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Arhitectura De Aparare Din Moldova Medievala

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Arhitectura De Aparare Din Moldova Medievala ACADEMIA DE ªTIINÞE A MOLDOVEI Institutul Studiul Artelor Cu titlu de manuscris C.Z.U.: 728.81(478)(043.3) ªLAPAC Mariana ARHITECTURA DE APÃRARE DIN MOLDOVA MEDIEVALà (mijlocul secolului al XIV-lea mijlocul secolului al XVI-lea) 17.00.04. Arta plasticã, arta aplicatã ºi decorativã ºi arhitectura Tezã de doctor habilitat în studiul artelor Autorul: ªLAPAC Mariana Chiºinãu 2004 2 CUPRINS Introducere . .4 1. Contribuþia înaintaºilor. Metodologie ºi izvoare . .4 2. Precizãri de naturã terminologicã . .10 Capitolul I. Tabloul general al apãrãrii în Moldova . .15 I.1 Apãrarea Moldovei ºi determinantele ei . .15 I.1.1. Etapele istorice . .15 I.1.2. Organizarea militarã a statului. Gîndirea ºi arta militarã . .24 I.1.3. Elemente, metode ºi sisteme defensive . .30 I.1.4. Categorii de fortificaþii . .33 I.1.5. Tipuri de apãrare în arta fortificaþiilor . .38 I.2. Date generale despre cele mai importante fortificaþii . .42 Capitolul II. Particularitãþile arhitecturale, tipologice ºi constructive ale fortificaþiilor puncte de sprijin militar . .86 II.1. Construcþii de pãmînt ºi lemn . .86 II.2. Construcþii de piatrã . .88 II.2.1. Caracteristicile tipologice ºi specificul arhitectural-planimetric . .88 II.2.2. Specificul spaþial-compoziþional . .140 II.2.3. Materiale ºi tehnici de construcþie . .144 II.2.4. Meºteri ºi responsabili de lucrãri . .149 II.2.5. Inscripþii ºi reprezentãri oficiale ºi neoficiale, semne lapidare ºi apotropaice . .156 3 Capitolul III. Morfologia elementelor componente ale celor mai importante fortificaþii de piatrã . .170 III.1. Construcþiile exterioare . .170 III.1.1. Zidurile . .171 III.1.2. Turnurile . .175 III.1.3. Turnurile pline, semiturnurile, turnurile de artilerie ºi basteile . .182 III.1.4. Porþile . .186 III.2. Construcþiile interioare . .196 III.2.1. Palatele fortificate ºi locuinþele demnitarilor militari . .196 III.2.2. Lãcaºurile de cult . .202 III.2.3. Dependinþele . .211 III.3. Amenajãrile speciale . .214 III.3.1. Subteranele secrete . .214 III.3.2. Tainiþele . .216 III.3.3. Capcanele subterane . .217 Încheiere . .219 Note . .232 Bibliografie . .262 Adnotãri . .282 Cuvintele-cheie ale tezei . .286 Lista abrevierilor utilizate in tezã . .287 Anexe . .289 Materialul ilustrativ . .316 4 INTRODUCERE 1. Contribuþia înaintaºilor. Metodologia ºi izvoarele Actualitatea temei investigate ºi contribuþiile înaintaºilor. Pãstrarea patrimoniului arhitectur- al rãmîne o problemã de actualitate a societãþii contemporane. Monumentele de arhitecturã beneficiazã în mod constant de dinamica experienþelor constructive ºi de puterea legãturilor cu tradiþia, prin care ele îºi asigurã personalitatea proprie. Realizãrile ºtiinþelor istorice, arhe- ologice ºi arhitecturale confirmã importanþa acestor obiective ca surse preþioase despre trecut. Datoritã lor, specialiºtii au posibilitatea de a reconstitui atmosfera spiritualã ºi artisticã a unor epoci îndepãrtate. Meritã de menþionat cã distrugerea vechilor documente, precum ºi demolarea monu- mentelor arhitecturale, duc la ruperea legãturilor temporale, la dispariþia simþului tradiþiei, la falsificarea istoriei, ºi, ca rezultat, la sãrãcirea spiritualã a poporului. Monumentele culturii materiale joacã un rol deosebit în cultivarea patriotismului li sentimentului mîndriei naþionale. Ele contribuie la dezvoltatea gusturilor estetice ºi formarea universului emoþional uman. Fiecare popor are dreptul la patrimoniu parte integrantã a culturii lui spirituale. De pe aceste poziþii este explicabil actualul interes faþã de valorile arhitecturale din spaþi- ul carpato-ponto-danubian, în special pentru cetãþile Moldovei istorice. În evul mediu ele au fãcut faþã atacurilor Ungariei, Poloniei, Hoardei de Aur ºi Imperiului Otoman. În sistemul de apãrare a þãrii au fost incluse fortificaþii voievodale de piatrã ºi lemn, incinte urbane, curþi domneºti ºi boiereºti, mãnãstiri fortificate, pasuri întãrite, construcþii-baraje, amenajãri-cap- cane º.a. Printre comanditarii lor se numãrã Petru I Muºat, Roman I Muºat, Alexandru cel Bun, ªtefan cel Mare, Petru Rareº º.a. Parametrii constructivi, arhitecturali ºi artistici ai ce- tãþilor de piatrã din Moldova pledeazã pentru înscrierea lor în rîndurile realizãrilor de marcã ale arhitecturii militare medievale. Aceste amenajãri fortificate au suscitat interesul mai multor cercetãtori. Primii le-au acor- dat atenþie cronicarii moldoveni Grigore Ureche1, Miron Costin2 ºi Ion Neculce3, precum ºi ilustrul cãrturar enciclopedist, domnitorul Moldovei, Dimitrie Cantemir4. De la ei ne-au par- venit informaþii sumare despre diferite fortãreþe. În secolul al XIX-lea au apãrut lucrãrile lui A. Zaºciuk5, P.N. Batiuºkov6 ºi articolele memb- rilor Societãþii Imperiale de Istorie ºi Antichitãþi din Odessa7 (A.L. Bertier-Delagarde, A.A. Ko- ciubinski, N.N. Murzakevici º.a.), în care figureazã date de ordin istoric, arheologic ºi epigrafic. 5 Preþioase pentru cercetarea cetãþilor au fost investigaþiile specialiºtilor din România. O lucrare fundamentalã aparþine lui N. Iorga8. Bazîndu-se pe un vast material documentar, descoperit în diverse arhive, acest savant reconstituie istoria celor mai însemnate oraºe-porturi din Moldova medievalã: Chilia ºi Cetatea Albã. Amenajãrile întãrite au stat în atenþia lui Z. Arbure9, I. Bogdan10, A. Lapedatu11, A. Tanoviceanu12, P. Constantinescu-Iaºi13, S. Panaitescu14, ªt. Ciobanu15, Gh.I. Brãtianu16, N. Bãnescu17, F. Hann18, O.G. Lecca19, A.D. Culea20, N. Grigo- raº21 º.a. O primã sintezã asupra fenomenului apãrarea româneascã prin fortificaþii" a fost fã- cutã de R. Rosetti o încercare de a demonstra rolul major al sistemului defensiv românesc în evul mediu22. Printre primele lucrãri de arheologie cele mai importante aparþin lui P. Nico- rescu23 ºi Gr. Avakian24. Date interesante despre cetãþile Moldovei pot fi gãsite în publicaþiile lui V. Vãtãºianu25, Gr. Ionescu26, Gh. Curinschi27, V. Florea28, C.C. Giurescu29 º.a. O sumã de fapte legate de organizarea defensivei medievale se parcurge în lucrarea de sintezã dedicatã istoriei militare a poporului român30. Mersul ascendent al arheologiei româneºti a impulsionat elaborarea unor broºuri ºi mono- grafii dedicate amenajãrilor fortificate din Moldova. Meritã menþionate lucrãrile lui R. Popa despre cetatea Neamþ31, monografia lui K.A. Romstorfer despre Cetatea de Scaun de la Suceava32, monografia lui Gh. Diaconu ºi N. Constantinescu despre cetatea ªcheia33, monogra- fia lui M.D. Matei ºi Em.I. Emandi despre Cetatea de Scaun ºi Curtea domneascã din Su- ceava34, precum ºi o serie de publicaþii semnate de aceiaºi autori35. Este substaníal aportul lui L. Chiþescu în studierea fortificaþiilor domneºti ºi incintelor orãºeneºti din Moldova36. Datoritã investigaþiilor acestui cercetãtor s-a schimbat esenþial imag- inea noastrã despre istoria ºi arheologia mai multor cetãþi medievale. Trebuie sã amintim aici ºi fundamentala monografie a lui T.O. Gheorghiu cea mai amplã în sensul cuprinderii temporale ºi spaþiale a arhitecturii militare româneºti37. Ea se remarcã prin prezentarea globalã a fenomenului, o riguroasã selectare a datelor disponibile ºi un bogat material ilustrativ selectat cu competenþã. O altã lucrare valoroasã a aceluiaºi cercetãtor urmãreºte specificul apãrãrii urbane medievale, inclusiv pe teritoriul Transilvaniei, Þãrii Româneºti ºi Moldovei38. Prezintã interes ºi cîteva articole cu acelaºi subiect publicate de T.O. Gheorghiu39. Printre lucrãrile mai importante elaborate de autorii români se cer menþionate ºi cele sem- nate de V. Spinei40, ªt.S. Gorovei41, A. Husar42, P. Diaconu43, O. Iliescu44, ªt. Andreescu45, I. Cândea46, A. Andronic47, Gh. Anghel48, A. Pippidi49, P.V. Batariuc50 º.a. 6 Cetãþile din interfluviul Prut-Nistru au beneficiat, de asemenea, de atenþia specialiºtilor din Republica Moldova (Republica Sovieticã Socialistã Moldoveneascã). În legãturã cu origi- nea ºi etapele lor de construcþie pot fi invocate lucrãrile lui A.H.Toramanian51, I. Chirtoagã52, P.P. Bârnea ºi T.F. Reaboi53, V.A. Voiþehovski54, M. ªlapac55, T.Nesterov56 º.a. Cercetãrile arheo- logice ºi istorice ale unor cetãþi sînt oglindite în articolele lui G.D. Smirnov57, G.F. Cebotaren- co58, I. Hâncu59, A. Eºanu ºi V. Eºanu60 º.a. Prezintã interes teza de doctorat a lui V.A. Voiþe- hovski despre cetatea Soroca61, monografia lui P.P. Bârnea º.a. despre Cetatea Albã ºi Chilia (manuscris)62, monografia lui G. Astvaþaturov despre cetatea Bender63, monografiile Marianei ªlapac despre Cetatea Albã64 ºi teza de doctorat ºi monografia Tamarei Nesterov despre monu- mentele de arhitecturã de la Orheiul Vechi65. Toate aceste lucrãri au contribuit într-o mãsurã sau alta la elucidarea anumitor aspecte referitoare la istoria ºi arhitectura cetãþilor din Moldova. Nu pot fi trecute cu vederea nici publicaþiile specialiºtilor din Ucraina ºi Rusia. Date preþioase de ordin arheologic ºi istoric conþin lucrãrile lui A.A. Kravcenko66, B.A. Timoºciuk67, G.G. Mezenþeva68, A. Kuniþa69, I.G. Konovalova70 º.a. Unele aspecte privind arhitectura ce- tãþilor Hotin, Cetatea Albã ºi Ismail au fost cercetate de G.N. Logvin71, G.G. Mezenþeva ºi I.A. Ivanenko72 B. Kolosok73 º.a. Printre lucrãrile autorilor din Franþa, Germania, Italia, Bulgaria, Polonia ºi Turcia cele mai însemnate aparþin lui M. Balard74, M. Cazacu75, P. Nãsturel76, N. Beldiceanu77, G. Pistarino78, G. Airaldi79, P. Stringa80, E. Todorova81, A. Kuzev82, M. Dobrovolski83, O.Gorka84, M. Milkowicz85, I. Oz86, M. Erdogan87 º.a. Dar marea¡ majoritate a tuturor publicaþiilor menþionate nu abordeazã de loc problemele de arhitecturã, limitîndu-se doar la problemele
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