of Amunism. Î Paragraph 1: The Mitanni had been allies of Egypt but Î Akhetaten was located at a site that resembled the glyph were now suffering from internal issues. Akhenaten did for horizon, thus connecting it to the Aten ideology. The not engage with Tushratta and there were two possible fact that it was also built on previously unused ground reasons for this: either he was preoccupied with internal made it a clean break with the past. The city was divided and/or religious developments or he realised that it into four areas. These were the Central City, which was would not be in Egypt’s interests to get involved. As it the administrative centre and also housed the Great Aten turned out, Tushratta was eliminated and Akhenaten Temple; the Southern Suburbs, which were a mix of remained secure in Egypt. housing and workshops; and further south were the city Î Paragraph 2: The Hittites were a growing power in the outskirts in which was located Maru-aten, an area region and had the benefit of early iron weapons, which containing pavilions and shrines dedicated to various were superior to the bronze weapons of the Egyptians. royal women. To the north was the North City, which The conflict between the Hittites and the Egyptians was contained the royal family’s main residence. centred around access to trade routes. It is known that (b) Suggested answer Akhenaten did carry out an early campaign against the Hittites but he may have then realised that a state of ‘cold

EM There is no directive term for this question, which requires war’ was preferable. The Egyptians maintained most of students to make a judgement about the revolutionary their sphere of influence in Syria and Palestine but lost nature of Amarna art. Students will need to think about some influence to the Hittites, so this could be how far Akhenaten went in challenging the main concepts considered neither a success nor a failure. of Egyptian art. Î Paragraph 3: Aziru of Amarru created trouble by unsettling For full marks students should write a sustained response the region. While Akhenaten did attempt to punish him, that incorporates evidence and historical terms and concepts. eventually Aziru defected to the Hittite side. Again it would come down to whether or not Akhenaten felt it was worth the risk to engage Aziru or if he was too preoccupied KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE with his religious and artistic reforms. Aziru and Amarru Î To argue that Amarna art was revolutionary, students remained under Hittite influence, so while the land was a should examine how Akhenaten took ideas to new loss to Egypt it would have been a relief for Akhenaten extremes. There was a new emphasis on movement, not to have to manage the reckless Aziru any longer. emotion and natural portraits along with the usage of a Î Paragraph 4: Akhenaten undertook a ‘traditional’ policy new scale and changed perspectives. The three phases of in Nubia via the use of a military campaign and the art show the ‘playing’ with new ideas and representations. building of temples in order to consolidate Egyptian Î To argue that it was not revolutionary, students could ideology and empire. Nubia’s resources of gold, ebony, outline how the king was still the most important feature myrrh and more were invaluable for Egypt so Akhenaten’s

362 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 362 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 - Core StudY QuestionChapter 10—Option D: The Near East—Xerxes (a) Suggested answer or being paid homage to. Coins depict him as a warrior Cities of Vesuviusking, as was expected by the people. Images from before and after the Greco–Persian Wars are no different as the EM There is no directive term for this question, which is failure of the invasion was not a major setback for the askingPompeii students to consider what and the evidence reveals Persian Empire. As such there is very little that is individual about Xerxes’s religious policy. StudentsHerculaneum will need to about Xerxes from the Persian sources. Non-Persian consider the value and limitations of the source. sources perhaps give Xerxes too much personality. For Students should write a well-structured paragraph that both Herodotus and Aeschylus he is megalomaniacal and Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introductionmakes use of historical terms and concepts. filled with hubris. They both see him as the wrecker of evidencedthe Achaemenid everywhere, dynasty. even on small garden plots inside the city walls. ››KEY The POINTS volcanic TO eruption INCLUDE of 79 CE was a disaster for the Î Students need to consider that the Persian sources are ÎÎ Îin habitantsThe Daeva of inscriptionsPompeii and wereHerculaneum found on but three the stonevolcano slabs Thelimited processing and mostly of agricultural conform products to Persian is ideologyevidenced and in didfrom more Persepolis than take andthousands the citadel of lives: at Pasargadae it sealed the and cities are manyiconography. small workshops Images insuch Pompeii. as those Pompeii on darics was and an at underinteresting a layer of as ash they and provide lava, thereby insight preserving into Xerxes’s the remains religious importantpalaces industrialwould have and been trading formulaic centre and and intendedport according to of policytwo vibrant, and ideology. prosperous The Roman word daevatowns. is By based methodical on the to Strabo,consolidate as well the as Achaemenid a resort for wealthyideology Romans. of kingship This and studyconcept of the of ruins ‘demon’. and artefactsThere is debateof these as sites, to whether historians or not attractedmaintain Roman a sense investment of continuity as they for enjoyeda largely the illiterate climate andthe archaeologists tablets refer to have a specific been able historical to gain eventa unique and, if so, andgroup magnificent of peoples. sea views. glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the what this was. Some state that they refer to uprisings ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearly 2000 years ago. In relation to non-Persian sources students should examine within the boundaries of Persia; others think Babylon or lavathe flow. problems The city associated walls followed with the the Greekspath of seeingthe lava Xerxes flow. Egypt. Some historians have interpreted the inscriptions Pompeiithrough covers the lens66 hectares of their andown about ideology. three These quarters sources of to conclude that Xerxes was a religious zealot, intolerant thepaint site is a currentlypicture of excavated. a megalomaniac whose arrogance is SURVEYof other faiths, while others state they are more of a ÎÎPompeiihis undoing. was completely covered and hermetically sealed THEpolitical GEOGRAPHICAL statement about insurgents.SETTING Regardless, AND the by a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock NATURALinscriptions FEATURES are valuable OFin that CAMPANIA they show us the reliance (c)fragments) Suggested and pumice answer (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in of Xerxes on the authority of Ahuramazda and his use of 79 CE. About three to four metres of the blanket was ÎÎPompeiithe god is tosituated legitimise 20 kilometres his rule. southeast of Naples on pumice.EM The Other directive cities term to isthe to southeastwhat extent, were which also means buried, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian includingstudents Stabiae,will need Herculaneum to make a judgement and Oplontis. as to how much (b)peninsula Suggested in the region answer of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎXerxes was a product of his place and time. Students need Herculaneumto connect Xerxes was coveredas an individual by heavy to rockthe bigger fill, not picture just ash of two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the and pumice as in Pompeii, due to its proximity to volcanicEM The eruptiondirective termof Mt is Vesuvius compare ,in which 79 CE means spreading that into the Persian Empire in this period. students will have to note the similarities and differences Vesuvius. It was buried again in 1631 by hard solidified the sea. mudMarkers (about will 18 be metres). looking forIt has a sustained been much response more sodifficult be in representations of Xerxes. It should be noted that images consistent in your judgement. Students should also ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavate and about four city blocks are so far and representations may be interpreted to mean both include specific evidence to support their argument. Mt Vesuviuswritten and isvisual to the representations. north and the Sarno River (ancient completed. Samus River) is in the south. Pompeii lies at the mouth For full marks students should write a sustained response ÎÎThe city of Resina-Ercolano was built on the site above of thethat incorporatesSarno River, evidence a broad, and navigable historical river terms important and concepts. in KEYHerculaneum, POINTS TO later INCLUDE hampering its excavation. Fishing Pompeii’s commercial history. Îwas Paragraph the main 1:industry In relation of Herculaneum. to social structures students ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎTheshould area of consider Pompeii Xerxes’s was known education as Civitas along, or with The the City, role of KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a afterthe the elite eruption. and gender roles and examine how these may have Îcliff, Comparison: bordered on Both both Persian sides by and deep non-Persian ravines. sources show affected Xerxes. Students could refer to Source K here. ÎÎMartialthe empire praises to the be areaa vast, under well-resourced Vesuvius as and favoured wealthy by state garumÎ Paragraph: a salty fermented2: In terms fish of political sauce, popular structures in Pompeii students ‘Bacchus,and Xerxes Venus, to beHercules a powerful and theruler. Satyrs’. The GreekThe rich writer and shouldHerculaneum consider and factors some such (though as the not ideology all) parts of ofkingship, agriculturalHerodotus area stated under that Vesuvius Xerxes wasis a allfertile powerful, plain of a view the Empirethe nature of Persian religion, the running of the empire phosphoruswhich is supported and potash. by The Xenophon crop yield and of Aeschylus. the plains Persianwas and Xerxes’s succession and examine how these factors (andsources is) six such times as that reliefs of theat Persepolis rest of Italy. show Florus a multitude states that of would have influenced him. ‘Campania’sdifferent cultures coastal areaand ethnicitiesis the finest, paying not only homage in Italy to Xerxes. but Î Paragraph 3: When examining Xerxes and military Îin the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION Contrast: Students should address the ideological (Persian) structures students should consider Darius’s invasion of comessources with as its opposed flowers totwice individualised a year there. and Nowhere nationalistic is the 1 OutlineGreece asthe well geographical as the Egyptian setting and and Babylonian natural revolts soil richer’. non-Persian sources. Persian sources regarding Xerxes featuresand try toof answerCampania. the question of how these would have ÎÎ follow the Achaemenid tradition. As such, Xerxes is The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil impacted on Xerxes. Answer p. 30 andportrayed wine but inits stylised industries regalia, included either sheep walking products, in his gardens millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 363

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3634 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Question 11—Option I: Rome—Julius Caesar

(a) Suggested answer consoled Caesar on the death of Julia, Caesar’s daughter. However, Cicero disapproved of Caesar’s pursuit of power EM There is no directive term for this question, which is and what he perceived as Caesar’s attempts to become asking students to connect two syllabus areas: Caesar’s tactics king. Cicero’s letters show real insight into the difficulties during the siege of Alesia and Caesar’s personality and that Rome faced. He acknowledges that Caesar faced these career. Students should think about what Caesar does and same difficulties but was blinded by his own optimates how it shows (or does not show) his leadership capacity. bias. Adrian Goldsworthy states that while Caesar had Students should write a well-structured paragraph that ‘ambition, talent and determination’, he was the product makes use of historical terms and concepts. of his time and ‘lived in a brutal and dangerous era’. Goldsworthy has the benefit of hindsight and is able to KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE see the ‘big picture’. William Shakespeare’s play, Julius Î Caesar undertook the siege of Alesia against the Gallic Caesar, portrays Caesar as quite proud and pompous and leader Vercingetorix who had been encouraging a revolt he dies in Act 3, after which the attention is focused more against the Roman occupation. When Vercingetorix on Brutus and Mark Antony. It should be noted that retreated to the defensive walled town of Alesia, Caesar Shakespeare was more interested in a good story and decided to build an encircling wall around it as he believed definable characters than in retelling an accurate history. that the Gauls would not be able to withstand a long Î In terms of contrasts students should examine whether siege. This illustrates that he used foresight when making the sources, both ancient and modern, show Caesar to be his decisions. power hungry or a man of the people. Other areas where Î When some of Vercingetorix’s men escaped through the the views of ancient and modern writers can be compared incomplete wall Caesar built another encircling wall and and contrasted include whether he was ambitious for a he and his army camped in between the two rings. This kingship and the reasons for his assassination. shows that he wanted to both protect his men and not give up the attack. When Vercingetorix tried to fool (c) Suggested answer Caesar into opening the walls to let women and children through Caesar demonstrated his intelligence and EM There is no directive term for this question, which requires students to make a judgement about the assassination of ruthlessness by not allowing them to pass. Caesar. Students need to discuss this within the context of Î In the final battle Caesar showed his flexibility as a leader Caesar’s time; that is, in the 1st century CE was Caesar too by moving his troops to the main point of need. Caesar’s much of a threat? personal bravery also inspired the Roman army to victory. Markers will be looking for a sustained response so be His actions at Alesia show that he was a seasoned soldier consistent in your judgement. Students should also and general, attributes that made him a good tactician include specific evidence to support their argument. and leader. He demonstrated an understanding of how to apply engineering principles and Roman siege practices KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE to the situation and an ability to think and act quickly Î If students wish to argue that Caesar’s assassination was when the conflict was favouring Vercingetorix. justified they should outline how it was ultimately part of (b) Suggested answer a long-running feud between the optimates and the populares, meaning that the tension was bound to boil EM The directive term is compare, so students are required over at some point. They should point out how Caesar’s to look at the similarities and differences in ancient and dictatorship and reforms had panicked the optimates. In modern representations. Students should include some addition, the fact that kingship and tyranny had long been specific examples, such as Cicero or Adrian Goldsworthy. despised in Rome should be noted, giving rise to a sense For full marks, students should write a sustained response that Caesar was rising above the practices and traditions of that incorporates evidence and historical terms and concepts. the state. Caesar’s actions in the Civil War and in manipulating other political issues could be cited as evidence of a lust KEY POINTS TO INCLUDE for power. Students should refer to Source L here. Î Î In terms of comparisons students should examine how To argue that the assassination was unjustified students Caesar is seen as a great military leader and a loving should point out how the members of the Senate were father to Julia by both modern and ancient writers. He is afraid of Caesar despite him refusing the crown offered generally depicted as respectful to women and a man who by Antony at the festival of the Lupercalia, making their prized his dignitas. Cicero, although generally critical of fear baseless. Other important factors in arguing against Caesar, recognised some of his qualities, stating that he a justified assassination include the fact that many of the conspirators had personal motives for destroying Caesar © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8 was kind, inclined to forgive, talented, just and wise. He and had much to gain in killing him.

364 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 364 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 - Core StudY QuestionChapter 12—Option J: Rome—Agrippina the Younger (a) Suggested answer Î To contrast the depictions students should outline how Cities of Vesuviusmany ancient and modern sources see her as dangerous, EM There is no directive term for this question, which murderous, deserving of death and unfeminine, whereas requiresPompeii students to make a judgement and about ONE others see her as a product of her time and circumstances. husband and the benefits he broughtHerculaneum Agrippina. Ancient writers and more conservative modern Students should write a well-structured paragraph that historians do not think she was a positive influence on makes use of historical terms and concepts. either Claudius or Nero. (c)Agriculture Suggested was the cash answer crop and intensive farming was IntroductionKEY POINTS TO INCLUDE evidenced everywhere, even on small garden plots inside Î theEM city The walls. directive term is to what extent, which means that ›› TheTo volcanicargue the eruption case for of G 79 Domitius CE was a Ahenobarbusdisaster for the students could outline that he gave her a son, which afforded ÎÎThestudents processing will need of agricultural to make a judgement products isabout evidenced how much in inhabitants of Pompeii and Herculaneum but the volcano Agrippina conformed to the ideal of the imperial woman. didAgrippina more than some take thousandsprotection of in lives: her role it sealed as mother the cities and many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an showed her as being fertile, an important consideration importantStudents industrialshould define and whattrading was centre expected and ofport an accordingimperial under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains woman and use this as a set of criteria for judging Agrippina. of fortwo women vibrant, in prosperous Rome. He Roman was also towns. wealthy By methodical and well to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This studyconnected of the ruins and andthis artefactsprovided of her these with sites, some historians protection attractedMarkers Romanwill be looking investment for a sustainedas they enjoyed response the so climate be andduring archaeologists the dangerous have beentime ableof the to reigngain a of unique Tiberius and andconsistent magnificent in your sea judgement. views. Students should also include specific evidence to support their argument. glimpsethe influence into life inof aSejanus. Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire, as it was lived nearlyOR 2000 years ago. lava flow. The city walls followed the path of the lava flow. Î C Passienus Crispus was extremely wealthy, well connected KEYPompeii POINTS covers TO 66 INCLUDE hectares and about three quarters of and intelligent and this would have made him an ideal Îthe Paragraph site is currently 1: Students excavated. should consider the importance of SURVEYcompanion for someone of Agrippina’s intellect. He also ÎÎPompeiiensuring was the completely succession covered of a person’s and hermetically bloodline andsealed how, THEgave GEOGRAPHICAL her the protection of SETTINGbeing married AND during the time by bya seven-metre having Nero, layer Agrippina of volcanic fulfilled ash, thislapilli role. (rock She was also of Messalina’s marriage to Claudius and his taking her fragments)important and in pumicerepresenting (heavy the rock) idea from of Concordia Vesuvius forin the NATURALout of Rome FEATURES would have OFadded CAMPANIA to Agrippina’s security. 79 CE.imperial About family. three Students to four metres should of refer the blanketto Source was M here. ÎÎPompeiiCrispus’s is situated death also 20 kilometresleft Agrippina southeast a wealthy of Naples woman. on Îpumice. Paragraph Other 2: citiesMarried to the Roman southeast women were with also a public buried, profile the Bay of Naples, on the westernOR coast of the Italian includingwere expected Stabiae, to Herculaneum be seen as supporting and Oplontis. their husbands. Îpeninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies To argue the case for Claudius students should note how ÎÎHerculaneumThere is no wasevidence covered to suggest by heavy Agrippina rock fill, did not not just support ash two kilometres inland from the coast due to lava from the his status as emperor gave Agrippina access to more andher pumice first two as in husbands. Pompeii, There due to is its much proximity debate to about her volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 CE spreading into power than she ever had before. She appears to have been Vesuvius.role during It was the buried reign againof Claudius. in 1631 Modern by hard sourcessolidified such the sea. treated as an equal by Claudius and the marriage enabled mudas (aboutBarrett 18 state metres). that she It haswas been a good much partner more at difficult a difficult her to manipulate her son Nero to the succession. On ÎÎThe Apennine Mountains are to the east of Pompeii, to excavatetime. Students and about could four also city use blocks Source are M so here. far Mt VesuviusClaudius’s isdeath to the she north became and highthe Sarno priestess River of (ancienthis cult, completed. Î In paragraph 3 students need to address the issue of Samuswhich River) gave is her in somethe south. political Pompeii influence. lies at the mouth ÎÎThesupporting city of Resina-Ercolano the emperor. This was builtis a more on the difficult site above criteria of the Sarno River, a broad, navigable river important in (b) Suggested answer Herculaneum,as Agrippina later was hamperinginvolved in its the excavation. Lepidus affair Fishing during Pompeii’s commercial history. wasthe the reign main of industry Claudius. of HerHerculaneum. influence on Claudius has ÎÎ InEM ancient The directive times Herculaneum term is compare was, which located means directly students on ÎÎThebeen area debated: of Pompeii some was see known her as as ambitious, Civitas, or others The City, as a thear eBay required of Naples to note on thea steeply similarities sloping and spur differences ending in a afterstabilising the eruption. influence. Students could also point out that cliff,modern bordered and ancient on both representations sides by deep ravines.of Agrippina. while Agrippina was alive her son Nero exhibited some Students should use a range of written and non-written ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garumsemblance: a salty fermentedof control. fish sauce, popular in Pompeii sources and include specific examples. ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich andÎ ParagraphHerculaneum 4: Other and some factors (though that students not all) shouldparts of address agriculturalFor full marks, area students under Vesuvius should write is a fertilea sustained plain response of the Empireinclude her acting as a priestess. She was an honorary phosphorusthat incorporates and potash. evidence The and crop historical yield termsof the and plains concepts. was Vestal Virgin and a high priestess in the cult of Claudius. (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that In terms of Roman expectations for her to be chaste, KEY‘Campania’s POINTS coastal TO INCLUDE area is the finest, not only in Italy but modest and industrious, the allegations regarding in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION Î Agrippina’s lovers have not been proven and the ancient comes In terms with ofits comparisonsflowers twice students a year there. should Nowhere point out is the how 1 Outlinesources theare geographicalnow generally setting distrusted and on natural this point. She is soilmost richer’. historians and writers have depicted Agrippina as powerful, energetic, intelligent and ambitious. Tacitus, featuresrecorded of as Campania. having been proud but this is not surprising ÎÎ TheSuetonius main agricultural and Dio doproducts not underestimate of Pompeii wereAgrippina’s olive oil given that she came from the Augustan Answerline. There p. 30is no andcapabilities wine but its although industries they included ascribe sheepmany products,unsavoury doubt that she was ambitious and acted to secure power millstones,attributes fish to hersauce as (well.garum Modern), perfume, sources and such a cloth as Ferrero and for herself and her son. dyeand industry Barrett of see unknown her as a commercial good partner importance. to Claudius and Nero during their respective reigns. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 365

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3654 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Section IV: Historical Periods

Question 13—Option A: New Kingdom Egypt to the death of Thutmose IV

(a) Suggested answer (b) Suggested answer

EM There is no directive term for this question, which EM The directive term is compare, which means students requires students to make a judgement about what defines are required to discuss the similarities and differences a ‘significant contribution’. Students could consider between how Egypt managed its relations with Nubia and aspects such as maintaining maat, being a warrior Syria-Palestine. Students should consider political, pharaoh, building programs and religious roles. military, religious and economic factors. Students should ensure that they provide supporting Students should ensure that they provide supporting evidence and that their answer is sustained. Students need evidence and that their answer is sustained. Students must to be consistent in their judgement. be consistent in their judgement.

Î Paragraph 1: In terms of political factors students should Î In terms of comparisons students should examine the address whether reunification was more important than negative attitudes of the Egyptians towards both regions expansion and if expansion was a more important at the beginning of their interactions (‘vile’ and ‘wretched’) consideration than consolidation and stability. If students but note how the language neutralised as time went on. were looking at reunification then they would focus on Other factors include the economic exploitation of both Ahmose I. However, if they were focusing on the importance regions as well as attempts to Egyptianise the population of expansion then they would examine either Thutmose I via the educating of the children of chieftains and princes or Thutmose III. If students wanted to argue the importance in Egypt. This would then link to Source N. of consolidation and stability then they could discuss Î In terms of contrasts students should look at the direct Hatshepsut. Egyptian control of Nubia (the Viceroy of Kush), whereas Î Paragraph 2: In addressing religious factors students Syria–Palestine retained independence and submitted should construct an argument about who provided more tribute. Nubia was more Egyptianised than Syria–Palestine opportunities for the development of cults and for people as there is evidence of Egyptian colonists living in Nubia, to be involved in religion. All pharaohs in the New Kingdom along with the Egyptian construction of temples, fortresses, did this but a strong contender would be Ahmose I for and so on. Students should compare this to the fact that his promotion of the cult of Amun-Re. Hatshepsut was in Syria–Palestine there were only garrisons. Students important for her building program at Karnak but also should also point out how no peace treaties were entered for rebuilding temples to other cults. She also articulated into with Nubia whereas Thutmose IV developed the idea of divine birth. diplomacy with the Mitanni. Î Paragraph 3: In relation to building programs students need to consider if the building programs demonstrated the idea of kingship and contribute to the political, religious and economic structures of Egypt. All pharaohs contributed to this. However, Hatshepsut’s building program is notable for Karnak, other cult temples and Deir el-Bahri, while Thutmose III made many contributions to Karnak and in Nubia. Î Students should focus on one or maybe two pharaoh and argue why they made the most significant contribution(s). © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

366 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 366 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 - Core StudY QuestionChapter 14—Option F: The Greek World 500–440 BCE (a) SuggestedCities answer of Vesuvius(b) Suggested answer EM There is no directive term for this question, which requires EM The directive term is to what extent, which requires students to make a judgement about how the Delian League students to make a judgement about the relationship changedPompeii and why it did so. Students and should consider both between Athenian democracy and imperialism. How much positive and negative changes. Herculaneumdid one affect the other? Students should also consider Students should ensure they provide supporting evidence other factors such as the economic benefits of empire. and that their answer is sustained. Students need to be Students should ensure they provide supporting evidence Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introductionconsistent in their judgement. and that their answer is sustained. Students need to be evidencedconsistent everywhere, in their judgement. even on small garden plots inside the city walls. ››Î TheParagraph volcanic 1: eruption Students of should 79 CE was outline a disaster the historical for the context ÎÎ inhabitantsin which theof Pompeii Delian andLeague Herculaneum was formed but in the 477 volcano BCE and ÎThe Paragraph processing 1: ofStudents agricultural should products consider is howevidenced democracy in didbriefly more thanstate takeits aims. thousands They shouldof lives: examine it sealed the positioncities of manycultivated small workshops a unique identity in Pompeii. for the Pompeii Athenians was anand why underSparta a layer along of ash with and that lava, of therebythe member preserving states the in remains 449 BCE. importantthis gave industrial them a sense and trading of superiority centre and over port their according fellow of Thistwo vibrant, examination prosperous should Roman consider towns. why By the methodical various to Strabo,Greeks. as Students well as ashould resort addressfor wealthy the questionRomans. of This whether studyentities of the involved ruins and held artefacts the positions of these that sites, they historians did. attractedthe attitude Roman of investmentthe Athenians as theywas justified.enjoyed the Events climate linked and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique and magnificent sea views. Î Paragraph 2: The most important factors that students to this aspect of the question include the desire to spread glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeiidemocracy city is (e.g. an oval Ionia) shape and and decrees rests byon Athens a prehistoric in the early Empire,should as examine it was lived here nearly are the 2000 threat years of ago. Persia, the use of the Athenian navy as a form of security and the lack of lava440s flow. regarding The city control.walls followed For example, the path Samos of the and lava Euboea flow. Spartan leadership. Pompeiiboth revolted covers 66 during hectares this and period about and, three when quarters defeated of by theAthens, site is currently were forced excavated. to adopt democracy and swear an Î Paragraph 3: Students should look at organisational SURVEY ÎÎPompeiioath of was loyalty. completely covered and hermetically sealed changes such as the tribute payments made by city-states, Îby a seven-metre layer of volcanic ash, lapilli (rock THEthe GEOGRAPHICAL role of the Ionian states SETTING and the role/location AND of the Paragraph 2: Students should examine how the Athenian fragments) and pumice (heavy rock) from Vesuvius in NATURALtreasury atFEATURES Delos. OF CAMPANIA system of democracy allowed the benefits of empire to be 79 CE.accessed About by three all citizens, to four so metres the Athenians of the blanket encouraged was and Î Paragraph 4: Factors to consider here include the changes ÎÎPompeii is situated 20 kilometres southeast of Naples on pumice.even enforcedOther cities it throughout to the southeast the empire, were also such buried, as with the made under Cimon, the Battle of the Eurymedon River, the Bay of Naples, on the western coast of the Italian includingChalcian Stabiae, Decree Herculaneum at Euboea. Aspects and Oplontis. of this include the Scyros and the coercion of Carystus and Thosos. peninsula in the region of South Campania. Today it lies ÎÎHerculaneumrole of thetes was and covered the demos by heavy voting rock to take fill, actionnot just against ash Îtwo Paragraph kilometres 5: inlandStudents from should the coast outline due the to changeslava from made the and‘allies’ pumice such as asin Thasos.Pompeii, Thucydides due to its proximity refers to the to ‘daring’ of volcanicunder eruptionthe leadership of Mt of Vesuvius Pericles. in These 79 CE include spreading the growth into Vesuvius.the Athenian It was buriedcharacter, again illustrating in 1631 by that hard the solidified Athenians theof sea. Athenian nationalism, the moving of the treasury, the mudwere (about willing 18 metres).to take risks It has to been promote much democracy, more difficult even if ÎÎThedefeat Apennine of Aegina, Mountains Athenian are toimperial the east aims of Pompeii, (both naval and to excavateit meant andforcing about others. four city blocks are so far terrestrial) and the defeat of the Athenian navy in Egypt. Mt Vesuvius is to the north and the Sarno River (ancient Îcompleted. Paragraphs 3–4: Other factors that students should ÎSamus Conclusion: River) is Thein the Delian south. League Pompeii changed lies at fromthe mouth being a ÎÎTheconsider city of Resina-Ercolano include the fact thatwas Athenianbuilt on the imperial site above of theprotective/supportive Sarno River, a broad, organisation navigable riverunder important Athenian in Herculaneum,ambitions had later existed hampering since theits excavation.time of Peisistratus Fishing in the Pompeii’sleadership commercial to a repressive history. and coercive empire for was6th the century main industry BCE so ofthis Herculaneum. was not a new concept. This is Athenian advantage under Athenian dominance. This ÎÎIn ancient times Herculaneum was located directly on ÎÎThealso area shown of Pompeii in the wasactions known of Miltiades as Civitas and, or theThe pivotal City, role was partly owing to Athenian greed and opportunism the Bay of Naples on a steeply sloping spur ending in a afterplayed the eruption. by Pericles. The Persian invasion had also been a cliff,along bordered with the on needboth sidesfor its by own deep trading ravines. ports and a belief catalyst for forming the Delian League although it could in its right to be supreme in Greece. be argued that both Athenian democracy and the role of ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii Pericles then helped convert the league into an empire. ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorus and potash. The crop yield of the plains was (and is) six times that of the rest of Italy. Florus states that ‘Campania’s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring Î Key QUESTION comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 367

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3674 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm Question 15—Option H: The fall of the Roman Republic 78–31 BCE

(a) Suggested answer (b) Suggested answer

EM There is no directive term for this question, which EM The directive term is to what extent, which means requires students to make a judgement about which students will be required to make a judgement about the groups or individuals played the most significant role in impact of Sulla’s legacy in terms of the fall of the Republic. contributing to the outbreak of civil war. Students should While students should focus on Sulla and his reforms they focus on one individual or group for the most part but they should also consider other factors. should also consider the contributions of others. Students should ensure they provide supporting evidence Students should ensure they provide supporting evidence and that their answer is sustained. They must be consistent and that their answer is sustained. Students must be in their judgement. consistent in their judgement. Î In examining the legacy of Sulla students should look at Î Option 1: To argue that Julius Caesar bears the most the rise of popular generals and the reliance on the army. responsibility, students should examine his refusal to give This would include an examination of how Sulla’s march in to the Senate’s demands and his arrogance in breaking on Rome and his dictatorship set precedents that Caesar, the law. They should also consider how his leadership of and others to an extent, would later follow. Students an experienced army gave him the confidence to take should integrate Source A here. Other factors to be risks. Other factors include the importance of dignitas considered are outlined in the points below. to Caesar, his financial difficulties and his fear of Î In terms of Sulla’s reforms of the Senate students should impeachment. consider how the ban on tribunician legislation was Î Option 2: To argue the case for Pompey’s responsibility, unworkable and part of an unstable attempt to silence the students should outline how he allowed Caesar to pass urban populace. The tribunician legislation revoked the laws as consul that were not for the benefit of the Republic, power of the tribunes to propose laws and veto the Senate. his demand that Caesar be legally accountable when This meant that those holding magistrate positions and Pompey had not been and his determination to be the those in the Senate were given a greater role thanks to saviour of the Republic. Other factors include that Pompey Sulla’s reforms. This contributed to a destabilisation of enjoyed the position of sole consul, Caesar was a rival, politics in the last decades of the Republic as the populares and Pompey was expecting Caesar to back down in the felt sidelined, which led to increased resentment. face of the Senate’s demands. Î Sulla’s three-year dictatorship and support of Pompey’s Î Option 3: In terms of the Senate’s responsibility, students early commands created precedents for the future should examine how senators felt threatened by the extraordinary commands which ultimately brought about actions of Caesar and Pompey. The Senate had allowed the end of the Republic. The clientele, wealth and support generals to accumulate too much power and it then made of armies and reputations that individuals gained as a demands of Caesar that senators knew he would not agree result of these commands translated into the political to. Students should also look at the Senate’s illegal use of power that ultimately brought about the collapse of the its power; for example, overriding Antony’s veto and republican system. using the power of the tribunes to manipulate politics. Î Students should examine Sulla’s elimination of enemies Î Option 4: Students should also examine how the through proscriptions and compare this to the clemency factionalism of the optimates and populares undermined shown by Caesar and Pompey towards their enemies and the stability of the state. how this more humane approach ultimately resulted in their deaths. Students could compare the clemency of Caesar and Pompey with the more ruthless approach of Octavian and Antony; for example, Cicero was a victim of the latter men. Î Other important factors for students to consider include the corruption and weakened state of the Senate, the rise of urban violence and the competition between Caesar and Pompey. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

368 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 368 18/1/19 5:19 pm 1 - Core StudY QuestionChapter 16—Option J: The Julio-Claudians 14–69 CE (a) SuggestedCities answer of Vesuvius(b) Suggested answer EM The directive term is compare, which means that EM EM The directive term is assess, which means students students are required to look at the similarities and are required to make a judgement about how important differencesPompeii in the reigns of Tiberius and and Claudius. Students imperial women were in connection with the problems of should think about which areas theyHerculaneum will focus on and aim succession. Students should consider how imperial women to include administration, the Senate and the army. both contributed to problems of succession as well as Students should ensure they provide supporting evidence helped solve those problems. Agriculture was the cash crop and intensive farming was Introductionand that their answer is sustained. Students need to be Students should ensure they provide supporting evidence consistent in their judgement. evidencedand that theireverywhere, answer is even sustained. on small Students garden also plots need inside to the city walls. ›› The volcanic eruption of 79 CE was a disaster for the be consistent in their judgement. ÎÎ Îin habitantsIn their introduction of Pompeii and students Herculaneum should butgive the the volcano dates for The processing of agricultural products is evidenced in did more than take thousands of lives: it sealed the cities many small workshops in Pompeii. Pompeii was an each of the reigns and compare the circumstances under Î In the introduction students should explain how succession under a layer of ash and lava, thereby preserving the remains important industrial and trading centre and port according which each reign commenced. Students should also came into being during Augustus’s rule and what Augustus’s of two vibrant, prosperous Roman towns. By methodical to Strabo, as well as a resort for wealthy Romans. This provide an outline of which areas they will be comparing intentions were. Students should consider how Livia studyand of contrasting. the ruins and artefacts of these sites, historians attracted Roman investment as they enjoyed the climate and archaeologists have been able to gain a unique andplayed magnificent an important sea views. role in shaping the succession via Î In paragraphs 1–2 students should outline their comparisons. promoting her sons as successors to Augustus and also glimpse into life in a Roman town, and by extension the ÎÎPompeii city is an oval shape and rests on a prehistoric Empire,These as include it was livedRoman nearly administration, 2000 years ago. where students supporting her grandchildren and great-grandchildren should detail aspects of the well-developed civil lavawhen flow. their The cityparents walls were followed not around. the path Students of the lava should flow. go administration. They should also outline how both rulers Pompeiion to examinecovers 66 the hectares roles of and Agrippina about three I and quarters Agrippina of II, made genuine attempts to work with the Senate. Students theincluding site is currently their position excavated. as holders of imperial bloodlines SURVEYshould also examine the roles of the army and the ÎÎPompeiiand in was promoting completely their covered sons. The and fact hermetically that they weresealed also THEprovinces GEOGRAPHICAL in order to show SETTING how both rulers AND maintained by a threat,seven-metre via their layer husbands of volcanic sharing ash, inlapilli their (rock power due to NATURALthe loyalty FEATURES of the troops andOF their CAMPANIA commanders and also fragments)the women’s and descentpumice from(heavy Augustus, rock) from should Vesuvius also bein how both maintained peace and prosperity in the 79 CE.considered. About three Other to imperial four metres women of the to blanketbe considered was in ÎÎPompeiiprovinces. is situated They should20 kilometres look at southeasthow the emperors of Naples ruled on pumice.this section Other includecities to the the status southeast of Julia were as alsothe onlyburied, direct thethe Bay provinces of Naples, in on a ‘fair’the western manner coast and how of the their Italian reigns includingdescendant Stabiae, of Augustus, Herculaneum as well and as Oplontis.Messenia. Messenia’s peninsulaimproved in theconditions region ofin Souththe provinces Campania. overall. Today Students it lies ÎÎHerculaneumson Britannicus was coveredwould be by important heavy rock as fill, a possible not just ash twoshould kilometres also examine inland from the role the ofcoast court due intrigue to lava and from describe the andsubstitute pumice as for in Nero Pompeii, and woulddue to becomeits proximity an unexpected to volcanichow both eruption men wereof Mt victims Vesuvius of intheir 79 CE own spreading suspicions. into Vesuvius.pawn in It the was power buried play again between in 1631 Nero by hard and Agrippina.solidified theBot sea. used treason trials and executions and both were mudMessenia’s (about 18 daughter, metres). Octavia,It has been would much become more difficultNero’s wife ÎÎTheinfluenced Apennine by Mountains ambitious are advisers to the andeast familyof Pompeii, members. to excavateand when and she about was forced four city to commitblocks are suicide so far this would ÎMt Vesuvius In paragraphs is to 3–4the northstudents and should the Sarno outline River what (ancient they see completed.cause problems for Nero. Samusas the River) differences is in the between south. thePompeii reigns lies of theat the two mouth emperors. ÎÎThe In city paragraphs of Resina-Ercolano 3–4 students was should built examineon the site other above factors of theThese Sarno include River, examining a broad, navigable how Claudius river extendedimportant the in Herculaneum,such as unexpected later hampering deaths in its the excavation. imperial court. Fishing These Pompeii’sempire’s commercial frontiers and history. brought more provinces under wasinclude the main Gaius industry (Caligula), of Herculaneum. Claudius and Nero. Students ÎÎIn ancientRoman timescontrol, Herculaneum whereas Tiberius was located had maintained directly on ÎÎTheshould area of outline Pompeii the was impact known of their as Civitas deaths, or and The how City, they theAugustus’s Bay of Naples policy on ofa steeplynon-extension. sloping spur In relation ending to in the a civil afterwere the dealt eruption. with in terms of the succession. The role of cliff,service, bordered students on both should sides show by deep how ravines. Tiberius tried to interference from other players should be examined, extend administrative functions whereas Claudius including the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus and other ÎÎMartial praises the area under Vesuvius as favoured by garum: a salty fermented fish sauce, popular in Pompeii withdrew commissions and created a civil service under conspirators. This would link to Source Q in showing ‘Bacchus, Venus, Hercules and the Satyrs’. The rich and Herculaneum and some (though not all) parts of his own authority. In terms of advisers and executives how emperors were in danger from many areas. Students agricultural area under Vesuvius is a fertile plain of the Empire phosphorusstudents should and potash. outline The how crop Claudius yield of employed the plains was should also consider how many potential rulers there (andprovincial is) six times citizens that andof the freedmen rest of Italy. from Florus the court states in thatthe were: Augustus had many successors, but they all died, ‘Campania’scivil service coastal whereas area Tiberius is the finest, maintained not only personal in Italy but and he even tried to control who would succeed Tiberius. in thesupervision entire world. as per Nowhere the status is thequo. climate gentler. Spring Î KTiberiusey QUESTION also had two successors but this practice comes with its flowers twice a year there. Nowhere is the declined after his rule, although it could be argued that 1 Outline the geographical setting and natural soil richer’. this was Claudius’s plan with Nero and Britannicus. features of Campania. ÎÎ The main agricultural products of Pompeii were olive oil Answer p. 30 and wine but its industries included sheep products, millstones, fish sauce (garum), perfume, and a cloth and dye industry of unknown commercial importance. © Pascal Press ISBN 978 1 74125 662 8

4 YEAR 12 ANCIENT HISTORY SAMPLE HSC EXAMINATION ANSWERS 369

Book 1 Ancient History.indb 3694 18/1/19 5:195:18 pm