Napoleonic France { 1799-1814 Background
Born in 1769 in Corsica (ethnic Italian). Family was minor nobility, but rose to prominence due to efforts of his father at Versailles. Napoleon attended military school – became an artillery commander. He supported the Jacobins (was close with Robespierre’s brother), joined the revolutionary army. He supported the end of noble/feudal privilege. His career took off as a result. He was not as radical as most Jacobins. Views were closer to Locke than Rousseau. Saw leadership along the lines of Hobbes – that a benevolent despot was most effective form of government.
Rise to Power • First gained notoriety for helping recapture Toulon from the counter-revolutionaries during the federalist revolts in 1793. • In 1795 he defended the Directory by suppressing a royalist revolt called the Insurrection of Vendemiare with a “whiff of Grapeshot.” • As a result, the Directory gave him command of the “Army of Italy” waging war against the Austrians. • His brilliant tactics led to great French victories. • He personally negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797 which ended the War against the First Coalition. • France established “sister republics” in Italy as a result. Napoleon’s popularity grew. He now wanted to strike at the British – the most serious of France’s enemies. He led a campaign to Egypt, which he conquered. He threatened to march to India and cripple the British economy. However, he got tied down fighting in Egypt. At the Battle of the Nile, Napoleon’s navy was routed by the British under Admiral Nelson. His army was stranded in Egypt. Napoleon managed to slip back into France at an opportune time.
While Napoleon was in Egypt, the war took a turn for the worse. A Second Coalition against France had retaken lands in Italy and were threatening invasion. The Directory was unpopular due to this and paralyzed by corruption and in-fighting. Napoleon was invited to join a group conspiring to overthrow the gov. and “revise” the constitution (Abbe Sieyes, Roger Ducos, Joseph Fouche, Lucien Bonaparte). This group feared a return to radicalism and wanted to secure order. They wanted to use Napoleon’s popularity with the public and the troops. 1799 Coup de Brumaire – Napoleon uses force to clear the Council of 500 and Council of Ancients. Sieyes, Ducos, and Napoleon were to rule as consuls until a new constitution could be drafted. Using his popularity, Napoleon came to dominate his fellow consuls. Constitution of the Year VIII Napoleon puts a new constitution to a country wide vote. Unlike previous ones, there was no human rights charter. It essentially gave Napoleon dictatorial powers as First Consul. It passed 3 million for, 1500 against!
WHY? Napoleon was a heroic figure. People were ready for stability after years of chaos. They feared the Second Coalition forces advancing on France. It maintained the illusion of democracy. There was an elected legislative – but its powers were subject to Napoleon’s will. In 1802 – Napoleon convinced the Senate to amend the constitution and give him the position of “Consul for Life” (Constitution of the Year X) He also gained the right to appoint his successor. In 1804 Napoleon took up residence in the Tuileries and another amendment established the FRENCH EMPIRE with Napoleon as Emperor and the Bonaparte family as the hereditary successors.
HOW? Napoleon was loved. People ready for stability. Was successful for long time. Napoleon’s Domestic Policies
1) The Concordat - 1801 Napoleon healed the rift between Rome and Paris that developed during the Revolution by coming to an agreement with the Pope. • The State continued to appoint and pay clergy, but they were invested (confirmed) by the Pope. • Churches were re-opened and Priests were no longer required to swear an oath to the State (as in the CCC). • Catholicism recognized as the “religion of the majority of Frenchmen.” In return the Church recognized the Republic (and later the Empire) as legitimate and renounced claims to the lands that were nationalized by the revolutionary government. This was a shrewd move by Napoleon: • Majority of people were faithful to Church and happy to return to services. • Owners of former Church lands were secure in their title to it. • He realized that the Church could be used to legitimize his authority (much like “Divine Right”) and maintain obedience to him. • Papal recognition could reduce hostility of other Christian empires that had resisted revolutionary France. • Religious toleration extended to Protestants and later to Jews (1808). 2) Bank of France Economy was still a mess in 1800. The Bank of France was created in Jan. 1800 funded by a combination of private and public money.
•The Bank issued government securities and supplied low interest loans to businesses to promote growth of industry. •The Franc became the most stable currency in Europe. •B of F finally stabilized the French economy after years of chaos and debt. 3) Tax Reform Napoleon made tax collection more efficient. Collectors were made professional government employees. He continued the revolutionary tradition of offering NO TAX EXEMPTIONS. There were a series of direct taxes on land, businesses, and personal property. He also established indirect taxes on luxury items, wine, playing cards, etc.
4) Government System Napoleon believed in “government for the people” not “by the people.” He maintained legislative bodies in the form of a Senate, Tribunate, and Leg. Council. However, none were elected by universal suffrage. Elections were held to determine “lists” of candidates that Napoleon would use to appoint someone (illusion of democracy). Power was centralized by Napoleon. Each region had a prefect that was directly responsible to him. Practiced censorship of the press and rooted out Jacobin and Royalist factions using an effective secret police under his “Minister of Police” Joseph Fouche. 5) Napoleonic Code “We are a nation with 300 books of laws, yet without laws.” Organized the hundreds of laws passed during the Rev. and codified them for the entire nation. This made the law more uniform and legal processes less confusing. Napoleon saw it as his greatest achievement. Was very involved in its creation. Completed in 1801, printed in 1804. Was a mix of revolutionary and conservative laws. Highlights of the Code...... for male citizens: • Equality before the law • Freedom from arrest without due process • Equality of taxation • The right to choose one’s work • Religious freedom.
The code reflected Napoleon’s paternalistic nature. Women were second class citizens. The father (and later the husband) had great control over women. Females could not act independent of their consent. EX – Divorce was difficult to obtain. Seen as a way of “protecting” women. Unlike in England and in modern times, individuals had to prove their innocence (“guilty until proven innocent”) Punishments included:
a) The guillotine
b) Labour on a chain gang
c) Confinement to a workhouse.
6) Education Built on the public system established by the Convention. “Equality must be the first element in education.” GOAL: Produce skilled civil servants to do the work of the State. 1802 – Napoleon introduced LYCEES (similar to High Schools). After the Lycees, students went on to specialized schools of law, medicine, pharmacy, military, or teaching. Students wrote baccalaureate exams to qualify for university. System still in use today. Girls got training in running a household, child-rearing, needlework, singing, dancing, and nursing. Primary years education was still handled by the Catholic Church. 7) The Legion of Honour GOAL – to reward exceptional service to the nation and keep the loyalty of the most talented. Awards for civil or military achievement. Prize was a medal and money (250-5000 Francs per year). Given to 30,000 during Napoleon’s life time. It is still given out. Like a new noble class based on merit.
8) Public Works Napoleon invested in improving transportation and communication infrastructure of France. Constructed canals and developed ports to enhance trade. Built roads through the Alps to Italy and the Riviera. In Paris, new roads, bridges, and a sewer system. Constructed the Arc de Triomphe. All of this improved the economy – it also created jobs and increased prestige of Napoleon.
Napoleon’s Foreign Policy
Napoleon was at war for almost his entire reign.
WHY? – There are opposing views:
1) Hostility of other European powers.
- They wanted to contain the spread of revolutionary ideas in Europe.
- Napoleon’s expansion to France’s “natural borders” threatened their own spheres of influence (Austria in Italy& Low countries / Prussia and Russia in Poland)
- “I always appear to be attacking, yet what I am doing is defending myself all of the time.” - NAP 2) Napoleon’s Expansionism
- He sought personal power and glory (ex. he put family members on the throne of Europe).
- Many in France fought to spread liberty and equality.
- ECONOMIC reasons are important. Empire meant wealth and power (like Britain). • France was well behind Britain (industrialization and world trade) . Napoleon aimed to attack their commerce. • Austria was the dominant continental power with a large European Empire. France wanted to gobble up resource rich areas. • Prussia and Russia were also growing in strength – Napoleon wished to check their ambitions.
War Vs. Third and Fourth Coalitions (1805-1807)
Despite the Peace of Amiens between the two countries in 1802 (ending the previous war) neither the British or the French trusted each other. Britain declared war in 1803 and imposed a naval blockade on France. Bonaparte made ready to invade Britain – however Austria and Russia were preparing to declare war on France as well. They feared Napoleon’s imperial designs on central Europe.
Napoleon turned his army eastwards to focus on continental powers. When Napoleon’s navy was routed by Nelson (again!) at the Battle of Trafalgar (Oct 1805), Napoleon gave up on his plans to invade Britain.
However, he devised a plan to strike at the British by attempting to harm their trade. In 1806 he imposed the CONTINENTAL SYSTEM – closing the continent to British commerce.
Despite the defeat at sea, Napoleon’s armies won great victories on land over: Austria(Ulm Oct 1805 and Austerlitz Dec 1805) Prussia (Jena and Auerstadt Oct 1806) Russia (Friedland June 1807) Napoleon’s Re-organization of Europe
Victories on the continent led to treaties where Napoleon made significant territorial gains: Treaty of Pressburg (Dec 1805) w/ Austria Treaty of Tilsit (Jul 1807) w/ Russia and Prussia (see timeline) There were three categories of states: 1) States annexed to France (ex. Low Countries, Left bank of the Rhine) 2) “Protectorates” of France (ex. Italy, Switzerland, Germanies, Poland). They were puppet states. 3) Allies of France (see handout map) The Puppet States
These states had no independence of action, owed men (for army) and money to France, and were forced to incorporate Napoleonic policies as directed from Paris. In this way aspects of the revolution were spread – such as the Napoleonic Code. Many people in these states welcomed the changes at first, but came to resent foreign domination and Napoleon’s demands that they contribute to war efforts. Confederation of the Rhine – 1806 Napoleon dismantled the Holy Roman Empire. He re-organized the area by forcing some smaller states to merge with larger ones. 35 states joined the Confederation – they were forced to incorporate constitutional governments. Domestic affairs were controlled by the various German princes, but Napoleon controlled the foreign policies. The C of R created a buffer zone between France and her enemies to the east. *** German people inspired by nationalism – that spirit will bear fruit later!
Kingdoms of Italy and Naples – 1807 Napoleon re-organized the Republics he created in Italy into two Kingdoms – with two of his brothers as Monarchs.
Duchy of Warsaw – 1807 Napoleon resurrected Poland as a client state – it had been partitioned by Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Polish nationalists supported Napoleon as the only one who could bring them independence. There were many pro Polish people in France. However, Poles enjoyed little autonomy w/Napoleon Treaty of Schonbrunn - 1809
Napoleon defeated Austria (allied with Britain as the Fifth Coalition) at the Battle of Wagram. Austria is forced to ally with France and join the Continental System. To cement the partnership he divorced Josephine and married the Austrian Princess Marie Louise.
This would be the height of his power – a problem in Spain, his “Spanish Ulcer” would begin the path to his downfall.