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Erionota Thrax) ® Tree and Forestry Science and Biotechnology ©2010 Global Science Books Bioecology and Management of the Banana Skipper (Erionota thrax) Justin N. Okolle1,2* • Abu Hassan Ahmad1 • Mashhor Mansor1 1 School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Minden, Penang, Malaysia 2 Laboratory of Nematology/Entomology, Centre Africain de Recherches sur Bananiers et Plantains (CARBAP), BP 832, Douala, Cameroon Corresponding author : * [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT Bananas and plantains are important food crops to several people in the world. One of the most important folivorous insect pest on these crops is the banana skipper; Erionota thrax. The larvae of these large butterflies can cause mean leaf defoliation of about 60, leading to yield losses of about 20. Indigenous to Southeast Asia, life stages of the pest are attacked by several parasitoids of which Ooencyrtus erionotae, Cotesia erionotae and Brachymeria spp. are the major ones. Infestation and parasitism of the pest varies with plant growth stages, leaf ages, between interior and field edges, and seasons. Significantly higher infestation and parasitism found on pre-flowered plants, younger leaves and during the rainy season. In addition, eggs and larvae are randomly distributed while pupae are clumped and parasitized eggs and pupae are clumped while that of larvae is random. Although E. thrax has never been reported on non-Musa species or weeds, other smaller Erionota species have been recorded on Asystacia intrusa, Ipomoea cairica, Mimosa pudica and Cloeme rutidesperma. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Keywords: distribution, management, natural enemies CONTENTS INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................................................................ 22 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS............................................................................................................................................................................ 23 Erionota species ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Life stages and life history....................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Host plants, damage and damage effects ................................................................................................................................................. 23 ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS........................................................................................................................................................................... 24 Origins and world distribution................................................................................................................................................................. 24 Banana – Erionota thrax interactions ...................................................................................................................................................... 24 Interactions with natural enemies ............................................................................................................................................................ 25 Seasonal abundance and causes of population fluctuations..................................................................................................................... 27 ASSOCIATION OF ERIONOTA SPECIES WITH NON-BANANA CROPS AND WEEDS ..................................................................... 27 MANAGEMENT OF ERIONOTA THRAX.................................................................................................................................................. 28 Use of chemicals...................................................................................................................................................................................... 28 Use of biological control agents .............................................................................................................................................................. 28 Cultural/physical techniques.................................................................................................................................................................... 28 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES.................................................................................................................................................... 28 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 29 REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................................................................. 29 _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION increasing food demand, environmental pollution and spe- cies invasiveness. Tackling these problems has resulted in a In developed countries and some areas of developing coun- global emphasis on sustainable food production, mini- tries, bananas (including plantains) are still considered only mizing environmental pollution and proper quarantine. as dessert, fruit eaten after a meal, or an addition to break- Emphasis on the significance of agriculture and agro- fast cereal. However, in reality and with the increasing food based industries is one of the major strategies in tackling crises in the world, bananas are considered as an important the above-mentioned problems. This usually calls for mod- agricultural product to most developing tropical countries ernization and transformation of traditional farming systems (Purseglove 1972; Samson 1980; Abdullah et al. 1990; (Musa 2005). This obviously means increasing intensifica- Anon 1991; InfoMusa 1994; Youdeowei 2002; Nkedah and tion of production systems; including increasing use of Akyeampong 2003; Jacobsen et al. 2004; Desdoigts et al. agrochemicals especially pesticides to improve food quality 2005; Loeillet et al. 2009; Okolle et al. 2009a; Mararuai and protect plants from pests and diseases. Although pesti- 2010). This food crop has therefore been rated as the fourth cides are and will continue to be a vital tool as far as crop most valuable food after rice, wheat, and milk (Ploetz 2001). protection is concerned, frequent and injudicious use of Three main problems are usually associated with the con- agrochemicals is usually accompanied by ecological back- sistent increase in world population and globalization viz., lashes in the long term (Anon. 1971; Berryman 1986; Van Received: 7 January, 2009. Accepted: 23 September, 2010. Invited Review Tree and Forestry Science and Biotechnology 4 (Special Issue 1), 22-31 ©2010 Global Science Books Emden and Peakall 1996; Pedigo 1999; Norris et al. 2003; Speight et al. 2008). In field crops, such backlashes include resistance to pesticides, pest resurgence, secondary pest out- breaks, mortality to non-target and beneficial species as well as contamination of water sources. In spite of the increasing awareness on food safety, most farmers are still much concerned only on profit making without thinking of long-term consequences fol- lowing their injudicious use of agrochemicals and other in- effective production practices. Based on this, it is necessary for farmers and associated stakeholders to divert their focus towards sustainable management of agro-ecosystems and such sustainability can be realized only through an under- standing of the major components of such systems. In a Fig. 1 Adult of Erionota thrax with three yellow prominent spots on its field crop system such as a banana plantation, detailed forewings. Photo by Justin Okolle. knowledge of the biology and ecology of a pest are essen- tial components in life system studies. These components form the basis of an effective pest management strategy par- depending on the quality of food plant of each individual ticularly for a defoliating insect like E. thrax that is gradu- larva (Don Sands, pers. comm) and newly laid eggs are ally invading more and more non-native areas. bright yellow, turning to orange, bright red and then to pale yellow when mature (Okolle et al. 2008). These eggs are BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS laid singly or in clusters mostly on the lower surface of the host leaves and the eggs hatch in 5–8 days (Mau et al. 1980; Erionota species Khoo et al. 1991; Okolle et al. 2009b). Immediately after hatching, the young caterpillars (first Members of the genus Erionota (Mabile) are large butter- instars) begin to feed on the edge of the leaf and to cons- flies, with the upper side dark brown, and with the pale truct shelters by rolling and attaching the edge of the leaf yellow hyaline spots on the forewing separated, except in E. using a sticky substance. Due to intra-specific competition, harmachis (Flemming 1983; Corbert and Pendlebury 1992). poor leaf quality and hardness, first and second instars tend There are six major species under this genus: E. thrax (Lin- to move towards younger leaves. As the larvae grow, the neus), E. torus (Evans) (Chiang 1988), E. acroleuca (Evans),
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