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WILEY-VCH-Verlag Gmbh, D-69451 Weinheim, 2000 1439-4235/00/01 18 WILEY-VCH-Verlag GmbH, D-69451 Weinheim, 2000 1439-4235/00/01/01 $ 17.50+.50/0 CHEMPHYSCHEM 2000,1,18±52 Nanoparticle Arrays on Surfaces for Electronic, Optical, and Sensor Applications** Andrew N. Shipway,[a] Eugenii Katz,[a] and Itamar Willner*[a] Particles in the nanometer size range are attracting increasing their organization on surfaces for the construction of functional attention with the growth of interest in nanotechnological interfaces. In this review, we address the research that has led to disciplines. Nanoparticles display fascinating electronic and optical numerous sensing, electronic, optoelectronic, and photoelectronic properties as a consequence of their dimensions and they may be interfaces, and also take time to cover the synthesis and easily synthesized from a wide range of materials. The dimensions characterization of nanoparticles and nanoparticle arrays. of these particles makes them ideal candidates for the nano- engineering of surfaces and the fabrication of functional nano- KEYWORDS: structures. In the last five years, much effort has been expended on colloids ´ interfaces ´ monolayers ´ nanostructures ´ sensors 1. Introduction The emerging disciplines of nanoengineering,[1] nanoelectron- optical,[7, 10±13] and catalytic[14] properties originating from their ics,[2] and nanobioelectronics[3] require suitably sized and func- quantum-scale dimensions.[15] tional building blocks with which to construct their architectures In order to tailor the new generation of nanodevices and and devices. This need has encouraged the development of ªsmartº materials, ways to organize the nanoparticles into supramolecular,[4] biomolecular,[5] and dendrimer[6] chemistries controlled architectures must be found. This conundrum has for engineering substatnces of ngström and nanoscale dimen- been addressed to some extent by a large body of recent work sions but, even with lithographic techniques now reaching the describing the construction of colloidal dyads and triads,[16, 17] 100 nm range, the intermediate scale of 10 ± 100 nm remains ªstringsº,[18] clusters,[19] and other architectures[19±22] in solution relatively unexploited (Figure 1). The world of colloid and cluster and at liquid ± liquid interfaces. These constructions will not be science[7] has risen to this challenge and is beginning to find described in any detail here, since this review is dedicated to ways to organize nanometer-sized particles on the micron and surface-bound nanostructures. Likewise, we will not explore the submicron scale. Although many of these particles have been highly active research area of single-nanoparticle electronics in known for a substantial time, it is only now that the tools for their great depth, as excellent reviews already exist.[12, 15, 20] These engineering and characterization exist, which open the doors to single-electron devices tap into the quantum properties of new disciplines of nanoparticle and nanocrystal devices. Nano- nanoparticles for the fabrication of single-electron transis- particles are not just convenient structural elements however, tors[23, 24] and similar devices[25±27] from isolated, immobilized but can also display unique functions. They can be fashioned nanoparticles. Here, we will focus on efforts to construct from many materials and have a wide functional diversity very organized nanoparticle arrays which perform tangible functions. different from bulk materials, with much of their electronic,[8, 9] These superstructures are formed on various solid supports by specific adsorption or self-assembly techniques. Although work on spin-coated, evaporated, or nonspecifically adsorbed nano- particle films has yielded noteworthy results,[28] these techniques are conceptually macroscopic rather than nanoscopic and so will not be covered here. The relevance of nanoparticle superstructures to the emerg- ing areas of nanotechnology and nanophotoelectrochemistry, and to the development of nanoelectronics and ªsmartº materials cannot be underestimated. Colloidal particles offer a [a] Prof. I. Willner, Dr. A. N. Shipway, Dr. E. Katz Institute of Chemistry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem 91904 (Israel) Fax: (972)2-6527715 E-mail: [email protected] Figure 1. Bridging the nanometer-size gap between photolithographic and [**] Parts of our studies on nanoparticle arrays are supported by the Israel ± U.S. synthetic chemical engineeringÐcolloidal nanoparticles fit the bill. Binational Science Foundation and the German ± Israeli program (DIP). CHEMPHYSCHEM 2000,1,18±52 WILEY-VCH-Verlag GmbH, D-69451 Weinheim, 2000 1439-4235/00/01/01 $ 17.50+.50/0 19 I. Willner et al. route to the simple assembly of complex structures and can be Itamar Willner used to create a variety of electronic and sensor components. was born in 1947. He completed his We should note that in this review, we use the terms ªnano- Ph.D. studies in chemistry in 1978 at particleº and ªcolloidº as synonyms for nanosized particles of The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. ambiguous structure, while we consider ªnanocrystalsº to be After a postdoctoral stay with M. necessarily crystalline and ªclustersº to have a defined stoichi- Calvin at the University of California, ometry. Berkeley, from 1978 to 1981 he joined the Institute of Chemistry at the 2. Synthesis of Nanoparticle Arrays Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1982. In 1986, he was appointed as The construction of nanoparticle arrays on surfaces has only Professor at the Hebrew University. gained significant attention in the last ten years. Nevertheless, He is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of the diversity of building blocks, architectures, and construction Science (AAAS), acts as a member of several editorial boards, and is techniques that have been reported is impressive.[19, 29] This the recipient of the Kolthoff Award and the Max Planck Research research has also spurred on efforts to synthesize colloids from Award. His research interests include light-induced electron new materials and with novel surface functionalities. The transfer processes and artificial photosynthesis, molecular elec- construction of two-dimensional colloid arrays is well studied. tronics and optoelectronics, bioelectronics and biosensors, opto- This groundwork has led to methods for the synthesis of much bioelectronics, supramolecular chemistry, nanoscale chemistry, more complex three-dimensional systems and patterned arrays, and monolayer and thin-film assemblies. which may eventually lead to highly functionalized assemblies and composites. Eugenii Katz was born in Moscow in 1952. He 2.1. Synthesis of Colloidal Nanoparticles completed his Ph.D. in 1983 at the Frumkin Institute of Electrochemistry, Many colloidal nanoparticle syntheses have been known for a Moscow, and acted as senior scien- considerable amount of time[30, 31] but, more recently, a body of tist at the Institute of Photosynthesis, work has grown that is dedicated to nanoparticle syntheses Pushchino, until 1991. In 1991, he specifically for the construction of devices and nanostructures. undertook postdoctoral research at These particles may consist of a particular material, be of a the Hebrew University of Jerusalem particular size, or have specialized surface functionality. It has and later (1993), as a recipient of a even become possible to have some degree of control over the Humboldt scholarship, he worked at nanoparticle shape.[32] Nanoparticles tend to be fairly unstable in the Technische Universität, Munich. solution, so special precautions have to be taken to avoid their He joined the research group of Itamar Willner at the Hebrew aggregation or precipitation. Glassware is cleaned thoroughly, University as Senior Research Associate in 1994. His research while reagent solutions and solvents are all filtered and of the interests include electroanalytical chemistry, functionalized mon- highest purity. All nanoparticle syntheses also involve the use of olayers, biosensors and bioelectronics. a stabilizing agent, which associates with the surface of the particle, provides charge or solubility properties to keep the Andy Shipway nanoparticles suspended, and thereby prevents their aggrega- was born in 1971 in Bristol, UK. He tion. studied for his B.Sc. at the University of Birmingham and stayed on as a 2.1.1. Reductive Synthesis of Noble Metal Colloids Ph.D. student under the supervision of Professor J. Fraser Stoddart with a The simplest and by far the most commonly used preparation for thesis entitled ªInsight into Den- gold nanoparticles is the aqueous reduction of H[AuCl4]by drimers and their Role in Catalysisº. sodium citrate at reflux.[31, 33] Although sodium citrate is the most He joined the group of Itamar Willner common reducing agent, metal nanoparticles can also be at the Hebrew University in late 1997 synthesized by the use of borohydride and other reducing as a postdoctoral fellow, coordinat- agents.[31±34] The application of alcohols as reductants for the ing projects inovolving organic synthesis and nanoparticle super- production of platinum nanoparticles allows control over the structures. size of the particles: Higher alcohols yield larger particles, which 2À indicates that a more rapid reduction rate of the [PtCl6] ions is an important factor for the production of smaller particles.[35] Particles synthesized by citrate reduction are nearly mono- disperse spheres of a size controlled by the initial reagent concentrations (Figure 2 and Table 1).[36] They have a negative surface charge as a consequence
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