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University rvucionrnsft

RIED, Paul Eugene

THE PHILOSOPHY OF AMERICAN RHETORIC AS IT DEVELOPED IN THE BOYLSTON CHAIR OF RHETORIC AND ORATORY AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1959

University Microfilms International 100 N. ZNb KflaC A sa Arbor. MI 4S1M

® Copyright 1960 by

PAUL EUGENE RIED All Rights Reserved PLEASE NOTE:

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University Microfilms International THB PHILOSOPHY OP AMERICAS RHETORIC AS XT DEVELOPS)

XH THE BOXLSTOV OHAXR OP RHETORIC A1TD ORATORY AT HARVARD QHIVERSITT

DISSBRXATIOH

Fnc«nl«4 1a P artial M f lT l in t of the Requirements for tba Degree Doe tor of Philosophy In the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

PAUL EUGEHE RIED, B. A.* A. M

The Ohio State University 1959

Approved by

Department of Spooah m n c i

Harvard University baa fbr wanj years enjoyed an aura or tradition and leadership In tha world of edu­ cation* Xt was alnoat a trulsn that In tha "acadenle” past of tha Uni tad States# tha Harvard aoholar rep- rasantad tha epltone of Anarloan education* Harvard has baan f irs t In nany of tha developments and innovations In education* Among thasa nany firsts# tha Boy Is ton Chair of Rhatorlo and Oratory has enjoyed a position of enlnanee* Xt was tha firs t of its kind In tha Uni tad Statas. I t is not for this raaaon alone# howavar# that tha Boylston Chair has significance* Xt has providnd an opportunity for teaching which has had

significance as a foroa In tha araa of spaaeh adueatlon on a natlonwida basis. FUrthar# as a result of tha efforts of Boylston professors contributions have baan nada to Amerloan society in general* To understand tha affects of Anar lea 1 s first Chair of rhetoric it is nec­ essary to look to tha teachings of tha son who have oe- aupled the Chain

John Qnlnoy Adana 1606-1609 Joseph MoKean 1609-1616 Sdward Tyrrel Cbanning 1819-1851

11 ill

Franols J. Child 1651*1676

Aduu ShAiatn H ill 1076-190^ U Baron Rutatll Brlgfa 1906.-1925 Char la a Townaand Copaland 1925-1926

Robart S* HIIlyar 1937-1964

Thaodora Spanea r 1966-1949 Archibald Mao Lai ah 1969-

Thla atudy la an attaaqpt to tall tha atory of tha work of tha a* graat taaehara, who a a ooaaaon bond waa th alr tltla - Boylaton Profaaaor of Rhatorle and Ora* tory.

April 1. 1959 Paul Rlad ACKB0WI2DGMBHTS

It la dlffleult to aelnowltdet *11 Who hart aidad in tha daulopaant of this atudy baoauaa than* wan —nj ThoMf howavari who war* aapaolallj halpful ara tha profOaaors at Tha Ohio Stata Unlasralty who aat on tha graduata ooanlttaa and dlrsetad tha a f fort a of tha wri- tar* Dr* Paul Canaaok gara a graat daal of bla tlma and paraonal Inspiration, Dr* William Uttsrbsok, Dr* Hanry Sinaia and Dr* Franklin Khowar c ritic a lly axamlnad tha atudy and datallad for tha wxltar vary halpful aaaluatlona* Dr* Baaratt Sohraok offarad auggaatlona of aalua* Ptor arranging tha w rltsr9a taaohlng aobadula In auoh a manna r aa to pro a Ida opportunity for him to par- form raaaaroh and for oonstant encouragement, appreola- tlon la mada to Dr* Lionel Crookar and Profaaaor William Hall at Danlson Uniaarslty.

Further, tha Arohlaea staff, Mr* Kimball Biklns, Mr* Clifford Shipton and Mis a Batty Adams, at Haraard

Unlasralty was aary hoapltabla and gaaa tha writer aaary eonaanlanea* Thay and Mr* Daald Bailey, Saora­ tory to tha Corporation and Board of Oaaraaara at Haraard

Uhlaarslty, parmlttad graat llbarty In tha uaa of a wide

la ranee of materials. The author's wife, Ann Rled, deserves greatest apprec­ iation for her very tangible a as 1 stance as a typist and for intangible assistance In many other ways. Barbara Jane Rled and Joanne Marie Rled should be conmended for their patience. The writer assumes full responsibility for the Ihcts, method and style of expression represented in this study. T A B U OF COMXEMTS

CHAPTER MOB X. XHTRODUCTIOM...... 1

Purpose and Soope ...... X Iaport«BM of Study ...... * 2 Related Studios ...... XO Mottaod and Organisation ...... 15 IX. A BRIEF HISTOKX OF THE B0YL8T0M CHAIR OP RHETORIC AMD ORATORY...... 17 O rig in ...... 17 Rules and Dlrootlono ...... 22

Classical Feilod, l6o6-l65l ...... 26 Forlod of Change» 1651-1676 ...... 34 Modem Period, 1676-1956 ...... * ...... 1*3 Siih>1 j of tbs History ...... I4.7 I I I . JOHM QDIMCY ADAMS...... 50

Introduction ...... 5 0 Tbs Teacher ...... * ...... 51

Rhetoric ...... 57

The Effects ...... 65 XV. JOSEPH MOKEAN ...... 6 6

Introduction ...... 6 6 The Teaoher ...... 6 9 Rhetorlo ...... 7 6

The Effoots ...... 6 9

▼1 v i i

V . EDWARD TYRRKL C HANKING ...... 91

Introduction ...... 91 The Teacher . *...... 9 1 The Rhetoric •. • •...... 99

The Effects • •...... 1 0 8 V I. ADAMS SHERMAN H I L L ...... I l l Introduction ...... I l l The Teacher ...... 111 The Rhetoric ...... 118

The Effect ...... 1 2 5

V II • BOYLSTON FROFESSOitS WHO DID NOT WRITE "RHETORICS" ...... 128 Introduction ...... 128

Francis J. C hild ...... 129 Le Baron Russell B ri^s ...... llj.0

Charles Tovnaend Copeland «... H 4J4.

P o e t s ...... 1 5 2 Robert S. H lllyer ...... 152

Theodore Spencer ...... 1 5 5 Archibald KacLelsh ...... 157 VIII. A COMPARISON Or THD RHETORICS Or BOYLSTON PROFESSORS...... 162 Introduction ...... 162 D e f i n i t i o n ...... * 1 6 5 E m p h a s is ...... 167 ▼Ill

Fonu of Oonnunloatlon • • ...... 167 Innovation* ...... 168 IX. SUMMARY AMD COVCLUSIOKS...... 170

Su m m it ...... 170 Conclusions ...... 182 SEIACZED BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 188

APFEXDIX...... 198 Exhibit 1 ...... 198

Exhibit 2 ...... 199

Exhibit 3 • ...... 203 Exhibit 4 ...... 212

Exhibit 5 ...... 214 Exhibit 6 ...... 215

Exhibit 7 ...... 216 Exhibit 8 ...... 243

Exhibit 9 ...... 300 Exhibit 1 0...... 314

AUTOBIOGRAPHY...... 326 CHAPTER I

imtbqductxo *

Fttfpo— ibA ■oopi» Tin* puipoM of thla study la to trees ths dsvslopasnt of ths philosophy of rhetorle in tbo Boylaton Chair of Rhetorle and Oratory at Har­ vard OhlTsrslty from 10Olt to 1950* Spool fie enphaals la glTsn to tha offaota of tha teaehlnga of tha 0 0 -

o up ants of tha Boylaton Chair on tha da t o lopnont of

apaaah aduoatIon In tha Unitad Stataa* Thla purpose haa baan lnplenented by a do tailed examination and an analyela of tha xfeetorles of John Qulney Adana* tha firs t holder of tha Boylaton Chair* Joseph HeKean* Bdaard Tyrral Charming and Adana Sher- nan Hill* Care Ail investigation was nada Into tha in­

to rests of other holders of tha Boylaton Chair - Fran- ala J* Child* La Baron Ruasoll BrlggSt Charles Town­ send Copeland* Robert B* Hlllyer* Theodora Spenser and tha present lnsiasbent* A re hi bald HaoLalah* Tha arltloal analyses of tha four philosophies of rhotorla of Adana* MeEean* Charming and H ill as they applied to apoeeh edonation* have baan outlined In ehron- ologleal fashion and have baan prefheed by a general history of tha foundation and developnent of the Boylaton

1 2

Chair. Ona o hap tar ha a boon davotad to thoaa Boylaton profttaori who did not produaa in organlsad t o ni a "rhotorla* and, finally, a ehaptar waa addad for tha purpoaa of eonparlns tha phlloaophlaa of xhatorla hold by tha nan whoa# work waa oantral to thla atudy.

An attanpt baa baan aada to taka Into aaootmt tha Influanoaa originating fwa adalnlatratlvo bodlaa at Harvard Oblvarolty. Raaorda of tha Collafa Ovaraaara and of thoaa atelnlatratora who had a dlraat oonnaatlon with tha Boylaton Chair of Rhotorla and Oratory at Har­ vard hava baan laaludad. Influanoaa fron outalda Har­ vard Uhlvaralty wara axamlnad In an attanpt to causa tha axtant to whlah thaaa lnfluaneaa or praaauraa af- fbotad tha taaahlas* of tlu oaaupanta of tha Boylaton Chair. Finally, an affort waa nada to datantf.no tha af- fbeta of tha taaahlns* of thoaa Who oaauplad tha Boyl- atan Chair on apaaoh aduoatlon In tha Dhltad Btataa*

iBSCtlflll l£ itudr. Dud ns tha paat alxty yaara tha aoadootfa dlaalpllna of apaaah haa baoona raoosnlaad throughout tha Hhltad Btataa. Tha lnportaaea of apaaah In tha ourrloulua la lndloatad by tha faot that aa lata aa 1900 thara wara no apaaah dapai tnauta In ool- lagoa and ualvaraltlaa In tha Itoltad Btataa, whlla la 3

1956 tlun mr« onr 8 0 0 .

fhi rtM at *nd n X a tlffli unique to I um ^ Hle- 2 torr or Speech MuontIon 4a tha united StatM.

•dltod by Karl Wallace In 195U# not » i^ lp * n p - reMntatlon or tho sixty years during which training In cpcoeh hac boon a part or the educational curricu-

I ub , but or the whole or American educational history* The roots or speech education extend widely Into the bedrock or American educational tradition* Training

In speech has been Inherent in American democracy* Sxtraeurrloular activities and public college exer­ cises In declamation and rorensles played an aotlve part in the lives or students In the earliest days or the Oil ted States* During colonial days* public com­ monplacing* orations and disputations were prominent

In education*^ This volims by Wallace was one or the rirst or

Owen Peterson* ed** 1956 Directory* Speech As­ sociation or America (Baton Rouge» Speech XssocTa- tion or Juaerlea* Louisiana State Chlverslty* 1956) * p. I4.6 8 .

2Karl Wallace* ed** A History or Speech Education York* Appleton-Oeniury-Crorts * incT*^

^Qeorge V* Bohman* "Rhetorical Praetloe in Colonial k

Its kind* la his preface, Vtll«ot consents* on tho 1 ini tat Ions and achlt t«m n t s Involved In tha work whloh hla book represented.

Readers, however, should not regard the ohronologleal progression as an attewpt to writs definitive history* Befbrs a * final" history of speesh edueatlon oan be prepared* we need the work of many future scholars who will furnish the facts as to who taught what* and where# and how* We believe# nevertheless# that tbs studies ineluded here supply sig­ nificant info mat ion and afford in­ terpretations which aust be reckoned with by future historians of the subject* They organise such that has already been done} they offer suoh that is new.U-

Thls study of the Boylston Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory was designed to supplement broader histories# such as Wallacefs volwe* Further* the study waa con­ sidered to be* in part* an answer to the "need of the work of many future scholars*" Since this endowed Chair waa one of the very first attempts to make speech training an organised ourrloular activity in the American educational process* it Is strange that

America*" in A Bictnrs of Speech K ducat ion in America* ed** Karl Wallace (Wow To rat Apple ton-cent ury-Crofis * Inc*# 19^)* P« 60*

*hCarl W allace# ed** on* s i t ** p. v* 5

there la atlll a need for Intensive atudy. Ita i»- portanee and lta iM |l«et ara strangely Inoongruoua«

Since tha dayi of tha Chair* a origin (1771*1806) tha nan who oaeuplad tha of flea of Bojlaton Lacturar have, dltaotlj and Indirectly, Influenced tha oouraa of •paaoh adueatIon In tha United Btataa* To axanlna tha phlloaophlaa of tha nan oho hold tha Boylaton Chair waa to review practically a ll of tha phlloaophlaa of apaaah a due at Ion aa they have appeared and re-appeared In no re raoant daya. Until 1900* tha trend of eduoatlon In

thla Chair waa a "picture In admlature" of apaaah edu­ cation In tha Uhlted Btataa aa It developed on a broader national aeale* More recant devalopawnts how­ ever wara not typical* Claaalaal rhetorle In tha Boylaton Chair waa rep­ resented in tha para one of John Quincy Adana and Joaaph

Me Kean. Tha "eoaaeunleetloeie" approach to apaaah train­ ing waa outlined by Kdward Tyrrel Chawing. Franoia J* Child waa one of tha flrat to Introduce philology Into th a Aaerlean curriculum. Adana nheman H ill re present ad the grajaaarlan' a approach to xhetorlo* In Baron Rusaell Brlgga followed in Hill*a footatapa by approaohlng xhetorlo aa tha principle a behind Bngllah written com­ position* Charles Townaand Cope land # known a specially 6

< to r hla took the point or vltv or thoM who today an interested In oral interpretation. Mono roe ant ooeupanta or tho ohalr. Robort 8. Hillyor, Theo­ dore Spencer and Archibald MaeLelsh. have approaohod thoir dutloa as Boylaton U ettnr from tho standpoint or poo ties, emphasising poo try and drama. Tho t o rio t y nsprosontod hors is striking and. at tho sano tine. in* vltlng to tho studont or spoooh education. To tho toaehor or spoooh. tho analysis and tho

eo^arison or tho so various philosophies wars basio to an understanding or tho dovolopawnt or Amerloan rhetori-

eal theory. To the individual who was into rastod in

sdueation in general, this study should bo or Inportanee beeauss tho spoakors and wzltora who graduated from Harvard university and wars arfOotad by tho Boylston

Chair have boon in many eases prosdnent in tho history or the United States. Xn some oases tho students who were In flue no ed by this Chair have dsoldedly influenced tho thinking and actions or Americans to this day.

Thomason and Baird in Sooeoh T fi f M** indicated

^Looter Thomason and A. Craig Baird. Speech C ritl Aiflg (Vow Yorki Tho Ronald Press Co.. 19i|.oj, p7 339* 7

that Theodora Farictr waa g rtttlj influenced by John »1ncy Adame' tM tiw i on Rhftfprtt and Oratory.^ Theodora Parker 1 a Influence In turn waa exteaalve* In A Mildred Barry*a work on Lincoln, Parkar waa reputed to

be the wan from whose work Lincoln waa lnaplred to ■aka hla no at l—nrtal statement* Ibr when Lincoln read Parker* a leeture entitled Effect of Blavsrv on tha People he underlined these worda, "dem­ ocracy la direct aalNcovanawnt, over all the people* Per a ll tha people* by a ll tha people**

Zt aeena worthwhile to lndloate further the In­ fluence of tha Boylaton Ohalr on American thought and Ufa in general* Tha boat of graat nan whoai the Ohalr affbeted la highly impressive* Ralph Waldo Emerson won tha Boylaton Prise for Oratory aa an under* 9 graduate of Harvard* In hla Journals Sneraon made note of tha lapaot of xhetorlo and oratory at Harvard upon hla 11 to and works *1 0 Wendell Phillips distinguished

7john Qulnoy Adana* Lectures on Rhetoric and Ora­ tory (Cartridges Hllllara and Aa teal r* ioloj, zvola. ^Mildred Be rry, *Abrahan Llnoolnt Hla Developnent la tha Bkllla** In A History and Cjrltleln of Amarioan Public Addreaa* ed., William Vorwood Br£ganoe (Hew Torkt Mcoraw-HiH Book 0o»* Inc** I9ig3) * II* p* 839* W. Kmeraon* ad** A i Complete Works of Baloh Waldo (Boatont~ Centenary “ y Edition* 1963-C) * V ol.V Il * P* 10 Theodora T* Btenbarg* "Emerson and Oral Discourse*' 6

hlanlf la deolanatlon under tha guldanoe of Idmrd T. Cbanning and John Barbour* Barbour* a training la ipaaobi aald Fhllllpa* waa tha "beat ever of farad any n atudant*" Obarlaa Sllot*e ona bright apot in an othenrlae dull aduaatloa waa publle apaaking and deolan- 1 2 at Ion* Char la a flunar waa anrollad in Rhatorle and Oratory at Harvard*^ In addition to thoaa already oltad, Henry Thoreau, Rlehard Hanry Dana I I , John

Lothrop Motley* Francla Perlman and Oil T a r Wanda 11 Holme a wara a ll atudanta a f fleeted by tha laeturaa and

taaohing of tha Boylaton Frofleeaora of Rhatorle and Oratory **^

In Studlea In Rhatorle and Publle ed. , A* M* DnaaMod in nonor of Frofraeor Jane a Albert Wlnana (Raw Yorks Century Crapawy, 1925)* P* 155* 1JHarte Hoohmuth and Rlehard Murphy, "Training In Rlneteenth Century Colleger*" In A patorr of Snaeoh Bdueatlon In A airlot. ad ., Earl Wallace (Tew Yorks Appleton-Century-Crofta* Ine., 19 5U) P« 162*

^Loula M. XIoh. "Charlaa W* Bllot." In A Hlatorr and Critjolam s i Pnblle Addraaa. ed** William Xorwood Brlganoa (Raw Yorks MoOraw-Hiil Book Co** 19U3)* II* p. 527.

*^R. Blaine Pagal and Carl Dellinger, "Charlaa Sumer,” In A and C rltlc l— of Publle Addraaa. ad** William forwood Brlganoa (Vow Vorks Hod raw- Hlllflook Co.* In e., 19l«.3)* II* P. 773.

^V«n Wyek Brooka* Tha Flowering of Raw England* I6lj5-l865 (Raw Yorks B. p7 button and^CoTr~lne * * 1957) * 9

Alan Baagar, Stuart ?* Shaman, Conrad Allcan,

Robart Banohla j, X* X* C tamings, daoiga Boa a, Kaaaath X* Brown, Barnard Da Voto, John Do a Fassoa, Bobart HI 11 ja r, Kannatb MaoOowan, Haywood Broun, T* 8 * X llot,

Brooks Atkinson, Waltar Uppsaiaa, Robart Sharwood and Van Wyok Brooks wara anong tha hundrads to havs baan l < af faotad by Boylston Profs as or a. Kamaat Brandan- burg and Waldo Bra dan hava told or an In tans a ting coaaaant nada In an lntarriaw with Mrs. Franklin Dalano Roosavalt* Sha aald, “Roosavalt [F.D.Rj baoana ona of 'Copay's [Charias Townsand Copaland, tha savanth Boylston ProhssorJ nany frlands and oftan spoka In la tar yaars of tha anthuslasn with whloh ha and hla elaaanatas ga tha rad to haar this st Inula ting taaohar rsad frosi tha Blbla and fron anlnant Kngllah and Anarl- ean authors*"1^

15 Rollo Waltar Brown, Pa an fining (Haw Yorkt Harpar and Brothara Fubllahsrs, 1926) p* 61, and artlelas ft*on tha following nawapaparst Boston Daily globa. Saptanbar 4, 1932, Harvard Ai«»i Bulla tin, Hovanbar 25* 1932, Boston Kvanln* Transcript. Daeasbar 27* 192lf and HarvardJLixauil Bulls tin . A pril 27. 1922.

l6Xamaat Brandsnbupg and Waldo Bra dan, "Franklin Dalano Roosavalt," In A Hlgtoyy and Criticism of Anrrl- oan Publlo Addraaa. ad* Maria Hoawuth (flaw xorkt Tiongnsna, Graan and 0o», 1955), III* p. J 4.6 2 . 1 0

I t is dlmoult to dlHgn* with Everett Loo Hwt, vton, la reviewing tho Co Poland Roador. ho referred to

tho Bojloton Chair la thoao toxu# "Tho non who have ooouplod this ohalr, tho books tho 7 have writ ton, and

tho educational influonoo tho7 have wloldod ha t o made It oaollj tho most distinguished ohalr of rhetorlo and 17 oratorj In Amerioa." This statement o oncoming tho wldo-rangInc Influonoo of tho Bojloton Chair la repre-

sontatlTO of similar statements la othor woxlcs, Refer- onooa to tho Bojloton Chair and tho non who ooouplod It ara oonsldorod uador tho hooding of Rolatod studies*

Rolatod studioa. Little oonoontratod of fort haa jo t booa made to analjao e rltlo a llj tho development of apooeh o due at Ion as It has takon plaeo la tho Bojl- aton Chair of Rhotorla and Oratorj at Harvard Chive r- sltj* Dome raforaneoa to tha family of Bojlston, proalnont la eoloalal dajs and aftor tho Rovolution, art to bo found In American histories* Harrj Caiman and Harold B jrott, for example, rofbrrod to tho Bojl- aton fhmlly "In tho a ana breath* with tho Fletaaana of 1 6 Maasaohuootta and tho DeLaaeeys of Haw York*

^Hverett Hunt, "Tho Copeland Roador,” Tho Quarter- lZ S £ Booooh* 1 3 1 2 0 2 , April, 1927* rrj j* Canaan and Harold C* Bjrott, ^ History of the VttrlfVt People (How York* Knopf and Co,, 1952) , prTU* 1 1

In addition to ooeaalonal references to tha Beyl-

aton Dually of Maw England In general hi a tori* a, thart are specific references to tha Boylaton Chair of Rhatorle and Oratory In a wide variety of aourcea • In Tha Flowering of tha Maw gn^-ian a Mlnd3^ by Van Wyok Brook a there are many a pacific references to tha Boyl­ aton Chair aa a force In tha making of tha "Golden Age" of American Literature. Xt la mentioned from time to tine In various hlatorlea written about Harvard Unl- veralty. A aeetlon in S. B. Morison's Davolopnont of 2 0 Harvard and aaveral re fere nee a In Joalah Qulney* a 21 History of ar* example a In point* Brief references to the Boylaton Chair have bean made in aaveral apeeoh texta of recent years. These references are generally made In oonneotlon with the Lectures of John Qulney Adams. Adams waa quoted In Oilman, Aly and Reid* s The Pun dame n tale of 8 peakInk.2^

^Van Wyek Brooks, op . elt. » pp. 563*

^Samuel Bllot Mori son. The Development o f Harvard University 1669-1929 (Cambridgei The Harvard onlver- ■Tty Preaa, 1930), p p • 65-105*

^Joalah Qnlnoy, of Unlyre^ty (Bostons Croaby, Mlehola, Lee and Co., looo), 2 vole., pp. 131|0. ^V llbur Oilman, Bower Aly and Loren D. Reid, The Fundamentals of PpftfcllVr (Mew Yorks MacMillan Co*. W 5ll» p.Jo 6 . 1 2

MoBurney *®d Vrtgo's Q l l r t of Pood Sp*Mh. ^ Brlg- 9 1 . tno«* a B w eh Conpoaltlon^ and Bryant and Wallace's

Boa* individuals who bar* ooouplod tho Bojloton Ohalr have boon studio d In do ta ll. Horaoo Rahakopf wroto hla doetoral dissertation on Joto Quincy Adanat SnaaIrar Rhetorician. Thla dlaaortatlon waa put Into artlelo lbm In 19U.6, and publlahod In tho Quar- 2 6 tor I t Journal of Speech. Lousene Rouaaoauv In an i 27 1916 edition of tho rttT lT Jonwaal of Speech, publlahod an artlelo on John Qulaoj Adana, eonparlns hla work with Cicero's. She concluded that John Qulnoj

Adana oopled fron tho wortca of Cleero and* consequently*

^ Janos H. MeBumoj and Brno at J. Wrtgo, The Art of Good Soooch (How Xorki Prentice Hall* In c.*±953)• p.

G i l l i a n Horwood Brlganee* Speech Coayoaltlo n (How Xorkt Applet on-Century-CroIx*, Inc., 195*)* p. 23 and pp. 318-319.

2^Donald Cm Bryant and Karl Wallace* Pawl Co oatlon (How Torkt Appleton-Century-Crofts* Inc. * i95t;V p* l* 2^Horaoo Rahakopf* "John Quincy Adanat Speaker and Rhotorlolan *11 The Quarterly Journal of Spoooh. 32t U3 5 -WA. Deoenber, ±9 U*»

^Louaono Rousseau, "The Rhetorical Principles of 2*397^09* Oetbber Stt.SUS£&S£lZ Jbumal of Speech, 13

could bo Justifiably tebbed * "oopler*" Dorothy Andoraon wrote a doctoral dleeertatlon on tho teaohlngo of Ktnrd Tyrrol dumdat and aubae-

quantly wroto two artloloo for tho 9WrfrtrlT Journal of Spoooh, In 191*7^ and 19l*92^ on Sdward Tyrrol C ban­ ning* a phllooophy of xhetorlo and hla aethoda aa a teacher*

Othor oomanta on tho Boylaton Chair or thoaa non who ooouplod I t hare boon alngular and aonawhat hurrlod

In nature* Warren Outhrlo In hla artlelo# Tho Do t o loo- Rhetorical Theory whleh waa pub­ llahod In four part a In Bpoooh Monoanapha In 194-6#

191*7# 1914-6# and 1949# touohod on tho Boylaton Chair 30 from an oblique rather than a dlroot angle* Seat to rod on—ianta o oncoming tho Boylaton Chair wore fbimd la tho booka 4 ^ftaw r of Bpoooh Bduoatlon In tho Pfaltad State a-*^

2®Dorothy Andoraon# "Bdward T. Channlng'a Defini­ tion of Rhetorto#" Spoooh Monoampfaa* 11*.*61-92# 19l*7«

^Dorothy Andoraon# "Bdward T. Channlng1 a Teach­ ings of Hhotorlo#" Spoooh Monoarapha. 16*96-113# Auguat#

^°Warren Outhrlo # "Tho PoTolopnant of Rhotorloal Theory In Anarloa#" Bpoooh Monoarepha. 16*96-113# Auguat# 1949*

31l t r l Vallaoo# ed*# ££•o lt*, pp. 667# % 2 and 4 HI ■tarr u ^| fixHAfilRg fi£ IlftjlS tt EBfeUjL Addraaa. Donald OoodfSl low's a rtle lo ^ In tha Bsw Rnaland

tsrlr dsaarvss also to bo nsatlonsd baoauaa It rapra-

•anta tha only puxwly hlstorloal study of John Quinsy Adana* oonaaotloa with tha Boylaton Ohalr* Bsssntlal information eoneamlng tha origin of tha Ohalr waa glwsn anphaala In thla artlola. Ronald Raid of tha Unlvarslty of Washington* Bt* Louis* Missouri* has alao glvsn a graat daal of thought In oonnsotlon with hla rsssaroh on Bdward Xvsrstt to a part of tha parlod with whieh thla atudy dsals*^ Thars la good rsason why sobolars havs baan nora lntarastad in daallng with spsolflo Individuals who havs ooeuplad tha Boylaton Ohalr than with tha Ohalr* a gsnsral dsvslopnant as an Institution* Tha polloy goranlag philosophy and nathods uaad In taaohlng rhstorlo in tha Boylaton Chair baa baan oharaetarlaad by a lack of oonslstsnoy* Thla laok of eonalatanoy saans to ba a raault of tha hot that doaplta tha In-

^ l l l l a s Boxwood Brlganoa* ad** on* a lt * * 2 vols*

^^Donald M« Ooodfallow* "Tha F irst Boylston Pro­ fs ss or of Rhotorla and Oratoxy*” Baw Rnaland Q uartarlr. 19*372-369. Baptanbar* 19t«.6* — — « ^Ronald Bald* "Bdward Xvsrsttt Rhotorlolan of Rationally* 102k-1855** Quart or I t Journal of Bpoooh* 1*2 1273-202, Ootobar* l^So. 15

tontions of tha found*r of tbo Chair and tha ruloa laid down by tha Harvard Or*rs««r*, the nan who oo- ouplad tha Chair In asaanea datamlnad polioy than* solv*a. Tharafora, I t haa baan daalrabla to study tha origin and tha davalopnant of tha Chair In taxna of tha nan who wara raaponalbl* for and a

Mathod and w tlon. In da t o loping a prao- tleal nothod of lnplanantlng tha purpoa* of thla atudy It waa naoaaaary to aat up a fora to ba uaad In daal- lag with tha worka of thoaa lndl vidua la who ooouplad

tha Boylaton Chair of Rhetoric* Tha nodala for font wara provldad by Inatar L« Hala In hla artlola on Dr* Janoa Ruah^ and Claud* L* Shavar In hla artlo la on Stool* M a e K a y * Hala and Shavar approaohad th alr raapaotlv* subjaeta fron tha atandpolnt of* first* tha nan; aaoond, tha rhotorlo; and finally* tha affaeta of tha rhatorlo on apaaoh a duo at Ion* In tha oaa* of hla subjaot* Dr* Jana a Rush, Hala apaol floally adviaad that* “In aaanlnlng or u tilisin g Dr* Jan*a Rush's con­ tribution to apaaoh * ducat Ion, not only Must tha noat fhmlllar pro duo t of his Investigation *** ba a o rut lnl sad*

3% arl Vallao*i ad** pp« 219*237• 36Ibld*. pp* 202-216* 16

- 1 7 but Its fftBM of rtftrtne* ibould bo appreciated*" The rtotorloi of thoee who ooeuplod the Bo jl a tan Chair wo ro approached in ttao son# fkihioa* In Antlriing the major rhetoric* o f Boplaton Zooturtrti certain boole quootlono and their anawera have boon emphaalaed* Tboso quootlono ooneorood tbo definition# tbo ooopo and Amotion of rhatoric# apoolal onphaooo# mnrtoa o f onninloatlon otrooood and unique contribution** After each Individual Boyl»ton Looturor hao boon oonoldorod# an over-all ooaqxartaon o f a ll of their rhetorleo la added ft>r purpoooo o f loolatlng their difference* and do to mining their relative influ­ ence • on opeeeh eduoatlon In America*

3 7 Ibld.. p. 219 CHARTER I I

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THB BOYUtTOH CHAIR OF RHETORIC ABB ORATORY

Orixln. Th« sstabllsba»nt of tha Boylaton Chair of Rhatorlo and Oratory was a rasult of tha gsnaroalty of a Bo a ton nsrehant whoaa faally waa wall known In Colonial Haw England - Mleholaa Boy 1 at on, Esq.1 Born on Maroh 13, 1716? Boylaton 11 rad tha U fa of a solid

Naw England buslnssaauui. In tha Bo at on Oaaatta of Auguat 26, 1771, tha Ravm rand Dr. Thonas Coopar in- dleatad that Mloholas Boylaton, Esqulrs waa a nan of good unda r a tan ding and aound judgment, dlllgant In hla bualnaaa, though not a aliva to I t, upright In hla daalInga, honaat and alneara In a ll hla professions, and a at rang ar to dlaainulatlon.3

^Aside fro* tha fket that tha Boylaton name waa made known through tha Boylaton Chair of Rhatorlo and Oratory at Harvard, Zabdlal Boylaton, Vloholaa' unola, aohleved world-wide Bum and distinction for balng tha first Aiasrlean to adopt tha praetlea of Innoou- latlng agalnat snail 1 pox. ^Donald M. Good fellow has dona tha most thorough rsssaroh Into tha background of tha family of Vloholaa Boylaton, Esq. For a da tailsd aooount of tha Boylaton f u lly traa aaa Good fa How* a artlola In tha Haw Quarterly, 19*372-369# September, 19^6. 3Boaton Oaaatta. Auguat 26, 1771*

1 7 18

R«nran4 Joseph MoXean* ths eeoond Boylaton Professor* pointed out* In regard to newspaper eulogies of the ■an, Mlcholaa Boy Is ton, Ksq,, that "Xqulvocal as news­ paper panegyrio vust be regarded* yet the rational estlnste here given (in the Oasette notloe of August 26* 1 7 7 1 3 1 * confined by the united testimony of J i those who knew hlm*"^ In a Bulletin of the Publlo Library of the City of Boston reference Is made to the entertainments of the Boy Is ton family which "drew together all the dls- c tlngulshed families of the town** Boylaton*a house­ hold fUmlthings ellolted from John Adams the coaseent that *they are the most magnificent of anything I have ever seen*"^ Boylaton did nothing of brilliance* In his simple* direct fashion* he held the "noiseless tenor of his way*" He waa respectable and correct - a man of In­ tegrity* perseverance and piety* His business partner

^Lecture XXI* p* 253 of the original manuscripts of the lectures of Joseph KcKean In the Harvard Chi­ ve rslty Archives* Widensr Library* Cambridge* Massachu­ setts* Thirty-eight of KcKean*s lectures were donated to Harvard University by Mrs* Taylor In 1923* MoKean's leotures were referred to as The Lectures of Joseph MoKean* ^Bulletin of the Public Library of the City of Bos­ ton* Ftourth series* Vol* III* (Tmstees* Boston* 1921) P. 307. ^Ibld*. p* 3 0 8 * 19

7 was JoMph Green, * celebrated aaong tha wits and poets of law Rngltnd. Boylaton and Groan cowplenented each

other wall* for Groan waa notad in Boston for bains original and hworoua wbils Boylaton, on tha othsr hand, of farad "aolld Judgment" and "prudent w laden*" In hla will, Boylaton la ft 1+00 to Groan* I t nay a t m surprising that Vloholaa Boylaton waa not a eollaga nan, nor waa hla fually of a eollaga tradition* Tha only Boylaton to graduats fron Harvard g was ona by tha nano of Zabdlal, in Ho waa not

tha Zabdlal Boylaton who latar lntroduood Inoculation against anallpox Into tha Unltod Statos. Ward Mlcholaa Boylaton, Mlcholaa* nophew, also gave a groat deal to

Harvard, but ha. Ilka hla uncle Mloholaa, was not a Harvard nan*

As waa tha euston In Colonial daya, Vloholaa waa anxious to parpetuato hla fanlly nano* Van Wyek Brooks Indicated that, Tha norohant - patricians * * * wished to ••• glorify their capital £ Boston] not only In tha elegance of tholr nanaIona but also In ohurehes, parka and public buildings. In professorial chairs at Harvard College, In sohools and asyluna and hospitals *9

?Tha Lectures of Joseph KcKean, Lecture XXI, "Skatoh of the Founder and Foundation," p* 2">5* ® Barrett Wendell, "Mlcholaa Boylaton," Harvard Graduate 1 a HgfiUlBHt 4*206, 1695* 9Van Wyok Brooks, op* o lt*, p* lj.1* 20

Boylaton at

17614.1 0 vban tbo library waa loat by fir* . Than on August 1, 1771# ba bequeathed Jf 1500 "lawful money " * 1 to Harvard College fbr tha aatabllalaant of a Chair of

Rhatorlo and Oratory* On Auguat 18 of tha yaar 1771* Just aa ha waa about to retire , Mlcholaa Boylaton died. On Fbbruary U« 1772, hla axaeutora paid tha amount of /1500 to Thomas Hubbard 12 Hsqulre, Traaaurar of Harvard Collaga. Tha Corporation of tha Collaga gava thank a and aakad Thomas Boylaton,

Vloholaa* brother, and ona of tha axaoutora of hla aatata "to permit a full length portrait of hla da- oeaaed brother to ba drawn, at tha axpanaa of tha col­ lage, from an original In hla poaaeaalon, and placed In -13 Harvard Hall." Thla portrait waa painted by Coplay and waa preaented to tha Collage.

*°Joslah Quincy, o p . clt., II, p. 2114..

^Manuscript extraot of tha Will of Vloholaa Boyl­ aton, Haq. written by William Cooper. Wldener Library, Harvard Chi varsity. ^Manuscript extract of tha Will of Vloholaa Boyl­ aton, Baq. written by William Cooper. Wldener Library, Harvard Chi varsity. Baa Appendix, Kxhlblt Vo. 1. ^Corporation Papers, Vol. 2, p. 3 6 8 . Wldener Library, Harvard Chiveralty. 21

lh«Nmmu but ll ttl a to odd to th« lehlavuMnts and lira of Vloholaa Boylaton. Ha waa tha kind of nan who ”llvad tha good Ufa* and. In tha proeaaa, ganar-

ally avoldad tha hlatorlan'a notlea* Two or thraa ganaratlona of tha Boylaton family llvad In tha nalghborhood of Bo a ton aftar Vloholaa* daatb. Ona of Bo a ton* a naln thoroughfaraa and a Hall at Harvard bora tha family najna* But parhapa tha graataat aomnant to hla Ufa and work ranalnad In tha form of tha Boyl­ aton Chair of Rhatorlo and Oratory at Harvard Unlvar- alty. 14 Upon tha daath of Vloholaa* brothar, Thomaa, on Daeambar 30, 1798, tha Boylaton aatata waa willad to Ward Vloholaa Boylaton with thla provlalon, • •• i f Ward Vloholaa falla to hava ha Ira, to tha aona of tha fanla llna naxt to kin to ma tha tastator, to wltt tha daacandanta of Mary Hallowall, wlfa of Banjamln Hallowall, Kaq», ny lata slatar, and on failur* of mala daaoandanta of thla llna, to tha aona of tha faawla llna ••• to wltt John Adana, Vaq, , now Praaldant of tha Uhltad Stataa of Anarlea, ha balng-to naxt of kin to ma tha taatator •••

^Thomaa waa arronaoualy namad tha foundar of tha Boylaton Chair of Rhatorlo and Oratory by Saaual Flagg Bamla, John Quinns ftffmf tha fbundatlona of Amarl- oan Ftaralm PolloT ?#aw Yorkt^tlfradA . Inop77 194$)

IS Tha Will of Thomaa Boylaton - raealvad aa a gift of Ravarand O. C. Bvaratt of Charlaatown on February 25* 22

Although John Aduu actually navar racalvad tha ban*-

n ta mantlonad in Thaui Boylaton1* w ill, hla aon, John Qulnoy Adana, did ban*fit by baoomlng tha flra t holdar of tha Boylaton Chair of Rhatorlo and Oratory at Harvard*

Hula a and dlraotlona* At tha tin* of paynant of tha jEl500 to Harvard Collaga (Pab. 11, 1772) I t waa fblt that hiring a prof* a a or ahould ba poatponad until tha fund* davalopad to tha point whara a profaaaor would faal that It waa worth hla whlla to aooapt tha poaltlon of Boylaton Laoturar* Had not tha Anarloan Ravolutlon Intarvanad, tha Chair of Inatruetlon night hava baan aatabllahad In 1761 whan Joaaph Willard waa 16 mad* fra aidant of Harvard Unlvaralty* Tha Boylaton grant waa aaaalngly forgottan until 1801 whan, upon hla ratum from England, Ward Vloholaa 1 7 Boylaton, 1 naphaw of Vloholaa Boylaton, Infomad tha

1651* Thla Will la looatad In tha Wldanar Library, Harvard Unlvaralty* 1 6 Th. Laeturaa of Joaaph McKaan, Lectura XXI, "Skateh of tha Fbundar and Foundation," p* 255* *^Ward Vloholaa Boylaton* a patam al nana waa Ward Hoi Iowa 1 1 * Ha waa tha aon of Banlamln and Mary Hollow* 11* By tha wlah of hla matarnal unola hla nan* waa ohangad to Ward Vloholaa Boylaton* Batwaan 1772 and 1776 Ward Vloholaa travalad tha world* Ha vialtad Vowlbundland, Ita ly , Turtcay, Syria, Palaatlna, Bgypt, Frano* and Plandara* Ha want Into bualnaaa In England, 23

Corporation of Harvard Col lag* that althar tho noney vhleh had aocuMulated trom tha original grant waa to ba put to usa for tha purpoaa for whloh I t waa glvan

or ha would aua for tha grant and put up "a building 18 to contain public rooai for tha uaa of tha collaga*" By thla tine tha original grant had davalopad at conpound lntaraat to a alaaabla sun* On Ootobar it* 19 1796* tha lagaoy waa found to ba 14*660*63 dollars• By 1 8 0 4 tha oapltal had lneraaaad to tha alsa of

2 3 * 0 0 0 dollars *2 0 On January 12* 1803# undar tha throat of suit* Pro aidant Willard* Dr* Sllphalet Pa arson and Dr*

Howard wara nanad as a eoaalttee to draw up tha rulas for tha offloa of Boylaton Lecturer* On April 30*

staying until 1800* Ha zatuxnad to Boston In 1800 and ranainad thara until hla daath In 1826* It waa shortly aftsr his raturn to tha United Btataa that Hloholaa beeane into ra a tad In tha Chair that hla unela had founded* lfl Corporation Papers* Vol. I* 1801* Wldener Li­ brary* Harvard tftilverslty* Thla ra fsrenoe waa alao found In Donald M* Good fallow, "Tha F irst Boylaton Pro­ fs a aor of Rhetoric and Oratorv." Haw Hnaland Quarterly. 19*373# Saptanbar* 1946. ^College Papers* Vol. Ill* IV* p* 37* Wldener Library* Harvard university* ^^Tha Lecturea of Joaaph KcKean* Leoturs XXI* "Sketch of tha Founder and Foundation*" p* 257* 2 k

10Olt» tlwa* rulat van vaad and aeoaptad by tha Corpora- 21 tlon a t Harvard* On July 26* 10Otf* thay wara fa m ily 22 adoptad by tha Board of Overaeera* Tba rulaa and dlraotlona wara baaad largely on tha olaaalaal canona of invention* dlapoaltlon* elocu­ tion* mmmn j and delivery and wara wrlttan for tha ooawalttaa by Dr* Paaraon who waa than Haneoek Profaaaor of Habraw and othar Orlantal Ungmgai at Harvard* Un­ t i l 1610* Eng 11 ah gnuaar and oonposltlon wara taught by tha Profaaaor of Habraw at Harvard. In 1610* how- avar* teaching English o opposition baeaaw a part of

tha dutiaa of tha Boylaton Profaaaor* On Mareh 15* 1810* tha Board of Ovaraaara votad that* Whereas In tha aaeond law of tha third ehaptar of tha Collaga laws* it la ordarad that tha profaaaor of tha [alcj Habraw* and othar Orlantal Languages ahall inatruot tha Sophonora and Froah- nan olaaaaa onea a waak* and tha olaaaaa of Banior and Junior aophlatara onea a fortnight in Bnglleh graaaaar and English oonpoaltlon* and wharaaa a branch of tha aald inatruotlon ha a baan devolved on tha Boylaton profaaaor of Rhatorlo

21 Original nanuaorlpt of tba Rulaa* Dlroetion and Statu tea of tha Boylaton Profeaaorahlp of Rhatorlo and Oratory in Harvard Collaga* w rlttan by Dr* Paaraon in tha Wldener Library Archives* Harvard tihl varsity* Baa Appendix* Exhibit Vo* 2*

^Ihe Deoturea of Joaaph MoKean* Laetura XXI "Bketoh of tha Pbundar and Foundation*" p* 257* 25

and Oi«toi 7 f th*r»fbr«, voted* that tha above recited order ba repealed# except that part tharaef which enjoined tha instruction of tha Frsahnsn In Sag- 1 1 ah graxsMr.2 ? Tha original nanuacrlpt draft a wara found In tha Pear- 2l|. aon papara In tha archives at Harvard* Joaaph KcKean paid tribute to tha nan raaponalbla for tha original rulaa governing tha Boylaton Chair whan ha wrote* In tha profound credit Ion of both LW 1 1 - lard and PaaraonJ * and tha long prac­ tical experience of one of than CPear^ aon] * la the oouraa of In at ruction whloh thla depart—nt embraces* entire oonfldanaa waa repoaed that they would devise tha beat preotloabla schema for rendering* to use thalr own words In their report • tha Institution nost ax tens I t s ly and paznanantly useful* and thus to aooonpllsh tha benevolent.^ and patriotic designs of tha Founder* The rulaa gave a broad Interpretation to tha meaning of Rhetoric* allowing for both wrlttan and oral exer- elaaa In Sngllsh* Pearson's Influence was largely raaponalbla for tha feet that tha rules for lectures

^Ove racers Reports* Vol* V* p* 233* ^*The original nanuacrlpt la a part of tha Paaraon papers In tha Harvard Archives* Cambridge* Massachusetts* 2 5fhe Lectures of Joseph MeKean* Lecture XXI "Sketch of tha Founder and Foundation*" p. 257* 26 were applied out In tam i of tha classical canon* of rhetoric and o**atory.^ Claealcal period, 1806-1651, The appointment of John Quincy Adams a a the first Boylaton Professor was delayed until June 21+* 1601+ by the death of Presi­ dent Willard on September 25# 1801+. The appointment was confirmed by the Board of Overseers on July 25* 1805*^ The work preparatory to Adams' Inauguration waa completed one year later. On June 12* 1806 he was Inaugurated and the line of professors who were to make practical use of the Boylaton grant was given Its beginning In a technical sense. The first Boylaton Professor specified certain conditions to his acceptance of the new post. He asked for and received relief from all private instruction and from half of the public Instruction prescribed by the rules of the Chair* Adams also took exception to the statement concerning religion in the third section of the rules and regulations. On Hay 22* 1806* the Board

26 The phrase "classical canons" was used as another way of saying Cloero'a five divisions of rhetoric* Cicero's five divisions were 1) Invention* 2) disposi­ tion* 3) elocution* 1+) memory * and 5) pronunciation. These divisions covered all steps in the development of a speech, ^Overseers Reports* Vol, IV, pp. 1+57-8. 27 of Overseers repealed tha third aeotlon and substi­ tuted tha statement that tha Boylaton Lecturer ahould believe in "Christian religion and have a fim per- 26 suasion of Its truth*" He was not required to stay in raaidanoa at Harvard in deference to hla position in tha Senate* Despite thaaa uniqua conditions, Adams lived up to tha spirit of tha rulaa of his of flea by directing his Lectures olasaioal rhatorlo to contemporary oratory* Tha atoxr of his formal inauguration as Boylston Laoturar was told in Adana 1 own words# My fa tha r and tha family a t Quincy earns into town# and want also to Cambridge before dinner* I dined with my father# Mr* Boylston# and Professor Vara# at President Webber'a* In tha afternoon I was Installed as Boylaton Profaaaor of Rhetorle and Oratory* Tha hour fixed for tha purpose was half-past three# but Just at that time there arose a violent thunde r-gust and shower# whleh delayed tha performances about two hours* Prom tha Philosophy chamber# where there was a meeting of tha corporation and overseers# we want in procession to tha meeting house# about five in tha afternoon* Tha presi­ dent began by an introductory prayer* Mext followed an anthem* Than an ad­ dress by tha president in Latin* Mr*

2&Over seers Reports# Vol* V# p* 1^0. tO£X 26

V«r» road tha regulation* of tha profaa- aorahlp • 1 read and subaorlbad tha daola ration, and dalirarad It to tha governor as chairman of tha overseers. Tha prasldant than daolarad id s a pro­ fessor, and I dalirarad tha dlsoours* 1 had prepared far tha occasion* I t vas wall received; but tha eonpaoy present was ▼#ry small, Tha business was ooaoludad by a hyan sung * 3 0 According to a review In tha Columbian flantiml -

Adams* Inaugural address was a sucoess. It stated,

Mr* Adams' Dlseoursa gave high g ra tifi­ cation to an Intelligent and discrimina­ ting audience* I t contained a compre­ hensive and animated view of tha rise, progress and daoline of Eloquenoe, an­ nounced Its genuine object and end, and specified some of the most promi­ nent Impediments to Its advancements In modern times* Its application and use. In deliberative assemblies. In the Fhrum and In the Temples of the Most High, w*re delineatedt pcrtlnent re­ marks wars Introduced In relation to thla establishment; honorable notice was taken of the munificent foundsr, and of the benevolent publlo-spirited family of Boylston* An Impressive ad­ dress to tha Students of tha University closed the performance •••• W* Con­ gratulate Alma Mater on tha acquisition or such an Instructor. I f assiduity, regularity and docility among the Stu­ dents be correspondent to their multi­ plied means of improvement, the public may Justly Indulge the swat pleasing ex­ pectations from that distinguished semi­ nary* 31

3°Allan Savins, ad.. The Diary of John Adams. (Mew York! Longmans, Green and Co*,1920) , p. hi*

^^Columbian GtnfciHt A * June 18, 1806* 29

Fbllowlnc kils firs t leoture to student*, Adams wrote In his d lsrj an explanation of hla own peraonal fssllnga oonesmlng his new duties* Thla explanation revealed that Adams was highly enthusiastic and will­ ing to undertake his eouree of leotures conscientiously* In his own words, Adans stated, I thle day coaasnoed my course of leo- turea on Rhetoric and Oratory, - an undertaking of Magnitude and impor­ tance , for the proper accomplishment of which I pray for patience and per­ severance, and that ffcvor froai above, without Which no human Industry can avail, but which, without persevering Induetry, i t le preeumptuoua to aak. I have devoted a ll the time which I can borrow from the necessary wuaipyye of Ufa for seven yeare. I f so much life le granted me, to this object* Of these seven yeare, one hae already elapeed* My progress has been slow, and my own imp rovement, upon which Is to depend mueh of the improveawnt of others, has been very small, yet the beginning Is now made, and its success Is not with­ out encouragement* My lecture was well reoelved, and could I hope that the le- aue of the whole course would but bear a proportion to the effsot of thle Incroauction, I ehould be fully satis­ fied* Few pereone except the soholara (the three senior clasaee) attended.32

Adams couple ted thirty-six leotures by August 12, 1808, and repeated twenty-four by July 28, 1809* On

July lit, 1009, John Quincy A dues resigned* His tenure

32Charlee Francis Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Yorkt J* B* Llpplncott, l87Zt-lb7b) vol. I, 3 0 of offlet ms t*ntiaat»d on Auguat 26 or th« a am* y«ar, Adaau had baan aervlng aa aanator from Maaaaohueetta and Buffered aetbaoka In hla polltleal party aa a reault of hla atand on fbralgn polloy* aapaelally aa It re- latad to Oraat Britain. Aa a oonaaquanea ha raalgnad aa aanator and waa appolntad Klnlatar to Ruaala. Thla required him to give up hla poaltlon aa Boylaton Lao- tu re r.^ Of hla final laetura* Adama atatad that* A ft a r balng vary bually angagad a ll tha morning* at twelve o* clock I want to Cambridge • My mo tha r and brothar caxaa Into town* and wont to Cambrldga at tha aaao tlrna. Wa a ll dlnad a t Mr* Walnwrlght * a who re thara waa a oompany of parbapa twenty paraona. At two o'olook I attended tha daolamatIon which waa not entirely full* At three 1 read ay twenty-fourth lecture* at tha oloaa of whloh 1 added acme thought a on taking leave of tha oollaga* All the claaaaa attended* and the obapel waa vary crowded with at range ra .3*4-

On the aama day that Adama* term ended* hla auo- oaaaor* Reverend Joaaph MeKean aooepted the poet* He 3 5 took offloe formally on September 6 * 1609*

33oeorge A* Llpaky* John fftiinay Adama Hla Theory and Ideaa (Hew fork* Thomaa Y. Crowell Co** 1950)* p* 16*

^Cbarlea Francla Adama* o p * o lt*. I* p * 551*

3$rhe Lecturea of Joaaph MoKean* Leetura XXX* "Sketch of the Founder and Foundation*1* p* 259* 3 1

Although Rtvtrtnd McKean waa relieved for a tin* of a part of tha publio laeturaa demanded of tha Boylaton Profaaaor, " all othar dutlaa oontamplatad by tha -36 original foundation wara undertaken* Tha Overaeera voted to make ra a Ida no a at Harvard a praraqulalta of MeKean'a appointment* Ha waa aakad "to raaida at Cambridge, naar tha collaga, to parform all tha dutlaa of hla of flea, and to ba a aaabar of tha Immediate executive government whanavar raqulrad 37 by tha Board of Ovaraaara*"^ During MoKean'a tanura of tha Boylaton Chair, Ward Mlcholaa Boylaton ranavad tha tlaa batwaan hla family and Harvard by donating $1,000, tha In tare at of whleh waa to ba uaad to eatabllah tha Boylaton Prlsa 3 6 for Oratory* Thla prlaa waa to ba awarded to tha winner of an annual oratory contaat conducted at Harvard*

36rhe Laeturaa of Joaaph Me Kean, Lecture XXI, "Sketch of tha Founder and Foundation," p. 259*

Barrett Wendell, op* c l t *. p* 207*

39c orporatlon papera. Vol. I , Auguat 18, 1820, and an exoerpt from the Will of Ward Hlcholaa Boylaton from tha Donation Book, Treaaurer*a office. Harvard Onlvaz^- alty* Thla document la In tha Archlvea at Harvard Unl- varalty* Sea exhibit Mo* 3* 32

Tha Boylaton Prise Tor Blooutlon waa mad# perma-

nont by tha Praaidant and Fallow# of Harvard on Aueuat 18, 1820, I t waa awarded from 1616 to 1956, with tha

axe apt Ion of tha year 1 9 lf5 aBU6 # whan tha award waa aus- 39 pandad because of tha World War II emergency. Tha rulaa have remained relatively unchanged over a period of one hundred and fbrty years.

Largely baeausa of tha atata of MoKean'a health, N, L* Froth Ingham waa appointed on October 5* 1812, aa

Instructor to help with tha duties of tha Boylaton Lecturer. Fnothlngham's salary amounted to #500 for kO tha school year. Reverend McKean administered the dutlaa of hla of­ fice wit11 hla health failed seriously In 1617* He waa granted a leave from hla official duties In October of 1617* He died In Havana, Cuba, on March 17, 181 8 .

McKean'a widow, Margaret Stevenson McKean, received her husband's salary for the laat quarter of the school kl year of 1617-16. Tba Chair remained vacant until

December 8 , 1619«

3^Card Catalogue In the Archivea of Harvard Univer­ sity.

^Overseers Reports, Vol. V, pp. I 4.3 I- 2 . ^ v e r . ears Reports, Vol. VI, p. 279. 33

On Auguat 11, l 6 l 6 , following MoKean'a death,

Andrews Morton, la te r known aa tha "tyrant of tha Caar- bridge Pamaaaua," and oceupant of tha Daxtar Chair of Sacred Lltaratura, waa choaan by tha Board of Overseers l±2 for appointment to tha Boylaton Chair* Ba daellnad tha appointment• On September 16, 1819, Edward Tyrral Channlng waa aalaetad to auoeaad McKean* Ha aooaptad and waa Ini­ tiated to hla of flea on Deoember 8 , 1619*^ Channlng remained in tha Chair for thirty-two yaara, tha longaat tenure of any Boylaton Profaaaor* During thla period tha rulaa of tha office wara a till In the minds of Harvard administrators and they checked Channlng*a work periodically* Many reports ware drawn up and submitted to tha administration by Channlng from 1825 to 1851.^ T base reporta were routine and Indicated the progress of hla students and their course of study. By 184^2, tha salary of tha Boylston Professor was #1,800*00*^

^Overseers Reports, Vol* VI, p* 290* ^Edward Tyrral Channlng'a brother, William Ellery Channlng, was serving on tha Board of Overseers at Har­ vard at tha time Edward Tyrral waa appointed*

Appendix, Exhibit ^Annual Reports of the President and of tha Trea­ surer of Harvard University, l8lt2-3* 34

Channlng d«vet«d a g m t d**l or tin* to tho written vork or hla atudanta. Dua to hla cmphaala on tha wrlttan aid* of atudent'a work, taaehara of elo- cutlon wara appolntad In 1620 to glva aubatantlal erltlclam on tha oral da 11Tory of atudanta*^ Jonathon 47 Barber, who latar wrota A Practical Traatlae on Oeatura waa among tha nan hi rad for thla purpoaa *

That tha coamnmlcatlon arta wara oonaldarad of Importanoa by tha adfalnlatratlon at Harvard la lndleatad by a raport made In 1631 by a oomnltta* appolntad to atudy curriculum at Harvard*

Tha arta of apaaklng and writing with aaaa and alaganoa ara ragardad by tha eaaaalttaa aa anong tha moat Important bnanehaa of a collaga couraa of atudy; and aa thoae* In whloh a dafaetlva aarly adueatIon la auppllad with thaA groat a at difficulty In after yeare.1*-® Tha eoarf.ttee, a raport alao Indicated that tha ra waa at thla tlna (1831) improvement In tha teaohlng of elocu­ tion*

PTlod S t g ||» B M . 1651-1676. Aa lata aa 181^0, oratory waa a tlll central to tha

^Dorothy Anderaon* ”Bdward T* Channlng1 a Definition of Rhatorlo*” Speech Monoaraoha. 16*73, Auguat* 1949•

ion»the", 1*tr: 4 o.»tur« {Cambrldga* Hilliard A Brown, 1031) pp. 116*

Wot . raaara R*porta* Vol* Vlll* p* 39* 35

ln ttrtit of the Bo at on mind, aeeordlng to Ton Wyok Brooke.^ I t was during Channlng* a tenure aa Boylaton Profaaaor that enphaala gradually ahlftad from oral

eoaanxnleatlon to wrlttan onaanunloatlon. Thla change of emphasis In hla taaohing waa probably dua to a ooai- poalta of factors. F irst, Baw Bngland waa no Ting Into

tha Goldan Aga of Anarlean lite ra tu re . Conaaquantly tha laaportanoe of writing waa baoonlng ganarally reoognlsed. Channlng*a brother, Dr. VI11 lan Ellery, typlflad thla attltuda whan ha wrota Through thalr writInga tha graat nan of antiquity have axarelaad a sovereignty OTar thaaa later aga a not enjoyed In thalr own* It la nora laqportant to ob­ serve that tha Influence of lltaratura la perpetually lno reasing; fbr, through tha praaa and tha apraad of education, ita aphara la Indaflnltaly enlarged* Reading, onea tha privilege of a far, la now tha oeeupatlon of Multitudes, and la to baooaa ona of tha ehlaf gnatlfloa- tlona of all. Booka panatrata every­ where, and aoaw of tha work a of genius find thalr way to obscure dwalllnga which, a l i t t l e while ago, aaanad barrad agalnat all Intallaetual light. Writing la now tha nightie at inatnnant on earth. Through thla tha nlnd haa aequlrad a kind of oamlpra aanea. To lltaratura wa than look aa tha chief naan a o£.Xbrnlng a batter raee of human beings.-**

^Van Wyok Brooks, pp. o lt. . p. 335* ^W illard Thorp, Marla Cuz*tl and Carloa Baker, ada., American Iaauaa (Baw Yorkt J. B. Llpplncott and Coawany, T955Tvo 1 . I , p. 301 3 6

Bteendly, •locution was at this tins cowing son and ■ora to ba considers! synonymous with spoken co—nn1- catlon* Tha olassleal coneopt of Invention was negleo- tad In fhvor of aloeutlon and delivery* Also Channlng was undoubtsdiy Influenced by his own background* Bis

work as sdltor of tha Borth Asmrlcan Review^1 had pre- par ad him to serve as a critic of wrlttan eoaasunloa-

tlon rathsr than of tha spokan word* Finally, John Quincy Adams had dona such a eomplata Job of summarising classical rhotoric that his work fulfilled tha naad for

which It was written* Channlng could Justifiably dlrsot his efforts to objectives different from those of Adams* Than again perhaps Channlng fe lt that ha couldn11 Improve on tha traatswnt Adams gave to classloal rhatorlo Ians* Bdward Tyrral Channlng resigned on January 26, 1651, and retired at the end of the academic year* Francis J* Child, a twenty-six year old scholar of Kngllsh lltaratu ra, bees— Boylston Lecturer. During the first portion of Child's twenty-five years in the

^1The Borth Ay rlcan Review was one of the leading erltloal reviews or literature during the period before the Civil War* It Is Interesting to note that the need for a national interest In Anerlean literature was a on—nn topic of discussion In tha Borth Review during tha first years of Channlng's tenure. For rep­ resentative examples see the Borth Amsrloan Review. vol. x« 1 1 5 - 1 3 7 , 1 9 - 3 3 . voi.TK Ti U7B-JA vol. AV 1 1 1 * 1 5 7 - 1 7 6 . Vol. U i 1*53-45$. 37

Boylaton Chair, tbo original rules and dirootIona for Boylaton Professors were neglected* Rwy were forgot* ton ooa^letely after Charloa Eliot became Pro aidant of Harvard in 1669 and reorganised Harvard1 a odnoatlonal

currlouliau Hla ohangoa woro bamonioua with Child*a apoolflo intoroat In ballads* Evan boforo Eliot aovod to roorganiso oduoatlon at Harvard, tbo ohaago in tbo philosophy ro pro aon tod by tho Boylston Chair was reXleoted in tha 1651*2 catalogue* In 1651 tho rbotorlo heading for tha loo*

turos of tha Boylaton Profaaaor had dlaappoarod and his loeturos woro entitled 11 laeturos on English Language -52 and Literature * Hla duties involving tho spoken word woro all refbrred to instructors in elocution* After Eliot became entrenched as president tha change in tho approach of tha Boylaton Lecturer from oral to wrlttan cnsnwinl cation was completely crystal­ lised* Van Wyck Brooks rofbrred to E lio t's change in policy in the following way, Zn the sphere of education, the spirit of the new age declared itself Immedi­ ately and clearly* Charles William E liot, an energetio obealit, had turned Harvard over "like a flapjack*" The phrase waa Pr* Holmes's [sio] and

^Harvard College Catalogue, 1651*2, p. 48* 38

Charles Eliot Horton'a oouiln turned ever wany flapjacke aa tha yearawant on* Tha higher education of tha country waa largely renode lied on hla ldeaa, lbr no one knew hatter than ha what tha oountry dealrad* Harvard had "atruck bottom,” ha aald, with a aarlaa of In* affactual p re aidanta, who reflected tha Indeelalveneaa of the national Mind* Thla mind halted between two opinlona* tha old elaaeleal ayaten and tha new technical ayaten) and tba cry had bean going up for Ina (ruction on apodal, vocational llnea*53 In tha lata alxtlea and early aavantlaa oratory waa oonaldered a thing of tha paat, a part of tha old elaaaleal ayaten of education* Sanual Mori aon Indloated that during thla period of ehange "Fbrenaloa ,** went -5U. the way of othar thlnga outlived* Up until tha aix- tlee,

Bngllah m b ant elocution and rhetoric ••• In l8$6-59 the Freahnen had La a a one In Orthoepy £alcj and La a aona in Exproa- alon; the Sophonorea, Leaaona In Bxprea- alon, Leaaona In Action* Thane a) tba Junlora, Thenea, Doolanation, Rhetorictw tha Senlore* Fbrenaloat nothing But after tha alxtlea and aavantlaa* Bngllah aa an aoa- denio dlaolpllna beoana very nueh like that whloh wa have In eollegea and unlveraltlea today*

_ 53 Van Wyck B no oka. Hew England) Indian Boner, 1865- 1915 (Hew Toxict E* P* Dutton a Co** Ino*, 191)6), p* lo«. A s. s . Moriaon, op* c l t ** p* 69* S^Ibld*. p* 66. 39

Although dopurti—nto had been oroatod la 1825 At Harnrdf oouraaa of Instruction were not grouped by department a In tha eatalogua until 1872. fraaela J* Child beoame Ghalman of tba Department of Modern Languages In 1872 and Adama She naan H ill became Chair* n a n of the Department of Bngllah In 1891* Parallel to the development at Harvard of the move toward Bngllah and partly raaponalbla for It waa the ory of edueatlonal leader a for more teaohlng of writ­ ten Bngllah*

During Profaaaor Child* a Inotaabenoy the Inability of undergraduate a to write eorreet Bngllah waa being widely dle- ouaaed In the public printa* Profaaaor Lounabury, who taught composition at Yale for forty years, and who condemned It ao unsparingly aa a compulsory aub- jeot, write a of Child* a difficulties* 'What la the Boylaton Profaaaor of Rhetoric and Oratory doing? waa, he £Chlld3 told ma, the burden of many a ory which found utterance In the com­ munications to the press of the neigh­ boring city by man filled with Anxiety, not to aay anguish, for the literary future of the nation** Bven the man id&o recognised oleaxly the fallaciousness of the views ao clamorously proclaimed, writes Professor Lounsbury, *were forced to comply with the popular demand, If not to save thsmaelves, to a eve the Institu­ tions to which they belong ••* • On no one subject of eduoatlon has so great an amount of effort been put forth as on the teaohlng of Bngllah oojm>oaltlon» with ao little aatlafactory to show for lt»*>°

^B verett I*. Hunt, o p . c lt . . p* 203 President Bllot'e reply to the m«4 for training students la writ to a no— nnl m tlnn was la tho person of Ada— & ho noon Hill* Hill, tho fifth Boylston Profooaor, la 1675 koto hla own answer to tho ory for none Baglleh bp spearheading for Bllot tho —vement whleh roaultod la a atroBB dapartiaant, lator a division and finally a graduate do part—nt of Saglish* Tho ehango la admlnl at rational policy at Harvard waa a ocaaploto ohange, according to Van Wyok Brooks* Ho atated, Tho 11 rat atop at Harvard waa to throw tho olaaalea overboard and pro—to tho *specialist” aye tom tho ago demanded* Thua dlod the old A—rloan college 1 tho European modal waa discarded; tho Ameri­ can unlvoralty came into being* Tho olaaalea, not too consistently taught, wont down bo fore tho now ongroaalng in­ terest a ; and thla marked, In literature, almoat tho groatoat of poaalblo changea* Tho ohange In lite ra ry atylo waa not the moat Important, although thla waa aufflolently striking* Tho atudy of tho olaaalea had alwaya boon eonneeted with accurate llngulatie training and tho atudy of form, while the modern tongues wore loose In their oonatruction; but, what was oven more Important, tho olas- alca had made apaeloue —n and —n pre­ pared to meet groat problems • Mono of the abundant cant that waa uttered on thla subjeot, both at tho time and la te r, a l­ tered tho fact. They kept alive great patterns of behavior, whloh all tho A— ri- oan people had aeon in action In the sample mlnda and oharaeters of tho earlier leaders, —at of whom were steeped In Plutarch's lives and the legends of Greeoe and Rom * The close association of 41

intimate ttudlta had Mda these pattama raal, and tha patterns bad made graat writers aa they u d a great statesmen* They appealed to the instlnot of emula­ tion, an inatlnet that In later days followed the pattema aet by industrial leaders, by bankers and by millionaire a whoae only Ideal waa the w ill to power and who ruled by the blind force of money* 57

Aa late aa 1096* public oomaaantarlea were given over to the change in eduoatlon wrought by President

Eliot at Harvard* In MatIon. Eliot*a change waa re­ ferred to as follows. Down to the close of the war, the old system of oral Instruction, combined with a curriculum consisting almost alto­ gether of required studies, made the work of a professor at Harvard very dif­ ferent f*om what i t la now* Teaohlng waa done, not by lectures, but by r e d ta t ion

Eliot's feeling that profeasors and students should be allowed to pursue their own Interests and his Ihlth in a more specialised eduoatlon reduced required courses for Freshmen at Harvard f*om a full year of required courses in 1 6 6 8 to seven required courses and nine electives In 1884* By 18% all Senior, Junior and Sophomore courses were elected by the students*^

£7van Wyok Brooks, op . c l t *. pp. 105*6*

^ ja tlo n * September 17* 1896* ma 9SSig& f t K Company, 1930 )$ I# p* 260* k *

lllo t, despite his ohangBi at Harvard, waa latar quotad aa btlng vary nuoh In Ihvor of apaaoh training* Presldant-ea»rltus Charles V* Eliot, or Harvard University, addraaaad tha Conference on tha general valua of oral training* Ha aald that navar In tha hlatory of tha count r j haa thara baan a time whan oral addraaa haa had aa nuoh uaa and In flua no a aa i t haa today* Ha anphaslaad tha fact that In hla own admlnlatnatlva work hla care to gain a olaar aucclnot atatamant In tha form of apaaoh haa baan a great, aInoat an indlapanaabla, aaaat to him, and ha had, ha aald, frequently obaarvad tha aama fact in tha caaa of othara* Many sug- gaatlona wana of lb rad aa to tha way a In whloh oral training might ba introduced into aehool Instruction *6 0 Thla praaidant*a changes war# mat with favor by Franoia J* Child* Although ha aada regular raporta on hla work aa Boylaton Pro fa aa or until 1668 and ful­ filled hla obllgatlona aa a teacher of composition,^" ha chafed under tha required dutlea prescribed for him* Child had no enthusiasm for either tha art of oratory or tha problem of grading themes* Aocording to Barrett Wanda11, "Ha fChild] found I t [oratory and xhetorlcj , for all the labors of hla predecessors, a atudy of secondary Importance• Child established English

60"The Maw England Oral English and Public-Speaking Conference," Tha Journal* 3tl66, March, 1914•

^See Appendix, Exhibit $• ^ B arrett Wendell, op, c lt* ■ p* 208* It3 ooapoaitlon, bow«T«r, as a study of tha first aoademlo rank* In regard to grading thanes* on# aooount had I t that* "One blttar nota in his fChlldJ sweet ohasrlnass was sonatinas arousad by tha rananbranea of tha graat proportion of his Ilfs that had baan spant on thana 63 correcting*” In 1876 a Chair of English was ersatad for Child as a rasult In part of Job offars nads to him by Fresl- dant Qliman of Johns Hopkins University.^* In his naw position Child was abla to pursua hla own Interests* particularly thosa lntarssts In Bngllah and Seottlah ballads* without Intsrmption* Ha became tha founder of tha school at Harvard which Klttredge la ta r nada famous • Child anjoyad tha full cooparation of tha achelnls- tratlon at Harvard during a ll of his tanura* Ha had a long aoqualntanea with Charlas Sllot* Whan HI lot waa an Instructor at Harvard and llvad on Kirkland Street 65 "ha liked to go" to tha house of his next door neigh- bor* Francis J* Child*

Hodarn period. 1676-1958. By 1 8 7 6 tha original rules and directions of tha Boylston Chair of Rhetorle

^3g. B. Morison. o£. c l t . . p* 6 6 * ^■Hanxy Jamas* op. clt. . II* p* Uj>. 6 ^Ibld*. I, p* 306. Mt

and Oratory had become history* Adana Shaman H ill, a classmate of Chari a a Bllot, waa alaetad to tha Chair on June 28, 1876, and taught Bngllsh coag>osltlon

firoa 1676 to tha and of tha school year In 19Qlf* In 1672* Kllot had appointed Hill, an untrlad teaoher, as an assistant Instxuetor In Bngllsh* Hill published several books under tha title of "rhetoric** His definition of rhetoric was baaed on graimar - a "far cry" f*am the classical concept of

rhetoric as sat down In tha rulas and dlraetlona drawn up In 1 6 0 4 * Tha labors of Adams Sherman H ill and Charles

Bllot ware combined to produce tha phenomenal growth of tha area of Bngllsh at Harvard* The adalnlstra- tlon seamed to "pull out of tha picture" at this point beoause departmentalisation gave to Hill autonesoy of a sort that bad not baan known to previous Boylston Professors* John Quine y Adams, Joseph McKean and Bdward Tyrrel Cbanning were a ll members of the general edu­ cational conmmlty of Harvard* After Franols J* Child and departmentalisation tha co—unity broke up Into a series of integral parts* It has not been the purpose of thla paper to go Into the development of the areas of Speech and Bngllsh at Harvard* The Boylston Chair has been primary In kS

thla study and tha broadar aapaota of training in ooaamnleatlon at Harvard have baan cons Ida rad only whan thaaa aapaota had a baa ring on tha developmnt

of tha Boylston Chair* In 190lt, Adana Shaman H ill retired* Ha waa ra- plaoad by ana of hla assistants, La Baron Rusaall

Briggs, beloved Dean of Harvard and Frasldant of Ra do Ilffa . Briggs contlnuad to adninlstar tha Chair In tha tradition aatabllahad In part by Child and oompleted by Hill* Much of his tin t, however, waa taken up by hla administrative dutlaa aa Daan of Bar- vard* Tha dagraa to whloh tha dutlaa of tha Boylston Profaaaor at Harvard had baan modlflad fron an offloa of eantral aduoatlonal Importance to an Independent offloa la Indleatad by tha fact that Daan Briggs eould handle tha teaching chores of hla offloa *on tha aide*"

After years of experience at Harvard* Charles Townsend Copeland replaoed Briggs as Boylston Profes­ sor In 1925* Ha retired at tha olosa of tha aohool year In 1 9 2 8 .

Copeland was made Professor Emeritus In 1928* With two Boylston Professors Emeritus (Daan Briggs waa also Emeritus at tha time) * the Income from tha Chair's endowment oould not support a third Boylston Professor if6

mo the Ttotnoy left by Copeland waa not lmaedlately fllUd* Tho i n o o M wtt not gnat during thla period*

In 1 9 2 6 - 9 tho principal waa #2 6 , 0 0 0 and tho annual Ineome waa #1,556-51+*^ A full profeaeor'a aalary waa $i4>,0 0 0 * 0 0 * By 1937 tho eapltal had doubled ($ 14.6 , 5 6 2 ) but duo to tho doproaalon of tho thlrtlee, Ita yearly 67 inoono had only lneroaaod to $1,900 a year* Thla waa not tho only explanation, howowar, 2br tho vaeanoy of olght yeara* In a letter to Prealdont A* L« Lowell, dated May 1, 1930, Clifford Moore, Dean of Harvard, re qua a ted that the Chair be kept open until Robert S* HI 1 Iyer eould attain the rank requlelte to being ap- 66 pointed Boylaton Profee aor* Conaequently, tho Chair

remained vaeant until Hlllyer*a appointment In May, 1937* It waa reported in the Boa ton Herald that. Although Robert Slllljuan Hlllyer will euffer, In aeeoptlng tho venerable Boyl­ aton Profeaeorahlp of Rhetorlo and Oratory at Harvard, tho Inevitable fate of being ooetpared with aueh b rillia n t toaehora aa tho late Le Baron Ruaaell Brlgga and the a tlll lively Charlee Townaend Copeland, he bring a to the Chair a greater experl- enee In oreatlve literature than probably any of hla predeeeeaora*69

^ m iu n r'a Reporta, 1926-9

^Tieaiurer'a Reporta, 1936-7 6 $Correapondenee from Clifford Moore to A* I*. Lowell dated May 1, 1930. ^Boaton Harald. Ha, 15. 1937. h i

Hilly*r and tha last two nan to hold tha Boylston Chair hat o b oon posts. Thsodora Sponsor waa appolntod to tho Chair on July 1, 191*6*^° His tonn of offloe was short-lived. Ho dlod of a hoart attack in a taxi eab on January 16,

191*9. Archibald MaoLolsh has hold tho Chair of Khotorle and Oratory fron Kay 1, 191*9to tha prosont. Busses ry of tho Brio fly than, tho Boyl- aton Chair has passod through ths stags of olasaloal Historic, a transitional stags fron tho classical to tho philological approach, to Its prosont stags of no do in granar and poetics, all under tho nano of Historic* In tho early classical stag* of tho Chair*a his­ tory tho tlos bo two on tho original rules of tho Boyl­ ston Chair and the policies of the Boylston Professors wore oloso. During ths period of tho Civil War, and shortly after, the reports of tho Boylston Profbssor to tho adalnistratlon at Harrard dwindled to alnost nothing* In tho Modern period tho original rules have boon

70 Office of ProTOst, Harrard University. ^Office of Prorost, Harvard University. disregarded almost completely, - first, largely ts a result of the combination of President Sllot's phil­ osophy of specialised, vooatlonal education and, secondly, the contradictory interests of those men who occupied the Chair during thla period. The department of Kngllsh developed In the seven­ ties along the lines of the interests represented In the philosophy of Adana Sheinan Hill, Instead of representing an Integral part of the general educa­ tional progress at Harvard, the Boylston Chair developed in the modern period Into an honorary post, Txue, the 7 2 Boylston Professor still taught, but a large part of his tine was devoted to producing literature (specifi­ cally poetry) that was of a quality to attract national 73 notice. In this the Boylston Professor was given a free reign In comparison with those who previously oc­ cupied the Chair, The men reoently engaged In the ac­ tiv itie s of Boylston Leoturer have been practitioners of their art as well as professors In the traditional sense.

The development of the Chair must be written In terms of the philosophy of rhetorlo held by those who

T^Harvard Catalogue, 1957*6, ^Archibald Mao Lei ah* s £• £• produced on Broadway was an example In point. ^ 9 oo cup led It* The rhetorloa or John Qulnoy Adana* Joaaph MoKean, Edward Tyrrel Chunlng and Adana flbar- nan Hill were aapaolally repreaentatlTe and have baan given anphaala In thla papar* Tha Ylawa of Robert 0* Hlllyar and of Archibald Kao Lai ah* tha praaant Incumbent* ara alao amphaalaad and raportad from raeant intervlewa* Cartalnly tha tlawa and tha a

JOHN QUINCY AIUHS

Introduction* John Quincy Aduu has rsoslvsd the

attention of biographer* and historians In proportion

to the maaber of activ ities in which he vas engaged* Be was one of the bueleet nen In the history of the United States* Biographers* among vhoe are Seward*^ Morse ,2 and* snore recently* Bemls*^ I*lpsky^ and Ken- nedy* hare approached the life of Adsuns from many

different angles* As the son of an American president Who became a president In his own right* as a member of one of the most Illustrious of American families and

^William H* Seward* Life and Public Services of Quincy Adams (Auburnt Berby, H iller and Company,

John F* Kennedy* Profiles in Courage (Hew Yorlct Barper and Brothers* 19551# PP« 25fc*

5 0 51

aa a monumental exa^>le of tha pro 11 fie writer, John Quincy Adana oould hardly hare avoided notice*

It la not the purpoao of thla chapter to attempt to add another biography to the biographic a of Adana already written* but rather It la intended to atudy hla activity aa the flrat Boylaton Frofseeor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard fron 1006 to 1809* The teacher. John Quincy Adana was related to the founder of the Boylaton Chair through hla grandmother, Suaanna Boylston* who was a firs t coualn of Nicholas 6 Boylaton* Bsquire • Donald Doodfsllow pointed out in

his study of a portion of Adana 1 unpublished diary 7 that Adana "figured** in the settlement between Ward Nicholas Boylston and Harvard a fte r Boylston*s pro­ posed suit for hla uncle's unused endofwment.

Aside fron the fact that he was related to the founder of the Boylston Chair* John Quincy Adana waa qualified and ready to fulfill the duties of the of­ fice to which he waa appointed. Hla education in the classics at Harvard had indirectly prepared hin for

0 Janes True low Adams* The Adana \ r (New York* Blue Ribbon Books* Inc.* 1930;, p . 6 7 Donald M* Doodfsllow* o p . c lt. . p* 374* 5 2

dealing with tha raaponalbllltlaa of hla offloa* alnoa lta rulea wara baaad on claaaleal xhetorlo* Aa an undergraduate at Harvard* Adana waa lnter- aated enough in foranaloa to notloa tha banaflta of oollaga axarelaaa in ajlloglatlea In hla diary* Ha wrote hla father*

Sylloglatlo diaputea ••* ara hald In deteetatlon by tha aobolara* and every­ one thinka It a re fieotIon upon hla character aa a genlua and a atudent to have a aylloglatioj thla opinion la tha flmer* baeauaa tha beat acholara al- moat alwaya have tha other parta* There are nany dlaadventagea derived Tram thaaa aylloglena* and I know of only one bene­ fit* which la thla* Many acholara would go through collage without atudylng at all* but would Idle away all their tine* who nerely fron tha horrora of aylloglaua begin to atudy* acquire a fondnaaa fbr It* and natee a vary pretty figure In oollaga .a * * 6 Hla Intaraat In the olaaalea predated hla life In oollaga* Hla no the r waa anxlouc that ha ahould find plaaaura In Rolllna* Hlatorr * Conaaquantly* whan ha waa only aavan years old* aha perauaded hln q to read a page or two every day* Upon hla graduation In 1767 tra m Harvard* Adana delivered an oration on "The Xnportanoe and Neeeaalty of Publlo Fhlth to tha

®J* Q. Adana* Writing a. Vol* I* p. 214.* 9ifeld.* p* 236* 53 10 V«U-b*lng of * Comsainlty.” Ho continued to op poor on tho publle platform regularly after his graduation

from College* Adams was oxporlonood enough In tho spoooh situa­ tion to rooognlso his own limitations as a public spoakor and mo dost o no ugh to admit thorn* Shortly bo- for# ho boeamo Boylston Lecturer* and during tho dobato oror tho Ooorgotown Dam b ill in Congress* ho wroto in his diary* On this oeoaslon* as on almost every othor* I felt most sonslbly my do fie1- onoy as an oztonporanoous spoakor* In traelng this do fieloney to Its source, I find It arising flroo a oauso that Is Irreparable* Ho efforts* no applica­ tion on my part* ean over remove It* It is slowness of comprehension - an In­ capacity to grasp tho whole 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 of a subject In tho mind at once with such an arrangement as loaves a proper impres­ sion of the detail - and Incapacity to form Ideas properly preolse and Indefin­ ite with the rapidity necessary to give them uninterrupted utterance* My man­ ner, therefore* la slow, hesitating* and often much eonftioed* Sosm times* from Inability to furnish the words to finish a thought coamwnoed* I begin a sentence with propriety and end It with non­ sense* Sometimes* a fte r carrying through an Idea of peculiar foroe to Its last stage* the want of a proper word at the close drives me to use one which throws the whole Into a burlesque* And some­ times the most Important details of

1 0 James Spear Do ring* The Boston Orators (Bostoni John F* Jewett and Company* 1&51 jJ * p* 239* Sfc

trgumnt asoaps m j nlnd at tha whan I want than* t hough avar rsady to praaant than ba fora and aftar«U Ha fait strongly hla rsaponalblllty aa a oollaga profai aor and* whan ha haard of hia appolntnant to tha Boyl­ aton Chair* plannad a aohadula for aswan jaara of 12 aoholarly atudy In rhatorlo and oratory*

Thara axlat aona taatlnonlaa to Adama' ability aa a tsaohsr* Ralph Waldo ftwraoa lndlo at ad that* Whan ha [Adanal raad hla flra t laeturaa In I 6 0 6 * not only tha atudanta haard hln with dalight* but tha hall waa orowdad by tha Profaaaora and by unuaual Tlai- tora* I ranawbar* whan* long aftar* I antarad oollaga* haaidng tha atory of tha nunbar of ooaehaa in whleh hla frianda oana fron Bo a ton to haar hln* On hla ra- tum In tha wlntar to tha aanata In Waahlngton* ha took auoh grounds in tha dabatss of tha following aaaalon aa to loaa tha synpathy of nany of hla oonatl- tuanta In Boston* Whan on hla ratum fron Waahlngton* ha rsstaaad hla laoturaa in Canbrldga* hla olass attandad but tha ooaohaa fron Boston did not ooaw and In- daad nany of hla polltloal frianda da- aartad hln*1' Bdward Brora tt also eoaaasntsd on hla hawing haard Adana' laoturaa* Bvsrstt said* It waa at thla tins* and as a nshbsr of ons of tha youngsr olassss at oollaga* that I flra t saw Mr* Adana* and llatansd to hla wsll-rananbarsd woloa fron tho ehalr of instruction} llttla antleipatlng*

12J . Q* Adana* Msnolrs. I* p* 1*43 •

1^Donald M* Good fallow, o p * olt«* p* 3 & 4 * and tha writings of Ralph Waldo Knar a on, *Kloquanos* Lattara and Soolal Aina*" pp* 119*120* 55

that afttr the UpM of forty yea re, ay own huable voloe would bo hoard, in tho perfonaanoe of thla M o u rn fu l of flea* Som who now hoar mm will roeolloot tho do op Intoroat with whloh thoao laoturaa woro llatonod to, not Merely by tho youthful audlonoo for whleh thoy wara pro pa rod, but by nuneroue voluntary hoarora fron tho Mlghborhood,^ Fron thoao atatonanta It la evident that Adana had auo- ooaa aa a toaohor while at Harvard* Further indication

of tho effeetlveneaa of hla laoturaa la tho ffcot that when Adana tomlnatod hla life aa a Harvard pro fa aa or

In JUly of 1809* tho JUnlor and Sonlor olaaaoa aaked that they bo publlahed* Adana replied In a letter on July 21, 1809*^ Ho deolded to publlah hla laoturaa and thoy appeared In book fom In 1810*

In hla final ranarka to hla atudenta on tho laat day of hla tom aa Boylaton Frofeaaor, ho referred to

hla atudenta aa hla "unfailing frlende* and gave a highly eewtlonal and lneplrlng cone lueIon to hla loo- ture • Hla no the r, who attended her eon* a final per rom­ ance, aald that thla paaaage waa felt like an "eleotrl- 1 oal a hook." It had an e f feet upon tho entire audlonoo*

^Hfllllaai H* Seward, op* c lt* > p* 91* ^Soo Appendix, Exhibit 6 * Thla le tte r waa found In original fom In tho Arohlvea of Harvard Unlvoralty*

1^Corroapondenoo of Mlaa Adana, I I , 206-208* 56

Aduu felt that hla published laoturaa would do aoma good whan ha eald, "They will exolta tha genlua, atlmulate tha lltarary ambition and Improve tha taata -17 or tha rlalng generation." Ha took a atrong paraonal prlda In hla lltarary effort*. When ha received tha publlahed edition of hla Laoturaa In Rueala, ha atayad up until morning reading them*

Ha expected adveree erltlclaai of hla * rhetoric1* aa a raault of "national malignity" In Great Britain and "political malignity" In America.10 In thla Adama waa mletaken. Although they haver had a aeoond edition, eri tic lama of hla Laoturaa wara favorable. Two examplea wara aa followat Tha Laoturaa on Rhetoric and Oratory, delivered at Harvard imiverelty, by tha Hon. John Quincy Adama, ara Juat pub­ llahed In a vary neat and handaome atyle, from tha correct preaa of Meaara. Hilliard and Metealf. Wa wlah tha pub- llahara axtanalva patronage, for tha work la of axtanalva value, and ought to have a oonaplcuoua plaoa In every man'a library who haa any pretanalone to polite and elegant literature.!?

The book before ua, therefore, wa taka up with alngular pleaaure, aa tha flrat fmlta of thla aatabllahmant tha Boyl­ aton Profeaaorahlp; and though wa will not aay that It la fhultloaa, yet It la

1 7 j . Q. Ad— , w riting.. I l l , p. 335. *®J. Q. Adama, Wrltlnga, III, p. 334. l^Bo.ton P atrio t. March 10, 1610. $ 7

certainly In a high degree honourable to the telente and learning of the author, and muat be of great and pentnent utility* For him, who le dealroue of finding a compendium of all the beet pnaeepta of tne ancient M iters of rhetorlolc Calo] * adopted to the state of eloquence In modern times* and the particular circumstances of our own country* we know of no book to Which we should so soon refer* as to the lee- tures of Hr* Adams *2 0 John Quincy Adams* after his work in the Boylston Chair* lived to serve hla country as President of the United States and still later as a member of the House of Representatives* He earned for himself the unofficial title of "Old Man Eloquent•" On February 21* 16^.6* he fell 111 In the House of Representatives and died two days late r* Rhetoric * To understand fully John Quincy Adams' soope as a rhetorician, his Lectures on Rhetoric and 21 Oratory were boiled down and analysed* Bach lec­ ture was a complete speech* Adams* I t Is interesting to note* did not revise his leotures before they were put In book Xbrm. This fact was astonishing consider­ ing that they were written while he was holding his

Monthly Anthology and Boston Review* VIII, p* 250.

2*Bee Appendix* Bxhlblt 7* 58

offlo* aa senator. Tha organisation of individual leo- turas containad tha baaio aaaantiala Tor effective apaaoh making. Wall constructed, aaoh individual laotura had an introduction, a spacirie purpoaa aantanea, main ideas, proof in tha form of axamplaa and analogies and a conclusion. Hia dafinitiona of Historical tama wara particu­ larly lucid and appropriate. Whan Adama approached a rhatorioal term ha generally oited tha dafinitiona of

Ariatotla, Cicaro and Quintilian before ha stated hla

own preference or his own modi flea tion of elasaleal definitions. An examp la In point waa hia handling of disposition. After tha faahlon of Quintilian, ha de­ fined disposition or organisation aa "a useful distri­ bution of things or of parts; assigning to aaeh Its 22 proper plaea and station." In explaining the parts of a apaaoh Adams firs t oltad Aristotle*s breakdown of a apaaoh as tha introduction, tha proposition, tha proof and tha conclusion. Ha than indicated that Quintilian added a fifth part, refutation, which should coma, said Adama, between tha proof and tha conclusion. Cloero added another portion to the parts of a speech, narration, which Adams placed between tha introduction

^Lectures. I, p. 394 59 tad tb* proposition* Bo concluded hia discussion of disposition by Indicating his proforonoo for Clesrofs concept of the organisation of a speech*

Adana* style was ornamented and a b it fomal by present standards* An example of his embellished

style was his emphasis of the use of Imagination In public speaking* Be stated that. The power of Imagination furnishes a sub­ stitute for the evidence of all the senses* It creates and multiplies all those In­ cidents, which, being the oonatant at­ tendants upon all realities, hare always so strong a tendency to enforee belief* So indisponsible Is this power to the suc­ cess of that oratory, whioh alms at the dominion of the passions, that a public speaker can Institute no more Important self-examination, than the Inquiry whether I t has been bestowed upon him by nature* If It has let him cherish and oultlvate It, as the most precious of heaven’s blessings* If It has not, let him graduate the scale of his ambition to the temperate regions of eloquence, and aspire only to the reputation or being the orator of reaaon*23

John Quincy Adams presented an overall view and comparison of the anolents for modem use. Indicating that classical rhetoric could be put Into practice In his own times* As he developed his lectures, he called upon the "giant shadows of the past" - Aristotle, Cloero and Quintilian* Adams was. In a sense, the Buares,

23l»ccturcs* I, p* 3 6 3 60

th* VbMlon, or tho Word, of tho United 8 to to a In that ho kopt alive and revamped claasloal rhotorio for oontempora 1 7 consumption* Ho draw fron Junius, Burke , Pension, Caaapboll and Blair In ordor to modernise hla loeturoo with contemporary oxanplt** Hla Lectures wo ra broken down aa follow at one ohapter waa devoted to tho Inportanoo of rhotorio, one to definition In whleh ho defined rhetoric aocording to Aristotle, Cleero and Quintilian* (Adams Indio at a d hla preference for tha definition of Quintilian*) One chapter waa devoted to objections to opeeeh training, four to the origin of speech, one to divisions or the canons of

Cleero, nine to Invention, seven to disposition, ten to elocution, one to memory and one to delivery* He also added a chapter on pulpit oratory*

Ha disagreed with Quintilian's "good nan" theory, and used Burke and JUnlus as examples of eloquent style* He disagreed with Blair and Campbell on their consideration of the use of words* On the whole Adams' lectures were well organised, well delivered, according to Edward Bverett, and clearly worded. On this last point - wording - Plats, who described Adama' style as a "repetition of verbiage" and a "multiplicity of words," overstated her case*^

Flats, Xb, Blftyi-y a £ Fubllo 8 p««klng (Raw Yorkt Noble and NobleT Publishers, In c ., 1935) p7 25b-* 6 1

Rahskopf n m » rli« d th« writ of Adama oorraotly vtwn ho sold "Hla [ Adama] Laoturaa though eonfUaad la soma aattara of da ta ll, wara aa admirably organ load • un­ wary of olassloal rhatorlc **• probably tha boat auoh -25 aumaiary a Tar mada by an American*" Aftar quoting Arlstotla*a and Cloaro*a dafinitiona of rhatorlo, Adama atatad that Quintilian* a daflnltlon, "tha aolanoa of apaalclng wall," waa mora oorraot and aora praolaa and would ba uaad In hla laoturaa* Quin­ tilian* a daflnltlon waa faTorad by Adama baoauaa of lta almpllelty, Ita colncldanca with tha daflnltlon of­ fered In tha Scriptures and, finally, baoauaa Quintilian mada a dlatlnotlon In hla daflnltlon batwaan thinking and apaalclng, Adama, In hla own daflnltlon of rhatorlo, mada tha dlatlnotlon batwaan grumtr and rhatorlo, Q reamer waa, to Adama, apaalclng oorraotly* Rhatorlo on tha othar hand waa apaalclng wall* Ha uaad an Intereat- Ing analogy In making olaar tha dlffaronoa batwaan grammar and rhatorlo whan ha mada tha point that grammar waa to arlthmatle aa rhatorlo waa to gaomatry* Adama alao mada a dlatlnotlon batwaan oratory and rhatorlo* Ha oonaldarad oratory an art and rhatorlo a aolanoa and fait that tha pulpit waa tha "throna" of nodarn aloquanoa*

2-*Horaoe Rahakopr, John Quines Adama1 Thoorr and Prao- tlea of Public Soaaklna (Ph. D. dissertation. StateU nl- waralfy oT lSJa7 1555). p. ItO* 62

Adam g*v« lnvantlon primary •aphaala In bis leo- turaa* In daallng Mlth invention Adsns covered exter- nsl topics# Internal topics# argusanta and ths stats or ths controversy, whloh hs defined as ths purposs to which a speaker speaks. In dealing specifically with arguments hs related arg\awnt to demonstrative # delib­ era t I ts and Judicial speaking. In Judicial oratory Adams Indicated that changes had been made In court­ room procedure since the days of the ancient rhatorl- clans and that argument was of greater Importance to the contemporary lawyer than i t was In earlier times. He also considered invention In relation to pulpit oratory. He discussed the Intellectual and moral qual­ ities of an orator and# finally# the management of the passions. A daws Iblt that there was a dear distinction between disposition and invention. Invention was the "discovery by meditation of those things# whloh by their truth or verisimilitude gave probability to the .26 cause•" Disposition was "the orderly arrangement of 27 things invented."

^Lectures. II* p. 142.

^ Lectures. II* p. 142. 6 3

That tha typa of oo—inn lotion, «tr«aud by Adaaa waa tha tjpa atraaaad by tha olaaaloal rhatorlclana waa apparent whan ha daalt with a apokan rathar than a writ tan typa of onaanml oatlon. Ha lndleatad that tha Buropaana had atudlad rhatorlo aa a theory but had naglaetad oratory aa an art and that As m rl can a had dona llkawlaa« Ha nada tha point that Harvard had baan in oparation for a l l t t l a laaa than two hundrad yaara and that hla waa tha flrat fomal eouraa In publlo apaaklng. Since Anarloana enjoyed fraadorn of apaaoh, publlo apaaklng ahould ba given a prlnary an­ phaala In Anarloan a duo at Ion. Hla argunanta anaahlng objeetlona to tha elaaaroon taaehlng of publlo apaak­ lng wara repreaentatlve of Adana at hla vary beat. Ha did, howavar, whan dlaeuaalng alocutlo or atyla, ravaal tha Influanoaa of Blair*a Laoturaa on Rhatorlo and Ballaa Lattraa for ha Indloatad that alooutlo waa dlotlon In tha aanaa of oonpoaltlon, not delivery. Ha uaad Clearo and Quintilian aa rafaranoaa for thla point of vlaw by Indicating that thay naant writing, not apaaklng, whan thay apoka of atyla. Tha olaaalolata, aeeordlng to Adana, would hava conaldarad da 11 vary undar tha aaparata haadlng of pronunolatlo. Adana* oontrlbutlona aa a rhatorlolan wara not unlqua • Rathar, ha nada hla contribution aa a daflnar 64 and organiser* Hla ***** vary similar to 2 8 those or Jotrn Ward* But tha Iket that tha laoturaa or Ward and Adana wara similar waa a rasuit or Ward 1 a Influanoa on Dr* Pa arson whan Paaraon draw up tha rulaa for tha o rn o a whloh Adama followad* Aa an Anar lean, ha took a stand on tha usa or tha vernacular on all ooeaslons* Ha advocated a nationalistic lltaratura to ba wrlttan by Amarloana* Adama 1 ecu a Ida ration of pulpit oratory was an Innovation in tha United Statas* Ha waa ona or tha first Amarloana to stata explicitly that tha naans or a asnaon ara parauaalon and tha and reault, aotlon* Although tha major w rit a rs or tha parlod advooated axtanporanaous apaaklng, ha axprasaad hla doubts about extemporaneous apaaklng In tha pulpit whan ha statad that "Tha straam whloh flows spontaneously, la almost 29 always shallow, and runs lb rarer in tha sana channel*”

Adams 1 oloalng admonition, whloh produoed a notloaabla shook In his audlanoa, la a fitting con­ clusion to thla seotlon* It sums up his fhlth In olaaaloal rhatorloIans and oratory In ganaral* In social con re ree with tha mighty daad of ancient days, you will never smart

28john Ward, System of Oratory (London, 1759), 2 vola*

^Lectures. I, p* 341* 65

under the gtXllos uniitlon of dependence upon the ilghty living of th* present ogo I and In jour atruggl** with th* world, should a orials ever occur, whan even frlandahip nay daas it prudent to da sort you; whan avan jour country nay seem raady to abandon harsalf and you; whan avan prlast and levlte shall eos* and look on you, and pass by on tbs othar aids} saak nAiga, my unfailing frlands, and ba a a aura d you will find it. In tha frlandahip of Laallus and Seiplo; in tha patriotism of Cloaro, Danes tha nas and Burka| as wall as In tha praeapts and example of him, whoaa whola law Is love, and who taught us to ranaabar Injuries only to forgive than*30

Tha s f foots* John Quiney Adana had l i t t l a apparent

lnfluanoa on subsaquant rbatorlolana in tha Boylston Chair or in tha nation in general* Only two of tha Boylston Professors who followed Adams gave him credit for any of th e ir materials* Joseph MeKean mentioned him several times In his lectures, but did not quota from his Leoturoa* Some of McKean's lectures resembled Adams* lectures greatly* Sdward Tyrrel Channlng at no time mentioned Adams* Adams Sherman H ill referred twice to his Lectures.

Tha affect of John Quincy Adams on speech educa­ tion today was important but indirect in nature* Tha dlreot affaot of his rtxetorlo was negligible* Adams' name and its connect ion with speech at Harvard has been

3 0 Lsotures* XI, p. 396 66 ■or* Important to apaaoh. aduoatIon, It •••■•, than hi a xhatorlo. Ha wag quo tad by Gilman, Aly and Raid,^* MoBurnay and V m ga,^ Brlgano*^ and Biyant and Wallaoa^ largaly with amphasla on tha a f foot hla nama produo* d rath*r than on hla undaratandlng of apaaoh. Moat Bodam authorltiaa in apaaoh hava eon* dlraotly to th* aoureaa from which Adama draw rathar than worklne Aram and through hla Laotur* a. Adana1 maa of oouraa along 35 with Wltharapoon* a atood with thoaa of tha "anolanta* whan olaaaleal rhatoric waa ravlvad In apaaoh aduoatlon ahortly aftar 1900* Indiraetly Adama aarloualy affaotad apaaoh aduoa­ tlon today by Tlrtua of tha faot that whan tha nama of Adama and tha praatlga of Harvard eomblnad, tha In itia l Impatua waa glvan to oonaldar apaaoh aa a aaparata aoadamlo dlaolpllna In tha Uni tad 8tat*a. * fro rloualy,*

^Oilman, Aly and Raid, op. o lt. . p* 366*

^2MoBumay and Wraga, o p . olt.. p. ▼*

^BrAganea, oo. o lt. . p. 23 and pp. 316-319*

^Bryant and Wallaea, o p . olt., p. 1* 35 John Wltharapoon, Laoturaa on Moral Philo aonhy and Eloauanoa (Phlladalphiat woodward* a Taaaa laoturaa war* dal Ira rad from 1766 to 179it* 6 7

atatad Ota TboMi e o rn e tlji "tha aubjaet [apaaoh] had baan taught by soma tutor who alao ins true tad In nuaaroua othar flalda and waa fTaquantly not apaolfloally p rap a rad A>r taaohlng apaaoh. But a fta r Adana bagan hla dutlaa othar oollagaa aatabllahad alnllar profaaaor-

ahlpa. Prom thla maagra bag Inning hara aprung tha apaaoh dapartmanta of tha praaant day."*' Tha alml- lar profaaaorahlpa to whloh Thomaa rafarrad wara thoaa at Aaharat* Brown* Yala* Bowdoln and Ando Tar. Prom thaaa aarly daya apaaoh aduoatlon* apraad Into tha Waat ▼la mlaalonarlaa from Yala and othar aaataro aoboola* took root and flowarad.

16 - ■^Ota Thomaa* "Tha Taaohlng of Rhatorlo in tha is*Unltad ftfifg Stataa inismsxM during tha Claaaleal Parlod of Bdueatlon*" Book Co.* Inc.. 19lj.3)» 1 * P. 196* CHAPTER IV

JOSEPH MCXKAJf

jntnftAietlon* On MasaaohuMtti Atwu * In Caabrldgt, MawaobUMtti, directly aoroaa from *J. August, Habcr- dAaharaN (1320 Massachusetts Avanua), stands ona of many gatss to tha eanpus of Harvard Uni varsity* This p arti­ cular gats was built in 1901 with tha following in­ scription t "Tha McKaan Gata Tha Ravarand Joseph McKaan St* D*, LL. D* Bora at Ipswloh, Massachusetts 19, April 1776 Dlad a t Havana, Cuba 17, March 1816 A Gnaduata of this collaga 1794 Taaohar of Youth Mini star of tha Gospal Boylston Profsssor of Rhatorlo and Oratory 1809-1818 This gata Is anaotad to tha nennrj of Josaph McKaan By tha nonbers of tha Poroalllan Club of whloh ha was tha Honored founder"

Beyond tha Units of Boston, Josaph MeKean Is little known or ranawhored today* In a ll probability nany pass this somnant built In his honor without a pause* His name Is sonatinas to be found in books, nestled between the names of John Quincy Adams and Edward Tyrral Cban­ ning, since both of these nan and Josaph MolCaan shared a coasaon offloa* This office has given Josaph McKaan his claim on posterity* His olaln stands In stone*

66 69

P m tw tn r. In the paat 130 yeara nothing baa boon written about Ranrand Joseph HoKaan, tha aaeond Boyl- aton Leoturer* Hla waa a ahort lift* Hla atar bumad brightly but fa dad quloklj and vanished on hla daath*

Plagued with tubareuloala almost all of hla adult lilt, McKaan dlad whlla at 111 Boy la ton profaaa or, at tha aga o r UZm William HoKaan, Joaaph MoKaan*a fbthar, waa bom In Glasgow, Scotland, on April 7, 1739 and oaaa to tha

Uni tad Stataa In 1763*^ in 1769 William marrlad Sarah Manning, tha daughtar of Dr* Joaaph Hanning who had graduatad from Harvard In 1751* Sarah and William HoKaan 2 had five ohlldren, Sarah HoKaan, Joaaph* a mothar, dlad on May 15* 1776, ona month aftar Joaaph 1 a birth* William HoKaan, who lived to tha aga of elghty-one, outlived hla aon Joaaph* Joaaph*a ohlldhood waa markad by vivacity and graat activity* Ha laamad tha baale rudlmanta of elaaaleal

lltaratu ra and Xngllah grama r at publlo aohool in Bo a ton

*l*a vi Hadga, Eulogy on Joaaph HoKaan (Cambridget Hilliard and Matoair, leioj, p. 2 0 * 2 Levi Hadga mentioned tha following flva childrens tha firat daughtar, Agnaa, waa bom on January 1 3 , 1770, Sarah waa bom on June 24, 1779 and dlad on Oct, 6 , 1775, William waa bom on Fbb* 15, 1773 and dlad on Hov* 6 , 1790, Elisabeth waa born on August 7, 177lf and Joaaph McKaan waa bom on April 19, 1776* 7 0

and In 1767 attended tha aoademy at Ando Tar where ha waa prepared fbr o oil aga atudlaa by Dr* Sbeneser Pan­ barton* In 1790 MeKaan waa adnlttad to Harvard* Ha raealvad high narks and dlatlngulahad hlnaair aa a atudant of olaaaloal atudlaa and asthanatloa* Aftar

graduation fron Harvard In 179l^» MoKaan taught aohool for thraa years* flra t at Ipswleh* where ha oosaaenoad atudlaa with Havarand Doctor Joaaph Dana* and than at Benrlek* Ha waa at Ipawloh for two yaara and a t Ber- wlek for one yaar and two months* In July of 1797* MoKaan want to Harvard again to flniah work for hla

dagraa for tha ministry* Ha studied with Reverend Doc­ tor John Bllot* While at Harvard for tha aaoond tine

MoKaan waa largely responsible for tha founding of tha Foroelllan Club* a literary society whose members gathered to sing songs and read poetry* The olub main­ tained a library whloh waa responsible 1 0 r a part of tha Information that baa bean used oonoamlng MoKaan In this atudy*

In lo n d ia r of 1797* MoKaan was Invited to Milton* Ha aooepted the Invitation and beoams tha fourth minis­ ter of tha ohureh in Milton* Shortly aftar hla Installa­ tion ha gave up his major responsibilities In tha For­ ce 11 lan Club* It was stated In tha Centennial bulletin of th* Force 111an Club* 71

Joseph Meban, btlng ineligible for th* higher offices, waa w h tha Btor*tai7 i and Oharlas Cuttar tha Grand Marshall* Tha lattar resigned upon graduation; and tha fonwr thereupon auoeaadad hla, continuing preeminently influential in shaping tha brilliant Daatiny of tha Club in 1798# whan ha daolinad reelectIon, having ordered Its goranwint, datandnad Its Policy, and ljabuad it with hla per- aonalifej, aa wa ball* to , for aanj hundred years** At Milton, McKaan was "greatly raspaotad and loved*" In preparation for sermons ha availnad tha works of erltloa and cossmntators on thaologloal laauaa and ex­ plained than from tha pulpit* This tendency to collect orltloal re view a waa revealed in full-blown form whan ha lectured aa Boylston Professor to atudants at Harvard* McKaan married Margaret Stevenson in 1799* McKaan remained active in tha pastorate at Milton until tha auamr of 1 8 0 3 » whan ha suffered a severe pulmonary attaolc* Ha waa granted a dismissal on tha grounds of poor health in October 3# lBOlf. This attack waa a real shook to MoKaan* s vigorous and healthy frame, for he never fully regained his vitality* In regard to tha young preacher*a style in tha pulpit. Hedge stated that.

p Club Centennial. 1791-1891 (Cambridge! 72

In the pulpit* hla Mannar was ••rloua and farrantf hla dlaoouraaa plain* tnn- gelleal* and perauaalve. Ha aaldoai dia- ouaaad In pubilok [aloj any of thoaa merely a pa dilative quaatIona* which ara agitated by aaotarlaa and polemleka raloj* and vhleh tand to produoa dlaoord and allanation aaong Chrlatlana ... hla dla­ oouraaa war* alwaya of a practical char­ acter*^ Hla lanooii according to Joaaph Dana* vara wall re­ ceived* Ha atatad that "••• tha htvortbl* raoaptlona ha [ MoKaan ^ met* from hla fir at antranoa on preaohlng* -5 hla aarly aattlamant at Milton* ara wall known*” H. L. Fro thing ham* McKaan' a atudant and la ta r hla aaalatant* obaarrad that wherever MoKaan want aa a praaohar* ha waa paid naapaotful attantlon and ragardad with daap Interact* Thla waa dua in part to hla Impoa- lng flgura and mannar and hla aolam fervor. Frothing- ham atatad a pacific ally that* NTha zhatorloal languaga of hla devotlona* apparantly unaalaetad and lnaplrad by tha moment* flowed over hla audlenoe with oopioua power*”

Hadga* ”A Sketch of tha I>lfa and Character of Raw* Joaaph MoKaan* D* D#* L.L. D»* lata Bo yl a ton Prof* a- aor of Rhatorlok and Oratory* In Harvard Unlveralty*” Raoorda of tha Maaaachuaatta Hlatorloal Society. Vol. 8 * P* 3* ^Joaaph Dana* The F?Mmt T1! Rfllafi 4 gf fTR (Haw- buryporti William naatlnga* June lb lb) * p. 1 5 * ^Froin an a rt Id a In tha Boaton Dal It Advert laar whloh waa an exoerpt from tha A»md ■ p £ th* Lmrle^ Pulpit - or 73

VUrthtr, «tat«d Frothlngham# His CNoKtan] appearance In tbs pulpit# though not what would be callsd graoefUl# was much ■ o p s than that; - i t was massive and grand* Tbs intonations of his voice# though quits pscullar to himself# governed by searosly any rulss of ths art that ha taught fns tbs Professor's chair* wars yst agrssabls to all hearers* and probably ths nor* sffsotlT# from thslr strong peculiarities* As rsgards ths oos^osltlon or his ssmonsf thsy wars thrown off too rapidly and with too llttls anxlsty of preme dl tat ion to allow of thslr bslng finished performances* Thsy nsrsr sssnsd to vs to do luatlce to his intel­ lectual vigor* £ This was also trus of McKaan*s laoturaa as Boylston Professor] •••• Ha has told ms that hs oould navar oarry any but a blotted manuscript with him into tha desk; fbr if ha ravlsad or copied i t aver so many times# ha should be always altering and interlining what ha had w rit­ ten* 7

Praquant references ware made to MoKaan 1 s physleal appaaranea* These physleal oharectorlsties# aa a part of his tools as a speaker# ware a real asset to him be­ cause he looked Ilka a portrait of Loren so da Madlol

coimsamoratlva notices of distinguished American clergy* man of various denominations# from ths early settlement of tha country# to tha close of ths year 1 8 5 5 * with historical introductions# by William B* Sprague* D* D# 2 vols.t Haw York* Carter and Co* Frothlngham dis­ cussed McKaan In this book in a latter to tha editor dated April 8# 1850# Boston*

7 l£&d. Ik according to Froth Ingham, who said,, Hla [MoKttn] fu ll black eyes throw tholr expression from undor a brow and fore- haad that night almost bo called savors; but his mouth was as full of swootnosa aa any I ovor saw ••• • His voloo was doop and rloh, corresponding to such a phy slognomy • e Aftar hla resignation at Milton, at his doctor's request MoKaan spent hla sumwrs In the South* He went to the Barbadoes In the auasaer of I 8QI4., Charleston,

South Carolina In 1605 *nd Savannah, G e o r g i a in 1006* As a oonsequenee of the ml Id southern ellaiate McKean* a health partially returned. In 1607 McKean was told by a member of the Corpora­ tion of Harvard that the Hollis Professorship of Mathe­ matics, made vacant by Dr* Webber's promotion to the Presidency of Harvard, would be of fared to him* McKean was very muoh elated* It was this position he preferred to a ll others* Mathematloa had been his favorite study In college* However, the position of the Hollis Chair was offs red to Dr* Bovditch on the ground that, although

I t was known that Bowdltch would reject the offer, Bowditch 9 merited the honor of being asked* McKean refused the Chair when It was offered to him* This action was a pronounced indication of the scrupulous­ ness of his mind* He did, however, aooept the Boylston

e£|OS. 9Ibld* 75

Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory In tha mvmmmr of 1609# Ha was installad aa Boylston Fro lessor on Oetobsr 31# 1609. McKaan fulfil lad tha duties of his of flea with diligence• Dealing In general views rather than minute speculations* ha was able to classify thoughts easily* Hla memory was excellent* and ha brought great read­ ing and a discriminating mind to his offloe* Hedge offered his personal reflections on McKean*s aotlvltles as Boylston Lecturer# As professor of xfcetorlek [ale] and ora­ tory he [McKean] justly obtained tha praise of unoonaaon Industry and punctu­ ality* Ha was governed by a scrupulous sense of duty# and a regard to the best interests of tha University. The abil­ ity and success* with which ha performed tha business of Instruction and his un­ remit ted attention to the moral and religious# as well as to tha Intellectual Improvement of his pupils* were perceived and acknowledged by those* who enjoyed the benefit of his labours (slo7 • His publlok [slc 7 lectures reflect honour C ale J on himself and the Uhlverslty* In these I t waa his aim to give condensed and summary views of what was most Im­ portant to be known on tha subjects# which suoossslvely oame under his notice. Tha different kinds of eloquence# with their characterlstlck [alo] properties and appropriate rules# were described with clearness and brevity* He was happy in drawing his Illustrations from sources which were both instructive and interesting* These were often made with such peculiar pertinency# and with such felicity of language# a a to produce a visible effect on hla audience *10

10Levl Hedge* op. clt*. p* 5* 7 6

H« not only drtw fnqutnt tMnpl** from claaalcal riut- orlelana but eould read Greek and U tln with •a««* FrothIngham ofllind a a tat •man t concerning McKaan* a

delivery aa ha parfurmad tha dutlea or Boylaton Lec­ turer. Ha aald that,

Aa a lecturer In tha college ohapel ha allowed hlmeeir great rreedoau Ha would oXten dlaoouraa in tha neat deaultory manner; not aa any atatuta preaoribed, but aa hla mind happanad to ba axar- olaad by tha publle a vent a or tha day* IThese fAd llba* did not appaar In tha manueorlpt or hla laoturaa*} This, ir It made hla laoturaa aora exciting, cer­ tainly datraotad rrom thalr aoadaailo value. Hla more judicious rrlends, on glTlng than a care ful examination artar hla lamented decease, oould rind nothing worthy or hla reputation to ba given to tha press*11 When Frothlngham waa hla student, MoKaan waa a great ffcvorlte with hla pupils* During hla nine yaara a a Boy la ton Froressor, MoKaan aooaptad many hono ra* Ha waa Recording See rotary or tha Maaaaohuaatta Hlatorloal Society, honorary aambar or tha Hlatorloal Society or Haw York and a fellow In tha Imrloan Academy or Arta and Solenoea* Ha received tha Doc­ tor oX Lawa degree at Prlneaton In Haw Jeraay and tha Doctor or Divinity degree ffroai Alleghany Collage In Penneylvanla* Ha produced a nuabar or apaaohaa during thla period and they ara on record In tha Vldener Library

Pro thing ham, o p * c lt. 77

at Harvard University*

In Ootober of 1817# MoKaan fa ll 111 again. Ha want to Havana, Cuba, and, aftar a fbw months# dlad* Hla body was burlsd in

niche Ho* 345 of the Cemetery H spa da an la Habana wbara It rested# undis­ turbed# until tha yaar I8 40 In which yaar all tha nlohas which wara not re- rantad wara asptlad of thalr oontanta and tha bonaa wara tranafsrrad to tha osarlo. In othar words# to tha Indis­ criminate heap In tha corners of tha eenetary*13 McKaan1 a widow Married Charles Palham Curtla, tha first aolleltor for tha olty of Boston*^

^^McKean* a writings exist at tha Wldanar library at Harvard University* They ara as followst 1) A Valedictory Salmon pro ached In Milton# September 30, lfiOL* 2) A Plea for Friendship and Patriotism# In two Discourses# preached at First Church# Bostont The f irs t on lo rd 's day# the 27th of March# and tha seootid on tha annual Fhst# 7th of April# 1814* 3) Banaon delivered at tha Ordination of Rev* J* B» Might# 25# Jan*# 1815* 4) Sermon delivered at tha Ordination of Rev* H* 1* Froth Ingham# 15* March# 1615* 5) Sermon delivered in tha Church In Brattle Squara# Boston# on tha lo rd 's day next a ftar tha death of John Warren# M* D*# 10# April# 1615* 6 ) Sazmon delivered at tha Installation of Rev* Dr* Richmond# Dorchester# 25# June# 1617* 7) Memoir on Rev* John Eliot# St. D*# printed In the Hlatorloal Soolety Collections* 6 ) Addition to Wood* s Continuation of Dr* Gold­ smith' s History of England*

^^Davi Hedge, "Memoir of McKean#" Massachusetts Historical Collections* Vol. 8 # p* 152* ^James Spear Lorlng# op. c lt*. p* 403* 76

Rh»torle. In 19lt9# Warran Guthrls atatad that, Josaph MoKaan was Boylston Profsssor f n i 1809 to 1817# but so flar as is known hs Is ft no wrlttsn rhstortcal dootrlns and no notss on his public lsoturss bars bssn found In this study*15 Thsrs sxlstsd no aeoounts of Jossph McKaan *0 lsoturss In so hoi azl 7 rassaroh* Ths fact that MoKsan's rhstorls

has nsvsr bssn dlseovarsd was dus probably to ths Ikot that It was donatsd only rsosntly, fro* a private ool- lsetlon of papsrs, to Harvard University, I t was given

to Harvard by Mrs* Taylor as a part of ths Pblsom Papsrs In 1923 .16 Thsss lscturss on rhetoric amountsd to flvs hundrsd pages In all* Thsy wars w rlttsn on lined, 6| x 11 Inoh pages In Ink* All of ths lsoturss (with ths exception of ths first) eave an indication that McKaan wrots only a first draft* Most of his manuaorlpts wsrs intorllxied, xvwrlttsn, blottsd and, In general, rsvsalsd hard uss* Changes In wording and thought that McKaan mads ovsr an eight-year psrlod wsrs narked Into his work on margins and bstwssn chapters* A faw ohapters, llks Chapters XII and XIII on Into Rial and Bxtsmal Topics wsrs no mors

^^Warrsn GuthrIs, f pp* 102-103 • ^Widener Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Maasaohusstts* 79 than outlines or llata of topics and In tba eaia of i o m Individual topics ha did not bother to s a t down his definitions* Tha fact that McKaan was at his bast whan speaking extemporaneously made his written lectures of lass value, because In some areas of his thinking, that part which was not written down could have been of most value to later scholars* But, nonetheless* his leotures as they exist are of real value, particularly as examples of what was considered Important to American speech making In the early 19th century*

Since nothing has ever been written concerning McKean's rhetorical theory "pains” have been taken to give hla writings a mors detailed treatment than those of other 17 Boylston professors oovered In this study*

McKean's style of writing and organisation as a leoturer waa spotty* At times his organisation was clear and unified* In other lectures, his organisation was confused* The same orltlolsm applies to his composition* The table of contents of his lectures whloh follows gives a bird's-eye view of ths subjects whloh conoemed him*

17See Appendix, Exhibit 9. 80

Table of Contents I Introductory Lecture II General View of tbs Subject of tbls Course of Lsoturss and Consideration of soass Objections III Rise and Progress of Oratory among ths Ancients IT Biographical Site to he s of Oreelan Orators V Biographical Sketches of Orators and Rhetorlolans In the Latter Portion of Oreelan History VI A Biographical Sketch of Son* of the Host Distinguished Rcsuui Ora­ tors and Rhetoricians VII Roman Orators and Rhetoricians after Cicero VIII To Explain the Mature and Objects of Oratory (3 usual divisions and sacred eloquence) IX The Several Kinds of Oratory} Demonstrative; Deliberative and Judicial X Connection of Oratory with the Powers of the Hunan Mind XI Constituent Parts of Oratory, Invention XII Internal Topics XXII External Topics XIV me State of the Controversy (Si XV The Properties and Uses of Harretlon end Proposition XVI Argunents Demonstrative XVII Deliberative XVIII Judicial XIX Character of an Orator XX Hxcltation of Passions XXI Disposition Properties and Uses of the Introduction XXII Introductory to New Class-Sketch of the Founder and foundation XXIII Confirmation and Confutation XXIV Properties and Uses of the Con- elusion XXV Renarks on Digression, Transition and Amplification XXVI Of Blooutlon Generally - and Ele­ gance 81

IDCVXI Composition and Its Constituent parts XXVIII or Dignity and of Figurative language Generally, Its O r i g i n , Usas and Laws XXIX Species or Primary Mstaphor, Syn- echdochea, Metonowy and Irony XXX Sources or Tropas Bepaolally from Saored Topics 300LL Divisions of Sty la XXXII The Low Style XXXIII Tha Middle Style XXXIV Tha Sublisea Style XXXV Style of Bplstles and Dialogues XXXVI Style of History XXXVII Style of Poetry XXXVIII Style of Orations XXXIX Pronunciation XL On Se mom XU "Hon Posse Ora to ran esse, n isi bonum virus" 18

Joseph MoKaan followed the rules of his office even more olosely than did John Qulnoy Adams, oovaring al­

most every individual stipulation In the rules and direc­ tions for the Boylston Frofhssor* Frequent ccements

were made, indicating that his motivation for covering certain eUbJeote waa in efibct the original dlotatea of his offtoe* McKean, like Adams, relied on the classical rhetori­ cians in developing his lectures* In addition to explain­ ing classical rhetoric, however, the fbxmer summarised the rhetorical works of his contemporaries* In Leoture

lSThe table of the contents of McKean* s lectures was not originally set down by McKean* This table was drawn up by the writer from the original lectures* 62

I I I * "The Rise and Prognai or Oratory Aaong tha Ancients*" hla faith In olaaaloal rhetoric was made especially olaar* This CrhstorloJ Is ona of ths subjects of human attention In whloh ths rnodsms haws bssn oontsntsd to follow In ths stsps marked out by thslr Illustrious predeoes- sors of Orsses and Horns* So Judged thoas who prescribed this oourss of lsoturss whloh la on ths sxaet plan of ths systsm of Proftssor Ward* who candidly avows his full oonourranos with ths amlabls and elo­ quent Pbnelon* that to comb Ins portions of Aristotle and Longinus with Cicero and Quintilian and to confirm th slr maxims by rsfar#ness to ths pursat authors of antiquity* would even now fom ths bsst systsm of oratory*19

Ths ssoond Boylston Professor adoptsd Quintilian*a dsfin- Itlon of rhstorlo bsoauss* first* I t oorrsspondsd with ths definition of rhstorlo statsd In ths statutss of hla offlos and* ssoondly* because I t waa a "satisfac­ tory" dsfLnltlon* Although hs aeesptsd Q uintilian's dsflnltlon of rhstorlo* HoKsan want on to ladloats that ••* It may still not bs unplsasant or usslsss to traos ths similarity and bar- mony bstwssn this CQuintilian's deflnl- ltlonj and several of ths most distin­ guished subssqusnt writers as wsll a a Incidentally In what It principally dif­ fers from those who had previously treated this subject**0 Hs prooeeded to note ths definition of xhstorlo offered

^Lectures* p* 37* 20Lscturee* p* 92* 8 3

by Aristotle, Traps suntius, Cicero and cited Voeaiue as

one oT Ward's chief sources* He said, Professor Ward follows him tVossluaJ in this as in most respects and defines oratory [eio] the art of speaking well upon any subject, in order to persuade* He tWard} does not contemptuously wave the objections which. had been urged against including this principle design in the definition of the art* Nor does he admit that the not infrequent failure to effcot persuasion is any more dec is Its than to urge that because physicians are not always successful in curing diseases this therefore is not the end of the art of medicine*21 Further, after citing the definitions of zhetoric offered by Lawson, Homes, Blackwell, Smith, Campbell, 22 Blair and Barron, McKean attempted to incorporate the similarities of the definitions of all the authorities Into one oomprehenslTe definition, as follows, In the view now given of the nature of ora­ tory, respecting which there is a near re­ semblance between a ll these writers in the most material respects, are Implied its most Important objects* It Is the art of speak­ ing well* This is with a view to some endj i t is either to afford innocent and pure leasure, or eflbct some important benefit* Pt is the art of persuasion; to accomplish this great purpose in the best sinner, i t must Interest the attention, please the taste, inform the mind, and affeot the heart *z’ In short, Adams' successor made use of almost a ll of the available authorities on rhetoric to develop his

^Lectures, p* 94• 22See Appendix, Exhibit 9, p* 10* 23Lecturea, p, 9 5 * U etuna, Ha ga.TS Qraak and Ronan rhstorloIans grsat walght but, at tha sans tlsM, ha Id tha work* of tha anolanta up to tha "hottar* If not "brlgbtar" light a

of thoaa who followad than* MoKaan waa tha first of Anarloan thaorlata to fashion a history of tha davalopaMnt of tha philosophy of rhstorlo* His aoopa was broad* Ha asntlonsd, at lsaat* all notabls writsrs on apaaoh to hla day and* conssqusntly* his rhatorloal thaory was a oonglnwurttlon

of a llttla of all that ha orltlelsad* Hla analysis of What ha oowsrad vaa a bit aupsr- flolal and his aooounts of thslr ljnportanos wara axag-

garatad* but for tha braadth of hla aoopa and his uni qua nathod of analganatlng elassloal and oontsaporary

rhatorlelans ha has baan raoognlsad In this study as a contributor to tha gsnsral dsTslopaant of rhatorleal thaory In tha Uhltsd States. Although MoKaan's eoneapt of xfcatorle was basically olassloal In natura* ha axtandad his approaoh to Includs tha slnllarltlas batwaan olassloal rhstorlo and tha eon- tenporaiy zhatorlos of tha Cloaronlan tradition In Oraat Britain. His fhvorlts aaong contemporary rhetorl- olans was Canpbsll* Whan referring to Campbell* ha In­ dio at ad that*

His [Campbell! nasia sight never to ba nantlonsd but with tha ra spaot dua to 65

high lat«ll«etu*l pov*n tad attal minti, u io eltttd with th* beat tfftetlona and aoat uitbXt oharaoter* To xhetorloal atudtnti ha has randarad services saoond only to tha great im stars of antiquity . . . • It yet oannot ba suparfluous to raoosaaand his fhl j?ffT*vw' of Rhstorlo not merely aa an Intarasting and useXUl treatise to parusa but as an Invaluable suntry to s tudy* to digest* This Is ons of tha faw books whloh raally Is what Its tltla Implies.

Tha emphasis in soma oasas In MoKaan* s thaory was idantloal to that of his predeoeeaor* Ha broks his die- o ours a down In almost exactly tha saaa proportions as

Adams* Ha devoted ona laotura to tha nature of oratory* flva to tha history of oratory* tan to lnvantlon* six to organisation* twalva to styla and ona to pronuncia­ tion.

In his eovsraga of styla MoKaan lneludsd spsolflc lsoturss on tha styla of splstlss and dialogues* history, postry and orations* His final laotura* usad as a graduation "send-off*" was davalopad In support of Quin­ tilian* a statement* "An orator la a good man skilled In tha art of speaking*”

It has bean stated that speolflo points In MoKaan* s leotures wara Idantloal to Adams** fllnoe McKaan did not attribute these ideas to Adams* It was shear eonjeoture

^Leotures* p. 117. 0 6

that ha was dlreotly Influenced by tha la tta r. ftlaea both san wara familiar with tha same loupoai, It was llkaly that both arrived at tha same conclusions Inde­ pendently. McKaan was not tha sort of san. It seems, who would have uaad mats ria ls without quoting his souroas• Ha was too scrupulous and too much tha scholar to plagiarise willfully* Oral c r—nn i cat ion was tha sped fie form of ooassunl- cation with Which MoKaan o one a mad himself* Ha fa it that oratory was assoclatad with advanced civilisation* Spoolfloally, ha said* As thasa powers [sptachl elevate man above othar animals, so does tha degree In which they are cultivated, separata, In great measure, the refined from bax^ barous nations, tha civilised man from tha savage* It Is Intellectual treasure, combined with moral character, rather than extant of wealth or territory that gives value or stability to empire **5 In accomplishing his over-all purpose, McKean gave a fbw hints on his method of lecturing* His primary aLm -26 was to "adapt InstruotIons to use by his audience*" He asked his students to expect a plain, dldaetlo style of writing and a familiar wanner of delivery* Although he made It clear that his lectures would not be simply

^Lectures, p* 3* ^Lectures, p* 17* 67

* repetition of standard authorities, he was not anxious to develop "splendid novelties*” His desire was to transnit the solid, tried works of the olassloal rhetori­ cians* He asked for questions and, finally, be asked for an objective treatment of subjects In student declam­

ations* He felt that literature has been "too much as­ sociated with and Influenced by the spirit of polltloal 27 and religious party," and went on to point out that *** In this favored season Ccollege years J , in this calm retreat of the muses, let none of the angry or turbu­ lent passions of the world Interrupt your quiet, disturb n u r harmony, ob­ scure your Judgment**0 His students should he said, "weigh in the soalea of reason and truth the claims of authors and men" and "say nothing whloh in the remotest degree infringes on the 9 0 reverence due to the Supreme Being*" McKean himself was more the speaker than the writer*

McKean1a unique contributions to rhetorical theory were not made In the sense of originality of thought or material* His contribution was his method* He organised poorly at times, but he was the first of Amerioan rhet­ oricians to organise a wide diversity of sources into a

^Uetures, p* 20* 2®l*ecturee, p* 20* ^Lectures, p* 20* 68 unified whole* In brief c cement a on oratora of hla tine - Hamilton, Ames and Dexter - he generally aocorded then praise* He referred to Logan, an Indian chief, aa an exanple of the beauty of primitive oratory* MoKean waa alao the flre t American to apply feoulty 30 paychology to the epeeoh situation* Thla waa largely a result of hla lntereat In and knowledge of Campbell* Hla breakdown of faculties waa much the aame aa Camp* bell'a* He dlacuaaed (1) Imagination, (2) reaaonlng and (3) emotions aa faoultlee to which the apeaker ahould refer when he addreaaea an audience*31 The apeaker* a tool in affeotlng the under a tending, aald MoKaan, waa logic, and rhetoric waa the practical extension of logic* A study of poetry supplied the orator with an understanding of Imagination whloh he oould use In his speaking* Memory, he aald, waa not an essential requisite but an Important auxiliary to good speaking* Rather than giving memory a separate treatawnt, he referred to It aa a faculty of alnd* MoKean gave the orator free rein In making uae of allied fields* The orator combs slater aolencea and explores the

30 Bdward Tyrrel Charming waa not the firs t American to bring faoulty psychology Into rhetorical theory*

^Lectures, pp« 117-127• 69

tm iu m of all the arts. In order to glvt vigour to hla powers of reasoning, and al^ ford ooplouanasa to his Illustrations, that ha nay eon vino a tha minds or thosa whom he addresses.32

In suarnry, aside from hla method, MoKean made no unique contributions to rhetorical theory* Ha recognised the genius or classical rhetoricIans, but was not un- alndrul or the more recent developments In British rhetoric* In many ways he sk illru lly eombined the ele­ ments or the contemporary approach to the rhetorical process with those or the ancients* The effbota* McKean* s effsot as a teacher or speeob waa limited to the classes he raoed* Frothlngham, his student, Indicated that " ••* no external proors or his eminence stand rorth to Justify our partiality to a 33 stranger*s eye." He said, fhrther, "I should address a large and sorrowing audience, were I heard by all those students, who swat highly revered and tenderly - 3 b loved him*" MoKean*s rhetoric stood In the shadow or the first Boylston Professor. Both men had based their rhetorics on the rules for Boylston proressors, but the name or the latter and the quality or his rhetoric

^Imotures, p. 122* 33j|# L* Frothlngham, Funeral Sermon (Boston: J. R* Buckingham, 1610), p* 5* ^ b l d *. p. 1 3 * 9 0 ovcrthtdowtd the rhetoric or the fonwr* Idke Adame* MoKean had* for a ll practical purpoeea* no Impaot on those who followed him In the Chair*

Further* MoKean had no lnfluenee on speech education In the Uhlted States* Hie rhetorlo has been presumed lost* His name was burled with his body In Ha Tana* Cuba* It seems that his rhetoric met the same fate as his bones - discarded in the "Indiscriminate heap In the corners" of the history of rhetoric* CHAPTER T

EDWARD TYRREL CHAHVIHO

Introduction. To * leaser extent then Joseph MoKean* Edward Tyrrel Cbanning* u n til recently*^ has

been overlooked as a factor In the developamnt or American rhetoric • His nans was remembe red largely

because he was the brother or William Ellery Cbanning. In a sense his 111b reflected the quiet glories or the Intellectual powers or his famous elder brother* His achievements as a teaoher at Harvard* however* were striking* Further* he moved In the central whirl­ pool or literary activity In Hew England during the years when American writers were beginning to produce what later earns to be considered the "beginnings'' or American literature*

The teacha r. Edward Tyrrel Cbanning was born In Hewport* Rhode Island* on Deeesiber 12* 1790* His fcther* William Cbanning* was Attorney General Ibr Rhode Island and District Attorney for the district of Rhode Island*

^Dorothy Anderson* op,* c lt. . pp. 81*92*

91 92

Edward Tyrrel Cbanning' s futbtr diad aa a young nan on September 21, 1793* leaving hla wl fe „ Lucy Ellery, 2 and nlna children* Among the other prominent descend* ant a of William and Lucy Ellery Channlng were a grand-

aon, Ellery Channlng (Dr* William Ellery Chauming* a nephew and friend of Henry Thoreau) , and a great-grand- son, (Ellery* a son) Edward Charming, the author of The Hlatorr of the United States* When Dr* William Ellery Channlng was beginning hla career aa a preacher In lSOti# Edward Tyrrel entered

Harvard* As a atudent, Edward Tyrrel was involved in the atudent rebellion of 1607 and, as a result, hi a college career was delayed* But he received his degree a few years later*^ His favorite studies were law, history, Greek and Latin* His interest in the classics led Dr* William Ellexy Channlng to oall his brother Edward "the anti* query of the family*" After he graduated from Harvard, Channlng gave him­ self over to llteraxy activities and became involved in the early organisation of the North American Review*

2Rlohard H« Dana, "Biographical Notice" in Edward T* Channlng, Lectures Read to the Seniors in Harvard College (Bostons VioicnOT and H elds, 1CJ5M, p*~"Vlll. 3Van Wyok Brooks, op* c l t *. p* U7U* U-ln a ll likelihood Channlng heard Adams' leotures* £james Spear Lorlng, op* c lt* * p* 365* 93

In 18X7 b i b«ouw editor. During hl« jttr a with the

Review. he was a central figure in a l i t tl e group of m q devoted to literary pursuits, dunning1! small group of AssoolAtss w a s lAt*r to be rseognlssd on a nstlonAl basis* Among th is group o f men wsrs Riohard

Henry Dana* Georg# Tlcknor, Edward A n d Alexander

Everett, Jared Sparks, John Gorham Palfrey* Dr* Oardl- nar Bowdltoh* Danis 1 Webster And Andrsws Morton*

As sarly a s 161? whlls still a part or this oors of literary m a n , Channlng realized that "something” w a s In the sir* Brooks stated that* Professor Edward Tyrrsl Channlng and his cousin* Richard Hsnry Dana* had been driving from Cambridge Into Boston* Channlng was the editor-ln-ohief of the new North Amsrloan Re view, and Dana was his assistant* As they drove along* side by side* Channlng read to Dana two poems that had just come Into his hands by a young man named William Cullen Bryant* who lived In a village In the Berkshires• One of them was en­ title d Thenetop ala . As Channlng oontlnued to read* Dana exclaimed, 'That was never written on this side of the water .*6 These men* along with other Hew Englanders* produced la te r in the eentui7 the "Golden Age*" so oalled* of American literature* On July IB* 1819, Edward Tyrrel Channlng was voted

^Van Wyck Brooks* o p * c lt * . p . 11$ 9U

an honorary A* M. degree at Harvard and on September ? of the aame year* ha was eleoted to tha of flea of Boy la ton Profaaaor of Rhatorlc and Oratory. Whan Chan*

nlng took hla naw of flea aa Boylaton Profeaeor* Mr* Edward Everett replaced him aa editor of tha Worth American Review. Channlng*a appointment waa not com­ pletely accepted by tha public* One navapapar article* dated November 10* 1819 Indicated that* Whan tha nomination waa flra t announced* It waa found that tha publlek (sic] aentlment (for tha publlok lalol have a right to feel, and do lbel lntcreated on thla aubject*) waa by no naana united In favour of Mr* Channlng* I t waa diaeovered* too* by tha government of tha oollaga aa wall aa by the publlok [ilo] * that Mr* Boylaton* tha munificent founder of tha Profeaaorahlp* waa utterly and Irrecon­ cilably oppoaad to tha appointment of Mr* Channlng* LTha w riter of thla article waa probably referring to Ward Nlcholaa Boylaton]* tinder tbeae clrcumatancea It waa expected* and I t waa a favourable ex­ pectation* that* whatever might be the merit a of Mr* Channlng* the Board of Over- •eera would not be aaaembled to confirm the appointment until the approaching aeaalon of the leglelature* when all the membere of the Board might conveniently be preaent* A proper regard t or the pub­ llek Calc] aentlment* for the feellnge of Mr* Boylaton* and for the future welfare of the College* aeemed to require thla delay* But on the day of the general re­ view* In Bo a ton* when the Oovemour (aio]* I f not other membere of the Board* waa neceaaarlly abaent* nine or ten out of nineteen overaeera preaent confirmed the 95

appointment* Tha Board oonalata of mora than seventy m a m b a r a . *

Vhlla ha fulfilled hla duties as Boylaton lecturer, tha third Boylaton Professor continued to write for tha

North American Review* Ha also wrote a section in Jared Sparks' American Biography on tha life of his 8 grandfather, William Ellery* Sevan years after he beoame Boylaton Professor, McKean's suecaseor married his cousin Henrietta Hilary, the daughter of William Hi­ lary, Bsqulre* Although he taught ihetorlo and oratory at Harvard, he was himself a mediocre speaker* As for oratory, Mr* Channlng'e professor­ ship waa a sinecure* ••• He had, as a speaker, no graoe, nor any great diver­ sity of modulation; and his gestures were awkward, seeming to denote rather his dis­ comfort at being obliged to speak than the mood of thought or feeling to which he gave expression*?

7 'Newspaper article from the sorapbook of Jeremiah Cobum donated to Harvard on May 8, 1682* The clipping is f*om a Worchester paper and la dated Wednesday, November 10, 1819*

^Edward Tyrrel Channlng, "The Life of William Hilary" In Arnerlcan Biography* ed*, Jared Sparks, Vol* VI, 1st series* Reference la made to this In Memoirs of (Bostont W* M* Crosby and L P. Nichols,

9 Andrew p. Peabody, Harvard Reminiscences (Boston, 1688), p* 68* ——— 96

Oliver Wtndill Hol»a wrota of hla teacher* a ability to spaakt "Channlng, with hla bland, euperlor look. Cold 10 aa a moonbeam on a frozen brook • •• • Whan Channlng rat Ira d In 1851 ha waa ona of tha oldaat taaohara on Harvard*a faculty* Tha atudanta ha had taught numbered In tha thouaanda* I t waa d lffleu lt to ganarallsa from a faw atatementa from atudanta eon- earning hla ability aa a taaohar, for hla ganaral a f- fact aa a taaohar, according to aoma, waa of crucial importance • Dana aald, Tha department of thamaa, foranaloa and aloeutlon haa not uaually. In our eol- lagaa, held a high poaltlon, compared with other dapartmanta, aa reepeeta tha determining of academic rank, and tha attention to I t haa bean laaa exact and obligatory* But Mr* Channlng carried hla department forward until Ita rela­ tive Influence waa ao great that axeal­ ienee in It became aaaantlal to honora and high rank, and neglect of it Incom­ patible with continuance In oollaga at a ll *

That ha waa oppoaad to ornamented, flowery oratory 12 waa pointed up In hla liecturaa* But hla view that em- phaala ahould be put on an eaay, natural delivery waa eat down ahortly after he baoaaw Boylaton Profaaaor* On

*®Karl Wallaoe, ad*, £p* , p* 160* ^Sdward Tyrrel Channlng, Lecturaa. op* c lt. . p* xll* ^Lecturea. p* 58. 97

December 12* 1626, in a la tta r of reooosne nda t 1 on for Hr. Horatio Alger* Channlng stated that Alger waa a

"natural and agreeable speaker." In addition* he said* He fAlgerj what X esteem much better than a mere observance of rules* or an imitation of models* an easy* natural way of his own* showing that he feels his author* and can vary his voice and manner to suit every style and descrip­ tion of wrltlng.13

In aocord with his background In journalism and his Interest In the literary movement In Hew England* Channlng gave most of his efforts to the written side of his students' work. He devised themes and gave them to students. Declamation and written essays by students were then built around these themes. Two examples of the subjects covered under this procedure were as fol­ lows! 1) He that would write should read; not that he may retell the observations of others* but that being thus re­ plenished* he may find himself In a p, condition to make and Improve his own. and* 2) "an Analysis of Dr. Whately's view of analogy with examples to Illustrate it."

^ L e tte r of B. T. Channlng dated December 12* 1626 In the Widensr Library at Harvard University.

^A list of themes In original fbrm donated to Har­ vard University in 1953* These theme topics were w rit­ ten by Channlng and were given to classes between 163U-37. 96

Other topic* wore concerned with *uoh subject* ** the delights of sc discoverer, the pursuit of money, keeping a private Journal, confoniity, criticism of polite society, descriptions of battles, the state of society In Rome and a comparison of the prees and pub-* IS 1 1 c speaking as means of coannunl cation. The labor that went Into the criticism of these exercises was recognised and praised by James Spear Lorlng as follows* One of the most useful of his £channlng*sj duties, and at the same time the siost laborious and wearisome, has been the reading and correcting the Themes of the students. Perhaps in this way, quiet and unostentatious though It has been, his power has been most generally and per­ manently fe lt .16

Like his predecessor, Channlng was brought Into close, person-to-person contact with his students. Ac­ cording to an aocount in the Advertiser. ... Professor Channlng** duty brought him Into the closest personal relation to his pupils, and his Instructions were on such subjects that every man of them has reason to reoall them every day. We may say, therefore, that thousands of men, some of them In high positions of society, will gratefully acknowledge ... that they owed to him, more than any other man, what power they have In the ready use of the mother tongue.1?

l glbld. ^ James Spear Lorlng, op. c lt. . p. 365* 17 *Sorapbook of Jeremiah Colburn, newspaper article from the Advertiser dated February, 18$6 . 99

B*fort moving Into the lasting effects or hla work at Harvard, It la necessary to conaldar hla rhetoric. I t wasn*t until Channlng* a death, In Fbbruary or 1656 artar resignation aa Boylaton Professor, that hla rhet- orlo waa publlahad by hla wife. It haa baan aald that ha died reading Tully*s Orfloaa In Latin. Tha rhetoric. In tha prefhce or hla Lecture a on Rhat orlo end Oratory. Edward Tyrrel Channlng admitted frankly that ha had not attempted to preaent a ay at em­ etic view of rhetoric In "coagtllanoe with tha etatutes or the protfeaaorahlp" or any Idaaa or hla own. Ha selected from hla thirty-two years of teaohlng speolfle subjecta about which he wrote eaaaya. Hla published work does not then represent hla entire course In rhetoric at Harvard. Moat of his obligations to other rhetorlolana were, Channlng admitted, forgotten. Since he made no refer­ ence to hla predecessors in the Boylaton Chair of Rhat orlo and Oratory, It waa evident that Joseph McKerni an d John Quincy Adams had little I f any afreet on him* At no point In hla Lectures did he refer to John Quincy Adams. The reason for the absence of such reference waa the difference that existed between the philosophies of Adame and Channlng. Briefly, these dlfferanees were aa follows. Adams with a few quail float Iona applied 100

classical rhetoric to modern times. Channlng made distinctions between o lassie si rhetoric and his own

conospt of modem rhetoric* Adams gave emphasis to the speech situation. Channlng dealt with the written word and literatu re. Adams gave emphasis to the class* leal conoept of invention. Channlng stressed the habits and faculties of the writer. In short# Bdward Tyrrel Channlng*s rhetoric represented the first Im­ portant departure from the original rules and regula­ tions set down for the Boyle ton Chair. Channlng undoubtedly had a working knowledge of claaslcal rhetoricians. Be was also a student of Shakespeare* Milton* Burke* Johnson* Goldsmith* Field­ ing* Richardson* Scott and Chauoer. Among the theolo­ gians* he studied Barrow* Taylor* Smith* Young* Cowper and Bunyan. He read Vordsworth* Coleridge* Byron* Campbell* Whately and Lamb* and preferred the phll- 1 6 osophy of Thomas Reid. The sources from which he drew in large part were writers rather than rhetorlolans or speakers. Hie background and Interests were sueh that his feeling for the written word evinced in his Lectures waa quite un­ derstandable .

1^Lectures, p. x lll. 101

Hla writ tan style was smooth and flowing - tha style of an accomplished writsr. His organisation was not tha clear-cut organisation of tha speaker* howerer.

Ha nada far graatar usa of deduot I t s raasonlng than

tha "example" or Induct I t s m a t hods In establishing his

Ideas. At times his raasonlng was difficult to follow and his spselfle purposes In lecturing ware not on tbs whole clear-cut. Ha wrote In general terms rather than tha speolflo. Tha firs t half of Channlng1 a Lectures was unified by a series of comparisons between olasaloal rhetoric and his own ooncept of contemporary rhetoric. In his first lecture he Indicated that the clroumstances In a state of society Influence to a great extent tha char­ acter of the oratory used In that society. In the ancient republics* rhetoric was a part of all education and oratory waa extremely important, stated Channlng. The Implication* though unstated* was that oratory was of lesser Importance to modem society. Tha difference between the use of oratory In anolent days and the use of oratory In hla time was a result of many factors. First* the people In ancient societies were Ignorant and oould be easily swayed by orators. Secondly, tha orator had great freedom In ancient days. He was less restricted to the use of reason and formal 1 0 2 argument, particularly In tha law court a; tha orator In aneiant daye mada freer uaa of 1 wag3nation and ap- paala to tha paaaiona of audiences* Further, tha anoianta plaoad greater anphtsia on national grandeur and glory than did thoaa of ninataanth oantury day a*

Thia glory and grandaur of aneiant tlmea haa baan ex- aggaratad and tha defects of aneiant aoeiaty have baan eofarad over by tha "cloak of time*" Finally, alnoa tha nation of aneiant daya sought powar among nations rather than internal security, oratory became extremely important* Why Channlng assumed that oratory was not important in securing internal harmony was left un­ answered*

For his day and age* Channlng fa it that tha im­ port ano a of one man had diminished to tha point where his ability to sway people was of lass importance* Mora laws in modern times limited the speaker and audlenees ware more learned* Tha aneiant speaker controlled audiences* In ChannlngTs time, tha reverse was true, ha said* In tha l800*s in tha United States, ha felt that tha subject of a speech was more thought of than tha speaker* Ha stated that. 1 0 3

••• th« splendor that surrounds him Lthe speaker1 must bo tho natural light of truth* not tho false brllll­ ano 7 that startIss and blinds. Although tho eauto-«ff«ot rolatlonshlp between tho different factors in anolont and aodorn soolotlos and tho diminishing importanoo of opoooh was not oloar in most of tho so instances* Channlng doprooiatod by infaronoo tho importanoo of oratory in his 01m day. In brief* ho 2b It that tho rulos lo ft bohlnd by tho anol- onts should bo studlod but with an oyo to tho altorsd conditions of society. According to Channlng there wore flee reasons for studying tho anolont rhotorlolans. One studied them to obtain ihetorlcal instruction* to enjoy literature* to examine tho oxas^los in the olassloa of groat men* to understand history and* finally* to understand human nature.

Although tho sotting for modem oratory has ohanged* tho purpose of oratory has remained unchanged since tho beginning of history. The object of eloquence* ho said* was M ... to bring men* by whatever modes of address* to our way of thinking* and thus make them aot aocording 20 to our wishes. In aohloving tho purpose of eloquence*

^Lectures, p. 16.

^fractures. p. 1 3 . IOI4. th« character of tho opotkor prodaainotoo*

Cluuanlne gavo * good h a j ptgoi to a discussion of tha general view of rhat orlo primarily for tha pur- poaa of setting up hla daflnltlon of rhatorle In auoh a faahlon aa to Include writ In®*

Tha word "rhatorle," ha said, had oona to ba a re- proaehful daacrlptlon of a certain type of style* Ha waa referring to tha boart>aatlo, flowery atyla of ora­ tory In hla day* Ha would probably hare claaalfled Joseph Me Kean aa an example of thla type of atyla* Originally, according to Channlng, rhatorle waa Intended to lnatruot man In tha oompoaltlon and delivery of oratlona, but tha preparation of an orator Included a great deal that la equally appropriate for write ra*

Rhatorle whan reduced to a eyatem In booka waa, according to Channlng, "a body of rules derived from experlenee and obaervatlon, extending to all conrauolca- 21 tlon by language and deelgned to make It efficient*"

Thla definition waa followed up with a chain of reason­ ing for the purpose of establishing written communication

2 1 Leoturea* p* 31* 105

aa a part of hla activ ities aa Boylaton Professor of Rhatorle and Oratory. Hla reasoning* paraphrased* want aa followas In thua extending tha meaning of itietorlc bayond ora tor a and speakers* tha orator gains. Rhatorle analyses methods of parauaalon. Tha qualltlaa In wan1a nature are tha same for apaakar and writer* Both must uaa tha same approach. Ha atated* "I cannot aaa how a liberal and phlloaophlcal rhetoric can overlook any fbrm of composition* any uaa of language that alma at power over tha heart. To paraphreae further* eoaanunity among tha arta makea limiting rhetoric to apaaoh unwise.

Tha reason for making any course exclusive la to perfect tha pupil* An exclusive course will shut out any matter that w ill interfere with tha purpose of tha course* but certainly not that which involve a the same principle which the oourae portends to teach* A person w ill un­ derstand more N ••• even with the faintest differences that may naturally exist between the manner of the 23 speaker and the writer*" about rhetoric when he studies

It In Its various modes* Further* when one includes writ­ ten communication in rhetoric* one eliminates the Idea that persuasion la a vulgar Instrument*

^Lectures* p* 33* ^ Lectures. p* 314.* 1 06

This then v*« Channlng' s rational* for Including written communication under the general heading of

ttietorle and oratory, Channlng fulfilled the regula­ tions of hla office by baaing half of hla Lectures on classical rhetoric but he did so not for the purpose of indicating its contemporary use. He did not adhere to the spirit of the regulations of the Chair in that he repudiated by implication the modem application of elaasloal theory. Channlng oovered very generally tha topics of demonat ra t I t s * deliberative and Judicial oratory. He devoted one leoture to debate and three to pulpit ora­ tory *^ and in accord with his tendency to emphasise the written word, he devoted the seoond half of his

Lectures to the habits and faculties of the writer. Hla lectures on rhetoric fbr the writer covered the literary tribunal for "great" literature* forms of criticism* a writer's preparation* a writer's reading* a writer's habits* a study of language* clearness of expression and thought* using words for ornament and* finally* permanent literary ihme. These lectures ibr the aspiring writer were an at­ tempt to do basloally two things. First* Channlng

Appendix* Exhibit 9 * pp. 3 0 6 , 107

attempted to Inspire his atudanta to strive for liter­ ary grettmia and, secondly, ha gar* vary praotleal "tips** to tha young writer about hla everyday behavior* Thaaa praotleal o one rate atepa that a wrltar could

taka were offered apaolfleally to Motivate him to achieve hla purpoae of literary greatness* A work of literary excellence, he said, waa a work that met with acceptance from both authorltlea and common readers* In order to achieve the characterletlc of unlveraallty a piece of literature nniat be enjoyed by the almple man and atudled by thoae with greater and more refined sen­ sitivity*

The emphasla of Channlng1 a rhetoric waa put on the apeclflc habita that a w riter ahould develop to nurture hla own originality and hla feeling Ibr the 25 written word* Thla man In a aenae waa the forerunner of the pres- „26 ent day advocatee of the "comnunlcttlona course” which

la. In essence, a combination of the teaching of ekllla both In writing and speaking In one oourae of study*

2£See Appendix, Exhibit 9* P* 310*

Glen H ills, "Speeoh In a Communication Course,** Quarterly of Speech. 33s 40-45# February, 1947* 1 00

Although he devoted tho m m number of pagea to tha wrlttan and apokan word* hla paraonal lntaraata vara

revealed whan ha wrote of tha writer* Hla Inslghta Into the situation of the writer ware penetrating and baslo* It waa underatandable that hla students later established for themselves the titles of literary giants In light of his purpoae stated succinctly in the concluding statement of hla lectures* He wrote* after urging his students to strive toward greatness* If wa should bring Into one view tha for­ tunes of still other writers* who are considered as the most prosperous among the lneortals* the lowly a&ght be brought to think it better for a man to sleep quietly when he haa no more to do w 1th the earth in tha body* But they will not persuade the soaring spirit that it la not worth ambition to be a great power in the world* ages after one's burlal*27

Tha effects* During his thirty-two years as Boyl- ston Professor* Edward Tyrrel Channlng made subtle but lasting changes In the teaching of rhetoric at Harvard University* He was the teacher responsible for tha shift of emphasis In the Boylston Chair from the oral to the written word* Whan Francis J* Child followed Channlng In the Boylston Chair* precedent set by Cban­ ning gave Child the Justification for unofficially turn­ ing the Chair Into the "Boylaton Chair of English and

2 ^Leotures* p* 2 9 0 109

UtaPttura.* Ttitlaonj to tho of foot that Churning had a swoop­ ing offset on education at Harvard ease from many sources* Barrett Wendell stated that*

His work £Channlng*sJ as Boylston Profes­ sor* too* has undoubtedly affeeted our traditions and teaohlngs as lastingly as has that ofaany teacher In the col- lege history *20 Lorlng Indleated that*

The Influence he has exercised* In form­ ing and cultivating the taste of so many sueeesslve elaasea* has been surpassed by no one* probably* ever connected with the college*^ Perhaps the clearest statement of his effect as

Boylston Professor came from the pen of Van Wyck Brooks* Brooks stated that under his tutelage* In a word* the students learned to think* Moreover they learned to write* Whatever might have been said of the Harvard professors* their taste could not have been Impugned* .*. Their scholarship was sure to be exacting es­ pecially when Edward Tyrrel Channlng *•• became professor of rhetoric* - two years after the birth of a Concord boy* Henry Thoreau by name* who was to ack­ nowledge* In la te r years* that he had learned to write as Channlng*s pupil* In fact* the whole Hew England "renais­ sance1* waa to spring so largely from

2®Barrett Wendell* 0£* c lt** p* 208.

29James Spear Lorlng* o p . c l t . . p* 385* 1 10

Channlng 1 a pupils, fa«r*oiit HoLn*i| Dana, Motley, Parkman to nan* only a Din, •••• One of these pupils kept his college themes, and a list of some of the subjects that Channlng set might go as far as any other fact to explain why his students were to go so far* . . . Judging by the fru its of his Instruction, one might almost say that Channlng sowed more of the seeds that make a man of letters - when the seeds fall on a fortunate soil - than all the other teachers of composition all the writers of Ingenious text-books that have ever taught a much-taught country.-*0 Before the lS'&'s Channlng* a rhetoric had little direct Influence on the development of speech educa­ tion in Amerloa. Indirectly, however, hla rhetoric prepared Harvard for the man who, twenty-five years after Channlng retired, had a direct and telling ef­ fect on the teaching of rhetoric throughout the United States - Adams Sherman H ill. In a ll, Edward Tyrrel Channlng represented In edu­ cation the link between the classloal form of rhetoric aa It was taught before I 6 3 0 and the discipline of English as we know It today.

^°Van Wyck Brooks, op. c lt., pp. 14-3-5. CHAPTER VI

ADAMS SHERMAN HILL

Introduction. If* o t a ll tha works by Boylaton Professors* ona ware singled out as tho most clroulatad

and widely used* It would ba Tha Principles of Rhatorle by Adams Sherman H ill. At least ona copy of ona of H ill's books on rhatorle was Invariably found In used

book stores. These books* until reoently* enjoyed a wide circulation* It Is surprising that except for scattered com­ ments* little has been written about Hill's twenty- eight years as the Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard. Not one book has dealt apeeifleally with his life and a c tiv itie s. He remains* however* a leading figure In tha development of the discipline of English In the United States. The teacher. Like John Quincy Adams* Adams Sher­ man Hill was made Boylaton Professor at tha age of thirty-nine. Ba fox's ha was appointed to the chair*

H ill's life was the hurried* rugged life of a newspaper­ man.

Boro In Boston* on January 30* 18331* H ill went to

1Student registration card of Adams She roan Hill* Arohlves In the Wldener Library* Harvard Uhlveraity* Cambridge* Massachusetts.

I l l 1 1 2

Harvard and graduatad with tha olaaa of 1653* Ha represented hla olaaa* upon graduation, aa elaaa

orator* Hill obtainad a degree In law two 7 «an after hla graduation from Harvard and than want to Wore ha star, whera ha waa employed by Senator Oaorga Friable Hoar. Alter a year In law. Hill launched hla career aa a Journalist, going to New York City aa a member of tha editorial staff of tha Haw York Tribune, in 1656* ha waa siade editor of tha Tribune.

After hla health broke In 1659* ha and hla wife* Carolina Inches Hill* want abroad for several months* In 1661 ha waa made Washington correspondent for tha Haw York Tribune and In a newspaper article i t was re­ ported that • •• aa a war correspondent ha had baan ona of tha earliest to realise tha greatness of Abraham Lincoln* and at a stage whan the c ritic a l attitude toward him was only too fashionable in this part of tha land young HI 11 anticipated In hla le tte rs from Washington what has sinoe, beooxna the con-on judgment of man- kind.**-

^Hew York Globe. December 26* 1910 3 Scrapbook of Adams Shaman Hill* Widensr Library* Harvard University, Cambridge* Massachusetts.

**Ibld. 1X3

He again suffered Tran 111 health In 1663 and realised that hla physical constitution prohibited further news- paper work.

During the four years between 1664 and < 6 6 , H ill wrote and rested. His writings were published in the American Review and the Atlantic Monthly ■ FT on 1668

to 1 6 7 1 * he was In Burope a great deal of the time and his son, Arthur Dehon H ill, was born In Paris-in 1869.^ In 1872 he was oalled to Boston by Charles E liot. Eliot's seleotlon of professors was made In many oases "by rule of thumb,*1 and such was the case with Adams Sherman H ill. "Believing the Amerloan colleges were neglecting English, Eliot chose as the man to blase the trail an aggressive young Journalist who had been

Washington correspondent of the Hew York TrtVrW ••• Hill was physically tired and as a teacher untried; nonetheless, he was appointed to the faculty at Harvard as an assistant professor In English in 1872. Four years after his appointment he was appointed to the Boylston Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory to replace Francis J. Child.

Arthur was later to become the District r Suffolk County In Massachusetts. 114

President Bllot f«lt that Hill would bring to the Boylston Chair a practical that would prove valu-

abla to atudanta who war* intaraatad only In writing for aTaryday 11 to* Fra aidant Bllot, than [1672] a young nan of thirty-sight, fora saw a gnsatly In- craaaad attandanoa at tha collagaa and universities of tha country. Hot only that; ha fait sura that thla attandanoa would ba mads up in larga part of man and woman who would work in tha aclanoaa and othar subjacta not linguistic or literary. Anyhow, tha oldar literary training waa rigid and a rtlflo la l, and altogathar too exclusively dasigned for atata occasions. Ha would have students forearmed with such a working acquain­ tance with their mother tongue as would asrva them unaffectedly In their dally liv e s .'

Aa Boylaton Profeasor, H ill like hla predecessor, Francis J. Child, had li ttl e use for oratory In tha usual sense. He had a sort of veneration for the speeohaa of Lincoln and Webster, but his real delight g was literature " ... and poetry stirred him deeply." While serving in his capacity as teacher, he devoted a great deal of his energies to writing. Be produoed three major volumes on the subjeot of rhetoric x 9 The Principles of Rhetoric. The Foundations of

^Bollo Walter Brown, and Brothers Publishers, 1 o ^Scrapbook, op . c l t . ^Adams7Adama Sherman H ill, Ths Principles of Rhetoric (Hew York! Harper and Brothsrs Publisnere, 1 6 9 0 ) , pp. 4*1. 115 10 Bhitorlo la 1692 and Tha nn4inff* Rhetoric and Composition11 In 1902* Xn thasa volumes ha labored to astabllah critarla for determining what waa corract usage la tha English language, labors whieh halpad him achieve tha tltla of tha "hlghprlest of correet- nass*”- 1 2 ▲dams Shaman Hill, as racallad by oaa of his students,1^ was a small sum* Ha cult I ts tad a polntad baard and wora thraa sats of glasses; one worn In tha customary way, anothar pus had up and baek on his ha ad and a third sat whieh was usually on tha tabla or lost In a book* His studants had to wait for tha right com­ bination whan ha raad a theme • His voloe, high and thin, frequently broke* Ha spoke In sharp, quick santancas and oross questioned his studants In Sooratio fashion* His early years as a teacher ware difficult, as ha H i had no sense of discipline* Some times his students hummed pleasant melodies as ha raad themes in class* But Hill persisted*

^Adams She naan H ill, The Foundations of Rhetoric (Haw Yorkt Harper and Brothers Ku>lishara, 109o) pp* 37U-* 11Adams Sherman H ill, The Beginnings of Rhetoric anft Cosmos it Ion (Haw Yorks Ante r loan Book Co* , “T902 J pp • 522T ^Samuel Hllot Morlson, op* o lt. ■ p* 6* ^ Boston Trtnf?rlp^- Deoember 3 1 , 1910* ^Htollo Valter Brown, op* c l t * * p* 51* 116

A fttr Kllot had hired Barrett Wendell and Le Baron Russell Briggs to aaalst him In tha teaching of Eng­

lish, Bill was able to devote nore tine to hla writing. He relied a great deal on hla aaalstanta. Brown stated that ... on aoeount of Professor Hill*a poor health, he delegated most of his [Hill* si authority to hla young aasoolate [Briggs]• •••• So when Professor H ill handed him [BriggsJ classroom leoturea and said , ’I am too slolc to meet the class, and you must lecture to them,' he [ BriggsJ ac­ cepted the.dlffloult coned as Ion and read valiantly.1^

The fifth Boylaton Professor brought hla background

In Journalism with him when he earns to Harvard. In an artlole in 1875* &Q Answer to the Crv for More English, he outlined the program of studies he set for hla stu­ dents. In this article, he said, by way of Introduction, We can a ll remember a time when our sohools and eollegea gave even less Inst rue tlon In the art of writing and speaking the English language correctly than Is given at pres­ ent, and that too without much complaint from any quarter.16 It was further pointed out In his artlole that the ery for reform In eduoatlon toward greater emphasis on the teaching of English was being felt. His answer to the

lgIbid. . p. 52. 16 Adams Sherman H ill, "An Answer to the Cry for More English," Good if*233, 1875* 117

need Ibr more teaching or English In education found expression In tha new program for studants at Harvard*

Ha said that. In l87lw for tha first tlma, every appli­ cant for admission to Harvard was required to prasant English Composition* Tha raqula- lsitlon was as follows! U 4. English Composi­ tion - Each Candidata will ba raqulrad to wrlta a short English Composition, correct in spoiling, punctuation, grammar, and ex- prasalon, tha subject to ba taken from such standard authors as shall ba announced from tlma to time*17

English should ba taught at all levels of education, assarted Hill* Ha oontlnued, "When tha schools Call gradesj shall ba ready to taaoh tha laws of good use In language and tha elementary principles of rhetorlo, a .18 great point will ba gained** Two class hours of English par weak should ba required of all Freshman and training in tha use of tha English language should ba given to a 11 classes In oollaga* Hill outlined, in detail, courses In English that would f i l l tha need at Harvard* With tha help of two able assistants. La Baron Russell Bxdggs and Barrett Wendell ha carried his program of raqulrad English Into practice at Harvard* In 1 8 7 2 tha University of Harvard had no Department of English* Tha olassas In rhetoric or, by this time.

1 7 Ibld.. p. 235 lflIbld.. p. 237 118

English w*re turned over to "whatever good men was ob­ liging enough to take them. Scarcely anybody, teacher _19 or student, was hospitable to Ittietorlc*" Adame She man Hill took the job and was the first head of the department of English and the firs t head of the division of English. Finally, he established the Graduate School

of English at Harvard* By May of 190lv, hla duties having become too exacting for his age and health, he retired* In December of 1910, Hill died, four years before the death of his wife Caro­ line* Among the pallbearers at his funeral on December 28 were President Eliot, President Lowell, Dean Briggs, Professor Bliss Perry and Dr* Henry P* Walcott, all staunch friends of the man who personally fashioned Eng­ lish as an academic dlsolpllne In the United States* The rhetoric. The most Important of Adams Shenaan Hill's books was The Principles of Rhetoric. It was the

first book he wrote and most representative of his general philosophy. Explicitly stated In this volume, his con­ cept of rhetoric was based on grawiiar* His books were all grounded on the assumption that rhetoric Is defined as the set of principles behind oorreot writing* In The

19 'Scrapbook, op. c l t . 119

Prlnclplti of Rhetoric, there were included aectione on

grasmatloal purity, violations of good use* choice of

words, number of words, written narration, exposition, argumentation and persuasion*

Hill referred to John Quincy Adams* Lectures on Rhetorlo and Oratory twices once In regard to verbosity In narration and, again, in regard to the arrangement

of words* In the first Instance, verbosity in narration, he stressed the necessity of saying "much in little*" As Hill referred his reader to John Quincy Adams' lecture 20 no* 16 and Adams' discussion of brevity, he revealed his acquaintance with the work of Adams* In his consider­ ation of the arrangement of words, he quoted Adams as fol­ lows* 'You shall find,' says John Quincy Adams, 'hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good ideas upon any subject, for one that can marshall them to the best ad­ vantage* Disposition (methodical arrange­ ment) is to the orator what tactics, or the discipline of armies, is to the mllltaxy art* And as the balance of victory has al­ most always been turned by the superiority of tactics and of discipline, so the great effects of eloquence are always produced by the excellency of disposition* There is no part of the science, in which the consummate orator w ill be so decidedly marked out* as by the perfection of his disposition*•21

There was no further reliance on any of the other profes­ sors who preceded him In the Boylston Chair*

g0Adama Sherman H ill, op* c lt* * p* 168* glIbld*, p* 380. 1 2 0

Although Hill did mate* passing uaa of Adaaa* rtieto- ric, tha diffaranca between tha phlloaophlas of Adajaa Shaman H ill and John Quincy Adams vta baalo and a ll- pa rvadlng• Thair rhatorlca dlffarad over dafinition, aubjaot matter, amphaaia and method* Whan Hill ra far rod to tha art of rhatoric in hla

prafaoa ha made a pointed diatlnctlon batwaan an art and a science* Rhatoric, ha said, " • •• la an art, not a aolenoet for it neither observes, nor dlaoouraaa

nor claaalflaat but I t ahowa how to convay from one mind to anothar tha raaulta of observation, dlsoovei? or classification; I t uaaa knowledge not aa knowledge, 22 but aa power*" In othar worda Adama Sherman H ill eliminated from tha diaclpllna of rhatoric oomplataly tha claaalcal doctrinea of Invention and disposition* Since ha daalt almoat oomplataly with writing rathar than apeaking, ha also eliminated pronunclatlo (or delivery) and memory* Tha only claaalcal oanon le ft for him to work with waa elocutlo or atyla, and ha devoted his en­ tire book to it* Hill's work reflects and was In part responsible for tha movement after tha 1850*s In tha United States toward elooution and away from tha classi­ cal oonoept of Invention*

22 Ibid. , p* v. 1 21

Ub«n«t John Quincy Adani referred to oratory as an art and rhetoric as a science, Hill ellailnated ora­ tory and developed rhetoric as an art* Hill's concept

of rhetorlo was diametrically opposed to the oonoept employed by Adams* Hill also distinguished between logic and rhetorlo. Indicating that loglo and truth were one and the ways of eoranunlcatlon or rhetoric were many* Adams and McKean were of the opinion that rhetoric was the extension of

logic* In short he eliminated from his discussion of i+ietoric all ethical considerations* He, as a teacher, would not have considered the substance of communication, but rather the means by which substance was transmitted* Rhetoric to Hill did not undertake to furnish a person with something to say; but it did undertake to tell him how best to say it* If this philosophy were oarried to Its ultimate conclusion, it would have allowed for

"any** content In composition If this content were com­ municated well* H ill's rhetoric was Implicitly opposed 23 to Cloero's concept of the phllosopher-orator and Quintilian's dlotate that an orator must be a "good" man skilled in the art of speaking*

23 Cloero's rhetoric was based on the Idea that the speaker must "know" before he can conmunicate effectively* 122

In support of his definition of rhetoric Hill celled upon Coleridge who defined style ss "••• an art of con­ veying the meaning appropriately and with perspicuity, whatever that meaning may be; *•• *M Evidently Hill met with opposition to his definition of rhetoric, for he wrote In his revised edition of The Principles of Rhetoric that. While engaged In revising this book, I have seen no occasion to modify in any Important respect what was said In the preface to the first edition* X still believe that the function of rhetoric is not to provide the student of com­ position with materials for thought, nor yet to lead him to cultivate style for style's sake, but to stimulate and train his powers of expression, - to enable him to say what ha has to say In appro­ priate language*z5

In his revision of The Principles of Rhetoric* Hill profited, he said, from the criticisms given by La Baron Russell Briggs and G* L. Kittredge* Most of hla examples were drawn from literary figures* In his notes written Into Campbell's Philosophy of 26 Rhetoric* he revealed that he was widely read* He

^Adams Sherman H ill, op* c lt* * p* vl* 2gIbid** p. vl.

2^The original manuscript of Adams Sherman H ill In _ a copy of Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric In the Archives, Widensr Library, Harvax3 university, Cambridge, Massachusetts* 123

had studied Bentham, Locke, Pope, Lowth, Hawthorne, Poe, De Quincy, Dryden, Burke, Johnson, Emerson, Robertson and Hume, And he reTerred several times to Aristotle's 27 Rhetoric, Hill had also become thoroughly Tamillar with 26 Whately, Perhaps his greatest source Tor the outline oT Principles oT Rhetoric however was Campbell, to whom he refers Troquently In his rhetoric. Hill did suggest. In his Tew pages on persuasion, that his students read 29 the speeches oT Burke, Webster, Cobden, and Bright,

Hill agreed with Campbell concerning the use oT words when he established the criteria oT "present" use. He was opposed to obsolete or ephemeral words. Time was the main Taotor, he said, Campbell held that any word which had not appeared In any book since 1666 or which was to be Tound In the works oT living authors only should not be deemed Tit for present use. Hill modi Tied his position a b it from Campbell's, Words came and went more quickly, stated Hill, and more leniency than Camp­ bell approved concerning present usage was needed In the modem day.

27Ibld.

28Ibid. 2^Adams Sherman H ill, op, c lt ,, p. 399* 12 k

Hill carried his analysis of violations of good use to great detail* He discussed the misuse of "either,tt "neither1* and "former" and "latter* He

dealt with the verbs "shall" and "will*" He covered adverbs, adjectives, propositions, "split infinitive," and double negatives, et cetera* His book Is studded with Illustrations and examples of this sort* I t was soon obvious that H ill's own style of w rit­ ing was flawless. It was easy, olear and to the point* Kls background in Journalism was evident In that he wasted few words* In several pages devoted to persua­ sion, Hill made the same distinction that Campbell made between conviction and motivation. Conviction dealt with belief, whereas motivation involved action as a result of belief* His suggestions to young speakers were

briefs (1) Be concrote. (2) Use few words. (3) Use the climactic order. (4) Use variety In content and method* (*>) Adapt your speaking to your audlenoe. In summary. H ill's modification of rhetoric is ap­ parent in hla attention to detail in composition* He narrowed the scope of rhetorlo, excluding invention, disposition, memory and delivery, his concept of rhetorlo being embraced by the word "style." In dealing with style, he standardized the rules of grammar and attempted

to establish c rite ria for "correct" Bngllah* His 125

standard than for excellence In rhatorlo wtt, In a word, oorrtctnaia* Hill proved himself a master spokes­

man Tor written composition by building the area of English at Harvard from a seoond-rate "newcomer 11 In education to a position of first-rate importance*

The effect. In the minutes of the Fheulty of Arts and Sciences It was observed that ••• Hr* Hill gradually but steadily revolu­ tionised the teaching of English Composi­ tion throughout this country, partly by his own exertions and partly through the efforts of his loyal disciples £Le Baron Russell Briggs and Barrett Wendell In particularJ • There Is no considerable Institution of learning In America In which his Influence, direct or Indirect, oannot be traced by those who know the history of education for the past thirty years.30

Gradually Hill, with the help of his assistants, had edged his way Into a position of respectability in the educational world of Harvard* In the middle 1860's at Harvard, English was made a compulsory subject for a ll F**eshmen« This change was made in the face of great opposition from the fsoulty* He vert he less the change was madea In the 16901a and early 19001s, English departments a ll over the country were developed along the lines established by Hill and Briggs at Har­ vard* Rollo Walter Brown established the connection

3°Mlnutes of the Faoulty of Arts and Sciences at Harvard University, January 10, 1911* 126

between English training at Harvard and English train­ ing on a national basis whan ha askad tha question, How how could this transaction {English becoming Important and oompulaory for studants at Harvard] , by any stretch of tha Imagination, become a matter of na­ tional slgnlflcance? ... Harvard, with an honorable past, attracted many man who expected to do collage teaching. These man, when they went to their posts all over the country, oarrled with them, as every college graduate must, some memory of the way things were done by th eir Alma Mater. And when these newer institutions sought a means of prevent­ ing students from disgracing themselves every time they put pen to paper, they almost Invariably made use of Harvard's experience and established prescribed freshman courses in writing. A glance at the oollege and university catalogues of Amerloa will reveal how few Institutions did not follow the precedent which young Briggs {and Hill] , after much opposition, was allowed to establish .^1 Thus Hill had a definite effect on the teaching of Eng­ lish In the United States. As for Hill's effect on speech education, it was felt that In general Hill represented at best a neutral effect rather than a positive aid to the development of epeeoh eduoatlon In the United States. Hill made final the shift Txon emphasis on speech to emphasis on writing In the philosophy of rhetoric represented In the Boylston Chair. He shifted the emphasis of teaching

3^-Rollo Walter Brown, op. ejLt•, p. 54* 127 from invention to grasnar and • locution, from classical rhatoric to literature. Finally, Hill gave authority to the feeling that public speaking was not the life blood of democracy or even a part of itietorlo. If Hill felt that public speaking was a part of the area of ihetorlo at a ll, he fe lt that It was of secondary importance. In short, Adams She man Hill was of Interest to those In speech education largely because his rhetoric indicated the extent to which the function of the Boylston Chair had changed from the teaching of speech to the teaching of literature and written com­ position. CHAPTER VIZ

BOYLSTON PROFESSORS WHO DID NOT WRITE "RHETORICS"

Introduction. Six or tha tan man who ha Id tha

Boylston Chair of Rhatoric and Oratory did not produce a philosophy of rfaatorio In organised Tons. There

ware a variety or reasons why some Boylston Proressors did not rormulate an organised sat or lectures or essays on rhetoric*

Francle J* Child did not aspire to the title or expert In the rield or rhetorlo and oratory, conse­ quently his energies were directed toward other Inter­ ests indirectly allied to rhetoric* La Baron Russell Briggs was too ocoupled with other Interests or an ad- ministrational sort to produce a rhetoric as such* The

"cream" or his fine mind was devoted to tha "butter" or advice whloh helped many studants at Harvard to em­ ploy th eir talents to better advantage* Charles Town­ send Copeland made his mark by developing in a prac­

tic a l sense the art or oral reading* Robert S* Hillyer, Theodore Spencer and Archibald MaoLelsh were more Inter­ ested In "poetlos" than traditional rhetorlo and oratory*

1 26 129

This chapter (Chapter VII) is Included In this study to indlests briefly the recent development# of edueatlonal philosophy In the Boylston Chair of Rhetorlo and Oratory at Harvard* Again the development of edu­ cational philosophy in the Chair must be told In terns of the men who oooupled i t . Francis J. Child* Francis J* Child* affeotlonately known by his friends as "Stubby*" was considered by many to be the greatest American scholar in the English language to have ever lived* Upon his death glowing accounts of Child*s life existed in public prints* In the Evening Transcript he was headlined as the "Host Learned Member of the College Cojrsnunity"^ at Harvard* C* E* Norton stated that* "When he died the world lost m2 *•• one of its great scholars*" George Lyman Klttredge Indicated that Child's scholarship" ••• not only de­ fined the problems Qof his studyJ but provided for most of them a solution which the researches of younger 3 scholars have only served to substantiate*" In Nation i t was stated that "FVancls J* Child *** was one of

^Evening Transorlpt. September 12* 1896* ^C* E* Norton, "Francis J* Child*" Harvard Graduates Magasine * 6 t l 6lt* December* 1697* ^George Lyman Klttredge* "Professor Child* " Atlan­ tic {tonth^Xi 7 B17I4.O, December, 1 8 9 6 , 1 3 0

the la st of the remarkable men who. In the la tte r half of the century, have done ao much to make the name of their university illustrious."^ He waa deaerlbed In

the Hartford Courant a a, "one of the moat llluatrloua members of ita £ Harvard] faculty."'’ In the Harvard

C rlmaon the minute a of the Fhculty of Arts and Solenoea at Harvard read aa followss In the death of Francis James Child the Facnltyfslo] of Arts and Scienoee has suffered as healthy a loss aa It la possible for such a body to suataln. His term of service, extending over fifty years, was far longer than that of any surviving member of the board, and was marked by the most punctual per­ formance pf the duties Incident to his position *6 Finally, Barrett Wendell indicated that Child was "Prob­ ably the moat distinguished scholarly master of the

English language and of English literatu re whom America has yet produced*" Wendell added, " Professor Child never found congenial the rhetorical duties which Q he dutifully perfomed for twenty-five years*"

N ation. September 17, 1696. ^Hartford Courant. September 15* 1696* ^Harvard Crlmaon. 30t67. This clipping waa found in Child's ecrapboolc which was donated to Harvard Uni­ versity by G* L. Klttredge on March 21, 1927* Wldener Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts*

^Wendell Barrett, o p * c l t .. p. 207 ®Jbid*, p. 2 0 7 * 131

Certainly tha fourth Boylston Professor was recognised as one of Harvard's most respected scholars* His aver­

sion to oratory# to whioh Wendell referred, was diffi­ cult to understand In light of his own educational back­ ground, particularly at Harvard* 9 Born on February 1, 1 8 2 $ , the son of a sallmaker, he grew up on the Boston waterfront, the third of a family of eight children* His teachers, while In the early grades, recognised his ability* He graduated with highest honors from high school In August of I 6I4.O

and spent two years in the Public Latin School, com­

pleting his college preparation in two years, and tak­ ing the Franklin Medal In 1814 .2 * When Child went to Harvard he took the lead of a olass of 60 students and kept It through graduation. He studied under Edward Tyrrel Channlng and was chosen

by classmates as olass orator* It was said that, His Class Oration was remarkable for Its maturity of thought and of style* Its manliness of s p irit. Its simple direct­ ness of presentation of the true objects of life, and of the motives by which the eduoated man, whatever might be his ohosen career, should be Inspired, to­ gether with the serious and eloquent

^Boston Herald, September 12, 1696*

10Newspaper clipping found In Child's scrapbook and dated September 17* 1896* 132

•tm««tn«u with whioh it waa da lira red, gave to hla discourse peculiar impres­ siveness and effbct *1 1 Thla oration **1ip had an effact, aald C* S. Morton, An eminent living graduata of Harvard, who waa preaant on the oeeaalon, having ooma to Cambridge to taka hla entranoa examination, haa aald that ha reoalvad from that oration hla flrat vivid aanaa of tha dignity of Intallactual puraulta, and hla flrat strong Impulaa to davota himself to them* 3

Perhaps a olua to Child's aversion to oratory In hla teaching waa tha fact that while at Harvard In 8 II4.6 ha won tha Bowdoln Prise for writing a paper on "The Moral Views of Plato, as unfolded in the Gorgias*"1^ Ha gave no Indication of having raad tha Phaedrua by Plato* After graduation from Harvard In I& 4.6 , ha Joined tha Harvard ataff a a a tutor In Ma thematic a* A year later he waa made tutor of rhetoric and history*

During I 6I4.9 and 16£0 Child studied in Gennany at Gottingen* Upon hla return to tha United States In

11 C* E. Morton. "Franoia J* Child," Harvard Grad­ uates Magasins ■ l+ileO, Da camber 1697*

12Thia oration la In tha Archives, Harvard Univer­ sity* !3C* E* Morton, 0 £* c l t *. p. 163*

ri*Thi» paper la in tha Archives, Harvard Univer­ sity* 133

1851# ha was sleeted Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard to replace Edward Tyrrel Charming* Even his good friend, C. E. Norton, showed surprise at

Child's appointment as Boylston Professor* Norton stated. In the time of some oldsters he was - God knows why I - Boylston Professor of Rhetorlo and Oratory* He was not enamored of either of those great -- arts, but he had to correct themes. 15 This young scholar's undergraduate record In academic

work and work specifically in oratory was enough recom­ mendation for his ab ility to handle the responsibilities of Harvard's Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory. Before

undertaking his new duties, he was given a year*s leave for additional study In Europe and as a result of his work In Germany, he was awarded the Ph. D. degree from Gottingen In lSfalj.* It was during this period in Europe that Child be­ came Interested in medieval ballads and the works of Chaucer* While In Germany he did the groundwork for his later studies on English and Soottlsh Ballads* He studied with and was very much affected by Professor Grundtnlg. Grundtnlg's work on Danish Ballads served as the model far his masterpiece, The English and Scottish 36 Popular Ballads, to which he devoted his entire Ilfs.

1^Evening Transcript■ September 11, 1897. 16Pnancis J* Child, ed*. The English and Scottish After many years, when he had completed his work, he had

collected and edited every single English and Scottish ballad in existence, "with the possible exoeptlon of a single ballad."1^ His The English and Scottish Popular

Ballads was condensed and re-edited In 1903 by Helen Child Sargent and George Lyman. At times In checking the validity of one ballad. Child had to read as many as two hundred books in a do can d if lb rent languages. To accomplish what he did,

this professor called upon all his powers of concentra­ tion and great scholarly diligence. He planned his work 10 and spent his life working his plan. As a teacher and a person Child was seen in many

different lights. His temperament was as mercurial as the medieval fantasies he studied. At times when be was

playing with his children, tumbling and telling them stories, one could scarcely believe he was a professor; * ... and. In fact, he liked to mimic the professors,

Popular Ballads (New York; Houghton, Mifflin and Com­ pany, IddZ) £ vol s.

1 ^Nation, June 1 6 , 1 8 9 0 * Signed by F. B. Gunners.

^C hild's other writings were Four Old Plays (1QL8), Notice of W. T. H arris. Bag. (1855). PoeTTcal Works of T 15557, gBgrvatl^Se on the Language of Chaucer and gower I (1862) . Poems of Sorrow and Comfort (1065) and The PeFate of the BoSy and the""Soul (itJOd). 135 the solemn souls with brows bent, who strolled about _19 with their arms In the breasts of their waistcoats*”

His one grand passion was roses* Child did not look the role of a professor* His head was a mass of reddish curls* He was a stocky, little man with pink skin and fresh, blue eyes* His personality was an oddity In the academic atmosphere* It was stated that.

Odd as a gnome and gay as a cherub, with a brain that bubbled over with quaint conceits, he had a heart as light and warm as i f he had lived In the greenwood, as I f he were the merry man In Robin Hood's band who wrote the 2o ballads that he was so busy collecting* A formalist, and punctual, he never missed a class dur­ ing his fifty years of teaching* One accident In the classroom revealed how much Child waa like Edward Tyrrel Charming In his distaste of the bombastic and flowery in speaking*

Once, In a class which was reading Ham­ let . he assigned some ordinary passage t o a young gentleman who had been trained to wildest tfsats of 'elocution^ and who now saw his chance for Iranortal- ity* The rafters of that bare room at the top of University Hall fairly echoed to the frenzied performance; there were bellowing a of rsge, the low hiss of

19 Van Wyck Brooks, op. c l t •, p* 32* 20Ibld*. p. 32. 136

■com, the ringing appeal, the cry of triumph, the wail of baffled hope, all accompanied by a kind of suppressed wheeze or asthmatic undertone which I take to have been the "deep breathing" indicated by doctors of this diabolical art* Hr* Child uncoiled himself slowly, craned out his head, lifted his spec­ tacles, and peered, first amased, then quizzical, then tragic at the performer* •HEAVENS, KAN, - STOFJ»

Self-absorbed in the classroom, he lectured more to himself than to his students* After roll, many of the students In the back of the room walked out un­ noticed* In spite of great diligence, he lacked the "inspirational vigor possessed by some teachers who can arouse a man's Interest in a hitherto neglected field of investigation*" Child was at times dogmatic* "Actors," he told his students, were "a horde of raga- 2 3 muffins gathered from the street*" Barrett Wendell described his superior aa the typical German scholar, "an enormously industrious man of the common people ••* a simple, kindly burgher*"^

Wendell continued by indicating that " ••• the whole­ sale imitation of German methods in America, of recent years, might, naturally have been expected to vulgarize,

21PVancis B* Gummere, "A Day with Professor Child," The Atlantic Monthly. 103*U23# March, 1909* 2?Bvsning Transcript* September 12, 1696* 23lbid. ^Evening £ranscript, September 17, 1696* 1 3 7

even while it solidified* the professor of learning*”^ Kuno Frano he* in answer to Wendell* eulogised Child for the letter's imitation of Genian scholarship* Franche stated* "Whenever I met him or thought of him* I fe lt as though I had been brought baclc to my old home , -26 JGermanyJ • Since both FTenehe and Wendell agreed that Child imitated German scholarship* it was safe to conclude that his few years in tie many were crucial to his attitude as Boylston Professor and to his life in research* The German Influence also might have in part explained his distrust of oratory* Continental scholars In the l6 0 0 *s were never amenable to public speaking as a part of the aoademlc curriculum*

Regardless of his reasons* Child's attitude toward oratory and declamation is clear* In a latter to Dr* Andrew Peabody* Acting President of Harvard* on Decem­ ber J+# 1866* he made pungent comments on the teaohing of declamation*

1 feel exceedingly little Interest in what la called declamation and would much rather be a teaoher of dancing* An elaborated training of the voice and instruction in the art of delivery (such as we conoelve the ancients to have practised (ale] is never assayed now a days* All that Is done is to point out and perhaps cor­ rect a few faults*27

^ Ib id . 2^gvenlnx Transcript. October 1* 1696* 27correspondenoe from Francis J* Child to Dr* Peabody 136

In &n lnt«nrl«H, Franc la B* Quimre draw from tha professor his fuelinga about wrlttan rhatoric aa ha taught it* Child axclalxned "Twenty-five years - grad­ e s ing themes” and than kicked his chair half way across tha room* Aa tha only profaaaor in his day at Harvard ever to have received an of far to teach at Oxford, Eng­ land, ha had raason for playing tha prims donna* After yaara of chafing under hla dutlaa aa a teacher of compoaitlon, ha enjoyed the reaulta of an increaaa In tha slsa of the teaching staff at Harvard 29 and the "new and unequaled opportunities” to offer special courses that President Eliot provided for teachers# The staff at Harvard lnoreased from twenty- four In 1086-7 to fifty-one In 1072-3»3° And by 1072-3, Child’s teaching of ihetorlo was out, to part of a half course and ha offered tha following electivesi Anglo-Saxon (three Sophomores enrolled). History and Grammar of the English Language (ten Juniors enrolled)* The next year 1 0 7 3 -U be substituted for the last of these courses a new elective on Chauoer, Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, and Dryden In whieh thirty-three Seniors and twenty- seven Juniors enrolled*^1 dated December If, 1068* 20 Francis B* Gummere, op, elt.# I 4.2 3 . 2%enry James, o p . o lt*. I , p* 257* ^P resident’s Report for 1 8 7 1 - 1 8 7 2 , Harvard University* 31Henry James, 0 £. clt*. I, p. 259* 139

Barly in tha tenure of the Chair, the subjeot of oratory did creep into his olassea, however* On one occaalon he waa talking to a olaaa on American oratora, and remarked that Webster and Choate came from Dart­ mouth; that Wendell Phi11ipa came from Harvard* Some of the pro-slavery boya began to sneer* 'Wendell Fhllllpal Aa good an orator aa either of them*1 he aaid.32

He and Profasaor Juneraonj who taught elocution from 1651 to 1660 aa Child1 a assistant, were the only two

Child* a work, in lumary, waa not in rhetoric or oratory* He waa enamoured of other things* This lack of enthuaiaam waa a real faotor in the change In the characterlatlca of the phlloaophy embraced by the

Boylston Chair* Since he waa not Interested in the subject of hla office, other interesta were permitted to be substituted and upon hla departure from the Chair for a newly created chair of English In 1 8 7 6 , precedent had been set for the Boylston Lecturer's independence from restrictions governing subject matter*

Child did have an Influence on George Lyman K ltt­ redge and, through Klttredge, hla work "was Influential in later efforts to collect the 'vagrant1 American versa

February 18, 1897* Signed by Le Ba _ . ______33lbld* 1 4 0

of the Southern Mountaineers, the Negroes, the cow* 3k boys, the Maine lumberjacks, et cetera*" In February of 1696, Child went to the h o sp ital^ and died eight months la te r on Friday, September 11,

1896* He lert behind hi a wife, Elisabeth Ellery Sedg­ wick, whom he married In i860, two daughters and a son* Child's son, FTanels Child, became the pastor of the Congregational church In the towns of Granby and Vic­ toria, Vermont* La Baron Russell Briggs. Dean Briggs was perhaps the most beloved man ever to walk the Harvard yard* To read the eulogies of Briggs,^ Qf which there were many, was to believe that he actually was *the most

romantic figure In higher education,' 'the Abraham

Lincoln of the university,' 'the greatest teacher in America,* 'the living patron saint of Amerioan college 37 men,' 'the finest example of American civilisation* '"

^*Van Wyck Brooks, op* c lt* * p* 32* ^Boston Herald, September 12, 1 8 9 6 . ^^Euloglea of Briggs were written by Klttrsdge, Merrlman, Taussls, Hlllyer, Dodds, Llppman, Lake and others* These were printed In the newspapers shortly after Brlgg's death*

^Rollo Walter Brown, o p * clt * * p. 2* 141

An understanding of the Doan*a genius was, to a good extent, achieved by his student, Rollo Walter 36 Brown, In 1926* Brown pointed out that pextoaps the ohlef reason why Briggs was so successful as a teacher and Dean was

the ffcct that he loved human beings* He was willing to give his time to "direct, personal1* contact with his students and, as Dean, all the students at Harvard were his students* To have attempted an exhaustive study of Briggs* activities would have resulted In a study of the history of Harvard University from 1 6 7 8 to 1925, for his life was lnteiwoven into the very fabric of the cloth of Harvard University shortly before, during and after the turn of the nineteenth oentury* Briefly, he was bom In Salem, Massachusetts, on December 11, 1855, the son of Reverend George Ware 39 Briggs* Briggs was related distantly to the first 40 holder of the Boylston Chair, John Quincy Adams* In 1871 he was admitted to Harvard* He was made a tutor

3®Rollo Walter Brown, o p * c lt*■ pp. 331* ^1* Baron Russell Briggs, "George Ware Briggs, 1810-1095," Heralds of a Liberal Paltn, 3*37-40* 40 Rollo Walter Brown, op* c l t. » p. 23* li+ 2

In Greek by President Eliot In 1678* His one-year ap­ pointment as tutor was changed to a three-year appoint­ ment shortly arter Harvard employed him* He turned to graduate study In English In 1861 and In 1862 reoelved the M* A* degree In English* In 1683» he was made along with Barrett Wendell and W* B* Shubrlck Clymer, assis­ tant to Adams Sherman H ill who was then Boylston Pro­ fessor of Rhetoric and Oratory*

In hls early years as Hill's assistant, Briggs was Instrumental In applying H ill's Idea that English should be made compulsory for a ll students* He and Wendell under H ill's direction managed to slip through Eliot's concept of non-required courses and established English as a requirement for all students. It was his feeling that students "needed not merely courses in Greek and chemistry and Gennan; they needed general in formation*" Later, after the required course for Freshmen was perfected, two men published a book In which the "methods of the oourse were set forth In detail*" if2

As a teacher Briggs was tremendously effective,

^Charles Townsend Copeland and H* M* Rideout, Freshman English find Theme Correcting In Harvard College (New Yorkx Silver, Burdett & Company, 1901) pp. 12fj.* 143

largely b«oaust he recognised In his students the moment oT receptability. He possessed a lively tolerance, agreeing with William James that "our undisciplinable* -43 are our proudest product*” He was conscientious and forever young In the eyes of his students* In the classroom Briggs read* • •• from the works he had examined* called for discussion of it* sometimes dis­ cussed It with great earnestness or fas­ cinating subtlety himself* and then asked the men to write at once* before they left the room* a criticism of what he had read; sometimes* of the classroom discussion* At the next meeting he read some of this criticism ••• *44 When he became Boyleton Professor In 1904* there was little change In the eduoatlonal philosophy established by Hill In the Boylston Chair of Rhetoric* It was logi­ cal that H ill's "right hand man” would fill the position Hill vacated* and*until 1925, Briggs continued to make English acceptable In the academic life of Harvard* Almost a ll of Brlgg** publications concerned his prob­ lems as Dean* He wrote about the social and academic environment which students fkoed at Harvard*^ Although

^R ollo Walter Brown* op* c l t .. p* 80* ****£bld.* p. 72.

^Some of his writings were as follows! Girls and Bduoatlon (1911)* School. College and Character (190l). Routine and Ideals C19QL.) and College Li i*o (l9Ql) • i i* 4 his writings did not relate directly to his aotlvltlee

in ths olassroom, Briggs* studsnts in English Is ft Harvard in battalions. And his "battalion loadsrs" Isft tra ils that were, to say ths least, Inprssslvst Alan Seeger, Stuart P. 3b«man, Harry James Smith, Paxton Hlbbsn, Conrad Ailcen, Edward Sheldon, Hsnaann Hagsdom, Wilson Pol la t, H. H. Knibbs, H. T. Pulsifbr, Clayton Emst, Earl Biggsrs, Thomas Ybarra, Hobsrt Bsnohlsy, Prsderlok L. Allan, E. E. Cunnings, Pro da rlclc Or In Bartlstt, Ksnnsth Brown, Jossph Auslandsr, Lawrence Mott, Elliott 0. Lincoln, Psrey Marks, Postsr Damon, Heniy A* Bellows, Henry Boston (Sheahan), George Boas, Odells Shepard, Cordon King, Hobart Cutler, John Oilman, D'arcy Paul, Bruee Wslrick, John Bakslsss, Edward A. Masks, Nicholas Roosevelt, Bernard Do Vpto, John Dos Paosos, Robert Hillyer.**-®

These men were not "little Briggs" but living testi­ mony to the technique that their teacher made famous — developing students as writers along the lines of their own strength and talents* Although he was a speaker himself his teaching did not include speech education* Zn subject matter the Boylston Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory was no longer what Its founder originally meant It to be.

Charles Townsend Copeland. In an interesting l i t t l e L7 book published In 1957, College In a Yard, the re are

I4.6 Ibid.. p. 81* 1*7 ^ Brooks Atkinson, ed.. College in a Yard (Cambridges Harvard University Press, 1957), PP* 2 2 6 7 145

liste d thirty-nine b rier remlniaoenoea of Harvard by eminent Harvard graduates* Invariably these reminis­

cences are made in terms or teachers at Harvard* Many or those who "remembered" Harvard in College In a Yard

referred to Briggs* Perry* ltlttredge* Child and Wendell and the varied excellencies of their rormer teachers or English. S. N. Behman* Roger Burlingame* Robert Cutler* Paul Hollister* Stanley Marcus* John P* Marquand*

David McCord and B illot Norton paid specific tribute to the memory or the teaching of Charles Townsend Copeland* Copeland* like Briggs* won the hearts of his students* He was arfectlonately known to his friends as "Copey*" Charles Townsend Copeland was a "Maine man*" He was bora in Calais In 1860,^® the first of three children bom to Henry Clay Copeland and Sarah Lowell Copeland* His sister* Katherine* later married William Harrison Dunbar* 49

The seventh Boylston Professor* like all of his predecessors In the Boylston Chair* was a Harvard grad­ uate* He graduated from Harvard in 1882* After study­ ing In the Harvard law school and writing for a few years*

48 Bangor Comerolal. January 7* 1904* ^ Boston Transcript. January 12* 1916* 1 4 6

Cop*land waa appointed to the Department of Eng 11 ah at Harvard as an Instruetor In 1692. On Oetober 1, 1910 50 he was promoted to Assistant Professor and, on 51 February 26, 1917* to Assoelate Professor of English* That Copeland was not made a full professor by 1920 became a matter of public concern* The w riter of am article In the Boston He raid* entitled **No Promo­ tion for Copey," said, In part.

No, he is Just a plain teacher, with nothing of the pedant, and perhaps too little of the scholar, about him* He has not, at any rate, confined himself to a narrow field of intensive study* And yet he has awakened a love of Good literature In thousands of his students, some of whom, after their entry Into the outside world, have cared enough about him to dedioate books to him*52

Perhaps one of the reasons why "Copey" waa not promoted rapidly waa the observation that he Maroused the discom­ fort of President Bllot by hi a thrusts In the twenties, publicity was given to "The Charles Townsend Copeland Association*" This club was a solid core of Copeland*a fomer students who were also members of the Harvard Club In New York City* Every year he would

5°Harvard University Oasstte. October 14, 1910. ^^Harvard University Qasette. March 3, 1917* ^Boston Herald. April 15, 1921* ^Boston Amerlcan. October 16, 1910* 147

v isit the group In New York and read. The elub grew until In 1922 fifty of Copey* a former students met 5 4 with him in New Yorlc* These students were loyal to their teacher. One of the methods that he perfected

to cement relationships so closely with students, was to open his apartment at certain times of the

day to young writers for personal visits, Keywood Brown stated In an a rtic le , "It Seems to Me” In the Mew York World, that what the colleges of the twenties and th irtie s needed was more men like Cope­ land who would "stay home by the lire *1 and let students who required their servloes visit them. Brown cited precedent when he said,

One or two places have hired men to a lt In front of the fire, A well known American poet has been engaged by a university with the understanding that he need give no lectures and that hia duties shall consist merely of remain­ ing at home and allowing young versi­ fiers to come and try out their experi­ ments upon him* 55 In 1937# Brown* 0 suggestion. In modified form, was put into practice when Robert S, H11 Iyer beoanie Boylston

Lecturer,

^Harvard Alumni B ulletin. April 2 7 , 1 9 2 2 ,

lipping found in the scrapbook of Charles Town­ send Copeland, Widensr Library, Harvard University, li+8

Cop ©land's bachelor quarter's in Hollis Hall became famous as the spot where students could oonverse# on an Informal basis# with their favorite teacher. These sessions on the third floor of Hollis Hall were always -56 a " »•» c ha mine and Instructive occasion*" When the Harvard wit became Boylston Professor at the as# of sixty*five, there was great feeling among his friends* At a meeting In 1925, Paul H ollister said that ••• when the Harvards met in Forty-Fourth Street to celebrate Copey for having been tardily given the best chair In the Eng­ lish Department* He splashed# cavorted and wallowed In the scented adulation of the Harvard Club*s internal Junta, the 'Charles Townsend Copeland Association** I asked him how It ft It to be the ponder^ ous polysyllabic Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory# and he made a small mock groan and saldx 'Ahhh ••• Qahdl To think# that I # occupy the chair that once warmed the cold* forbidding ta ll of John Quincy Adamsl'P? Congratulations for Copeland's new professorship were printed in the newspaper shortly after he assumed his office* Hendrik Willem Van Loon, John P* Marquand, Eugene Field# Deems Taylor and James Wlttlesey were 58 among those extending congratulations* During his

^Boston Evening Transcript■ December 27, 1921^. 57 ^'Brooks Atkinson# ed«# op. c lt*. p* 91* ^Boston Evening Transcript. November 17# 1925* 149

three years as Boylston Professor, Copeland published

ths book which represented his a c tiv itie s over a long

period of years as a teacher at Harvard - The Copeland 59 Reeder.

In h is prelk.ce to the Reader he stated the purpose

of his book*

The title of this anthology to a great degree expresses its composition and pur­ pose. Wide as Is Its range, the selec­ tion Includes only what 1 have read aloud during thirty-four years of teaching leo- turlng and reading.5,0

In relation to his public lectures. It was evident that

he was tremendously successful. He lectured all over

the United States, Some of the reviews that ware made

of Copeland's public lectures were quoted as followst

Mr, Copeland Is one of the greatest and most Interesting lecturers before the public today and his ppurses In Harvard are the most popular,63*

I f ever there was an example of that art which conceals art, Mr. Copeland Is the living personification of It, for his read­ ings are simplicity Itself, so t ran spa rent It appears, as to deceive many auditors as to the ease with which such results are at­ tained, At the same time, both his lee- tures and his readings are shot through and through with a scholarship that no critical

59 Charles Townsend Copeland, The Copeland Reads rt An Anthology of English Poetry and Prose (Hew Yorkt Charles Scribner1s“3ons7 1^26) pp. 16o7.

^°Ibld.. p. vll.

^Lawrence (Mass.) Sun. April 20, 1910. 150

62 listensr will overlook for an Instant, After ha read before a Harvard group from James Barrie*a works, Thomas W. Slocum, 90, said that Cope* land*s leotures were delightful,

F irst, because the7 are Incomparably good to heart second, because Professor Cope­ land represents one of the first bridges across that erstwhile dreary chasm be­ tween student and faculty, and, lastly and Irrespective of the other reasons, be­ cause he is 1C o p e y , * 6 3

Copeland's Reader Included aelectlons from the Bible, Shakespeare, Hilton, Defore, Sheridan, Wordsworth,

Macaulay, Dickens, Browning, Poe and many others. Basically the Reader was an anthology of prose and poetry, Everett Lee Hunt evaluated the Reader when he wrote that "It will have a nation-wide influence in raising the level of courses In Interpretative reading 6 I1 and in humanising the teaching of literatu re, Copeland, like Adams She man Hill and Le Baron Russell Briggs, brought to the Chair an Interest in literature, but he gave his own particular kind of em­ phasis to literature by using oral reading as the means of teaching it. He lived his philosophy,

62 Cambridge Tribune, August 1, 1908, ^ Harvard Alumni Bulletin, February 16, 191i+* ^E verett Lee Hunt, pp. c l t . , p, 206, 151

Although ha resigned In January of 1926* Copeland's popularity did not diminish through his seventieth* eightieth and ninetieth birthdays In 1930* 19M> and 1950* The newspapers continued to give him full cover­

age* In 19U4 he was quoted as saying that he had quit the Chair too soon* He had ten good years In him when he retired*^

After Archibald MaeLelsh became Boylston Professor* an interesting event took place* Two Boylston Professors met* Along with Waldo Pierce and Ernest Hemingway* MaeLelsh visited Copeland a fte r a football game* **I s ti l l carry** says MaeLelsh* "like a well-thumbed snap­ shot* the memory of that quick* appraising eye* that

courteous gesture and that honest smile. Professor Copeland died in July of 1952* Ironically there were less than one hundred people at his funeral 67 at the Appelton Chapel* The Chair was offered to James Bradstreot Q re enough* a professor of Latin* who had collaborated with George L yuan Klttredge to produce Words and Their Ways In Bng- 66 llah Speech. He daolined the opportunity* The Chair

^Boston Post. April 27* 19U4* 66 Hewspaper clipping In the Arohives* Widensr Library* Harvard University* 67Boston Traveler. July 29* 1952* James Brads t re et G re enough and George Lynwn 152

then remained vacant specifically for the purpose of allowing one of Copeland*e students, Robert S. Hillyer, to attain permanent tenure before installing him in the professorship* He became his teacher's successor in

1937. Poets* 1* Robert S* Hillyer* After a lapse of eight years, during which time there was no active in­ cumbent In the Boylston Chair, Robert S* Hillyer brought to the chair a new approach - the approach of the poet*

Hillyer like those who followed after him In the Chair did not publish a rhetoric as such* Rather he was known for his poetry, a great deal of which he published before he was made Boy let on Professor*^ One account of his appointment to the Boylston Chair had i t that. Although Robert Sllleman Hillyer w ill suffer, in accepting the venerable Boyl­ ston Professorship of rhetoric and ora­ tory at Harvard, the Inevitable fate of being compared with such b rillian t teachers as the late Le Baron Russell Briggs and the still lively Charles Town­ send Copeland, he brings to the chair a greater experience in creative literature than probably any of his predeceraors**0

Kittredge, Words, and Their Ways In English Speech (New Yorkf The Macmillan Company, 192/T, pp. U l. 69 Some of Hillyer*s early writings were Sonnets and Other Lyrics (1917). Five Books of Youth (19203 * Alchemy t s symphonic Poem (19203. The HilTs Save Promise (1923), The Coming Forth by Day (19237^ 7°Boston Herald. May 15, 1937. 153

He waa at th« tina of his installation classified among the four or five greatest living American poets. He had won the Pullteer Pries for his "Collected Poems" 71 in 1934- A graduate of Harvard in 1917 $ Hillyer was for two years an ambulance driver In the American Expedition­ ary Fbroes during World War I* After the First World

War* he was granted a scholarship to study In Sc an da ns- 72 via, but returned to Harvard to become an Instructor of English. He remained at Harvard u n til 1926 and then moved to Trinity College only to return once again to Harvard in 1926 to teaoh "Advanced Composition*" the course which Briggs had developed th irty years earlier*

Early in May of 1937# Hillyer was made Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory. In a letter dated

April 6, 1959* Professor Hillyer made the point that he was not hired specifically as a poet but as a teacher. I was not brought to the Boylston Chair (in 1937) because I was a poet. My literary career and the Pulltaer Price In 193^ stood in lieu of a Ph. D. Al­ though 1 have collected a L ltt. D. since then, at the time I was merely a Bache­ lor of Arts. Thus, i f I had not had my position in the literary world, I could not have hoped to advance to the highest academic rank. But I was not appointed

^ Boston Herald. May 6, 1934* 72 Boston Transorlpt. April 17# 1920. 15U

to the Boylston Chair because I was a poet* 1 was appointed to It because I am a teacher.*3

That Professor Hillyer Is an unusually successful teaoher

la attested to by comments from some who are now In the 71l forefront of the literary world*There was another reason for his appointment* Le Baron Russell Briggs and I had been very olose friends from my undergradu­ ate days* when I took with him the courses I was later to teach.75 Although he taught composition In verse and poetry

in the classroom* Hillyer worked closely with Boylston orators* I taught rhetoric and oratory In pre­ paring undergraduates to compete for this £Boylston] prise* which was awarded to the competitor who best delivered some piece of standard verse or prose • • • we might better oall i t public speaking* Out of some fifty contestants I would choose a ntmber - ten* perhaps; I am not sure - to deliver their selections in Sanders Theatre before a full audi­ ence and a panel of Judges whom I selected* 1 spent many afternoons train­ ing the finalists**”

7^ ' “'Thli Information is taken from a le tte r of Robert Sllllman Hillyer addressed to the author*

7l*fidward Weeks* "Peripatetic Reviewer*" The Atlan­ tic Monthly. 203*79, January* 1959.

7%illye r*s letter* 155

He remained Boylston Professor through moat of World

War II and resigned In Deo ember of 1944* Advanced Composition was dropped as a course of study during the

war years (1941-45) *77 When he resigned, Theodore Spen­ cer, an Associate Professor of English who replaced Hillyer said. Professor Hillyer has been a devoted en­ courage r of the writing of verse during his years at Harvard; his friendly and sympathetic criticism and his deep knowl­ edge of the technique of verse* have helped many students anxious to do good writing* He has been a generous and appreciative teaoher, and several gener­ ations of students at Harvard and Rad- cllffe have beoome familiar with the best in English poetry through his read­ ing and interpretation**0

Hillyer was an artist rather than the traditional Harvard scholar so i t was logical that he continued to 79 write poetry, short essays and novels for national Journals after he had resigned as Boylston Professor* He is presently the H. Fie to her Brown Professor of Eng­ lish Literature at the University of Delaware*

2. Theodore Spencer. Spencer was a Shakespearian scholar and poet* His Interests matched those of his predecessor for he, like Hillyer, entered his new office

^Harvard Crimson, December 19, 1944* 78Ibld. 79 An example was The Death of Captain Nemo. 156

with the feeling that tha union batwaan tha study of lltaratura and creative axpreaalon ahould ba emphasized. Expression waa given to this feeling whan ha said, With tha t ramandoua da a Ire for guidance In writing which ha a baan discovered among returning vatarena, tha Boylaton Profes- sorahlp ahould baooma tha foaui for building up auch facilities .0 0 Spencer waa aleo a poet, but again thla fact waa not hia qualification for tha Boylaton Chair. Ha waa a Ph. D. and a vary active aoholar. Tha fhot that ha wrote poetry waa an ad­ vantage for hla equipment aa teacher but not tha cauaa of hla appointment .**1

Bora on July I 4., 1902, in Villa Nova, Pannaylvanla. Spa near had baan appointed aa an Inatructor of Bngliah at Harvard in 1927• Ha received his Ph. D. degree In 1928 at Harvard and was promoted to tha rank of Assis­ tant Professor In 1936 and than to the rank of Associ­ ate Professor In 1 9 i4-0 . After tha Boylston Chair had re­ mained vacant for two years, ha was made Boylaton Pro- 6 2 feasor on July 1, 1914-6 .

Spencer*s salary did Include tha benefits of tha

^Harvard Crimson. April 20, 1914-6 .

^Letter from Ft. S. Hillyer, April 6 , 1959. 62 Office of Provost, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 157

original grant of Nicholas Boylaton, Esquire. In Time It waa erroneously stated, Aa a full professor, Spencer will earn #9,600; the Boylaton Chair Its e lf pays only In prestige, though legend accords its holder the.right to pasture a cow in Harvard Yard,

Although this figure ($9,600) waa the salary of a full professor at Harvard, a fifth of it was provided by the Boylston grant. The ninth Boylston Professor's term of office was cut short in 191+9 when he died of a 81+ heart attack in a taxi cab, on January the 16th, Spencer was able to produce, before his early death, four major poetic works. His emphasis while Boylston 86 Professor of Rhetoric and Oratoxy was on poetics,

3, Archibald MaeLelsh. On May 1, 191+9, shortly after Spencer*s death, Archibald MaeLelsh was installed as the Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory, The tenth Boylston Professor was, like all his predecessors,

63Tlme, April 22, 191+6, ^Harvard Crlmson. April 21, 191+6,

05His writings were The Paradox of the Circle (191+1), The World in Your Hand ( 1~9ITT). An Act of r.* nqtiii) and ToewsiI23-ETT19I+H7. 86 Spenoer's lecture notes in the Archives in the Wldener Library, Harvard University. 1

a atudant at Harvard* Although ha was a graduate of Yale* tha elaaa of 1915# he attended the Harvard Law School* He graduated from the Harvard Law School In 1919 with highest honors* MaeLelsh has led one of the most active lives of all Boylston Professors since John Quincy Adams. After

teaching constitutional law at Harvard for a time* and

writing* he won the Pulitzer Prize In 1933 ^or "Conquls- „87 tador* He was special lecturer In creative writ­ ing at Princeton in 1937 and* the year following* he was made firs t curator of the Nlexnan Foundation In

Journalism at Harvard* In 1939* MaeLelsh went Into government service as Librarian of the Library of Con­ gress* Throughout World War II* he was Director of the Office of Ffccts and Figures* Assistant Director of the Office of War Information and Assistant Secretary of State *

During the years of 1914-5 end 19U&* he served as Chairman of the American delegation to the conference In London which drew up final plans for the United

Hation*s Educational* Scientific and Cultural Organiza­ tion* and was Deputy Chairman of the American delegation 66 to the organization meeting of UHBSCO in Geneva*

On Office of Provost* Harvard University* Cambridge* Massachusetts* 6 6Ibld* 159

6 9 9 0 MaeLelsh'a £• £• and Collected Poemi won fresh honors for the Boylaton Chair at Harvard* The Tact that

the present Boylaton Professor Is able to produce so much is explained In a letter from Profeesor Harry Kerr of Harvard University* The Boylston Chair, as most endowed Chairs here, is considered a distinguished posi­ tion* This particular Chair, according to Professor Packard, is almost equiva­ lent to a "University Professorship" which means that not only is the occupant not restricted as to the courres he can teaoh, but University Professors are not even restricted to departments* Por example. Professor Tillich, 2 believe, is a Uni­ versity Professor now* This means he can offer any course he pleases -- mathematics, religion, etc *^1

Professor Kerr continued making the point that Uni­ versity Professors not only choose their own courses but they plok the times when these courses are to be offered* In many cases they do a "modicum of teaching - 9 2 what they like, when they like • • • *" Among MacLeioh's many activ ities, his work in the area of creative poetry has perhaps been his most out­ standing accomplishment and, as a result, he is recog­ nised as a national authority in the area of poetics*

^Archibald Mac Lei ah, J* B* (Boston* Houghton Mif­ flin Company, 1956), pp* 15J- "~ ^Archibald MaeLelsh, Collected Poems 1917-1952 (Boston* Houghton Mifflin Company, 1952J, pp. hOf• ^A le tte r from Professor Harry Kerr, Harvard Uni­ versity, dated April 22, 1959* 92ibld* 160

93 Hla book, Public Speech. publlahad In 1936* waa a

aarlaa of short poems. 9k During an interview ^ with Mao Lei ah, the Pullt- ser Prize winning poet Indicated that* in hla opinion* the function of the Boylaton Chair la encompassed in his article "Why Do We Teaoh Poetry?" in the March 1956 edition oT the Atlantic M o n th ly "Poetry*1* aa he sees it* "ought to be taught aa a moat essential fonn of human expression ... • " "To be Ignorant of poetry*" he said* is to be ignorant therefore of the one means of reaching the world of our experienceWhen quizzed about the relationship of classical rhetorlo

to the Boylston Chair* he stated that his one attempt to teach classical rhetoric in a class in expository writing was "untimely*"

MaeLelsh*s actual classroom teaching at Harvard amounts to an advanced course in creative writing (English Sa*) and one course in Poetry (Humanities 130)*

^Archibald MaeLelsh. Public Speaking (New York* Farrar and Rinehart* 1936)* ^Interview with Archibald MaeLelah* November 11. 1958. ^Archibald MaeLelsh* "Why Do We Teaoh Poetry*" The Atlantio Monthly, 1 9 7 x14-6 * March* 1958. 9 6 Ibld.. p. S3. 161

both of which were taught in the flail semester In 1957*56. Ha alao works with graduate atudanta who are 97 working toward a Ph. D. degree. Much of hi* time however la spent away from Harvard studying and speak­ ing.

The efffects of the poet a who have recently oc­ cupied the Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard on speech education have not crystallized to any

notioeable degree. Their effects on eduoatlonal phil­ osophy in general have still to be daterained. Judg­ ing from Archibald MaoLelsh's ab ility with the pen, 96 and the fact that his writings have reached the nation at large, the Boylston Chair will continue to have a nationwide effect.

^Harvard University Catalogue, 1957*56* ^Archibald MaeLelsh, "What is a True University?* Saturday Review, p. 11, January 31* 1959* CHAPTER VIII

A COMPARISON OF THE IHETORICS OF BOYLSTON PROFESSORS

Introduction. Tha history of the development of

the philosophy of rhetoric end oratory In the Boylaton

Chair at Harvard was the story of gradual but crucial

change* This gradual modification of philosophy In

the Chair gave "twists" to rhetoric and oratory that

involved definition* emphasis* modes or kinds of com­ munication and general Innovations*

The changes in educational philosophy were "in time" with the national modifications of the educational phil­ osophy o f rhetoric until 1900* After 1900 however the modifications of the philosophy of education In rhetorio and oratory In the Boylston Chair were not character­

istic of national educational tendencies*

In the late 1700fs and early l600fs American rhetoric was "closely allied with oratory*" stated

Warren Guthrie* "but gradually moved more and more Into the realm of composition and criticism - belles lettres*"*1

The story o f the development of rhetoric In the Boylston

^Warren Guthrie* "Development of Rhetorloal Theory In America* 1615-1850." Speech Monographs 1$*70, 1948*

162 16 3

Chair tends to bear out this statement*

Aside from John Quincy Adame at Harvard* Chauncey

Goodrich o f Yale* John McVlcker o f Columbia* Samuel

Newman of fiowdoln* Kbeneear Porter at Andover were all*

In the early eighteen hundreds, holding positions as professors of rhetoric and were drawing on the classics

as a source for th eir teachings* Schools In Illin o is and Indiana were setting up courses in rhetoric and 2 oratory similar in purpose to those of the East* Harvard's Boylston Professors from 1606 to l 6 £l were foremost In and* consequently* typical of the age* Adams drew directly from classical rhetoricians* McKean drew primarily from tha classical xhetorlclans but In­ cluded In his rhetoric the works of his European con­ temporaries* Charming opened his course of study to belles lettres but still took cognisance of classical rhetoric In his Lectures* Charming1s rhetoric bridged the gap between the classical rhetoric of the early por­ tion of the century and the emphasis In rhetoric on writ­ ten composition which was to become the Inspiration for the development of the Department of English at Harvard*

2 Herbert Edgar Rahe* The History of Speech Educa­ tion in Ten Indiana Colleges* i 520-193^7 unpublished Ph. D* dissertation* Wisconsin* 1939* 1 6 k

This trend toward belles lettres grew u n til, in

the decades of 1070 and 1000,^ English clearly pre- dominated the departmental organization which waa oc­ curring in colleges end universities all over the country* Francis J* Child and Adams Sherman Hill in the last half of the eighteen hundreds were not only in step with the trend but were leading the field*

A counter reaction in the West was developing in the late 1 0 1 0 * a that would ultimately result in the speech departments of the present day* It was observed that, Mow and then colleges in the West voiced the opinion that it was to be their duty and their honor to keep both oratory and debate alive* 'Oratory must always be foremost,' commented the Colorado Class of '99* 'If our ambition for the reputa­ tion and success of our institution Is to be satisfied; eastern college men have turned their attention to athletlos and things athletic in their nature, and it Is for western colleges and universities to keep alive the Interest In debate and oratory I f we would have power and pros­ perity* At the same time men like Thomas C* True blood and Robert 1. Fulton were preparing themselves to revitalize class­ ical rhetoric in their teachings in the early 1 9 0 0 's*

3 omaswas E* E* Coulton, Coulton, Trends Trends in in flpe ech Eduo ation in Americ C£U*£1£ l§n-lS357~uHpub11shed Ph. D* dlsser cion. r York Unlvers ity , 1935, P* *4-3 • (1900), p. 100* Cited in Wallace, 165

In the 1900** Brice* and Copeland at Harvard oontlnued to develop thalr own versions of belle* lettrea or writ­ ten composition* while Department* of Speech were being aet up at Iowa* Michigan* Wisconsin^ and other school* in the Midwest* While speech education ha* continued to grow in the West*^ Boylaton Professors In th eir think­ ing moved from written composition to the specialized form of poetry*

After Adams Sherman Hill*a Incumbency* the Boylaton Professor** influence on speech education in the nation became minimized in comparison to the sweeping influ­ ence wielded in previous years* Deflnltlon* During the one hundred and fifty-three years of the Boylaton Chair's existence extensive changes In the meaning of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard were made* The faith of John Quincy Adams and Joseph MoKean in Quintilian was evinced clearly in their rhetorics* The **art of speaking well** as they understood It encom­ passed a ll stages of the development of a speech - getting

^Karl Wallace* 0£. c it*. pp. 6 . 6 Robert F. Young. "A Reexamination of the Place of Speech in the College Curriculum*" Eastern Public Sneak­ ing Conference* 19&0 (The H. W. Wilson Company*New 7o?k, 1940), pp. 93-103. 166 the idea* forraulatlng the Idea* putting the idea into words* keeping the idea In mind and delivering the

Idea personally*

The definition of rhetoric In Edward Tyrrel Channlng's tenure of the Boylaton Chair was broadened to Include

"all forms of communication by language*" Charming fe lt that an orator could no longer* as In Greek and Roman days* with a single speech change the course of history*

In his day and age he indicated that the speaker had to work on a more lim ited basis and that oratory was no longer what the ancients considered it to be. Rather than applying the cla ssica l conoept of invention to the speech I t s e lf Cbanning spoke more of invention in terms o f the writer*

The definition of rhetoric as the olasslcal concept of elocution was established for written communication by Adams Sherman Hill* Hlll*8 standard for rhetoric was correctness and his criteria for determining cor­ rectness was graranar* Hill served to narrow the defini­ tion o f rhetoric to what we now know as grammar*

Le Baron Russell Briggs and Charles Townsend Cope­ land followed In the path worn by Hill* Copeland em­ phasized a specific method* however* In teaching composi­ tion and an appreciation o f literature - oral reading* 167

In the final years of the Boylston Chair, the

separate classical concepts of "poetics'* and "rhetoric"

were combined under the general heading o f rhetoric -

the emphasis being put on poetics*

Emphasis. The specific emphases of Boylston Pro­

fessors changed In accord with the change in their def­

in ition s of rhetoric* Adams and KcKean gave l i t t l e em­ phasis to delivery and great emphasis to Invention*

Charming also gave emphasis to Invention* Adams Sher­ man H ill emphasized elocution as did those who Immedi­ ately followed him as Boylston Professors* The Boyl­ ston poets gave emphasis to their specific form of com* munlcatlon*

Poms of communication. The form or kind of com­ munication emphasized by Boylston Professors underwent a complete transformation over one hundred and fifty- three years. Adams and KcKean stressed the spoken word* Channlng gave consideration to both the written and spoken forms of communication, paying special at­ tention to the former*

Adams Sherman Hill and subsequent Boylston Profes­ sors gave emphasis to the written form of cossnunioatlcn*

A final modification of form was made when poetry, a special kind of written communlcation, was emphasized by

Robert H lllyer, Theodore Spencer and Archibald MacLelsh* 1 6 6

Innovation*. In a sense all of the Boylston Pro­

fessors cave their own unique contributions to American

education. John Quincy Adams was one o f the very fir st

Americans (preceded by a few years by Witherspoon of

Princeton) to summarize classical rhetoric for American

consumption. His rhetoric was perhaps the fir s t hlcb

point in American rhetoric. Joseph KcKean was credited

with having been the fir st American lhetoriolan to

incorporate Intentionally classical and contemporary

rhetoric in one single body of rhetoric* KcKean*s rhetoric

was developed in such a fkshion as to be classed as one

of the first American attempts to write a history of

speech education,

Edward Tyrrel Channlng was one of the fir st of

American rhetoricians to Include a ll communication by

language into one course of study.

Francis J. Child was the flret American to consider

philology or linguistic history of Importance to the

academic curriculum. His work was monumental In the

field of ballads and folk lore.

Adams Sherman H ill and La Baron Hus se ll Briggs led

the American movement to stress elements Is in written

English composition. Hill's rhetoric served as a model

for many subsequent "grammars," that were used in a ll 169 levels of education* Charles Townsend Copeland* s Header was perhaps one of the rooat popular books of its kind - a stimulus to the art of oral reading•

The last three men to occupy the Boylston Chair, Robert Hlllyer, Theodore Spencer and Archibald MacLelsh, have been leading poets on the American scene In recent years* Hi1Iyer and MacLelsh were both Pulitzer Prize winners and considered in the forefront of the develop­ ment of American poetry. It la fait by the author that

MacLelsh* s play, J. B*, is one of few worthwhile Ameri­ can dramas In verse form* Although attoinletrational influence and outside pressures were a factor to be considered in the develop­ ment of educational philosophy in the Boylston Chair, the changes in philosophy that were made in the Chair were largely a result of the fact that the men who oc­ cupied it felt free to stress their own intereste and their own ideas about rhetoric. If one common thread ran throughout the various points of view of Boylston Professors It was the fact that each Boylston Profes­ sor scrupulously avoided in his rhetoric the works of past Boylston Professors* CHAPTER IX

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study has been to trsoe briefly

the development of the philosophy of speech education in the Boylston Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory at Har­ vard University from I 6 QI4. to the present time* Ete-

phasis has been Given especially to the effects of the Boylston Chair on speech education* In research i t was

evident that little has been done to clarify the move­ ments and cross currents that have marked the develop­ ment of the Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard* The summary which follows is an attempt to pinpoint the more important points already made* Summary* I t was not d iffic u lt , after surveying the personalities and activ ities of the Boylston Professors, to understand the effectiveness of the Boylston Chair of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard, Few academic chairs in the United States were graced with the powers, divergent though they may have been, of such men as those who occupied the Boylston Chair from John Quincy

Adams to Archibald MacLelsh*

Earlier reference has been made (p* 11) to the

1 7 0 171

fact that Everett Lee Hunt apoke of the Boylaton Chair

In theae terms* "The men who have occupied thla Chair* the booka they have written* and the educational influ­ ence they have wielded have made i t easily the moat 1 distinguished chair of rhetoric and oratory in America*" This statement waa typical of more recent statements made by other authors*

The atory of the philosophy of speech education In the Boylaton Chair waa not a neat* easy story to trace*

The main reason why an account of the Chair's history could not be easily traced was the fact that the policy governing philosophy and methods used in the Chair was highly Inconsistent• This inconsistency seemed to be

a result of the fact that despite admlnlatrational influ­ ences con forming to the Intent of the founder of the Chair in the original rules laid down by the Board of Overseers at Harvard and President E lio t's reorganisa­ tion of the curriculum at Harvard* Boylston Prolbssors determined academic policy themselves* I t has been nec­ essary then to study the development of the Boylston Chair In terms of the man who were responsible for and administered the duties of the office*

^Everett Lee Hunt* op, clt.. p* 202* 172

I t waa noted that a Boston merchant, Nicholas Boyl­ ston, Esq*, was responsible for the founding; of the Chair* Boylston* a endowment of jf 1500 in "lawful money" was paid to Harvard in 1772 for the purpose of a ohalr of xtietorlo and oratory and the original grant plus Interest was put to use in 1606* The rules and directions for the Chair were drawn up in April of 16014. by a committee for the Corporation and the Board of Overseers* These rules were written for the committee by Ellphalet Pearson* The rules gave a broad interpretation to the meaning of rhetoric, al­ lowing for both written and oral exercises In English* The rules for lectures and course content were based on John Ward, a British rhetorician* who utilised In his rhetoric Cicero's canons of rhetoric and oratory* The firs t Boylston professor, John Quincy Adams, who was serving at the time in Congress as senator from Massachusetts, was inaugurated in June of I 8 0 6 , When he accepted the position Adams adhered to the spirit of the rules set down by the Harvard Overseers* His 2 speeches to his students were an application of classi­ cal rhetoric to modem oratory*

2 J* Q* Adams, op. clt*. 2 Vols. 173

As he developed hie lecture a he o el led upon the "giant shadows" of the past - Aristotle# Cicero and Quintilian* The first Boylston professor might well

be called the Suares* the Fenelon or the Ward of the United States in that he kept alive and revamped classical rhetoric for contemporary use* His lectures resemble those of Ward In general organisation and were built around the five olassleal canons as

prescribed In the rules and directions of his office* After Adams* resignation# the Board of Overseers voted to keep a "full time" man In residence to admin­ ister the duties of the Boylston professor* They ap­ pointed Reverend Joseph Me Kean, who held the chair from 1809 to 1818* In his lectures# Joseph HcKe&n followed the rules of his office even more closely than John Quincy Adams* He lectured on almost every Individual point covered In the miles and directions for the Boyl­ ston professor* It may be well to repeat McKean's point of view as stated In his Lecture No* 3 (p* 8 7 ) as followss

ThlsCrhetorioJ is one of the subjects of human attention in which the moderns have been contented to follow In the steps marked out by their Illustrious predecessors of Greeoe and Rome* 80

^The lectures of Joseph McKean, Widensr Library# Harvard University* 17k

Judged those who prescribed this course of leotures which Is on the exact plan of the system of Professor Ward* who candidly avows his full concurrence with the amiable and eloquent Ftonelon* that to combine portions of Aristotle and Longinus with Cicero and Quintilian and to confirm their maxims by references to the purest authors of antiquity* would . even now form the best system of oratory.*+

KcKean1s lectures were not unique. They were in essence a condensed view of what he considered im­ portant to be known from past works dealing with rhetoric. His work was perhaps of greatest value for the criticisms which he gave of contemporary British rhetoricians and for his brief commentaries on the ora­ tory of his time. The only American rhetorician to whom he referred was John Quincy Adams. In general he relied on the classics as a source for his lectures and In so doing continued to carry on the tradition for which Adams had set precedent. Edward Tyrrel Cbanning was appointed to the Chair in

Id 19 and remained until 1851• His Leotures on published in 1656 by his wife Henrietta. In his essays he made no referenoe to his predecessors. Evidently Adams and KcKean had little

^Lectures of Joseph KcKean* Lecture III* p. 37* 5 Kdward Tyrrel Cbanning, Lectures on Hhetorlc and Oratory (Bostons Tlcknor and fields* lB561 pp. 2^8. 175 effect on him. The first half of Channlng's Lectures waa unified by e aeries of compariaona between classi- cal rhetoric and hia own concept of contenporary rhetoric. He fulfilled the regulations of his office by basing half of his work on claoaioal rhetoric but he did so not for the purpose of indicating its con­ temporary use. He did not adhere to the spirit of the regulations of the Chair in that he repudiated by im­ plication the modem application of olassical theory. In accord with his bac leg round in journal lam, Chan- nlng defined rhetoric to Include written communication. The second half of hia Lectures dealt with the hablta and Acuities of the writer. In a sense, he was the forerunner of the present day advocate of the "com­ munications" course. He gave most of his efforts to the written work of his students. Due to his emphasis on the written side of his students' work, teachers of elocution such as Jonathon Garber were appointed In 1626 to give substantial criticism to the oral delivery of students. During Chaiming's tenure of the Chair, the gradual shifting of emphasis from the oral to the written word was probably due to a composite of factors. First, Hew England was moving into the Golden Age o f American literature. Second, educators were stressing the need 176

for student exercise a In written consnunlcatlon. Third, elocution at this time was coming more and more to be considered synonymous with speeoh. Fourth, Cbanning was undoubtedly influenced by his work as editor of the North American Review* And, finally, John Quincy Adams had done such a complete Job of summarising classical rhetoric that hia work fulfilled the need for which It was written* Cbanning could Justifiably direct his ef­ forts to objectives different from Adams'. Perhaps Charming felt that he couldn't Improve on the treatment

Adams gave to classical rhetoricians* In short, Channlng's own bent and the circumstances of the times played together to produce the Inolualon of both written and oral communication under the general heading of ihetorlo* Precedent was set. When Francis J. Child assumed the duties of the office In l8£l, the movement In the Boylston Chair toward written communication and away from oral communication was crystallzed. Child was trained In Germany In philology. While In the Chair, he taught composition and later published an edition of English 6 and Scottish ballads. He had no enthusiasm for either

^FVanels J* Child, ed». The English and Scottish Pop­ ular Ballads (New Yorks Houghton Mifflin and dompany, lo82) F ^ fo la . 177

the art of oratory or the chore of grading them#*. On# account it was noted had it that*th# "One b itte r not# in his sweet cheerinoss was sometimes aroused by the remembrance of the great proportion of his life that had been spent on theme-correctinf,." In 1 6 7 6 a Chair of English was created for him and he became the founder of the aohool whioh Kittredge la te r made famous* Adams She man Hill* classmate of Charles Eliot* oc­ cupied the Chair from 18?6 to 19014.* He published several books under the title of "rhetoric• " His definition of rhetoric was based on grammar and his books were grounded on the assumption that rhetoric is defined as the set of principles behind the skills of writing. In his book g The Principles of Rhetoric. Hill Includes sections on grammatical purity* violations of good use* choice of words* number of words* written narration* exposition* argumentation and persuasion. He referred to John Quincy Adams' Lectures twice; once with regard to

7 Samuel Eliot Mori son* The Development of Harvard University 1869-1929 (Cambridge; ttarvard"T7nIverai.tv T w siT W O T p . 6 Adams Sherman Hill* The Principles of Rhetoric (New York; Harper and Bros., I 8 9 8 ) pp. I4.3 1 . 178

verbosity in narration and, again, with regard to the arrangement of words, Adame She naan Hill waa the chief force and guiding power behind the phenomenal growth

of the area of English at Harvard* His effectiveness in Influencing education waa high lighted by the fact that his books until recently were In circulation*

The difference between the philosophies of Adams Sherman H ill and John Quincy Adams was a ll pervading* Their theories of rhetoric differed over definition, subject matter, emphasis and technique* In 190L|. Hill retired* He was replaced by one of his assistants, Le Baron Hussell Briggs - beloved Dean of Harvard and President of Hadcliffe* Briggs con­ tinued to administer the Chair in the tradition estab­ lished in part by Child and completely by Hill* Charles Townsend Copeland replaced Briggs in

1925* This Boylston Professor1* trademark The Codq - 9 land Reader was an anthology of prose and poetry which he had read aloud to his classes* The last three men to hold the Chair have been poets* Robert S* Hlllyer oc­ cupied the Chair from 1937 until 19l|if when he resigned* Theodore Spencer's tenure (1946-19U9) was cut short by

Q Charles Townsend Copeland, The Copeland Reader: An Anthology of English Poetry amT^rose CNew Voric: cKarles Scribner1 a Sons, 1926) pp* 1607* 179 his death*

Archibald MacLelsh, the present Incumbent, Is a national authority In the area of poetics. His book 10 Public Speeoh . published In 1936# was not what Its title seemed to Imply, but rather a series of short poems. During an interview with Archibald MacLelsh on November the 11th, 1958, Professor MacLelsh indicated that in his opinion the function of the Boylston Chair Is encompassed in his Atlantic Monthly article "Why Do We Teach Poetry?" "Poetry," as he saw I t, "ought to be taught as a most essential fora of human ex­ pression ... "To be Ignorant of poetry," he said,

"Is to be Ignorant therefore of the one means of reach- 12 ing the world of our experience . . . •" When qulssed about the relationship of classical rhetoric to the Boylston Chair, he stated that his sole attempt to teach classical rhetoric In a class In expository 13 writing was "untimely." Stated in briefest terms the Boylston Chair has passed through the respective stages of classical rhet- orlo, philology, English grammar, oral reading and, finally, poetics a ll under the name of Rhetoric. Class-

11Archibald MacLelsh, op. c l t. . p. 1+8. ^ Ib ld .. p. 53. ’into rvlew with Archibald KacLelah, November 11. 1956. 160 ioal rhetoric in the Boylston Chair was represented In the persons or John Quincy Adams and Joseph KcKean* The Communications approach to speeoh training waa outlined by Edward Tyrrel Channlng* Francis J* Child was one of the first to introduce philology into the American curriculum* Adams Sherman K ill and Le Baron Russell Briggs represented the grammarian*s approaoh to rhetoric* Charles Townsend Copeland took the point of view cf those who* today* are interested in oral In­ terpretation* More recent occupants of the Chair* Robert Hlllyer* Theodore Spencer and Archibald Macl*elah have approached their duties as Boylston professor from the standpoint of poetics* emphasizing poetry and drama* The spectrum of speech philosophies was rep­ resented here In almost all of its varied shades and t in t s * Emphasis has shifted from speech to writing* in­ vention to grammar and style* classical xtietoric to modern poetics and finally from the feeling that pub­ lic speaking is the lifeblood of democracy to the at­ titude that speech is not a part of rhetoric or* if it is* it is of secondary importance* What then and finally* have been the effects of the Boylston Chair on speech oducatlon in the United States? 161

The effect o f John Quincy Adams on speech education

today is Important but Indirect in nature* The direct

effect of his rhetoric is negligible. Adams' name and

Its connection with speech at Harvard is more important

to speech education, It seems» than hia rhetoric* He

was quoted in several modem text books largely with

emphasis on the effect h is name produced rather than

his understanding of rhetoric* host authorities in

speech today have gone directly to the sources from

which Adams drew rather than working from or through

Adams' Lectures* Adams' name of course, along with

Witherspoon' b , stood with those of the ancients when

classical rhetoric was revived in speech education shortly

after 1900*

Indirectly the Boylston Chair har seriously affected

speech education today by virtue of the Xket that the name of Adams and the prestige of Harvard combined to give initial impetus to the Idea that speech is a

separate academic discipline in the United States*

From Adams' day an Interest in speech was trans­ planted In the West and developed until today the Midwest is generally considered the stronghold of speech educa­ tion* At Harvard and in some Eastern schools , however, It seems that the philosophy of those who followed Adams 162

and MoKean In the Chair haa prevailed. The Rhetorics

of John Quincy Adams and Joaeph MeKean had lit t le

apparent effect cn thoae who followed after them in

the office of Boylaton Profeaaor.

Conclusions. One conclusion of this work was

that, in the East, the Boylston Chair as a symbol of

rhetoric at Harvard haa represented at best a neutral

effect rather than a positive aid to the development

of speech education.

Hunt was correct when ho stated that the Boylston

Chair o f Rhetoric waa perhaps the most distinguished

and Influential chair of rhetoric in America - but

the definition of the tem rhetoric, as this study pointed out, waa in need of severe qualification.

A second conclusion is that each individual oc­ cupant of the Chair defined rtietoric to include his own Interests. In other words, definitions of rhetoric

In the Boylston Chair were accommodated to the interests of the men who drew them up. For example, the interests and eduoatlonal backgrounds of John Quincy Adams and

Joaeph KoKean were such that the original rules set up by Sllphalet Pearson were amenable to their point of view.

I t can be further seen that Edward Tyrrel Charming 163

developed hie definition of rhetoric to Include hie

basic Interest In writing. The broad definition of

rhetoric originally set down by the Board of Overseers allowed for Channlng's Inclusion of written consnunloa-

tion In h is duties as Boylston Professor* Channlng's

interests while Boylston Pro feasor led to the special emphasis on written communication and to the neglect of the spoken word*

It is also notable that Francis J. Child saw little point in trying to fit his definition of rhetoric

Into the original rules of his office* He changed the name of hia duties from Lectures on Rhetoric and Ora­ tory to Lectures on Rhetoric and English Composition*

Adams She man Hill actually re-de lined rhetoric, eliminating all of the classical canons except the one pertaining to hia particular Interest - style in written composition* Since Hill dealt with the basic elements of written composition or grammar, he defined rhetoric as the rules of grammar* His standard for judgment was correctness*

Le Baron Russell Briggs, who received his early years of training as a teacher under Hill, was content to build his teachings on precedent established by Hill*

Charles Townsend Copeland made h is name In oral reading iaij. and the appreciation of literature and continued Tor hia three years in the Chair to teach literature through oral interpretation. He did not feel obligated to de­

fine rhetoric. By 1925 definition was no longer neces­ sary since the original rules were no longer recognised.

The la st three occupants of the Chair have defined their function as Boylston Professor, either explicitly or implicitly, in terms of poetry. This of course is a result of the fact that the recent holders of the

Chair have been poets. In short, the interest of the holders of the Boylston Chair have detemined educa­ tional policy In the Chair.

We conclude further that two specific attempts have been made by the administration of Harvard to restrict the work of the Boylston Professor. The first attempt to prescribe rules for Boylston Professors was in the form of the original rules for the Chair. Gradually these rules were forgotten. President Eliot's policy was the second attempt to fashion teaching in the Boylston Chair.

This move by Eliot was also forgotten by the time hobert

S. Hillyer was appointed to the Chair. At present the

Boylston Professor almost has the status of a University

Professor. He can teach using materials from any area he 165

chooses *t any time*

A fourth point to be made Is that Joaeph McKean

did leave hia lecturea behind in legible form* They

were not* as some supposed, lost to researchers* They

exist in original manuscript fom in the Archives at

Harvard University*

Further, the Boylaton Chair at Harvard University

set the pace Tor education In rhetoric on a national

basis u n til the early 1900’s . In so far as speech

education is conoeraed, Harvard’s direct influence to­

day through the Boylston Chair Is negligible* Whereas

Boylston Professors until 1900 were effective in help*

lng to develop national educational policy toward speeoh

education, more recent occupants are presently having

little if any effect on speech education on a wider

national scale. Instead their writings have been in

the field of creative literature*

It is also recognised that the students affected by

Boylston Professors have been leaders in many cases in

the development o f national thought* Certainly the

Boylaton Chair was not the only factor in the educational

background of these men* Other professors at Harvard obviously affected students whose names were associated with Boylston Professors* But the statement that the 186

Boylston Chsir substantially helped to ffcshion American thought by providing thinkers with the tools of com* munlcation seems Justified. The chief value of this current study Is as a recognisable aid to the researcher's unde rs tending of

his field which may ultimately Improve the researcher's ability to teach In his field. A philosophy of speech education is basic to teaching speech. A study of the development of rhetoric or speech education on the scale represented by the Boylston Chair is Invaluable In aiding the teacher to develop his own personal philosophy of rhetorio* This is a broad study. Certain points were raised that deserve further study* The effect of recognised universities on the development of national thought would provide interesting investigation* As an example, one might study the effect of Harvard University on the Abolitionist Movement in the United States* It was interesting to note that almost all of the Boylston Pro­ fessors before 1 6 6 5 were to some degree opposed to the institution of slavery* Other endowed ohalrs of rhetoric or oratory might be studied with profit* Endowed Chairs at Yale, Andover and other schools were responsible for the teachings of 167 great rhetorician* - Chauncay Goodrich* Tor example* Individuals* relative to this study but not central* who have had a specific effect on speeoh education de­ serve study. Some of these are Ellphalet Pearson* Jonathan Barbour* Horace Mann and* for those who have been schooled In literature and poetry and are inter­ ested in theatre* more recent occupants of the Boylston Chair* particularly Archibald MacLelsh. J. B. deserves intensive study not only as an inters ating commentary on the problems feeing tho individual in our society but as a well constructed piece of dramatic art. S £ IiSC TED BX BI*I OQHAPHY

A. BOOKS

Adams, James Truslow, The Adams Family. Mew Yorks Blue Ribbon Books, Inc., 1930. Atkinson, Brooks, ed., College in a Yard. Cambridget Harvard University Press, T957* Bemls, Samuel Flagg, John Quincy Adams and the Foundation gf American Foreign Policy, frew York: Alfred A*

Brlgance, William Norwood, ed*, A History and Criticism of American Public Address* New York! tocGraw-tfill Book Co*, Inc*, 19^3* ______Speech Composition* New York* Appleton-Century- Crofts, inc., 1953*

Briggs# Le Baron Russell, School. College and Character. Boston* Houghton M ifflin Co*, 1901. Brooks, Van Wyck, The Flowering of New England. 1815-1865* New Yorkx E. P. Dutton and"“7o., IncT, 1957*

New England* Indian Sumner. 1865-1915* New Yorkx B. P. Dutton and Co*, Inc*, 1^0. Brown, Rollo W alter, Dean Briggs. Now York* Harper end Brothers, Publishers, 19*6•

Bryant, Donald C* and Karl W allace, Oral C ommunlc at ion* New Yorkx Appleton-Century-Crofts, In c., Carman, Harry J* and Harold C* Syrett, A History of the American People* New Yorks Knopf^and Co., 1952*^ Channlng, Edward, The History of the United States* New York* MacMillan ana Company , 1 9 0 5 * Child, Francis J*, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. New Yorkx Houghton M ifflin and Co., 1 0 0 2 . Coulton, Thomas S*, Trends in Speech Education In Ameri­ can Colleges. 1835-19357 Unpublished dissertation. New York University, 1935*

168 109

Crosby, V. M., ed., Memoirs of Will Ism Ellery Channing. Boston! W. M. Crosby an3 H. P. Nichols, 1050* Dsns, Joseph, The Mourner 1 s Reliefs A Sermon. New* buryport s ‘William H astings, lBlF. Drummond, A. M. , ed., Studies In Rhetoric and Public Speaking. New York* SenTury Company, 1.925* JSmerson, E» W., ed.f The Complete Works of Ralph Waldo Eaerson. Boston* Contonary KiltIon, l903• Faulkner, Harold Underwood, American Political and Social History. New Yorks Appleton-Century-Croftis, inc., 195?. Frothingham, N. L., Funeral Sermon. Boston* J. T. Buc k Ingham, 18ltT.

Gilman, Wilbur, Bower Aly and Loren D. Reid, The Fun da- mentals of Speaking. New Yorks MacMillan Co.. v m r . ------

Greenough, James Bradstreet and Georre Lyman Klttredge, Words and Their Ways In English Speech. New Yorks The MacMillan Company, 1927. Hed^e, Levi, Eulogy on Joseph McKean. Cambridge* Hi 1 Hard and Metcalf, ItJltf.

James, Henry, Charles W. E liot, President of Harvard University. Itf69-T90. Llpcky, George A., John ftulncy Adgms, Hia Theory and Ideas. New Yorks Thomas Y. Crowell, Co."^ 19^0•

Loring, Jams Spear, The Hundred Boston Orators. Bostons John P. Jewett and Company, TB5ZTT- McBurney, James H. and Ernest J. Wrage, The Art of Good Speech. New Yorks Prentice Hall Inc., T953* 190

Morlson* Samuel B llot, The Development of Harvard Unirer- s ltv . 1669-1926* CambrTdgel T'he Harvard Univer­ sity Press* 1930.

Morse, John T. * J r ., John Quincy Adams* New Yorkt Hough­ ton K im in and Company, lB99*' Nevlna, Allan* ed«, The Diary of John Quincy Adams* New Yorkt Longmans*' Green anti-Co., 192b* Farrington* Louis Vemon, Main Cur rente In American Thought* New Yorkt Hare our t, Brace and Co., 1927. Peabody* Andrew P.* Harvard Remlnlacencea. Boston* 1666. Peteraon* Owen* ed** 1956 Directory! Speech Association of America* Louisiana State university* 1956* Plats* Mabel* The History of Public Speaking* New Yorkt Noble and Noble* Publishers, Inc** 1935*

Poreelllan Club Centennial. 1791-1691. Cambridge! River- alde Press, ItsQl. Quincy* Josiah, History o f Harvard University. Boston! Crosby* Nichols* Lee and Co.* 1660* Rahe* Herbert Edgar* The History of Speech Education In Ten Indiana Colleges. Unpublished dis­ sertation* Wisconsin* 1939* Rahskopf* Horaoe* John Quincy Adams' Theory and Practice of Public Speaking. Ph. &. dissertation. State TJnlverslty of Iowa* 1935* Seward* William H** Life and Public Services of John Quincy Adams* Aubumt Derby, Miller and”Company,

Sparks* Jared* Ed.* American Biography. New Yorkt Harper and Brothers* 1 9 0 2 . Sprague* William B** ed.* Annals of the American Pulpit* New Yorkt Carter and Co. * lB£5* Thonssen* Lester and A. Craig Baird* Speech Criticism. New Yorkt The Ronald Press Co.* 194B* 191

Thorp, William, Merle Curti and Carlos Baker, eds«, American Issues. New York: J. B. Llppincott dompany7 i955* Wallace, Karl, ed., A History of Speech Education in America. New York* Apple^on-<3entury-flro ft a Inc • , v m : Witherspoon, John, Lectures on Moral Philosophy and Eloauence. Philsdelohiat woodward's Third Edl- ^Io"n7 lBTo.

B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES

Anderson, Dorothy, "Edward T. Charming* s Definition of Rhetoric," Speech Monographs. li+* 81-92, 191+7. "Edward T* Channlnj* s Teaching of Rhetoric," Speech Monographs. 16*98-113, August, 191+9* Briggs. Le Baron Russell, "George Ware Briggs, 1810- 1o95," He raids of a Liberal FSith, 3 * 3 7-1+0. Goodfellow, Donald M., "The First Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory," New England Quarterly. 19* 372-389, September, 191+6.

Dray, John C., "An Oration pronounced before the Society of Phi Beta Kappa at Cambridge, August 30, 1821," North American Review. 13*1+78-5-90, October, 1621, Gummere, Francis B. , "A Day with Professor Child," The Atlantic Monthly. 103*l+23-U2S, March, 1909. Guthrie, Warren, "The Development of Rhetorical Theory in America," Speech Monographs■ 16*98-113, August, 191+9. Hedge, Levi, "A SVeetoh of the Life and Character of Reverend Joseph McKean, D. D*, L. L. D., late Boylston Professor of Rhetorlek and Oratory, in Harvard University," Records of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 8*3*

. "Memoir of MoKean," Massachusetts Historical Col­ lections, 8 * 1 5 2 . H ill, Adams She man, "An Answer to the Cry for More Eng­ lish," Good Company. i+*233-2l+0, 1875. 1 9 2

Hunt* Everett Lee, "The Copeland Reader*" The Quarterly Journal of Speech. 13*202 - 206, April* ^L$27.

Ingersoll, C. j , , "A Dlaoourie concerning the Influence of America on the Mind* being the Annual Oration delivered before the American Philosophical Society, at the University In Philadelphia* October 18, 1023#" North American Review, 16*157-176, January, l82i+.

Klttredge# George Lyman* "Professor Child," Atlantic Monthly. 78*71+0-71+2# December, 1 6 9 6 * MacLeiah, Archibald* "Why Do We Teach Poetry#" The At­ lantic Monthly. 197*1+8-53# March, 1956,

. "What Is a True UniversityT*" Saturday Review, ll, January 3 1 , 1959. Mills, Olen* "Speech in a Communications Course," Quar­ terly Journal of Speech. 33# 1+0-1+5* February, 191+7» "The New England Oral English and Public Speaking Con­ ference," The English Journal. 3*188, March* 1911+. Norton* C. E** "Francis J. Child," Harvard Graduates 1 Mafia cine. 6tl61+* December* 1097. Rahskopf* Horace* "John Quincy Adorns* Speaker and Rhetorician," The Quarterly Journal of Speech. 32 *1+35-1+1+1 * Dec ember* 191+6* Reid# Ronald, "Edward Everett* Rhetorician of National­ ism, l62i^-1055*,, The Quarterly Journal of Speech. 1+2*373-362* Octobers 1956". A Review of "Discourses on Various Subjects* by Jeremy Taylor* D. D. Chaplain In Ordinary to King Charles X, and late Lord Bishop of Down and Connor," North Arnerlcan Review# 10*19-23* January, 1820. A Review of "Proceedings and Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia# presented 8 th of December 1818," North American Review. 10*115-137, January, 1820.

Rousseau, Lousene* "The Rhetorical Principles of Cicero and Adams," The Quarterly Journal of Speech. 2*397- 1+09 * 0 c tobe r# I9 1 6 * 193

Weeks, Edward, "Peripatetic Reviewer," The Atlantic Monthly. 203*79-83, January, 1959. Wendell, Barrett, "Nicholas Boylston," Harvard Graduates1 Magazine. 4*206-209, 1895- Wheaton, Henry, "An Address Pronounced at the Opening oT the New York Athenaeum, December 14# 182k," North American heview. 20*453-455# April, 1825. Young, Robert F., "A Re-examination of the Place of Speech In the College Curriculum," Eastern Public Speaking Con Terence, New York: H. W. Wilson C o., 1940.

0. NEWSPAPERS

Danror Commerclal. Jar.uary 7# 1904. Boston American. October 16, 1 9 1 0 . Boston gaily (TTobe . September 4# 1932. Boston Transcript. April 17, 1 9 2 0 . Boston T ranscript. December 3 1 , 1910* ^oston Transcript. January 12, 1916. Boston kvenlng T ranscript. December 27# 1925. Boston Evening Tranacrlpt, November 17# 1925* Boston gazette, August 26, 1771. Boa ion r i e r a i d 7 May 1 5 , 1 9 3 7 . Bosion Herald. September 12, 1696. Bos ion Herald. April 15# 1921. Boston Herald. May 0, 1934* Boo ion Herald. May 15, 1937. Boston P atriot. March 10, 1 6 1 0 . Boston Post. April 27# 1944. Boston Traveler. July 29, 1952. Cambrldge Tribune. August 1, 1 9 0 6 . Coloradoan C1900) ■ p. 1 0 6 . Columbian C en tln el. June 1C, 1 6 9 6 . EvenlnrHFranacrlpt. September 12, 1 8 9 6 . Evening Transcript. September 17, I 8 9 6 . Evening Transcript. September 11, 1897. Evening Transcript. October 1 , 1696. Evening Tranac rlp t. February 18, I 8 9 7 . Hartford Courant. September 15# 1896. H arvardA lum nl^ulletIn. October 14# 1910. Harvard Alumni B ulletin. February 18, 1914. 1 9 4 gurTT^rd Alumni Bulletin. April 27# 1922* Harvard Alumni Bulletin* November 25# 1932. Harvard Crimson, bee ember 19# 1944* Harvard Crimson. April 20# 194&* Harvard Crimson. April 21 # 194^* Harvard jnlversltv Gaaette. October 14# 1910. Harvard tiniveraltv Qasette. March 3, 1917. Lawrence" "gun. iprll"26, 1$10. Nation 7~September 1 7 , 1696. HatIon. June 16, 1 8 9 6 . New York Globe# December 26, 1910.

D. PRIMARY SOURCES

Adams# Charles Francis# ed.# Memoirs of John Quincy A New Yoxict J. B. Llppincott# TB7lp-ld70. Adams# John Quincy# Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory. Cambridge t H illiard and~Ketoalf# lBlO. Adams# John Quincy# le tte r to students# Harvard Univer­ sity Archives*

Annual Reports of the President and of the Treasurer# Harvard University.

Card Catalogue# Wldener Library# Harvard University. Catalogues of courses# Harvard University. Channlng# Edward T ., Lectures Read to the Seniors In Harvard College. koatont TlcSnor and fields# 1856. Channlng# E. T.# Letter# Harvard University Archives. Channlng# E. T .# Reports to Overseers# Harvard University Archives* Channlng# B. T.# Themes to Students# Harvard University Archives. Child# Francis J . # valedictory oration# Harvard Univer­ sity Archives# Wldener Library. Child# Franols J.# Reports to Overseers# Harvard Univer­ sity Archives. 195

Scrapbook of Jeremiah Colburn, Harvard University Archives. College Papers, Harvard University Archives* Copeland, Charles T*, ed*. The Cope lend Headers An Anthology of Engllah Poetry ynd Pro»7: Vew York I Charles Soribner's Sons, 1926* (Copeland and Rideout) Copeland, C* T*, Scrapbook, Harvard University Archives*

Corporation Papers, Harvard University Archives* Ford, Worthington Chauncey, Writings of John Quincy Adams* New York: MacMillan, 1913-17• H ill, Adams Sherman, The Beginnings of Hhetoric and Composition. New VorkV American Book Co., 1902*

* * The Foundations of Rhetoric* New Yorkt Harper and Brothers, PubTTshera, 1^96• , Manuscript Notes on H ill, Harvard University Arch­ ives* . The Principles of Rhetoric. New Yorkt Harper and BrotherVT JhibllsKers, 189b* , registration card. Harvard University Archives* . Scrapbook, Harvard University Archives. Interview by le tte r with Robert Sllllman Hlllyer on April 6 , 1959. Interview by letter with Professor Ha r r y Kerr, Harvard University, on April 22, 1959* Interview with Archibald MaoLelsh, November 1 1 , 195B. MacLelsh, Archibald, J* B* Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1952* ~ ______, Collected Poems, 1917-1952. Bostont Houghton Mifflin Company, 1952*

______■ Public Speaking* New Yorkt Farrar and Rine­ hart, 193b7 196

Minute a of the Faculty of Art* and Science* at Harvard University*

Me Kean, Joseph, Lectures, Harvard University Archives* Original draft of the Buies, Directions and Statutes of the Boylston Professor Library, Harvard University Archive s• Original Manuscript lectures of Joseph McKean, Harvard University Archives*

Original Hules, Directions and Statutes of the Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory, Harvard University Archives* Overseers Reports, Harvard University Archives* Office of Provost, Harvard University President's Reports, Harvard University Spencer, Theodore, Lecture notes. Harvard University Archives*

Will of Nicholas Boylston, Esq*, Harvard University Archives, Manuscript extract of the w ill by William Cooper* Will of Thomas Boylston, Harvard University Archives* a gift of Reverend 0* C* Everett of Charleston on February 25# 1651* Will of Ward Nicholas Boylston, Harvard University Archives* APPENDIX

197 EXHIBIT 1 196 >A y A i

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^ / 199

EXHIBIT 2

RETIES, DIRECTIOW AND STATUTES OF THE BOYLSTON PROFESSORSHIP OP RHETORIC AND CRATORT IN HARVARD COLIEOE

(1) The Professor pieced on the foundation laid by Nloholee Boyleton late of Boeton Esquire, for the support of a Profeasor of Rhetorlo and Oratory shall be oalled Boylston Professor of Rhetorio and Ora­ tory. (2) The said Professor shall be a Hester of Arts, a belierer in the Christian religion, support the character of a leaned pious honest nan, and be sell qualified for the duties of his of floe. (3) The said Profeasor, at the tine of his inauguration, shall publicly make and subscribe a declaration that he believes in the Christian Religion, and has a flm persuasion of its truth j that with dlligenoe and fidelity he sill discharge the duties of his offloe agreeably to the will of the founders that ha will also labor to advance the Interests of general science and literature j that by his example, as well as otherwise, be will endeavor to encourage and pro­ mote true piety and all the Christian virtues j that he will at all tines consult the good of his pupils and of the College in every re­ spect) and that he will religiously observe the will of the founder and these statutes, excepting so far as the sane may be duly repealed, altered or suspended and that he will also faithfully observe such other statutes and laws as are or may be made by the Corporation of Overseers relative to the said Professorship and not repugnant to the wlU of the Founder. (U) It shall be the principal duty of the said Professor to Instruct the students of the several classes in the nature, excellence, and acquisition of the important art of Rhetoric in its most extended and comprehensive sense, or in the theory and practice of writing and speaking well, that is, with meth­ od, elegance, harmony, dignity and energy. This instruction shall be given in public or private lectures as the Corporation shall direct. (5) In his private Lectures he shall not only develops to his pupils in a familiar manner the principles and rules of his art) but it shall be his particular care to aid their application of them in practice in suitable exercises, assigned by him for this purpose. To this end he shall in term time give two lectures a week to the Class of Freshman, in one of whlcn he shall instruct them from some Rhetorical treatise in Latin or Oreek, as Cioero De Orators, Aristotle's Rhetoric, Longinus on the sublime, or some other ancient celebrated treatise on Oratory, assigned portions of tdiieh they shall recite or render to him in English) and in the other he shall be preoept and example instruct and exercise them in the Arts of reading and speaking with propriety. To the Sophomores also he shall give two lectures a week, in the first of which he shall instruct them from some well approved Rhetor­ ical Text Book in English, marked portions of which they shall recite to 200 him in vernacular; and In the second ha ahall lnatruet than In speak­ ing and composition alternately, that is* onea in a fortnight ha ahall Improve thalr speaking by rsnarks In dialogues* speech* daelanationa i dalivarad by than In hi a presence; and onea afo r t* night, during the first part of the year, ha ahall Inspect and cor- raot thalr written translations of elegant passages of Latin or Oraek asslpMd by hla for this purpose* and in the latter part of the year* specimens of thalr own composition* as thalr progress in letters nay permit* To the Juniors he shall give a Lecture ones in a fortnight for the purpose of forming their style* alternately correcting thalr compositions, and instructing from the text book* as before* t ill that be finished* after which they shall exhibit com­ positions of their own every fortnight* To the Seniors also he shall give one lecture every fortnight for the purpose of cultivating a cor­ rect and refined taste in style* pointing out the good and bad quali­ ties and peculiar features of their compositions* which are to be re­ quired thus frequently for this important end* The Corporation is authorised CS^J to allow the first Professor on the foundation of ill or any of the duties to emit* enjoined by this article* for such tine as they shall Judge expedient* and to assign the performance of such duties to some other Instructor* (6) The said Professor shall also in term time read a course of public Lectures* one at least every week to the resident graduates* and to the two senior classes of the under­ graduates) in ldiich* after giving a brief account of the rise and pro­ gress of Oratory snong the Ancients* and a biographical sketch of some of their nost Celebrated Orators* he shall explain its nature* object and several kinds; show its connection with the powers of the mind natural and aequirsd* and then divide it into its constituent parts* in­ vention* disposition* elocution and pronunciation) in lecturing on which he shall make the nost useful subdivisions* and discuss the nost important articles* oonnonly observed and discussed by eminent writers on Rhetoric and Oratory* Here particularly, under the head of invention* he shall treat of internal and external topics* the state of a controversy* the different arguments* proper to danonstrative* and deliberative and judicial discourses) of the character and address of a finished Orator and the use of the excitation of the passions. Under the head of dis­ position he shall treat of the properties and uses of each of the parts of a regular discourse such as introduction* narration* proposition* confirmation* confutation and* conclusions adding suitable remarks on digression* transition* and amplification. Under the head of elo- outlon he shall first treat generally and largely of elegant composition) and dignity* and of their respective requisites) and then particularly of the several species of style* as the low* middle* sublime* and of their distinguishing qualities with respect both to the thoughts and the 201

nordai illustrating tto mm by propar «xaspla»| and likewise or tha nrioui stylas of epistles, ditlo|i»i» history, poetry and orations* Under tha ha ad of pronunciation ha shall orga tha Issssnoe [ ale] la* portanoa of a good da lira ry, and traat partioularly of tha manage­ ment of tha voice, and of gesture, intarsparsing dua cautions against shat is aSkward or affaotad with dlraetions for tha attalnaant of propar action, and lncsssantly prassing tha superior axcallanca of a natural aainor. Thus far tha bast prsospta nay bs drawn fron tha writings of tha Ancients, but, as Christianity has opened a new field to Eloquence, wholly unknown to than and differing in so many impor­ tant respects from what they had explored, additional precepts as well, as a new application of old ones, are become necessary. Thera* fore not only on account of tha different, but infinitely superior nature and object of sacred Eloquence, the Professor will not only aceoMeodate tha principles and precepts of ancient Rhetoric to this new species of Oration, but also prescribe tha special additional precepts, to be observed in composing sermons, pointing out the qualities In the speaker, in his style and in his delivery, indispan* sably requisite to font an acooeipllshed pulpit Orator. He shall also discourse on the various methods of improving in Eloquence, as reading, writing, speaking, Imitation and together with the means of strengthen* ing the memory, not forgetting to enforce the favorite maxim of the Ancient Rhetoricians, "Non posse oratorem esse nisi vLrum botum." In addition to the preoeding subjects, either in distinct lectures, or as opportunity may present during his course, he shall examine and compare the properties of the Ancient and modern languages, particu­ larly of the English, with reference to composition, he shall also delineate the characteristic features of the most celebrated Greek, Roman, and English Historians, Orators, Poets, and Divines pointing out some of their numerous beauties and axeslieneea in thought and expression) but above a ll let him inspire his pupils with a lively perception and relish of tha Inimitable simplicity, beauty, and sub­ limity of the Sacred writings. (7) The said Professor shall preside at tha public Declamation of the two senior classes) and no declamation either publia or private shall be delivered before him, without his previous advice and approbation, and upon each deeInaction he shall make such remarks either in public or private as to him nay e a r n necessary to improve each individual in all the requisites of a good ^>eaker. (8) Previously to each public exhibition, and especially before the Annual Commencement, the said Professor in some large room pri­ vately hear each student pronounce, once at least, for the purpose of correcting errors in delivery and of encouraging and animating his perfoxmances. 202

(9) Tha aforaaald Rulaa, Diraetiona, and Statutaa ahall ba avar aubjaot to aaoh altaration, addltiona, and coMaaniteanta, aa axparlanoa ahall provu to ba axpadlant, and aa tha Praaidant and Pallowa of tha Collaoa with tha Ovaraaara tharaof ahall, upon matora oonaldaration, daaa naeaaaary to aadar thla Institution aoat axtanaivaly and pamanantljr uaaful, and thua to aeeonpUah tha banarolant and patrlotio daalgna of tha ganaral Foundar. 203

EXHIBIT 3

1817. Boylston Prises for Elocution (1817)-! N.W* Boylston Ward Nicholas Boylston1 s P rises fo r Annuity for Frlsas for Elocution. E locution. Copy of Dssd securing the annuity "I Ward Nicholas Boylston of Roxbury, in tha County of Norfolk Esquire, taking into con­ sideration tha importance of the Art of Elocu­ tion, to the formation of an accomplished or­ ator, actuated also by a wish to promote the reputation of Harvard C ollege, and more e s ­ pecially with a view to advance the objects for idiich the professorship of Khetorlok and Oratory was founded by my late Uncle Nioholas Boylston Esq. Do hereby premise and agree to pay to tha President and Fellows o f Harvard College the sum (altered to) of Fifty Dollars a year, the first pay­ ( slxtf ) ment to be made on, or before the first comes no ement which w ill be held In the year of Our Lord One thousand eight hun­ dred and eighteen at Cambridge in the County o f M iddlesex, a t the U niversity 201* aforesaid, and tha m ii mm to continue to pay annually during my lift, with the exceptions and subject to tha provisions heroin after stated. And I do further promise, that aa soon as nay be after my decease there ahall be paid to the said President and Fellows by my executors or adalnlstrators the sum of One thousand dollars for the payment of which I will make provision In my

370.

Id17 (Continued)

Boylston Prises for Elocution (1817)-2 last WlU and Test went or by my bond to said President and Fellows In my life time.

The said several annual payments and the Income or Interest of said Thousand Dollars to be applied and paid by said President and Fellows and their successors as follows, to wlti In after "of" Article 1st On the day after the public Come no ament at said College In each year there shall be held in the University Hall,

"lnM or Meeting House at Cambridge, a pub- 205

Ho exhibition, or trial of tha advancement

or progress of tha Studanta at tha Univer­

sity in Elocution, and to tha and that tha attention of tha competitors and tha Judges harain aftar

diverted provided, nay not ba divlrted from tha

only object of tha inatitutlon which ia

idiat ia usually tarmad a good d all vary,

including tharain gracefulness, anargy and

propriety of aotion, diatinctnaaa and clear-

naas of enunciation, correctness of pronun­

ciation, and a suitable regard to empha­

and sis and modulation of voice, and In short

everything which contributed to give freedom

and beauty to written discourses whan de­

livered publicly, It shall be a stand­

in g rule that the speaker shall nev­

er rehearse his own composition but may

select any writings in verse or prose frcsn

approved English, Oreek or Latin Authors,

the selection so made to be first approved

by tha Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and

371

1P17• (continued) Boylston Prises for Elocution (1817) - 3 206

"Oratory. Tha proportion of pieces art to "altered to be two at least In English, the others to three" be se ttle d by him. Artiela 2d AH the Students of the Class which shall have the sane year

taken their degrees, and of the next two classes, nay be competitors for the pre­ mium herein after mentioned, but the per­ sons who Intend to enter and contend for the prises, shall enter their names with the President of the College fourteen days at least before the Exhibition. Article 3d The President and Fellows of Harvard College, shall in each and every "The motives assigned for not requiring year select without any reference for ap­ the assent of the Overseers, as sta­ proval to the Board of Overseers, Five ted In the N.B, on the next page but Gentlemen, idio have been thsmselves dis­ one, are inserted in this place in tinguished for their Elocution particularly, the 2 "Deed" either at the Bar, in the Pulpit, or in the Senate, who together with the Corporation, or a major part of them shall be the Judg­ es of the Elocution of the Competitors at said Exhibition, and shall have power to award the prises herein after mentioned.

Article Uth There shall be four pris- "five" 207 eo * t,'MO •ntitled first prises and two "three" to ba entitled second prises*

Article 5th Tha two competitors idw> ahall ba daansd by tha said Judges to haw* axe a Had a ll tha othara in tha Art of Elocution, at any of tha said Exhibitions shall ba antitlad to tha first premiums*

372. 1817 * (continued)

Boylston Prises for Elocution (1617)-It

"altered to three" "Article 6th Tha two competitors who

shall ba daansd to have performed tha

next bast, ahall ba antitlad to tha second

premium*

Artiela 7Jfch Those to whom the fir st

premiums, or prises, shall ba awarded *

shall receive tha sum of Fifteen Dollars

each, or a gold Medal of that value, at

thalr option*

Article 6Lfch Those to whom the Second

Prisas shall ba awarded, shall receive

"gold" Ten Dollars aach, or a silver medal

of that value at thalr option*

Artlole 9*th If tha Judges shall at

any time be of opinion that none of the

competitors shall have exhibited suffl* 206

cient skill and Improvmoent to b« enti­ tled to the first premiums* or prises* they

may wlthold them* and the iiiw shall go to tha Increase and Aeoumulatlon of tha Fund* "This clausa is At my decease* tdien tha Income omitted In tha 2 "Dead"* will amount to Sixty dollars a year* the Judges may either direct tha extra ten dollars to be added to the principal* or may give it to one or both tha candi­ dates mho shall have taken the first pre­ miums* or may give a fifth Premium of tha value of ten Dollars* The latter I should prefer*

Provided however* as this Exhibition ia new and but an experiment I as tha

373. 1617. (oontlnued) Boylston Prises for Elocution (1617) - 5 "Founder retain the right after the expiration of three years of rescinding this Foundation by a formal Letter to tha Corporation to that effect and that without being held "this In 2 "Deed", to asei&i any reasons therefor* and the same •hall thereupon eease and ba fold* Thia right ia not reserved out of any dla- raapaet to tha Corporation, bat for tha raaaona afora mentioned* Tha President ahall if ha aaaa fit give no tic# aa aoon aa may ba aftar thia ahall ba aooaptad, of thia Donation and that tha

first trial will ba hald in August 1/818* Tha Hon John Adana and his a on Hon John Quincy Adana, aa tha rel­ atives of tha foundar, shall be considered, during thalr lives (whan reaidant in this state at tha tine) nanbers of tha Board of Judges, and a leas number nay at such tinea ba selected accordingly*

Aa Institution ahall be oallad tha Boyl­ ston Prises for Elocution*

N*B* Tha notires for not requiring tha assent of tha Overseers to tha appoint­ ment of Judges wars, that it night occa­ sion unnecessary delay, and tha said officers

being appointed only for each year it would be troublesome to both of tha College Boarda* And I upon further consideration, do 210 substitute * Oold Medal iiutMd of a S lim on* In tha aaeond praarlun.

Boylston Priaaa for Elocution (1817)-6 "This elanaa ia "And I alao further direct, that If anitted in 2 "Daad," I oauaa to ba paid to tha said Proaidant and Fall ova of Harvard Collage, or to thalr Treasurer, tha three araiual payments, being tha sue of One hundred and fifty dollars, on or before tha first day of January next, (ehleh I intend to do) that they will ap­ ply the interest that shall arise after de­ d ucting the annual preeil teas for prises

to a fifth first praad.ua, English Prose or

Verse, In the said third year, subject how­ ever to my reserved right of rescinding tha "No data to 2nd Daad but It vast Cs ioj be for* (Signed) Ward Nicholas Boylston. Aug 16X0." Rosbury Now 28, 1817* 211

“Tli® preceding nu by tha founder* presented in a new draught* altarad a- greeably to tha aaoond paragraph in Ar­ ticle 9^** and to tha aaoond paragraph in tha N.B. subjoined to tha praeading In­ strument* I tha aald altarationa noted in tha margin*

(Signed) John T. Kirkland* President*

Saa Votes of Corpn* Aug* 13* 1920* and Dec* 30th 1828. June 1L, 1875* Oct. 6* 1877* 212

EXHIBIT U

CHAN NINO *3 REPORTS IN THE OVERSEERS REPORTS

Volume Page

Volume I June 2, 1625 report to netting ooaeilttee 167 Volusia II April 29, 1626 report to visiting eomdttee 83 Sept. 8, 1826 report to the president 122-23 April 28, 1829 report to the president 176-7$ Oct* 19* 1829 report to the president 236-7 May It, 1830 report to the president 293 Oct. 19# 1830 report to the preeident 323-6 Volusw HI May 3# 18 31 report to visiting camdttee 60-1 Oct. 18, 1831 report to viol ting eased, ttee 83 -6 May 1, 1832 report to visiting oassdttee 137-8 Oct. 16, 1832 report to visiting oamdttee 177 April 30, 1833 report to visiting coasdttee 231 Oct. 15, 1833 report to visiting cosed ttee 233-6 Volune TV April 29, 183U report to visiting ocsmdttee 76 Oct. 21, I83 U report to visiting oaeedttee 106 April 28, 183$ report to visiting comlttee 162 Oct. 20, 1835 report to visiting oassdttee 202 May 3# 1^3$ report to visiting eosedttee 265 Volume V M^r 2, 1837 report to visiting oaeedttee 29-30 Oct* 17, IB 37 report to visiting coed ttee 68-9 May 1, 1833 report to visiting oassdttee 130 Oct. 16, LB36 report to visiting eosedttee 176-5 May 7, 1839 report to visiting ocsedttee 230 Oct. 15, 1839 report to visiting oaeedttee 276 May 5, i860 report to visiting ooesdttee 326 Oct. 20, i860 report to visiting oassdttee 373-6 Volume VI May 6, 1861 report to visiting ooesdttee 77 Oot* 19, 18U1 report to visiting oassdttee 126-7 January 20, 1662 report to visiting oassdttee 159-60 May 3# 1862 report to visiting oaeedttee 177 Oct. 18, 1662 report to visiting oassdttee 226-7 May 2, 18U3 report to visiting oassdttee 307-8 Oct. 17, 1863 report to visiting oondttee 365^ Volume VII May 7# 1866 report to visiting committee 35-36 Oot* 15* 1866 report to visiting oomnittee 75^ Oot. 21, 1665 report to visiting oassdttee 170 May 5# 1866 report to visiting oaasdttee 236-9 Oot* 20, 1866 report to visiting oaeedttee 276 May 6* 1867 report to visiting eamdttee 366 Oot. 19, 1867 report to visiting oassdttee 385 2U

VolUM Pegs Volume VIII Mey 2, 181*8 report to visiting oamittee 68 Oct. 17# 181*8 report to visiting ooeeilttee HO Mey 1# 181*8 report to visiting oomlttee 212*-15 Oot. 18# 181*9 report to visiting oomnlttee 270 May 7, 1850 report to visiting comlttee 369 Oct. 15, 1850 report to visiting committee 1*06 Volume IX May 6# 1851 report to visiting eomittee 123 July 15, 1851 report to visiting comlttee 11*5 2U*

EXHIBIT 5

FRANCIS J. CHILD'S REPORTS IN THE OVERSEERS REPORTS

Volume P iC t

Volume I April 17 j US$9 report to Tie 1 ting o camel ttee 60-1 Oct., 1560 report to visiting committee 132-33 May, 1560 report to visiting c camel ttee 170-1 Oct., 1561 report to visiting oomlttee 259 Hey, 1561 report to visiting oamittee 2Sl*-5 May, 1562 report to visiting ooseeittee 3U3 Oct*, 1562 report to visiting comlttee 355 Oct,, 1561* report to visiting comlttee 1*32 Volume II Hay, 156U report to visiting oamittee 52 Oct,, 1565 report to visiting oamittee 11*0 May, 1565 report to visiting comlttee 155 Oct,, 1566 report to visiting cased.ttee 252 Oct, 22, 1867 report to visiting comlttee 273 Oct, 27, 1565 report to visiting committee 391 May 5, 1568 report to visiting comlttee 1*63 Volume IX Hay J*, 1552 report to visiting comlttee 278 Oct, 19, 1552 report to visiting committee 306 Hay 3, 1853 report to visiting comlttee 1*18-9 Oct, 18, 1553 report to visiting oamittee 1*1*8 Volume VH May, 181*7 report to visiting oomlttee 36I* Volume VIII May, 151*8 report to visiting oomlttee 88 Oct,, 151*8 report to visiting comlttee 121* May, 151*9 report to visiting comlttee 220 Volume I May 2, 155U report to visiting comlttee 22 Oct, 17, 1851* report to visiting comlttee 55 May, 1555 report to visiting oamittee 191* Oct., 1855 report to visiting comlttee 233 May, 1856 report to visiting oomlttee 373 Oct. 21, 1856 report to visiting comlttee 1*07 Volume I I May 5, 1557 report to visiting cooodttee 30 Oct,, 1557 report to visiting comlttee 65 May, 1858 report to visiting oomlttee 187 Oct, 19, 1858 report to visiting comlttee 225 May, 1868 report to visiting comlttee 11 Oct,, 1563 report to visiting comlttee 59 KTttrn-r* a 216

EXHIBIT 7

Lectures on Rhetoric end Oratory* John Quincy Adams* L.L.D*, Tola* 1 and 2. Cambridget Printed by Hilliard and Metcalf* 1810* This set of lectures Is dedicated to the classes of Sr. and Jr. sophlsters in Harvard University* Nicholas Boylaton esq. mas an eminent merchant of Boston mho died on August 18* 1771* ags 56• He mas "a man of good understanding and sound Judgment, diligent In his business* though not a slave to it, upright in his dealings* honest and sincere in all his professions* and a stranger to dissimulation*n (Preface iii-v iii.) He bequeathed 1500 pounds "lawful money* as a foundation for a professorship of rhetoric and oratory in Harvard College* It was paid to the treasurer In Feb* of *72.

In 1B0U the mount was considered enough for practical purposes* The rules for the "chair" were established* John Quincy Adams was In­ stalled on June 12* 1805* He was left free for his duties as senator*

On the 12th of August 1808, Adams completed the course (36 lectures given weekly)* On the 28th of July he took leave of his students and embarked for Russia* These lectures were published without revision. "These lectures however comprehend what in his estimation, belongs to rhetoric; and contain the theory of his branch* The practical part, or what belonged to oratory, he intended to treat at a future period; ..."

His figurative language in delivering these lectures bothered some*

On August 2^th Reverend Joseph McKean replaced Adams, He gave his inaugural address in Latin.

INAUGURAL ORATION (Pgs. U-31.) Rhetorical station In life has never been precisely assigned* Rhetoric has fe lt both assent and decline in the annals of history, "... and it still remains an Inquiry among men, as in the age of HLato and In that of Cicero, whether eloquence is an art, worthy of tbs cultivation of a wise and virtuous man." The difference between man and the animal is reason. An adjunct of reason is speech.

A. The power of speech in the social setting Is felt if not acknowledged* 1* Biblical history. 2* Orseee and Egypt* 2 1 7

3. Rome* orator - in of unircrMl knowledge* Moral datlii - good men li. Middlo Ages* eloquence perverted fron porauaalon to panegyric. 5* Ronaaeoneo* Continental oratory never recovered tha glory of tha anelanta*

B* Present atata of affaire. 1 * Rallgion opanad naw avenue* 2* Spaaoh in law la not oonplataly laatlng* 3. Spaaoh in education - Tha Ruropeans have atudlad rhatorlo aa a thaory but have naglaotad oratory aa an art* Wa have dona likewise. Harvard has baan going for a LLttla laaa than 200 yra* and thia ia tha firat coursa In ap* I£CTUR£ I OENERAL VIEW OF RHETORIC AND ORATORT (Pga* 32-50) Tha kindred arts of grmeaar, language and logic hava baan a part of tha curriculum at Harvard* Where doea oratory begin and leave off? What are Ita Limits? Rhetoric and oratory are sometimes o one i da red synonoauus. Rhetoric ia theory* Oratory is practice. A. Aristotle - "Rhetoric, says Aristotle, is the power of inventing whatsoever ia persuasive in discourse." JQA oritieimes Aristotle's definition in the following mannert 1 . Ibis definition omits disposition and elocution* 2* Persuasion isn't tha only end of speaking, inform?, entertain? etc. B* Cioero - *••• rhetoric ia the art of persuasion." JQA criticises Cicero's definition in the following manneri 1* Cioero makes suooesa the only orlterlon of rhetoric. 2* This definition is not without exception

C* Quintilian - "Rhetoric is the science of speaking wall*" JQA thinks this definition is more correct and precise* The reasons are on the next page* 0* JQA favors Quintilian's definition becausei 1 * of the simplicity of the definition. 2 * of its coincidence with the definition offered in tha Holy Scriptures. 3* Quintilian makes the distinction between thinking and speaking* 2 1 8

Qr—i t is speaking correctly. Rhetoric Is speaking s s l l . Qrosur is to arittsaetlc u rhetoric is to geometry* Oratory is the art of speaking nail* Rhetoric is tha science of speaking well. Oratory Is not speech or conversation*

The utility of the art is obvious* T h d out of the professions wake particular use of public speaking - law and the pulpit. The pulpit ia the throne of Modern eloquence* Cltlsens must use speech* LECTURE II OBJECTIONS AGAINST ELOQUENCE (Fgs. 50-73*)

A* Point 1*is sosmtines supported by the Jingle* ■All a rhetoric iari rules teach nothing but to nans his tools JQA tells us* ■What can be store useful than to know the nmaes and uses of your tools*" B* Point 2* is based an the idea that some speakers Mistake the naans for the end of speaking* They let their gestures becone eore lnportant than the point they are trying to nake. JQA uses an analogy between an arey and a speaker to defend the prac­ tice of delivery* The drilling of the training day instills a basic feeling idxlch nakes for steadfastness in battle* It involves discipline* An army must aove aa one sian in battle* cut hard* and win battles that turn the tide of history* So it is with oratory* C* Point 3* is the most pressing of criticisms. JQA points out that this orltleima is against the constitution of human nature* the dispensations of providence and the moral govern­ ment of the universe* not against oratory* The sun is life- giving but how often does it blind the eyes or "parch the plains?" Air without oxygen is poison* Virtue is the vital air of the moral world*

■If the incestuous Clodiuo and the incendiary Catiline had elo­ quence enough for the destruction of liqperlal Room* what but the isnor- tal voice of Cioero could have operated her salvation." (Pg. 6 6 ) JQA concludes that there is nothing in these objections that could or should bar ths learning of public speaking* Invert the advice of Tlmotheus to Alexander* "If the world be worth enjoying* Think I Oh I think I it worth thy winning." Eloquence is the child of liberty (Greece and the U. S*)* let us "call on the shades of Dearasthenes and Cioero" for they "shed the brightest lustre on the name of man*" XECTURE III ORIGIN OF OHATORI (Pgs. 73-115.) The first sounds resulted from passions of men* 2 1 9

A. The first not* of eloquence wi sounded by tho Qreeks. This «u a result of tho fact that tho Assyrian, Persian, and tho Egyptian statos wore dictatorships• 1 . Greece was a "democracy of statos *1 that sot out on ox* podltions which stimulated oratory* Jason and tho Argonauts War of Thobos Trojan War 2. In tho corlnthlaos of Pausanlaa it appears that Plttheus, tho undo of Tho sous (£ oontury boforo tho Trojan War) oponod a school of xhotorlo in tho olty of Treasons. 3* Odyssoy and Iliad roprosont examples of rtaotorlc In tho parson* of Odysseus, Achilles, and Antonor. (Pgs. 79*30.) U. Sicily had rhetoricians. Qupodoelos - toaohor of Qsorglas. Corax Tlslas 5. Contemporaries of Oeorglass Thrasymachus of Chaleedon Prodious of Coos Hlpplas of Ella Alcidaious of Elsa Antlphon - first rhetoric and oration together. PoUcrates Theodore of Bysantlun 6 . Qeorglas was a master of extemporaneous declamation who was sent to Greece to solicit ths aid of the Athenians. He was so well liked that his statue was placed In tho tempi* of Delphi, an honor never shown to any other man. Georgias had Aristotle's approbation. Plato based his Qeorglas on his life. When Qsorglas first saw tho work, fie is quoted as having said, "How hand­ somely that same Plato can slander." His style was too affected and too presumptuous. He Invented topics and oratorical numbers. He gave rise to the Attic - Asiatic Controversy.

7. Isocrates was tho disciple of Qeorglas. He was a timid man and served as a "ghost writer•" He opened a school of rhetoric and, as from tho Trojan Horse, tho school issued a host of heroes. He died of a broken heart at the battle of Chaeronea In U36 B.C. 20 of his 60 orations are still extant. Ho spent ton years on one panegyric I Isocartes gave rise to Aristotle's Rhetoric, tho earliest extant scientific treatise on rhetoric• 6 . Plato was Inconsistent when dealing with rhetoric. In his Phaedrus ho sots up Paric loo as a highly accomplished orator. In tho Qeorglas, Georgias with Perlolss was pro- nounoed to be no orator at all. 220

9* Aristotle wrote the Rhetoric In three books* Ho m / have written another but, It mTght have boon written by Alexander. 10* Others weret Demetrius Rialereus Dionysius Halicarnassus Lucion of Saaosata - 2nd century. Homo go nos charaetor of orations - $ books idoas - 2 books Longinus ondsd the rhetorical genius of Qreoco. He lived in ths 3rd century, wrote the Sublime and died in speaking against Rome in Zenobia* LfSCTURE IV ORIQIK OF ORATOR!

Oratory is the first principle of human association* In Oreece it was common assent. In Rome it was force* In Rome the first notice of rhetoric was in the form of a decree passed in 592 B.C. which in effect caused the expulsion of all philosophers and rhetoricians taught in Greece by Qreeks*

A. Flotlua opened the first school of rhetoric* Rome produced Cicero* ttHe represents the most perfect example of that rare and splendid combination, universal genius and indefatigable application, which the annals of the world can produce•" (Pg. 99.) B. Cicero produced seven treatises, having collected materials from Aristotle and Isocrates* The first three deal with 1) talents essential to the orator* 2) proof, 3) and elocution. He developed the Rhodian style which was a compromise between the Attic and Asiatic styles* Cicero felt that the florid style should be best used by youth on gala occasions* The close style should be used in judicial matters by the mature among men* IECTURE V CICERO AND HIS RHETORICAL WRITINGS (Pgs. 117-138.) Cicero produced two rhetorical treatises that are beyond doubt his. A. D e Orators - analytical decomposition of the art of public speaking. B. Brutus and de C laris orator!bus - summary review of a ll famous Greek and Roman orators. Cicero's life was a life of labor* Hortensius enjoyed unequaled success before Cicero entered the scene. Hortensius was perhaps as talented aa Cioero but did not have the tenacity or diligence with whloh 221

Cicero «ppll«d himself* Hortensius slipped while Cioero*s star soared* JQA compares Cioero and Caesar, making the point that Cioero*s accomplish­ ments were universal. Caesar's were nothing in comparison* IECTURE VI CHARACTER OF QUINTILIAN (Pgs. 139-160*) Another difference between Greek and Roman rhetoric is time* From Plttheus to Longinus It was a period of 1300 years* From Cicero to Quintilian we have only a period of 100 years* Roman declamations at this time started as original oratory but became perverted. The purpose of speaking changed from persuasion to pleasure. A* 1st book - preparatory* B* Uth and 6th books - events In the life of the author. Quintilian's wife and two sons died. C. Uth book - miscellaneous topics. JQA attacks Quintilian's "Good Man" theory. Bad men may be gifted In oratory. If a man is a skilled speaker* don't conclude that he is by necessity, "good.** LECTURE VII BRANCHES OF RHETORIC (Pgs. 161-192.) A. There are 5 branches of rhetoric. 1* Inventio - verisimilitude. 2* Dlapisltio - arrangement. 3. Elocutio - words and sentences* U. Memorla - fora perception. 5. Pronunciatlo - voice and body* 3. JQA explains nos* 1, 3, and 5* 1* The end of rhetoric Is persuasion* Its irresistible Instrument is truth. In this way rhetoric differs from poetics* The poetic la sometimes a "fascination with falsehood." 3* Elocution is the act of comitting your discourse to writing* 5. Modern English writers call pronunciation, "style.11 JQA means delivery. C. There are several types of oratory* Aristotle* 1* Deliberation - deals with the future. 2* judicial - deals with ths past. 3* Demonstrative - deals with the present* French and Blair. 1* Pulpit 2* Popular Assembly 3* Bar JQA 1* Demonstrative 2. Deliberative 3* Judicial U. Religious 222

LECTURE Till STATE OP THE CONTROVERSY (Pgs. 183-205.) Tha three different types of oratory dauuid to soma axtant dif- farant treatment. Tha atata of tha eauaa does not naan a conclusion based on ground o ova rad. It maana tha nark at which a apaakar'a dis­ course aims. In Judicial speaking It maana "issue." Conviction ia the great aln of public speaking. A. Tha atata depends oni 1. co-ordinate states which are most frequent at the bar. It naana that more than one question has to be answered. 2 * subordinate states are subpoints distinct from the main point. "Faith, hope and charity" Is an example in point. Charity ia tha main point hare. 3. contingent states are connected with the main question but not essential as for example, the qualification of a Juror. 3. In Judicial oratory there are four kinds of states. They aret 1. conjecture. This type occurs ifcen the facts are in question and the Judge must decide by guesa. 2. definition. In this case tha fact ia admitted. The defini­ tion of tha fact is in question. 3. quality. Tha facta are admitted but whether an act is right or wrong la here in question. U. quantity. This la a matter of establishing tha degree of the crime - more or lass. The test of a speaker is tha adaptation of the speech to tha state of the oontroTeray. LECTURE IX TOPICS (Pgs. 207-228.)

Topics have been almost eliminated from modem rhetoric. Topics are ccsenonplaeea or circumstances belonging alike to every subject to facilitate tha invention of public speakers. There are two kinds of evidanoa and two types of topics - internal and external. A. There are 16 internal topics. 1. definition of things to the eensaa* of ideas for the understanding. An example from tha funeral oration of Turenna by Fleohler is sat down. It is a definition of an army. (Pg. 210.) 2. enumeration separation into constituent parts. An example is made of Junius. 3. notation (etymology) tracing to a aouroe. An example is here made of Milton. 223

U. genus 5. species "Yes, anry post Is s fool By demonstration Mad osn shov it Happy, could Nad* s inverted rule Prove every fool a poet" fool - genua poet - spaoias 6* antecedents past contingencies 7. consequents future contingencies 8. adjuncts. present contingencies 9m conjugates different words derived from the same words 10. cause, effect, contraries, repugnancies. 16. similitude, dissimilitude, and comparison. 9. There are 6 external topics. 1. prejudications precedents or previous declaims made on the same question involving the same parties. 2. common fame common knowledge grants presumption 3. torture U • written documents 5* oaths 6. witnesses LECTURE X ARGUMENTS AND DQ40KSTRATIYE ORATORY (Pgs. 229-252.) Adasis first covers the arguments suitable to demonstrative oratory. He distinguishes between demonstrative oratory and ths other two types. A. Demonstrative - praise or censure - opinions. 9. Deliberative - utility - will. C. Judicial - Justice - Judgment.

In olden times anything was considered worthy of praise or censure. Today In the U.S. we generally praise Ood or great men. Aristotle makes the point that when we praise we speak in terms of i 1. good - benefit of qualities to possessor. 2. fair • qualities that are of benefit to others. 3* virtue - both included. In the panegyric you have two responsibilities* 1. to be biographical. 2. to be ethical. In so doing bet 1. honest 2. specific 3. amplify U. moralise 221*

XfiCTURE XI DELIBERATIVE ORATOR! (Pgs. 253-276.) Deliberative oratory la persuasion at its beat. It la of tha graataat Importance, - even more than Foranale oratory. Whan speak­ ing to an assembly, tha apaaker should apeak aa if to one nan. There are three thlnge tha apaaker ahould oonaider. A. In considering tha subject of your speech think in tha following ternst 1. The legality of tha issue. 2. Tha possibility of tha issue. 3. Tha probability of tha issue. U. Tha facility with whloh action can be taken. 5. Tha necessity or lnportanee of tha issue. 6. Tha contingency of the issue. B. In considering tha audience - analyse the notires of tha audience. characters and nanners of the audLenoe. 1. Tha motives of an audience are. a. duty b. honor 0. interest d. passion Thecharacter of an audience is a. rude - appeal to int. and pass. b. polished - appeal to duty and honor. C. In considering yourself the speaker, you should remember. 1. to maintain the confidence of tha aud. 2. to aim toward simplicity plain sense clear logic ardent sensibility 3. to be buried in your subject Don't advocate what you don't believe. In making use of devises. remember Shakespeare's Isabella. «£io said, "I sometimes do excuse the thing I hate, For his advantage, whom I dearly love." LECTURE HI JUDICIAL ORATOR! (Pgs. 277-2950 Judlolal oratory Involves the litigation of causes and eloquervoe of the bar In the Raman courts much more leeway was given to lawyers in the use of eloquence than in the U.S. today (1800). A. There has been an all pervading change In Judlolal oratory. Demon­ strative and deliberative oratory are much the same in terms of rules. Not so with Judlolal oratory. The following changes have taken place. 225

1* With tha ancients the caae rested on conjecture* definition* quantity end quality. Today we have issues of fact to be deoided by a Jury and law decided by the Judes* 2, The law is more complicated now* Vfe have moved away from the cceseon law* 3* Passion Is not allowed In courts of law. Lawyers have less leeway* h* In ancient Room Judges had more power. Today the only decision left to the Jury is the question "guilty or not guilty?" It la especially true in criminal law* (Pgs* 297-319.> LECTURE XIII JUDICIAL ORATORY (Cont.) (Pgs* 297-31 9)

Since social institutions change there is a change in the law* There are three general rules that the student of law should keep in mind. The details are left for courses in law. These rules aret

A. Wrongs are divided into two types* public - civil private - criminal. In developing charges* you must deal with questions of "will," "power* and "fact." B* Public wrongs are divided into two types. They a ret personal wrongs. official wrongs which are dealt with by impeachment* C* IX)ties are divided between Judge and Jury. The Jury decides fact. The Judge decides the law. This kind of oratory is the most difficult type of oratory. The client is at stake* If the lawyer wins* it's simply a result of Justice being done. If the lawyer loses* he may go hungry* IECTURE XIV PULPIT ORATORY (Pgs. 321-3U1.) Our needle no longer points to the pole. The ancients said nothing of pulpit oratory. The church did not become powerful until the middle ages so this type of oratory is the latest to be considered* The functions of pulpit oratory are two* address hearers and to address Supreme Creator. A* When engaged in point no. 2* pathos is the most important appeal. The appeal of pathoe should be simple and executed with ardor* The object is not conviotion or persuasion but "prostration of the creature before his maker*" In actual practice* remember that Christ taught against too much speaking. Too much speaking may seem like hypocrisy* 226

B. When engaged in point no. 1, the ends of speech tret 1. the Inparting of knowledge. 2. the creating of virtue. In you get to one person In a thousand, your work Is not In vainI The French are adept at making a gorgeous impression. Fenelon, the Archbishop of Cembray is perhaps the best example In this school. The English make cold appeals to the understanding. This difference is probably a result of national toetperament. In France the Infalli­ bility of the church admits no argument. In actual delivery, the sermon must be previously written. "There is a force, an interest, an energy, In extemporaneous discourse "warm from the soul and faithful to its fires," which no degree of meditation can attain or supply. But the stream, which flows spontaneously, is almost always shallow, and runs forever in the same channel.11 (Pg« 3Ul.) IiCTURE XV THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL QUALITIES OF AN ORATOR (Pgs. 3U3-365.) The orator must have basically three qualities. He must havet 1. qualities of the heart. Above all else the speaker must be an honorable man. He must have a good reputation. Develops a code of ethics of your own. Integrity is the ^ewel of the soul. B. endowasnts of understanding. Industry can conquer all most anything. Knowledge leads to understanding. C. dispositions of twsper. 1. benevolence 2. modesty 3. confidence "Let no man premime to bespeak an ascendency over the passions of others until he has acquired an unquestioned mastery over his own." (Pg. 3650 LECTURE XVI MANAGEMENT OF THE PASSIONS (Pgs. 367-309.)

Quintilian mentioned the passions even in regard to forensic oratory. This not so today. The law is more important. Modern courts have lost on the side of eloquence but they have gained on tha side of solidity. Appeal to the passions is still most important however.

Aristotle, Cioero and Quintilian refer to the passions as the most important and effectual power of public speaking. 227

An orator ahould know tha habits and passions to apeak well. Aristotle indicates that a speaker doss wsll to appeal to ths male vo­ le ncs of his listeners• JQA thinks that an appsal to othsr mors w o r t h y passions is mors Justified. He offsrs Burks as an example over and above Junius. A. An orator ahould feel ths passion that he Is purposing to excite* 1. To stir passion - begin by feeling it* 2* To infl ame anger - be cool* B. An orator needs imagination* "The power of imagination furnishes a substitute for the evidence of all the senses. It creates and multiplies all those incidents, which, being the constant attendants upon all realities, have always so strong a tendency to enforce belief. So lndlspenslble is this power to the sucoess of that oratory, which aims at the dominion of the passions, that a public speaker can institute no more Important self examination, than the Inquiry whether it has been bestowed upon him by nature* If it has let him cherish and cultivate it. aa the moat precious of heaven*a blessings* If It has not. let him graduate the scale of his ambition to the temperate regions of eloquence, and aspire only to the reputa­ tion of being tha orator of reason," (Pg* 383*) C* The ruling passions aret 1* legislature - Jealousy. 2* bar - avarice* 3* pulpit - fear* This is a warring rather than a recommendation* Recapitulation. Invention! state of controversy, arguments adapted to demonstrative, deliberative, Judicial and religious speaking, address and character of the orator, exciting and dlreoting passions*

Look not to the lessons of a teacher but to the fertility of your own invention* LECTURE XVII DISPOSITION EXORDIUM (Pgs. 393-400.) The 1st cannon, invent!o was dealt with in the last ten lectures* JQA uses the analogy of the creation of ths world to speech in clarify­ ing invention* But order is needed. So we must consider dispisitio. Cioero defines this term as "the orderly arrangement of things Invented*” Displsition - work - exorcise of Judgment. Invent!o - genius - attribute of imagination* Quintilian defines organisation as "a useful distribution of things, or of parts) assigning to eaeh its proper place and station." 228

A* What are these partaT Aristotla 1* Introduction - exordium* 2• propoaltlon* 3. proof* U. conclusion - peroration* Quintilian (adds a fifth) 1. introduction* 2* narration* 3* proof* U* refutation. 5. conolualon* Clearo (adda another) 1* Introduction* 2* narration* 3* proposition. U* proof* 5* refutation* 6. conolualon* JQA follows Cicero on organisation* Exordlw ia "a discourse to prepare the minds of the audience for ths favorable recaption of the remainder(Cicero) Amity la nec­ essary to every transaction of a peaceable nature among men* P. Tha Introduction does three things i 1* engaga good will - favor of speaker How do you get confidence and affection? a* He bespeaks favorable allusion a to himself • direct or indirect, b. He protests charges against him* o. He profeeaes honor and virtue* d* He leads audience to recall his services and good deeds* e. He enlarges on difficulties he has faced* f. He expresses open solicitation. g* He expresses confidence in his auditors* h* He praises whole group* 1* He praises one person lass openly. There is danger here of over eag>hasls* 2* engage attention to speech* There is the direct and Indirect approach a* Direct approach is used ins popular subjects trivial subjects obscure subjects b* Indlreot approaches are used lnt equivocal subjects obno3d.ous subjects 229 3* secure * sense of docility toward your subj. a. bo simple and unasmiming. b. avoid vulgarity. Sometimes you eliminate your introduction alto go tho r ... aa in Cicero's first oration vs. Catalina. An introduction ia most s u i t e d to demonstrative and pulpit spoaklng. Extempore spooking dooan't require an introduction. Oratory on tho other hand generally doos. LECTURE VIII NARRATION (Pgs. ioi-ii3i.) Narration ia a general exposition of the facta upon which argument is baaed. Generally, it ia said, "deliberative oratory has no narra­ tion beoauae i t deala with future queationa upon which there are no previous Materials. "Narration la moat Important in Judlolal oratory. However no question deliberative or otherwise can arise without some kind of a history. In this way narration is important even to delibera­ tive oratory. It le also Important in demonstrative ap. A* Characteristics of a narration aret 1. brevity. 2* perspicuity or analysis. 3. probability. an improbable truth la leas effective than a probable falsehood. LECTURE XIX PROPOSITION AND PARTITION (Pgs. 1-25.) This phase of the development of a speech is indispensibls. Proposition. Tour discourse may support one simple, one complicated or many distinct propositions. Judicial speeeh has only one proposition. Pulpit and deliberative oratory may have sub propositions or propositions divided into several points by partition. Burke » s speech on conciliation was an attsmpt to accomplish peace - not war, not negotiations, not Judicial pesos but a simple peace. Tour proposition or state of controversy should be clear and con­ cise. A. Partition. Partition serves two purposest 1. to facilitate matters for the speaker and 2. to facilitate matters for the listeners. Pension feels that organisation should be excluded In sermons. He also reiterates tha objections to partition set down originally by Quintilian. 1. Speaker may forget some points. 2. Speaker is exposed to omit certain points of Importance. 3. Speaker may suffer ths criticism that hisspeeeh shows stiffness and premeditation. lj. Organisation discloses the whole design of the speech. 5. Organisation interferes with an appeal to the passions. 6. The ar^seoirto may be feeble in themselves. 7. One strong argument looses strength to other weak ones. 230

B. JQA, Cicero and Quintilian approve partition. JQA answers objections above. 1. Without organisation it would ba impossible to rsmarnber. 2. If so, it is tha imperfection of hi a subject which la tha fault not tha prlnolplaa of organisation. 3. Parhapa, but without premeditatlon tha delivery of a spaaoh on a complloatad subject would bo beyond tha ability of nan. L. Organisation doaa not nacassarily mean tha prematura disclosing of dsslgn. 5. Passion must ba based on tha feelings. Organisation in no way precludes feeling. 6. Tha aootumilation of arguments would be facilitated by organisation. 7. The weak may be helped by tha strong. C. Partition is beat whan subtle. Advantages great, when time ia given to partition. Tha pulpit needs partition. There are two kinds of divisional 1. divide text into parts. 2. divide subject which arises from text. Don't forget the rule of brevity in number of ideas. Tha French suggest no more than 2 or 3* Quintilian suggests 3* Avoid de­ ficiency or exoess. Organisation is a skill or an ability. The English are poor in this respect. Tha French are good. LECTURE XX CONFIRMATION RATIOCINATION (Pgs. 27-447.) Now tha task of proving tha assertion still remains. "The vital principle of every cause, I have heretofore told you, consists in tha state, or propositionf and I may now add, that the whole duty of tha speaker is comprised in the proof." (Pg. 28.) External evidence consists of every thing, which the orator can allege (alledge), not resulting from his own talent. This mounts to evidence. Internal evidence is that which the orator draws from his personal resources of ingenuity. This is argument. External evidence 1. legislator reads section of a statute. 2. lawyer introduces a witness. 3. divine in pulpit reads scripture. Internal evidence 1. legislator Infers from statute. 2. lawyer draws conclusions from testimony. 3. divine applies quotation from scripture. 231

A* External • Tide nee ia good only In courts. Both Internal and external evidence la used in other forms of oratory. Ariatotle olaaairiea external evidence aa follows t 1 . l a w . 2. witnesses. authorities Quintilian adds, oracles adjudications maxima eoraiton Tame 3. contracts. Li. torture. 5 . oath s. JQA includes the sign and example under this classification. 6. sign - a token by which anything is shown* There are two kinds of signs. a. certain. b. uncertain. 7. example - a thing, which by its resemblance may indicate another. The certain is that, "which so universally accompanies the thing it proves, that nothing can be opposed against it." An uncertain sign is "only an indication of probability." The ancients included the sign and the example in internal proof. Certain signs are the basis for the syllogism. Uncertain signs are the basis for the enthywem. Examples lay the foundation of induction.

3. At this point we move into logic* The speaker should be a master of logic. There are two kinds of reasonlngi 1. Ratiocination - the proposition is inferred by way of con­ clusion from certain other propositions or premises. Aristotle is an exmaple of this. 2. Induction - Inference or conclusion from facts or examples. Socrates is an exmnple. C. The forms of ratiocination are threei 1. syllogism - a process of reasoning based on indisputable truth. There are no alternatives to the conclusion of a syllogism. 2* enthyman - a process based on probabilities. It Includes the conclusion of a syllogism and either one of the premises. JQA gives the following example t enthymem - Blessed are the poor in spirit) for theirs is the kingdom of heaven, syllogism - Blessed are they who (say) shall enjoy the kingdom of heaven. The poor in spirit shall enjoy the kingdom of heave. Therefore blessed are the poor in spirit. 232

3* epichirema - a rhetorical syllogism having aa many as five parts. It Is based on the three parts of a syllogism* But the premises are not indisputable. Ths premises are based on probabilities. Hence they may need proof. If proof is needed then it makes up the rest of ths epiohirema. Ths speaker deals in probabilities. LECTURE XU RATIOCINATION INDUCTION (Pgs. U9-70.) A. Argumentation is to discourse as charity is to Christianity. Ratiocination and examples, which form the basis for induction, go hand in hand. Examples of Cioero. Demosthanes. Burke. Parables of Christ, are used to illustrate the use of exmnples. LECTURE Zm CONFUTATION (Pgs. 71-92.) Quintilian uses confutation in two senses, as it is adapted to Judicial trials and to every form of public speaking. answer to adversary* s allegation. Defense is more difficult than offense. Accusation is simple. The defense must deny. Justify, excuse and extenuate. Accusation has time for premeditation. Defense has less time. Accusation knows what it is that must be proved. Defense has to adapt refutation to the case of the accusation set up. A. Confutation is applicable to the bar today. It is applicable in both written and oral form.

Place your defense on one of four grounds. They are as follows! 1. take exception to forms to obtain abatement. 2 . dispute right of plaintiff to action. 3. take issue with facts - trial by Jury. U. a

1. don* t anawar saying too much. 2. don't answer saying too little. 3* don't answer yourself but your opponent. A. standard of oratory la time. Avoid being diffuse In your speech. A speaker needs perfect control. Tour proof should be arranged as an army. Rit the strongest In front and behind. Tour weakest proof should be placed In the middle. But quality is more important than placement. I£CTUR£ XXIII DIGRESSION TRANSITION (Pg#. 93-U5.) The ancient schools of declamation as signed digression to a perman­ ent post between narration and proof. It was generally a moral lecture served up as refreshment. It was abused however. A. Quintilian protected digression for, It furthered argument and ornamental speech. JQA feels that digression is a stranger to argument. These are the causes for digression. 1. indolence. 2. deference to passion and prejudloe. 3. professional can petition - mutual example, ii. vanity of speaker. Digression is generally drawn from general history. Lucian and Martial satirised this propensity maong lawyers. Martial wrote, "No dagger keen, no poison'd bowl Foma, of my suit, the constitution; •Tis of three kids my neighbor stole I came to court for restitution. With thundering voice, and outstretched arms My lawyer fights o'er all our battles; Now thrills with Cannae's dire alarms. And now of Mlthridates prattles. Oh I let thy tongue, Verboso, cease, Which trust in Punic faith forbids; Let Sylla, Marius, sleep in peace; And say - one word about my kids." (Pgs. 10U-5.) Transition is a connective passage. It should be fully displayed for perspicuity. It oan be a circumstance or an incident of an extem­ poraneous nature. JQA gives examples from Burke, Cicero, mid Demos­ thenes.

LECTURE XXIV CONCLUSION (Pgs. 117-138.)

In the Areopagus in Athens no q»peal to the passions are allowed. Only the proposition and the proof were adh&ssable. The Romans used 23U

pathos and thaatrical proof In tha oourta. Tha conclusion can ba used for tha us# of pathos or a suseaaxy*

A* Aristotle listed four uses. 1. oonoillata audience In favor of tha apaaker* 2* amplify and diminish* 3* arouse passions. U* raoapltulata* B. Quintilian also listed four* 1* a climax of ascending ideas* 2* comparison* 3* inference. U. accumulation of examples.

JQA suggests that we don't sit down and lump pathos in one section of the speech and logos in another* Remember to consider pathos when you think of the judge and logos whan considering the subject* Pathos generally works in the peroration* LECTURE XXV ELOCUTION PURITY (Pgs. 139-159.) JQA opens this lecture by answer!sing all of his previous lectures* He compares tha English writers and the ancients in dealing with the definition of elocution* Sheridan, Walker and others define elocution as a mode of speaking or delivery* Cicero and Quintilian refer to writing not speaking when they speak of elocution. They would consider delivery under the heading of pronuneiatlo* JQA feels that elocutlo is diction not delivery* He interjects compara­ tive definitions from Cioero at this point. Cicero defines the following terms aa follows invention - "discovery by meditation of those things, which by their truth or verisimilitude gave probability to the cause* " disposition * "orderly arrangement of things invented*" elocution - "the application of the proper words and sentences to the materials of Invention*" Invention furnishes the matter| organisation, the order and elocution furnishes the manner involved in composition. Tha subject of elocution is words* There are three parts to the process of elocution* These ares A* elegance - ehoioe - ell go - to elect* 3* composition - arrangement - putting together* C* dignity - decoration - figurative language* 235

A* Elsgano* or choice of words involves two thing*. They ora perspicuity and purity. 1. Purity involves thraa things. a. latinlty. Wb ahould uaa English not Latin. Tha Renans fait that anything othar than latlnity or/and Hellenism was barbarian. Tha Ora aka fait that anything not a part of Ha11*niam was barbarian. Tha audianca should gat tha full import of tha word*, b. prafarwnoa. In tha prafaranea for words to ba choson, JQA dlsagraaa with Canpboll. Ca*g>bell rasolvas all languaga to fashion. No standard of purity is offarad othar than eoaaaon uaa or custom. JQA dlsagraaa in thatt 1. This standard oramps libarty. No word can ba proparly usad that has not baan uaad bafora. 2. Using only words in eoaaikon usaga would put languaga in a atata of perpetual dacay. 3. Purity would than ms an tha confound of ln- puritias multipliad. JQA states that tha simplaat and bast rula in purity is that tha purity of spaaoh may ba da rived from tha pur­ pose of ths speaker. Tha choice of words must ba tha bast to convey tha idea to tha mind of tha hearer, e. Comply with tha requisites of propriety and graasnar. 1* Propriety allows no moral impurity. Allow no indelicacy or affectation in your oholee of words. 2. grammarian* indicate tha exclusion of old, new and foreign words. Tha examples to tha contrary out­ weigh tha rule. The speaker should relax his mu sc las of graaanatioal prudery. Let your words bear tha express image of your thoughts. LECTURE XXVI PERSPICUITY (Pgs. 161-153.) JQA introduces this lecture with a stateamnt of purpose. Ha intends to answer tha following questions! 1. "What ia perspicuity?" 2, What are tha reasons for its influence? 3. What are ths means by which it is obtained? A. What is perspicuity? Ths word means transparency. In ths Latin ths terms ware "par aspicio" meaning "to look through." B. Reasons for its influence. Speech is a double operation. It involves tha operation of tha speaker and tha operation of tha listener. To gat to tha listener your words must be dear. In talking your words have wings. Hence tha special saiphasis on perspicuity in speech. You mist ba Immediately clear In speech. This is not true in written coraminication. Thera are three Indispensible things to ths process of speeeh, aside from tha listener. 236

1* the ipatkar1 a mind* 2* tha madium or word* and sentence a* 3* an absence of a l l a la a . C* Eliminate offenses against perspicuity* 1* tha unintelligible. Tha oauaas of which arei a* a want of idaaa or maana of expression* b* an excessive attention to sound* c* tha languaga itself * Sosas words are quite obvious for they refer to concrete things* Others are more difficult for they refer to words representing words or ideas* 2* tha mnblguous* This is also a defect in language. This characteristic is tha source of puns. 3* the obscure. This la a "half meaning*" This aeh)al]y is a r esult of several things* a, defective language b* tha speaker may- not want to divulge everything* This is a result of the fact that under the fbiplre, Romans had to be very careful about what they said* One wrong word might mean death* c* lack of attention. "••• if in public discourse you can always make choice of such words* as will convey effectually to the minds of your audience your meaning* your whole meaning* and nothing but your meaning* you will fairly ba entitled to the character* and unquestionably obtain the reputation of an elegant speaker*" (Pg. 183*) LECTURE XXVII COMPOSITION ORDER (Pgs. 135-206.)

Composition Is the process o f putting words together* This sub­ ject was considered important by the ancients* Dionysius of Hali­ carnassus* Cicero and Quintilian all covered the subject* Three ideas w» set down by the ancients* They are order* Juncture and number* JQA adds the period or sentence. A* There are four general types of numberst 1* natural order - "presents words in a succession* corresponding with the feelings of the speaker*" 2 * gramas tic al order - "exhibits them words according to their bearing upon one another*" 3* metaphysical order - "forms them by the file of abstract ideas." U* musical order - "marshals them in the manner most agreeable to the hearer* s ear*" B* Oreak Mid Roman speech was based on the natural and musical orders* The speeches of modem Europe are based on the grammatical and meta­ physical orders* There are three kinds of discourse used in every society. They are t 237

1* conversation - generally based on gras—atical order* 2* formal - the natural order runs through ell oratory* The metaphysical order serves as a basis for specula­ tive oratory* 3* poetry - based on the musical order* In other words the distinguishing characteristic of all kinds of discourse is arrangement of words* The ancients used only one word many times where we would use many words* English depends a great deal on prepositions* The noun and verb predominate* In Latin the important word was plaeed at tho beginning of the sentence* This is not neces­ sarily true in English. There are too many obstacles. When it is done it is very effective* Milton is used to illustrate this point* When you strive to effect the understanding use the grammatical order* If you appeal to the passions, invert the rule. Put the most Important word first* The first and last positions in a sentence are the im­ portant positions*

IECTURE XXVIII JUNCTURE AND NUMBER (Pgs. 207-227.) JQA opens this lecture with a brief biblical history of speech* A Juncture i s that part of a sentence Wiich connects the main elements* A* There are certain rules resulting from the large number of consonants in English* 1* The juncture of a syllable terminating in a vowel should be mads with a syllable ceranenclng by a consonant* This avoids a collision of two vowels* 2. Avoid the same sound or syllable at the close and car—ence- ment of two successive words. Numbers no longer exist al­ though they ware covered by the ancients* Latin had a har­ mony that is impossible in English* The modem English writers are wrong tdien they try to adapt numbers to English. JQA gives a history of the development of number or metre in Greece* Don't try to arrange sentences according to Latin prosody, but be aware of the music in speech. LECTURE XXIX SENTENCES (Pgs. 229-21*7.) JQA opens with a summary of the last few lectures* Sentences are built on a subject and a predicate, or an agent and action. A. A period is basically a sentence* There are two kinds of sentences, 1* the simple and 2. the complex* The simple involves one sub* ject and one predicate. The compound deals with two subjects or/and two predicates. JQA then gives examples of periods based on Aris­ totle's definition, *a portion of a speech having written itself a beginning and an end*” 236

Thera are basically two styles in the use of periods* 1* the consolidated union* 2* the complex, loose sentenee* JQA gives examples from Junius* the Duke of Grafton and Cioero* LECTURE XXX FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (Pgs. 2li9-267.) The means of adding dignity to speeeh is through figurative langu­ age* A* Mr. Looks states that ideas are derived from two sources* They ares 1* objects perceptible to the senses* 2* reflections of our minds on objects* Figures are sometimes considered modes of speeeh and ere referred to as unoosmon* This is not true* Figures are very common* They have always bean used* JQA gives a brief history of figurative language* Dr* Johnson defines a rhetorical figure as any mode of speaking in which words are distorted from their literal and primitive sense* A trope is ths change in the use of a word* A figure involves the affection of an entire sentence. Dr* Blair confuses figurative and literal language* JQA then gives examples* B* There are three souroes of figures! 1* analogy between matter and spirit* examples from the Bible* 2* analogy between natter and matter* 3* association of sounds* Sometimes all are used in one figure* Speakers must show (by words) the listener with what he* ths speaker* was first affected in expressing an idea. This is done by figures* IAiCTURE XXXI FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (COHT.) (Pgs. 269-286.)

What are the rules regarding figurative language in actual practice?

A. The purpose of figurative language is "to a ddress the eye through the medium of the imagination*" The eye is the most important of senses* Imagination is the "faculty of tha human soul* by which we are enabled to bring into mind ideas of sensible objects* which are not present and acoessible to any of tho senses*■ Imagination Is the key to figurative language* One rule ef Acting imagination or figurative language 1st 1* Unity* "Suppose a painter should clap the head of a man upon the neck of a horse; and* gathering from all quarters the limbs of various animals* should stick them over with variegated feathers; or join together the form of a beautiful woman and a 2 39

disgusting fish| would you not laugh a t such an object? Precisely auoh is tha book made up of parts, a s in- ooharant a a a aiok Man*a dreams*" (Pg* 273*)

B* Thera ara three kinds of figurative languaga. They* aret 1 * literal * Whioh ia direct representation to tha memory and rational faculties* 2 * figurative - which is indirect representation to the imagination. 3* Intermediate - mixture of first two, JQA. supports these tenna with samples, LECTURE XXXII FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (CONT.) (Pgs* 267-306.) The second rule regarding figurative language is

A* Congruity. This should apply to three elments in the speech situation. 1* to subject. If your subject is grand don't use mean figures. JQA uses examples from Homer and Dryden. 2. to speaker* Suit your figure to your mood and your pur­ pose. JQA uses examples front Burke and Johnson. Since these two men debated the American colonies in parliament, it would be interesting to make a study to compare ths use of reasoning and sentiment that both made* 3* to the audience* JQA uses Demosthanea as an example.

LECTURE XXXIII METAPHOR AMD ALLEGQKT (Pgs. 307-327.)

A. These are used fort 1 * necessity 2 . energy 3. beauty

B. The metaphor and the allegory are based on the principle of associa­ tion. Ihere are four principles of associationt 1. similitude* This especially involves the metaphor and the allegory. A metaphor is a simile in one word. An allegory is an extended metaphor. Generally in the allegory the figure is so complete that the literal definitions are totally disregarded as in fables and parables. 2* oeuee and effect. This is metonymy. 3. Whole and parts. This is synecdoche. iu opposition. This is irony* 2JUO

C. JQA slva* examples of the allegory. The following are rulaa regarding tba use of tha metaphor* 1. Make aura that thara la a resemblance batwaan tha figure and tha lltaral object. 2* Don*t dwall on tha figure* 3* Don't draw figurea from naan or disgusting object*. U* Don't lat your metaphors be too thickly crowded. 5m Recognise tha difference between the poet and tha orator in their use of figures* Tha poet can soar beyond the flaming bounds of apace and time. Tha orator la under the power of gravitation*

IECTURE XXXIV METONTMT AND STNECDOCHE (Pgs. 329-3!i9.) A* Metonymy is sometimes classed as a metaphor, but this la not so* Tha following represent the use of metonymyt 1* cause for effect - "Cicero" for Cicero's work. 2 * effect for cause - "death In pot" for poison* 3 * container for contents - "bottle" for beer* h* place for things produced in it • "China" for China dish. 5. sign for thing signified - "sceptre" for crowi* 6m abstraction for concrete - "redness" for red eyes* 7. antecedent for consequent - "remember not, Lord, our trans­ gressions." B* The synecdoche is tha whole for parts or vice versa* Examples from Franklin and Pope are given* Irony involves three things. They ares 1 * litotes - means more than it says* 2 * hyperbole - overstatement* 3* catachresia - it turns Imperfection into beauty. Examples are given.

IECTURE XXXV MEHORT (Pgs. 351-372) Memory is a function of the mind. Any further questions you ml£it ask will lead only to a "confession of my own ignorance*" JQA gives a brief history of the treatment of mamoria* He mentionst 1 * Mnemosyne, 2* Aristotle, 3* Quintilian and U. Locke* JQA defines memory as a "faculty of tha human mind by which we are enabled to call up at pleasure ideas, which have been before lodged In it." (Pg* 357.)

Sosm things we simply can't remember* Others force themselves on us like unweloosw visitors* A memory completely under the oontrol of the will is unexampled among men* 2U1

A. What are the means to good msmory? They are three, 1 . keeping yourself free from oauses that Impair memory. a. The latest idea acquired will be easily 'remembered* b. The memory is the first of the intellectual faculties which follows the decay of the body. c • Debauchery lessens memory, sexual excesses intoxication emotions - grief, anger and fear* prejudice and superstition. This is a Job for the moralist rather than the rhetori­ cian. B. discipline of persevering which involves 1 . application 2 . labor 3 . work in the mornings and nights for they a re best adapted to retention. C. certain contrivances. 1 . association of people and places. 2. organisation. Cut large areas into smaller pieces. 3. Grey in England has a special system involving the memorising of the dates of all the kings and queens in England, h. Imam shorthand. LECTURE XXXVI DELIVERY (Pgs. 373-iiOO.) Delivery is divided into two parts. They a ret A. Action or the deportment of the body and gestures. Cicero refers to action as the emotion of the soul. JQA refers to the work of Quintilian and gives several direct quotations. 3. Pronunciation or utterance of words. You must transmit words and electrify with sentiment. 1. You must be heard. 2. You must speak slowly. 3. You must use variety. JQA has attempted to give the principles upon which rhetorical doc­ trines of the andents were founded. But, the knowledge of the Ch'eeks and Romans would be of little use if "their instructions were not ac­ commodated to the manners of our times and the language of our own country."

To open the avenues of science is the duty of the teacher. To ex­ plore them is the labor of the student. 2U2

"In soelal eonnrM with the mighty deed of ancient days, you will never mart 'inder the galling seneation of dependence upon the mighty living of the present age; end in your struggles with the world, should a crisis ever occur, when even friendship may deem it prudent to desert you; when even your country may seem ready to abandon herself and you; when even priest and lavite shall come and look on you, and pass by on the other side; seek refuge , my unfail­ ing friends, and be assured you will find it, in the friendship of Laellus and Tciplo; in the patriotism of Cicero, Demosthenes and Burke; as well as in the precepts and example of him, whose whole law is love, and who taught us to remember injuries only to forgive them." (Pr. 396.) 2U3 EXHIBIT 8

The lectures of Joseph McKean, Boylston Profeasor front 1809 to 1818• These lectures sere found In manuscript form in the Wldener Library at Hsrrard University* They were donated to Harvard in 1923 by Mrs* Folsom* They sere never published* Some of these lectures were only outlines, but most of the lectures were written In full form* There were 38 lectures*

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE (Dated Dec* 15, 1809. Pgs. 1-20.) Pgs* 1 through 13 are Included "verbatim" in lecture No* II* The purpose of his course of lectures was given on pgs* lit, IS, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20 in Lecture No. I. These pages were not Included in Lecture II* The purpose of McKean's lectures was as follower "••• to elucidate the great principles of writing and speaking in that manner idiich shall tend to please and persuade intelligent and accountable beingsj leading them by right means to pursue noble ends, and ever to bear in mind their immense responsibility, not only to their fellow beings and themselves, but to the Universal witness and 'judge* •" (Pg* U*.)

McKean made Introductory apologies for weaknesses in his lectures when he said, "These are some of the interesting and arduous duties which are devolved on him who now eomences his appeal to jour candor* Unaffectedly conscious of very circumscribed acquaintance with the subject and with but opportunities for very partial preparation since the unexpected honour of this important appointment has been conferred, your reflection will suggest the many and powerful special claims which the present pro­ fessor has to indulgence from his hearers* That this will be afforded by his superiors and associates is guaranteed by the fullest reliance on their high moral and intellectual worth*" (Pg* lit-15.) The mediocrity of his lectures was a result in part of his poor health, said McKean* A* Hints of McKean on his methods of lecturing were included. 1* The first object of lectures was to adapt instructions to use by audience* 2* McKean*s audienoe could expect a plain, didactic style of writing and a familiar manner of delivery* 3* "A free use not a servile repetition of the standard authori­ ties will be indulged*" L* The classical scholars represent the best in rhetoric* 5* Sources will be pointed out, said McKean. 6 * Questions were requested. 2iili

7. JMcK uda the point that reference would be made to a speaker* s atjla rather than his opinion. 8. Ha aatcad for an objective traatiaant in tha declamations of his students. literature haa baan "too much as- soolatad with and influancad by tha aplrit of political and religious party.” (Pg. 20.) "In this favored aaaaon collaga daya , in thla calm ratraat of tha humi , lat none of tha angry or turbulent paaaiona of tha world Interrupt your quiet, disturb jour harmony, obacura your JudgBont." (Pg. 20.) Thara waa ona qualification, McKean fait that hia atudanta should feel curiosity at graat ooourrancaa of tha day in tha world. a. Kaap fraa froat prejudice. b. Charlsh a spirit of candor. c• "Weigh in tha aoalas of raaaon and truth tha claims of authors and nan." (Pg. 20.) d. Don't forgot tact. 9* Foranaic discussions, philological and ethical criticism, poetry, drana and history open before than, said McKean. II GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT OF THIS COURSE OP LECTURES AND CON­ SIDERATION OF 3CME OBJECTIONS This lecture la included in its original form aa an example of McKean*a lectures. Tha form of thla lecture is "cleaner” than most of tha other lectures.

III THE RISE AND PROQRESS OF OrtATOftT AMONG THE ANCIENTS (Oct. 18, 1811 and In 18U* and I8l£.) (Pga. 25-UO.)

Eloquence developed aa early aa tha faculty of speech. Language was a special gift from tha Creator. Advancements in eloquence must be among tha earliest of human improvements. The vary first language was probably animated expressions of disgust and delight. But a sliqple language would not suffice for all occasions. Prayers and supplications to God kindled oratorical ardour.

"Thus the simple elements of speech will in every country soon reclave £siej a new fone and character. Rhetorical structure and em­ bellishment will be aa early as any of tha advances towards improve­ ment, and tha refinements rf speech will usually aooompany and test the progress of society to the enjoyment of all the complex provisions which constitute a state of civilisation. Toward this improved state men must have made considerable progress, before any system of rules or any standard of excellence will be prescribed or adopted in this or any other of the elegant arts. The eloquence of a rude age and a barbarous people will partake of their general character* With many excellencies will be blended many faults \ great virtues will be shaded with bold and strong vices." (Pg. 28.) a * 5

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A. Examples of savage eloquence arei 1* Logon - a chief among the aboriginals of our country. 2. Scythian mbM*«dora to Alexander, Mo n i , Abraham, Ulysees and Nestor. Kany other exa^>las ara found In Qmk mythology. 3, Hu m s was a Oreek god dw orlglnatad font In the ora* torleal arts. Paul was rsfarrsd to as a spaakar of eloquence. Our aarliast racorda of coimrinloatlon wars poetical. Rhetoric foil owed soon after. Theory follows practice. It is difficult to say whan rhetoric was introduced. No rsoords of rhetoric remain from the Assyrians or Egyptians. The Egyptians had eloquence. Hoses •aid, "I am not eloquent neither heretofore and now - but I am slow of speech and of a slow tongue." (Pg. 32.) MeKean goes on to cite examples from the Bible of references to speech. B. In Oreece tradition can be traced. 1. Pausanlaa (quoted by Dr. Ward) said that he had read a book on this art, the mithor of which was King Pittheus of Troesene, a city of Peloponnesus. This tract has been questioned. 2. In De Oratore Aristotle was the first to set down a Historic . 3. Corax and Tlsiaa, native of Sicily, wrote rhetorics in the 5th centozy B.C. U. In the Institutes Empedocles was the first to teach speeoh. 5. Aristotle*s rhetoric was the high point of Greek rhetoric. Demosthenes was the high point of Greek oratory. C. In Rome Cicero and Quintilian were great teachers of rhetoric. MeKean continuest "This is one of the subjects of human attention in which the moderns have been contented to follow in the steps marked out by their illustrious predecessors of Greece and Rosie. So Judged those who pre­ scribed this course of lectures which is on the exact plan of the sys­ tem of Professor Ward, who candidly avows his full concurrence with the amiable and eloquent Fenelon, that to combine portions of Aristotle and Longinus with Cicero and Quintilian and to confirm their maxims by references to the purest authors of antiquity, would even now form the best system of oratory." (Pg. 37.) MeKean concludes this lecture by referring his students to Ward. Ha says of Ward's lectures!

"Though not highly alluring by ornaments of style, and without muoh of that Interest which brilliant imagery, pointed antithesis, and 261

bold exclamations are wont to excite; they will repay the attention whloh la given to thorn. Lika * plain aubatantlal repast, If these Aolesome vlanda proroka no eager appatlta they will not aoon pro­ duce satiety; and the nourishment they afford will be real and salu­ tary." (Pg. 37.) IT BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF GRECIAN ORATORS (This lecture waa given In October 25* Ifill.) (Pga. Ul-52.) In his Introduction MeKean urges that his students avoid all partial estimatea of orators. A. He Hats Qreek Orators. Pausanias said that Plttheua taught a school at Trdomene. nils school flourished 600 years B.d. Plttheus was ad­ mired for Learning* wisdom and application. 1. "Ebipedocles is said by Quintilian, first to have taught in the art of rhetoric. Diogenes Laertius quotes Aristotle as authority, for conferring on him the honor of its in­ vention. He is said to have been the preceptor of the famous Oorglas of Leontlum* and was as estimable for social virtues as he was eminent for intellectual vigor. He was a native of Sicily and flourished about 1*50 B.C. He was a wane advocate for the Pythagorean doctrine of transmigration* and wrote a poem in Its defence slo which waa held in such estimation* as to be recited at public festivals in connection with the productions of Hesiod and Homer." (Pg. 1*2.) 2. Tlsiaa and Corax were the first men to digest rules for the rhetorical art and received compensation for instruction In it. 3. Qorgiaa was the next orator of note. He professed that he could speak on any subject. A gold statute was erected for Qorgias in the temple of Apollo at Delphos. U. Plato censured Oorglas. Longinus censured Gorgias. Socrates was a student of Oorglas. 5. Some contemporaries of Portae were Thrasymachus, Prodicus* Protagoras* Hippias* Aleid annus and Theodoras. Prior to these speakers wass 6. Pieistratus who was the earliest of the Greeks to cultivate eloquence. He waa responsible for the preservation of Homer. He founded a public library. 7. Pericles was another of the early Greek orators. Cicero praises Pericles as an Olympian. Quintilian is less enthusiastic because of the licentiousness in which Pericles indulged. Pindar is quoted by Blair as assigning the first written oration among Athenians to Pericles. Quintilian however assigns this honor to Antlphon. 262

8. Socrates «u called the "father of eloquence11 by Tully. Socraies, aaid Quintilian, waa a student of Oorglas* According to MeKean an Insuperable timidity prevented the exercise of his oratorical powers in public speaking ...,l (Pg* 1*70 9. Longinus and Dionysius of Halicarnassus compared Socrates and Demos thanes as orators, Demosthenes was clearly superior* 10* Lysias was also a speaker of importance* V BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF ORATOitS AND RHETORICIANS IN THE LATTER PORTION OF GRECIAN HISTORT (Pgs. 53^6*) A, MeKean lists and discusses Greek orators* 1* Plato was cited by Cicero, Quintilian and Longinus as a great rhetorician. MeKean agreed that Plato was a man of great eloquence* Plato's academy was described* "Here at the academy waa taught a philosophy so sublime and morals so pure that many in their wonder and delight have contended that during his travels in Egypt he must have derived assistance either from the writings of Moses or from some who had been instructed in them*" (Pg* 5L.) Plato's Oorglas is not a condemnation of rhetoric but rather, false rhetoric* Quintilian points out that Plato's Phaedrus establishes the excellence of rhetoric, "but also, especially the necessity of virtue in order to its attainment." (pg* 55*) Plato's style is figura­ tive. 2* Aristotle, a descendant of Erculapius, was of the same age of ftemosthanes and Alexander. Before studying with Plato, Aristotle wasn't interested in letters* Alexander was conmlttetf to the cars of Aristotle* Alexander's father, Phillip, wrote to Aristotle as follows! "I am grateful not so much that I am a father, as that I have a son in an age when he can learn from you, his instructor. I am confident you will make him a successor worthy of me, a king worthy of Macedonia*" (Pg* 56.)* Aristotle's followers were called Peripatetics. "••• 'It is no longer heresy to express the opinion that it Aristotle* s rhetoric is rather the Philosophy of words than things.'" (Pg. 58.) 3* Descartes substituted mystical formulas for those of Aristotle. Bacon reformed science. Newton finished ldiat Bacon started* Blair said that Aristotle's style was concise and dry and somewhat difficult in parts* 263

Knox fait that Aristotle know hwan nature. Aristotle, said MeKean, is contemplated as a book for the Freshman class. "Whether it will be well adapted for an intro­ ductory treatise, may a

law e«M* Oalba oloMd the cam In on* day with his oratory# it. Antoniua and Craaaiua war* oonaidarad among tba graat Adman orators• 5# Julius Caesar was oonaidarad briefly by MeKean* 6. Marcua futliua Cloero'a Ufa, aarvlcaa and literary ac- oomplishswnris 'are covered by MeKean. McKaan draws from Plutarch whan ha dLacuasaa Cicero# MeKean quotas 3alust as followsi •A writer on anelent characters [ Cicero] , who unites considerable smartness with much axtraTagant and censurable reflections on a few distinguished personages of Antiquity ..." (Pg. 75*) Livy comments on Cicero. Or. Conyers and Dr. Middleton praised Cicero. Olbben and Cibber criticised Middleton. Melmoth, Outhrie and Jones disparage Cicero. Dr. Aiken coemtents on the personality of Cicero. MeKean stated that, everyone agreed that his, Cicero's, style was splendid and polished. "Much of his writings have perished but enougi remains to constitute a proud monument to his in­ tellectual and literary fame." MeKean included an index to his next lecture. Vn RCMAN ORATORS AND RHETORICIANS AFTER CICERO (Given Dec. 13* IfiU.) (Pgs. 79-90.) A. After Cicero, Quintilian only deserves notice. For those rhetorlolans between Cicero and Quintilian MeKean is indebted to Suetonius. 1. Augustus is characterised as eloquent. It must be remem­ bered €Kat sycophants were always around to praise the Caesars. Augustus tried to substitute his style for the standard of the ideal set by Cicero. Horaoe, Virgil and Mecaenas helped in praising Augustus* style. As time passed the Caesars did more and more to deprecate the name of Caesar. Augustus then was a patron of letters but led the attack against true eloquence. 2. Aainius Poilio decryed the standard of Cioeronian oratory. Virgil honored Pollio by dedicating to Pollio one of his Eologuea• 3. Me seal a is briefly mentioned by Quintilian. U. CMsius Severlua waa exiled by the Emporer by making use of his best weapons - satire and ridicule. 5. Domitius Afer was one of Quintilian's teachers. He prac- ticed oratory long after he was able, producing laughter among his enemies and pity among his friends. By the time of Afer, "... empty and showy declamation had in a 265

great degree superseded a chaste and manly eloquence." (Pg. 6U.) 6. Seneoa was the last before Quintilian to condemn Ciceronian style. He was preceptor to Hero and showed hostility to Virgil and Tully. 7. Marcus Fabius Qaintlllanus was probably an Italian but according to Dodwell he was from Spain. Aollln edited a Quintilian and gives a description of the conditions of oratory In Quintilian's day and the reforms of Quintilian. Quintilian was a pleader at the forum and an Instructor In an academy of oratory. He followed the Old School and Cicero. He was held In good standing even against the bold and daring Juvenal, who spared nothing which he could attack. The Qnperor gave his two sons to Quintilian for training. He wrote the Institutes. Aocordlng to McKean, "If personal opinion may be a&nitted, It the Institutes Is placed without any hesitation at the head of the treatises in the art of rhetoric." (Pg. 08.) 8. Roll In, Blair, Lamprleve, Knox and Ward a ll agree on this point. Rollln prepared an edition for the use of the students of the University where he presided and taught rhetoric. .He translated Patsall and Outhrle. Seme of Quintilian may make us laugi or evince pity, but "But In its essential characteristics. In its great features, it is copied from nature) it has the sanction of reason and experience. Every line evidences the hand of a Master. The coloring and drapery are most Just and graceful. With the correctness of the artist, there is none of the stiffness and austerity of one whose skill is limited to a single art. With all the accuracy of science appears the freedom and the boldness of enthusiasm." (Pg* 89) This work was buried for more than 13 centuries. It was discovered anong the lisa be r of a monastery. In Cicero's writing the nan of the world appears. In iQiintilian's writing the student and teacher apoears.

VIII NATURE AND OBJECTS (This lecture was given on Nov. U, 101U, Mar. 3, 1012, Oct* 12, 1016)

Treatises on rhetoric and oratory differ according to definition* These differences, aocordlng to vuintilian, are caused by "a culpable solicitude after novelty." 266

"On this principle utility of rhetoric , finding what seems the boat description of Rhetoric - *1110 ert of speaking vtU,' he who alms at a better will probably adait a worse." (Pg. 91.) A. The end and excellence of rhetoric is to speak well* McKean adopts this definition because 1* it corresponds with that adopted in the statutes. 2. it is a satisfactory definition* But Nit may still be unpleasant or useless to trace the similarity and harmony between this defini­ tion and several of the most distinguished sub­ sequent writers as well as incidentally In what it principally differs from those who had pre­ viously treated this subject*" B. Same of the definitions of rhetoric are as follows * 1* Aristotle1s definition is given in Greek* 2* Trapemuntllua says nVis qua quod in unaquaquere sor tabile est pespicitur*" 3* Quintilian* a definition is given in Latin. U* Vosslus* definition is given in Latin* 5* Cicero calls it the art of persuasion* Persuasion is not necessarily the property of eloquence, eloquence in other words is not the only means of per­ suasion* Money, personal favor and authority may per­ suade* Aquilas won aoquittal by showing scars* The modems too have used other means than sloquenoe to per­ suade* The Earl of Stafford used his children to per­ suade. NT have troubled your lordships a great deal longer than I should have dons, were It not for the interest of these pledges tdiich a faith in heaven left me* Vfhat I forfeit for myself - it is nothing} but, that ray indiscretion should forfeit for my children, it wounds me very deeply* Pardon ny infirmity - Something I should have said, but shall not be able, and therefore leave it." 6* Vossius prefers the Stagyrlte and Tully, "Professor Ward follows him £.VossiusJ in this as in most respects and defines ora­ tory the art of 'speaking well upon any subject in order to persuade*' He does not contemptuously wave theobjections 267

which had been urged Against Including this principal design In the definition of the art. Nor does he admit that the not infre­ quent failure to effect persuasion is any more decisive than to urge that because physicians are not always sucoessful in cur­ ing diseases this therefore is not the end of the art of medicine(Pg. 9U.) 7 • Dr. Lawson recommends eloquence as the "handknald of Cruth, the ornamental cloathing C sic3 with a view to convince, to affect and to please." 6. Homes, the author I believe first used in this branch of study in this University terras it £rhetoric7. "The art of speaking and writing well, and ornamentally on any subject." 9m Blackwell, defines it, *rEKe faculty of speaking and writing with elegance and dignity in order to instruct, per­ suade and please." 10. Smith calls it, "the art of eloquent and delightful speaking." 11. Principal Campbell In the cormencement of his pro­ found and elegant work says, "that in its greatest latitude eloquence is that art or talent by which the discourse is adapted to £ts end." He rejects the appendage "persuasion" as defecting and superfluous. 12. Dr. Blair considers it as, "the art of speaking in such a manner as to attain the end for Wilch we speak," and adds that, "as the most important subject of discourse is Action, and as it is principally with reference to influencing conduct that the power of eloquence appears, it may under this view be regarded as the Art of per­ suasion." 13* Professor Barron thinks the preference due to Quintilian*a definition and that, "Eloquence consists in conveying opinions or arguments to the minds of others in the most effectual manner which can be done by words." Oratory, rhetoric and Eloquence are words persistently used in the statutes. McKean quotes the statutes t "... the theory and practice of writing and speaking well, that is with method, elegance, harmony and dignity. 266

C. McKean1 ■ definition combined similarities of all others, in that he stated Mln the view now given of the nature of oratory respecting which there Is a near resemblance between all these writers in the most material respects, are Implied its most Important ob­ jects* It is the art of speaking well* This is with a view to some endt it is either to afford innocent and pure pleasure, or effect some important benefit. It is the art of persuasloni ta>it must interest the attention, please the taste, Inform the mind and affect the heart." (Pg. 95.)

D. Oratory is not as Fenelon observed a trifling Invention to amuse and dassle. Campbell sets down the ends of speech clearly* They are* 1. lnfoming 2* convincing 3* pleasing L* moving "Extending therefore his views and directing his alms to more elevated objects, the man desirous of the honourable need to genuine eloquence will place continually before his eye and perpetually revolve in his nlnd seme important result*" (Pg. 96.) The orator may use whatever may regale and gratify taste, sensi­ bility and the soul to achieve a noble end. McKean said further that, "To accomplish mich momentous purposes no cornnon attainments and exertion will suffice. Scope Is afforded in oratory for the highest exercises of the greatest minds. Every power and faculty possessed by nature, every acquisition of wisdom and experiment derived from study, observation and reflectioni every virtuous principle and af­ fection, may be here advantageously displayed•" (Pg. 97.) E* Soane of the anelents suggested that the orator should have a com­ mand of the whole of knowledge whatever may be the case. Intelli­ gence and goodness are of great importance. The kinds of speeches are set down by Aristotle. They are* 1. Demonstrative 2* Deliberative 3. Judicial 269

These wlU be dlaoueeed In another lecture. The rest of thie lecture dealt with pulpit oratory. McKean quoted the statutes on pulpit oratory. The question arose, how would Chatham, or hie far greater son Burke, Fox, Sheridan, Curran, Hamilton, Ames or Dexter have used their powers in the pulpit? Pulpit men hare produced able speakers and writers. Have, however, preachers of Christianity been eloquent In proportion to the subjects (glorious themes) pro* vided for them? No, they have not, because same of the more ex* perienoed speakers and preachers feel that eloquence represses the effort and checks the hope when dealing with inocstparabls sublimity. It Is also felt that there should be a calm character to the oratory of the pulpit. McKean felt that subjects of a religious nature would seem to suit themselves to ornament resulting from oratory and rhetoric. "These impediments in the way of what is commonly regarded as the most ocaunding eloquence seem to apply in the full magnitude to but comparatively a mail part of a preacher*s subjects. The Whole mass of pious, moral and social duty remains; the most interesting truths, precepts and exmnples are afforded in Scripture on which to address the understanding and move the heart." (Pg. 101.)

IX TKi SEVERAL KINDS OF ORATORYt DEMONSTRATIVE, DELIBERATIVE AND JUDICIAL (March 27, 1812, November U, 181U, October 25, 1B16.) (Pgs. 103-llLi.) Joseph McKean gave a summery as introduction. He stated that some peculiarities of sacred eloquence were considered. "A rapid review of the definitions given by the most celebrated rhetorical writers ancient and modem led to the conclusion that the nature of oratory as ex­ plained in our statutes, corresponded In a good degree with most, and Included the essential ideas of all of them.** (Pg. 103.) Aristotle "the groat Stagyrite" classified kinds of speech asi 1. Demonstrative - the agreeable 2. Deliberative - the useful 3* Judicial - the equitable McKean elaborated on these points. He stated that 1. "Demonstrative oratory is that which treats on subjects of manners and morals adapted to Interest and gratify men, and chiefly respects the time past." (Pg. 10U.) 2. "In Deliberative Oratory hope and fear is addressed in reference to the future, and the aim is to lead to such convictions and resolutions as will secure im­ portant benefits or prevent fatal misconduct." 3. "Judicial Oratory is employed in obtaining a decision, according to equity and Justice, on a past act." 270

Many times these objects unite* Aristotle said that the speaker* subject and hearer are all important In speech making* McKean quoted Aristotle's letter to Alexander* Cicero used the sane dimensions In Ad Hsrennlum* Quintilian felt the seas as Aristotle* Quintilian felt that the word Camendatory was preferred to Demonstrative. In McKean's Jud&nent Pulpit Oratory is distinct from these other three "as its objects are infinitely superior*" A* McKean elaborated briefly on Demonstrative Oratory. France has made great use of this type of speaking* Churches and monarohs have used demonstrative speeches for ceremonies*

In England this kind of oratory is employed chiefly on topics of literature and taste*

B# The purpose of Deliberative oratory is to persuade or dissuade* Deliberative oratory is used in 'discussion and debate* McKean would place pulpit speaking under this class* if the exhor­ tations of preachers were not a separate type of speaking* Some, McKean said* have contrived to place pulpit speaking under demon­ strative oratory* England provided good examples of delibera­ tive speaking* Parliamentary speeches in England are second only to those of Qreece and Rome* 0* Judicial discourse is used to establish or repel accusation* Joseph HcKean quoted Dr* Notts £ spelling is not clear 3 on Hamilton as follows* "As a Counsellor* Hamilton was at once the pride of the bar * and the ackai ration of the bench* His apprehensions were quick as lightening, and his development of truth was luminous as its path ***M (Pg* 113.) X CONNECTION OF ORATORY WITH THE POWERS OF THE HUMAN MIND (October 2, 1B12.) (Pgs. 117-128.) "The objects of oratory are sunmarily included under three heads* Proving sic * embellishing* and moving the passions* It is natural here to consider the several faculties in the human mind to which the speaker and writer has reference* His proofs are addressed to the twd era tending; his descriptions appeal to Oie Imaginationi and to compleat t slo i hie purpose he strlves'~to move and engage tne passions* to influ­ ence and determine the will*” (October 2* lolz.) (Pg. 117.)

Principal Campbell discusses these topics in the most complete and satisfactory discussion McKean knew* McKean said of Campbell that* 271

"His name might never to be mentioned but with the respect due to high intellectual powers and attainments, associated %rith the best affections and most amiable char­ acter. To rhetorical students he has ren­ dered services second only to the great masters of antiquity ... it yet cannot be superfluous earnestly to recommend his Philosophy of Rhetoric not merely as an Interesting and tmefVil tieatise to peruse but as an invaluable s'nwiary to study, to digest. This is one of the few books ldiich really is what its title implies." (Pg. 118.) A. Understanding. The purposes of language are truth, virtue and happiness. Speech is not used Just to amuse, but to instruct and persuade. Speech is used to inform, to explain, to prove what may be disbelieved or but doubtfully a (knitted as ordinarily the first step to persuade to a particular course of action. There is a distinction between the sisters - logic and rhetoric. The former - contemplates truth, absolutely or abstractedly. The latter - considers it Ltruth] In relation to its effects on practise. The first la used to instruct the mind. The second is used to influence the will and heart. Logic deals with the subject only. Rhetoric considers the audience as well. The orator's subjects do not admit of pure logic. Geometricians use ratiocination. The orator cannot. But the orator should be familiar with fonts of logic. Instances of men who know little of logic and succeed in oratory are few. Why do seme who do not know logic succeed in oratory? First, they have natural brilliance or they are hiding their associations with logic and sciences. Perseverance in labor and theory is needed. McKean stated, "Alike in intellectual and mechanical applications of the faculties of man, the eminent and the useful men are the in­ dustrious and the diligent." (Pg. 122.) The orator combs sister sciences and explores the "treasures of all the arts, in order to give vigour to his powers of reasoning, and afford copiousness to his illustrations, that he may convince the minds of those itiom he addresses." The orator won't let "show" overshadow "substance." The orator idio approaches only the understanding will probably fail. He must consider other things. 272

B. Imagination* The degree to which Imagination Is used depends on Che nature of the discourse or writing. In the cases of some writing or discourse* embellishment is chaste and tern pored* Abstract* speculative subjects cannot allow of much imagination* Mathematical demonstration discards fancy* On the other hand* drama and descriptive verse ackolt to ornate imagery* Poetry involves gratification and mnussment. Oratory is principally subservient to instruction* McKean uses a continuum to make clear the degree to Which imagination is used in the different types of subjects dealt with by the speaker* There are countless shades between the extremes of the continuum. The use of Imagination becomes increasingly more important in the follow­ ing subjects; abstuse speculations* logical and metaphysical theology* ethical and moral speaking* literature and discussion* entertainment and descriptions* The speaker can make freer use of imagination than the writer*

C* Memory* Memory is another faculty of the mind* The ancients made it a constituent part of rhetoric* Today* memory is not an essen­ tial requisite to the speaker* but an Important auxiliary* McKean stated* "Without its(memory!aid* the speaker or writer* will but in a very partial and Imperfect manner use his knowledge* or exercise his imagination•" The listener also has the neoessity of memory* (Pg* 127*) n CONSTITUENT PARTS OF ORATORY, INVENTION (October 9, 1812, February 17, 1815, November 1, 1816.) (Pg* 129-139*) McKean covered the importance of the sources for and the materials of invention* Invention, Disposition* Elocution and Pronunciation are comnon to written and spoken discourse* McKean combined classical and British rhetoric* Aristotle considered pronunciation incidentally but admits its importance*

A* Importance* Cicero and Oulntllian covered memory* McKean stated 'GuPT,------"The orator is to reflect in order to discover what is true or probable to sup­ port his cause* He is to arrange in best order what Invention furnishes* He is to express in suitable words and phrases these digested thoughts; and to deliver thorn with corresponding dignity* grace* and propriety* The first of these* its importance, sources and materials will occupy the present leoture.** (Pg* 130*) 273

Invention Is essential to public speaking* Oratory brings Into requisition all the powers of conception to furnish thoughts* reason­ ing to straighten arguments* imagination to develop ornaments* memory to retain facts and feeling to generate pathos* Raving all of these saiounts to genius* What is genius? It is passed off as many things* Real virtues are overlooked at times for fancy* Qenius is rare and scattered over the ages* 8* Sources* The Creator gives endowsents to his people* He gives natural ability - of course in different proportions* Vto have to work* "In order to succeed and still more to excel, in any or all the occupations of the body or the mind* diligent application and exertion are the sole and certain conditions•" Oratory is one sure test of ganlus* Invention rests not solely on natural powers* but their development through diligence* Work then is the answer* The orator and the genuine poet must combine the wisdom of ages past and present* "To improve his gifts to the extent of our ability* and exert them acoording to our opportunities* is our bounden duty to the Qlver*" Bodily exercise is important for health* So it is with the mind* Exercise of the faculties is valuable not solely to get knowledge but because of its general Influence on the habits and characters of our minds* Intellectual pursuits make a scholar* McKean stated*

"The incidental results of application to study are the invigorating of the faculties* the inducing of a habit of reflecting; the producing of a sound and healthful mind; rich in acquired treasures* but still richer in the power of using and enjoying the rewards of literary labours and pursuits* These traits con­ stitute and mark the truly Wise Man." (Pg. 136*) Reflection is the result of diligence* Without reflection whatever knowledge we have will be crude and undigested - a mass* C* Materials* Invention is used to get the good will of the audience* to engage the feelings of the audience and to lead the audience to action* Invention of arguments will be developed In the next lectures* H I INTERNAL TOFXCKS CsicJ (October 23* 1B12* February 24* 1615* November 8* 1816) (Pgs* 140-153.) Speeches may be given with little preparation but speeohes* which survive the age* must be the well ripen* d fruit of a strong and cultivated soil* With this in mind* assistance can be gained from the use of topics 27U

or comonplaees. McKean stated, "The blighting manner, which Dr. Blair uses. In apeaking of this part of tech­ nical rhetorick £slc] ... which have been abundantly directed, at the pretended plan, of making Orations by a mechanical process, may possibly have created in some of your minds a degree of indifference, or same prejudice, to the present subject." "The lectures of the Edinburgh Professor are, in general respects, a very valuable, as well as highly Interesting and agree­ able compilation of principles and ex­ amples. But he does not appear either Just or candid in noticing the rhetorical works of his predecessor at Leyden and Amsterdam £VossiusJ • Prom these very writings which he terms 'a heap of pon­ derous lumber,' it is very apparent that his own labors were greatly facilitated." (Pg. 11*2. )

McKean praised Vossius. (Vosslus and Blair have different talents.) A. Topics can be laid aside after preliminary use. 1. Definition. Whatever is true of the definition is true of thing defined. Burke's speeches are beautiful examples of using definition in supporting a point. 2. Enumeration. Cicero's tonics are i examples of enumeration. 3. Notation. lu Conjugation. 5. □enus. 6. Speoies or form. 7. Similitude. 0. Differences• 9. Contraries. 10. Adjuncts. McKean stated. "In each field of argument it is clear, that the several adjuncts or incidents, of the principal idea, go to prove the truth of the proposition." (Pg. 150.) 11. Antecedents. 12. Correlatives. These two topics antecedents and correlatives furnish the Judicial pleader with most of his presumptive proof. 13. Opposites. 275

X III EXTERNAL TOPICS (O c to b e r 30, 1612, N ovem ber 15, 1816, F e b r u a r y 2U, 1815- ) ( P g s . 153-160.)

McKean stated, "Every person *#to attem pts to compose any kind of discourse must pursue some process ••• under the technioal topics." In the Bible tie read, "Take ye no thought, how or what thing ye shall answer, or what ye shall say."

A. In other words principles and human science are not Intended to apoly to inspiration of the kind of the Apostles. But normally method is essential. The sixteen artificial or internal heads are, according to McKean, Indispensable to the speaker. The dis­ tinction between internal heads and external heads is that internal heads originate within the subject, and external heads originate without the subject. Most of the modern authors do not admit that external topics are of importance to the speaker. The ancients disagreed about them. A ristotle mentioned five ex­ ternal topics. They were W itnesses, Covenants, Tortures, Oaths and Laws. Q uintilian omits the last mentioned. In sermons proof comes from the scriptures.

XIV INTRODUCTION TO RESUMING LECTURES, AFTER LONG INTERVALS (Ju n e 6, 1817*) (Pgs. LS1-16U.)

This lecture was a sunwiary of a ll of McKean*s previous lectures.

XIV THE STAT- OF THE CONTROVERSY (N ovem ber 20, lfll2, M arch 3, 1815, Ju n e 6, 1817.) (Pgs. 166-177.)

The state of the controversy is the question, the cause, the state or the principle point of view. It is "what is admitted or what is sought." The orator must keep arguments supporting the "state."

A. In Ad Herennlum Cicero states three "states." They are fact, nature and motive. Quintilian divides states into conjecture, definition and quality. Vosslus discusses this matter of states. States come up in judicial oratory. Ward takes up states. Blsir calls states mechanical and is against them.

In demonstrative oratory the state is generally definitive or concerns the degree of merit or demerit. In deliberative ora­ tory the question is, shall a measure be adopted? In pulpit ora­ tory the scripture represents the state. Sometimes the state is left to the discretion of the speaker. In law the issue is well defined by justioe. Black stone is a good authority.

A man wastes his faculties if he speaks without object. Just as paintings give emphasis to the important so this is done in s p e a k in g . 276

XIV THE PROPERTIES AND USES OF NARRATION AJvD PROPOSITION (April 19, 1611, March $, IS13) The parts of regular discourse are the Introduction, the Narration, the Proposition, the Confirmation, the Confutation and the Conclusion* Cicero and Ward both set up these divisions. A. The Introduction is used to make clear the main purpose and an­ nounce the purpose of the discourse. There are good examples in the Bible and in the three great epics. B. Narration is a recital of facts. Narration is chiefly applied to judicial causes. The characteristics of narration are brevity, clearness and probability. The Bible contains good examples of narration. Burke's speeches are excellent exmnples of narration. •The American Burke" is another exmnple. Narration in demonstrative speaking may be a man's history. Narration in deliberative speak­ ing may b e reference to the occasion and audience. Narration in judicial speaking sometimes determines the essence of the plea. Narration in sermons helps to explain. C. The Proposition is "... expressly exhibiting the subject, upon which an orator is about to discourseSomewhere it should be made mani­ fest. The proposition should be precise, definite, single and practicable. The maproach can be direct or indirect. Subdivisions under the proposition are usually needed, but "unnecessary multi­ plications into minute subdivisions are to be avoided." McKean doesn't Impose a limit however against limitations. XV ARGUMENTS - DEMONSTRATIVE, DELId^KATIVE AND JUDICIAL (February 15, lBU, March 3* 1B15) (Pgs. 176-109.) McKean stated, "previous lectures on Topics - The States - more time had been occupied, and the close of the term - December 1612 seemed to recommend not resuming this part of invention after a long vacation. It was intended to have made three lectures on the argunenta appropriate to each of the three kinds - but that is referred to third time of delivery - if my life be spared - or my patience continue equal to retaining the office - February 12, 1612." There was a recapitulation of "the different arguments proper to demon­ strative, deliberative and judicial discourses." A. 1. Demonstrative (lecture XV). The state of controversy in demon­ strative speaking is for the most part a state of quality. It concerns the kinds of excellence or defect, the degree of value 277

of merit or demerit, and the variety of beauty or deformity. After the death of great men there are many examples of excellent demonstrative speeches* 3, 2. Deliberative (Lecture XVI). This oratory deals with con­ viction and persuasion or conduct. The commonplaces are suitableness of time and means proposed, practicability and probability of success and, finally. Interest, pleasure, and reknown which will ensue. C. 3* Judicial (lecture XVII). This oratory is to convince of be­ lief. Statutes refer to written law. Coranon law is custom. Generally the coranonplaces are right and fact. Issues of fact are those of conjecture, definition and quality.

X V III XV CHARACTcJl OF AH ORATOR (March 1 , 1 8 1 1 , February 12, 1013, July 15, X01U.) ( P g s . 213-223.) If an orator is to get good will etc., he must "possess, in a good measure, those qualities, affections and endowments which are most highly valued by those whom he would influence.1* Quintilian defined an orator as a "good man skilled in speaking." An orator must have moral and religious character and goodness. He needs knowledge. Elo­ cution is good but not as lasting as acquaintance with the sciences* Ha must have dignity of character. He must have consistency because versatility of conduct (changing his mind) hurts the speaker. He must be at ease, have confidence. An audience may sympathise with a speaker's embarrassment but they cannot give undivided attention. He must have a modest estimate of self and a regard for the audience. IfoKean had a sussnary here.

X V III CHARACTER AND ADDRESS OF AN ORATOR (February 12, 1319, July 15, 18lh, March 10, 1015) McKean stated, "Young gentlemen - the lectures for the present term are now completed. Accept my acknowledgments of your atten­ tion."

McKean gave one last counsel - "That the fear of the Lord as it is the beginning so is it the consummation of true wisdom." "From among you I fondly believe are to proceed some to guide and cheer, and bless society, in stations of public influence." They must set an example. He asked ministers, lawyers and politicians to be good.

XIX EXCITATION OF THE PASSIONS (February 10, 1013, March 10, 1015, June 6, 1617.) (Pgs. 225-237.) This is the last portion of Rhetorical invention, proving under­ standing, painting the imagination and affecting the will. Campbell 278

says there is no persuasion without appeal to passions. Aristotle did this beautifully. McKean states, "Professor Lawson says, without reserve, that though Imitated by Innumerable writers, this part of his (Aristotle's] work has ■never been equaled*'" Aristotle says there are thirteen principal emotions* Vosslus follows Aristotle* A detailed analysis of emotions belongs to other sciences* Hutcheson, Qrove and Price are good. Malebranche, Hartley, Morgan and Crichlon, Burke and Kaems all cover aspects of the work* From passions result emotions* Passion is a powerful agitation or cannot ion* Emotions when indulged, cherished and nurtured then give a complexion to character. The speaker engages the habitual temper and disposition of the listener* But violent commotions of the mind should not be appealed to through either necessity or utility* They are hard to control* A* Diligent observation of the conduct of others will furnish the best clue to emotions along with reflection on the operation of our own minds. McKean went on to state, "The writer who expects to move his readers - the speaker who hopes to rouse the passions, and excite to purpose the emotion of his audience, must not only understand well their nature, but also the best means of regulating, controlling and calming these powerful agents*" (Pg. 231.) Oenaral principles to follow in the use of emotion* 1* To move others we must ourselves be moved. Not "much effect can be produced by one who is suspected or be­ lieved to have no confidence in the truth of what he advances or urges." (Pg* 231*) 2* An orator should aocoimodate his efforts to age, dis­ position, circumstances, etc* of those whom he advises* 3* The feelings, habits and prejudices must be considered* Feelings toward the specific subject must be considered. U* The environment of the listeners must be considered - the different countries they come from, etc* McKean used an example from the ancients* f>* The plaoe, the occasion and the subject must be con­ sidered as well as the audience* 6* Discretion Is a prerequisite* Too abrupt a demand will put an audience on guard* The speaker proceeds by gradations* He should take the outposts before level­ ling artillery against the citadel* Demonstrative and deliberative oratory excites some of the passions. Forenslos does little to do this. Tn pulpit oratory some or most of the 27 9 pas a Iona are called upon occasionally. Paul of Tarsus is an example of an orator of most irreslstable pathos*

XX DISPOSITION* PROPERTIES AND USES OP THE INTRODUCTION ( F e b r u a r y 26, lfll3, M aroh 17* lBl$, J u n e 13* 1&17.) ( P g s . 238-21*9.) HcKean had hare a stmiary of invention* Disposition is the "correct and pleasing arrangement of the stores furnished or suggested by invention** The requisites for organisation are "clearness, Judgment, delicacy and taste*" (Pg* 239.) McKean used an analogy (architecture to speech) to explain organisation. He also used Adams' analogy to explain con­ fusion in organisation. He compared speech to an army. Ward notes Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian in his discussion of organisation. He prefers Cicero. A speech is divided into six parts, 1. Introduc­ tion, 2. Narration, 3* Proposition, 1*. Confirmation, 5* Confutation and 6. Conclusion. The Statutes follow Ward.

There are two parts of a speech that are indispensable, the proposition and the proof. A. The introduction is used for three purposes. 1* The introduction concerns what is to be treated in the speech. The speaker may want to surprise or amuse for variety. The speaker should use the direct approach if the speech is reasoning. The best introduction in the forensic forum is the repetition of the question to be discussed* The best introduction in the pulpit is scripture. Too many introductions of the ancients seem artificial.

2. The introduction gets good will. This matter is to be handled with great care. Several techniques are mentioned hare* "An orator may advantageously caution men against the Indulgence of any bias, un­ favorable to the sober exercise of their Judpsent." (Pg. 21*6.) 3. The Introduction is used to get attention. The speaker should consider time, plaoe, circumstances, the occasion, the hearers and the object in view* Interest can be helped by gestures, countenance, use of words and voice. An introduction should be natural and moderate. "Too violent an assault on attention may produce resistance." (Pg. 21*9.) XXI PROPERTIES, USES OF NARRATION A1JD PROPOSITION (September 27, IB 11, September 21*, IB 13, October 5, lBl5.) This chapter was blank* 260

X U INTRODUCTORY TO KLW CLASS - SKETCH OF THE FOUNDER AND FOUNDATION (P g . 2U9-261.) McKean's students wanted to know about the founder of the Chair. The purpose of this lecture was to furnish a history of the origin, progress and existing rules of this fotindation* McKean hoped it would be of interest. He outlined the rest of his lectures. As acknowledgent of the founder, the University calls the Chair in his name - The Boylston Professorship . A H professorships are worked in the same manner. "Although the endownents of none of them be not only not equal to the support but do not furnish What Is the actual allowance of the incumbents" - still we honor the donors. Two chairs furnish less than one-sixth of the compensation. In others the proportion has not been correctly ascertained. The accumulation of the firnd has rendered it nearly sufficient.

A. Nicholas Boylston was bom in 1715. McKean stated about Boylston, that his, "name is famous not merely in Hew England, or our country, but throughout Europe and the civilised world, as connected with a distinguished benefactor to his country and his kind. To Zabdlel Boylston - a relative of our founder" goes the distinction of adopting the practice of inoculating against smallpox. Nicholas died at the age of fifty-six. In the Boston Gaaette August 26, 1771, 3r. Cooper stated, "Died here in the 56 yr. of his age, H. 3. Bsauire a noted merchant of this town. He was a man of food understanding and sound judfjnent; diligent in his business though not a slave to itj upright in his dealings and sincere in all his professions." (Pg. 253.) When Boylston was thinking about retirement, he died. "Equivocal as newspaper panegyric nuat be regarded, yet the rational estimate here given is confirmed by the united testimony of those who knew him."

Reverend Dr. Tart Cooper thought that Boylston was a good fellow. Boylston did nothing astonishingly brilliant but in his work he held the "noiseless tenor of his way." He was a respectable and correct merchant. He had integrity, perseverance and a religious nature. Boylston was a partner in business to Joseph Green tdio was celebrated among the wits and poets of New England. 2 b i

Joseph Green and Nicholas Boylston were two totally different people and yet they were pood friends. The originality and h'imor of the one complinerrbed the solid Judf?nent and prudent wisdom of the other. This fact made mutual admiration possible. In his will Boyl- s t on left his friend Green «^U00 and his pastor and religious instructor f 100• He willed on the firet of August, 1771^1500 to Harvard. He died on the 18th of August, The sum was paid to Thomas Hubbard, Esquire - Treasurer, on the 11th of February of the following year. Harvard held off to let the funds develop so that a professor would consider it worth his while to accept the chair. The Revolution Intervened. The chair of instruction might have been established in 1780 had it not been for the Revolution* Willard was made President in 1781. His £.Boylaton*sj manner of giving donation was generous. There was no test of a political or religious kind imposed. Boylston com­ mitted his benefaction to the corporation to be managed, in all respects, according to their Judgment and conscience. The riles were subject to the feelings of the Overseers. 3. By 180U the capital increased to the sum of 23*000 dollars. "The rules, directions and Statutes of the Professor­ ship are belioved to have been the result of the reflections and labors of President ’Hillard and Professor Pearson." (Pg. 257.) '*e owe these men a great deal. "Tn the profound erudition of both, and the long practical experience of one of them, in the course of instruction which this department embraces, entire confidence was reposed that they would devise the best nracticable scheme for rendering, to use their own words in their report, the Institution most extensively and per­ manently 'useful, and thus to accomplish the bene­ volent and patriotic designs of the Founder.1,1 (Pg. 257.) The rules were communicated to the Overseers on May 1 and adopted July 26 of 180U. The death of the former (Willard) on September the 25, 1801* delayed proceedings. On the 26th of June, 1J305, the choice of a professor was made and confirmed by the Overseers on July 25* C. John Quincy Adams was appointed and he accepted conditionally. He asked for dispensation from all private instruction and exception from half of the public instruction. These exceptions were granted 282

on Kay 22, 1806. His public inauguration was June 12. On J u l y l i i p 1809, Adams resigned. The courses of Adams were over on A u g u st 26. On the same day that Adairs resigned a successor was chosen. McKean had dispensation for a tine of part of the public lec- tures but "... all the other duties contemplated by the original foundation having been enjoined and undertaken.*1 XIII CONFIRMATION AND CONFUTATION (May 3, 1811, March 19, 1B1J.) (FCs. 262-273.) The divisions of proof are two in number. They are confirmation or establishing a fact or allegation and confutation or combating of something which may be advanced. McKean gave a suranary of what he had said before about proof. At this point he stated that the mode of using arguments claims attention. A. Argumentation is the inferring of one truth from two or more which are premised. (Syllogism). The rules for performing this with facility and correctness belong to another department of col­ legiate instruction. The syllogism finds little place in oral discourse **bnt it is not inf recently employed •* E. The kinds of proof other than reason are testimony, probability and Cnot clear}• The order of argument should be as Homer described the ordering of an army in the Iliad. The excellent soldiers should be first. The indifferent soldiers should be placed in the middle. The choicest for bravery and skill should be last. Cicero indicates that weight rather than number should be regarded* Introductions involve exsmples and authorities. Refutation fol­ lows the same principles as confirmation but with negative ends in mind. Confirmation is like inflicting a wound. Refutation is like healing it. m il PRORlRTILS Al.D US^5 OF TKL CONCLUSION (May 31, 1831, March 26, 1813, March 31, 161S, June 20, 1(317.) (Pgs. 27 ^-285 .) The purposes of the conclusion are much the same as an introduction. They are a favorable hearing and recapitulation. Enumeration and pathos are the two divisions of a conclusion. In Judicial trials the conclusion may be a comparison.

It is easier to rail than to reason. Don't appeal to prejudice and passion alone.

The application of foreign, remote circumstances to local, tempor­ ary affairs may be powerful. But if these circumstances are not com­ parable the technique is the vehicle of **bigotry or of spleen.n A plain 263

and perspicuous style is necessary.

Examples of powerful perorations are the song of Moses at the close of the Pentateuch, and Burke's speech on Conciliation.

Pathos should be used especially in the conclusion* the Arch­ bishop of Canbray emphasised emotion* Campbell (Principal) also emphasised emotion. Tully*s perorations are unequalled*

x rrv REMARKS ON DIGRESSION, TRANSITION AND AMPLIFICATION (J u n e 1JU, 1 0 1 1 . A p r i l 2 , 1 0 1 3 , M arch 3 1 , 1 0 1 $ , Ju n e 2 0 , 1 8 1 7 .) (Pgs. 206-300.)

A. Digression* Digression is a passage deviating from the main sub­ ject and an auxiliary to the general purpose of the discourse* Quintilian says they are not always allowable, Cicero is known for his excellent digressions* Ward points to the account of the death of Metullus in the Oration for Callius as an example of worth* Surke is another example of a speaker who used digres­ sion well* Its characteristics are that it must naturally stem from the subject and be subservient to the main design* Episodes of the Muse or Poet correspond to the digression of the orator. "Criticism must denounce * * * disconnected and pro­ tracted episodes *** in the drama*** (Pg* 292*)

B. Transition* Transition is passing from one division to another* T*he transition in oratory compares to the Oreek chorus in drama* The characteristics of transition are distinctions, perspicuity, precision and succinctness*

C* Amplification* This point must also be covered since the Statutes /oilowed the Plan of Professor Ward* Amplification is the en­ largement of an idea* A ristotle says In demonstrative speaking, praise is heightened in eight ways) 1* make the point that the man being praised was alone and accomplished great things, 2* he was the first to do a thing, 3* he was mnong few against many, U* he was conspicuous for virtue, 5. or references could be made to the occasion, 6* repetition could be used, 7* the fact that the man being praised is receiving a new honor and 8* a comparison could be made*

In Argument am plification is achieved by ascending from the specific to the general. Causes, effects, adjuncts, sim ilars et cetera could be used* Figura­ tive language can be used to amplify*

The next subject is elocution. McKean recommended the reading of Bishop Lowth's Selections from Sacred Hebrew Poems and Blackw ell's sacred c l a s s i c s * 261*

XXV OF ELOCUTION GENERAILY AND ELEGANCE (October 11, 1811, October 6, 13 1815, July 16, 1816) (Pgs. 300-315.) A. Elocution. Elocution is the "cloathing £aicj of thoughts In language. It teaches to choose and adapt words and sentences to the things or sentiments to be described or expressed.”

" I t may be w o r t t y o f remark that the two valuable authors in delivery, Sheridan and Walker, who from a natural and not very reprehensible partiality for their favorite £Elocution}, have dignified their treatises with the title Elocution, still have not ventured to give a definition of the word in their Dictionaries which oan authorise or sup­ port auch a use of it." (Pg. 300.) The lattety Walket> points to French examples and Mr. Addison (a writer of elegant taste} not distinguished for philosophical exactness) to support his definition of rhetoric as elocution. According to Crevier, elocution is to speech as colouring is to painting. Logic shares disposition and invention. Elocution is all rhetoric. There are universal principles governing style in any writing. There are particular or special styles as a result of a distinction in types of Cowmmication.

B* * *■ agreeable quality ... engaging propriety and beauty, rather than from overpowering grandeur and sublimity." Elegance should be intelligible and agreeable. Intelligibility is perspicuity, perspicuity is essential, agreeableness is purity, purity is deslreable. 1. Perspicuity. McKean quotes Quintilian and Cicero in Latin. He draws heavily from these two man. To ob­ tain perspicuity the speaker must attend to single words and their combination into phrases and sentences. The attention to selection of words is covered by Blair. The speaker must pick the word that best ex­ presses his meaning. Pedantry is to be avoided. "The terms of particular pursuits} the phraseology of separate associations of men, technical language, and many appel­ lations derived from the ancient tongues, are of this description£pedantr^n

A lack of perspicuity is caused by wrong arrangement, too long or too short sentences and bad figures. The natural order is best 265

but inversions sdd interest end variety. Beauty is secondary to u tility . Sound Is subordinate to sense. Too many parenthetical phrases and faulty metaphors also hinder perspicuity.

2. Purity. To obtain pirity words should be neither vulgar nor obsolete. They should be of legitim ate origin and reputable use. Purity of speeoh is like purity of behavior. Public letters lend their aid to keep high the tone of public morals.

Avoid sordid expressions. The converse conversation of Improved minds should bear the stamp of their higher advantages ..." "The ... phrases of the dockyard and the shambles, or the far more obnoxious jargon of the turf, the pit or the main* are intolerable in polished company or composition."

Words should be up to date. "The complexion and drapery which charm one age and country shock the ideas of another." In some cases words may be borrowed from the past with good effect. This practice gives dignity and worth.

A medium is best between the least and the most fam iliar terms. Pope said, "Be not the fir 3t by whom the new are tried. 3e not the last to lay tho old aside." McKean offers grand praise for Canpbell's Phllosopny of Rhetoric.

XXVI COT-'POSITIOij Ai 3 IT 3 CONSTITUENT PARTS (November 1, 1 6 1 1 , October 8, 1613, October 13* 1615, July 19, 1617*) (P*». 316-331*) The second pert of Elocution la Cm position. Composition involves hsnsony and arrangement. Arrangammt ie (WLnad as follows *

"The business of composition is to dispose of single words appropriately and to give to the colons (the clauses or members of sentences) the harmony which becomes them, and to dispose of the whole discourse in proper periods."

The four factors of arrangement are period, order, juncture and number* The period means sentences. Order Involves phrases and words. J u n c tu r e mp a us the connection of syllables and letters. Number means quantity of words.

Dionysius, Cicero and ^uintilian all indicate that sounds should produce harmony and emotion. Walker goes into the sounds of the letters 286

of the alphabet* Consonants are harsh. Vowels are smooth. The speaker should avoid unnecessary combinations of consonants.

A. Order. The best order Is generally the order of nature. "fhe natural order Is as followsr Man Is Mortalj A pood man Is happy. The reversed order is as followsi Mortal Is Man, happy is a Good Man. Blair has said some good things about order but for a more thorough treatm ent look to Dr. Campbell's w o rk .

3. Harmony. A repetition of the sane Initial syllables in word3 or alliteration should be avoided. McKean criticises Cicero for too much alliteration.

C. Juncture. When a word ends in a vowel, the next word should be­ gin with a consonant. When a word ends in a consonant, the next should begin with a vowel, or a consonant agreeing in so u n d .

D. Oratorical numbers. There should be a variety of long and short words in a sentence.

In summary, Elegance Is a combination of Composition and D ig n ity .

t m i OF DIGNITY Al.D OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OEIESrtALLY, ITS ORIGIN, USES AND IAW5 (November 15, 1 3 1 1 , October 15, 1 9 1 3 , October 20, 1915, August 1, 1317.) (Pgs. 332-3U30

Dignity involves all that enlivens and beautifies discourse. Several lectures on this subject are needed. The general species of figurative language is the metaphor. Metaphor Is a result of neces­ sity, emphasis and ornament. Tropes and figures are basically meta­ phors, A trope is a term converted to a meaning different from com­ mon u s a g e .

A. A figure is a phrase or sentence converted to a meaning different from common usage. The reasonsfor these are as follows* 1. new texmB are continually needed for new concepts, ideas and things, 2. imagination of men, 3* not enough words or good enough memo­ ries to remember them all, U. tropes are more signif icative, era- phatlcal Talc] than conmon terms (examples given from Washington’s speeches), 5. decorum and ornament and 6. understanding.

These are mistakes to avoid. Don't m is u s e figures. Don't borrow from the noble to describe the poor. Don't strain figures. 207 m i l l SPECIES OP primari -metaphcr , stnechdoches , metohotst and irony (December 6, IB11, October 22, 1013, October 22, 1015, August 0, 1817.) (Pgs. 3UU-355.) * "Rhetorical dignity Is to s Composition, shat personal dignity is to a character. It p re sums intrinsic worth, but is principally conversant with the arterior indications and expressions of itj which are chiefly included under the comprehensive phrase figurative language." (Pg* The origin of any kind of figurative language is necessity. Avoid the artificial or extravagant in figurative language. Quintilian was referred to. McKean listed all of the tropes ac­ cording to Quintilian. Voesius and Ward listed primary tropes as meta­ phor, synechdoohas, metonony and irony. "The most natural order of considering these seems to be Pirst that relation which is external, as the whole and a part which is the foundation of Synechdoohe where the tropical word trope is of tea same essence with that tAiich it represents. The external relations which are most obvious and close are those of cause and effect, subject and adjunct, in which usually exists some suoh near connection that the one readily suggests the other, itoenoe arise autonomies. Next to these are the relations which have not necessary or natural af­ finity, such as those of similitude between one subject and are always distinct and often very re­ mote from iti and hence are deemed metaphors. Controvity Celo) between objects of opposite- natures and properties furnish the trope termed Irony." (Pg* 29U.) A. Metaphor is the most beautiful and ccasaon of the lot. All things furnish "materials for the metaphor. An example is, "He rushed like a lion." The metaphor la baaed on a resemblance ldiieh one object has for another. Avoid excesses in the use of metaphors* Audiences limit and direct a man's use of metaphor. An example is the Duke of Bedford. A Catachresis is an excess or abuse of tropical language, such as "blood of grape" - wine. An Allegory is a protracted metaphor. Avoid incongruities of metaphors. A hyperbole exaggerates or diminishes. Examples are taken from Virgil and the Bible. Jael said the "mountains shall drop down new wine and the hills shall flow with milk*" A personlfioation is giving the inanimate ani­ mate qualities. 268

3* 3am>ehdoohi« A syneehdoche la a substituted term that, oontalna toe sana aaaanoa of tha thing desosibed. Tha ralatlon la ex­ ternal. Tha part is given for tha idiole. Oufcnlral, Oanaral lost a battle*H) Tha apaoias la given for tha germs (sword-all mili­ tary weapons.) Tha antecedents are given for the consequents (no ample.) An Antonomasla la tha substitution of a famous nano for a oonon name. One can auloglse a favorite fay calling him by a Saint* s name. A Suphemlsr is tha using of a softer term than tha real. G. Metonomy. A Me ton any is founded on relations extrinsic from tha thing to which they are applied, such as thac a u s e for tha affect or tha inventor for invention. 0. Irony. An Irony moans tha contrary of what words ordinarily sig­ nify. It is used for vivacity, invective and sarcasm. McKean refers his students to Ward and Campbell for further study. m i LBCTORh SOUaCBS OF TROFLS* aSPhClAIXY FROM SACRhO TOPICS (December 20, 1611, October 29, 1613, November 3, 1615# August 15, 1817.) (Pgs. 356-368.) The third constituent of general elocution la tensed by rhetori­ cians as "dignity." McKean suseiarlsed briefly. Quintilian furaiehed most of the modern writers with their principles and rules. "Synech- doehe arises frcm the intrinsic and essential relations of the whole and its parts." "Ketonomy Is founded on the olosest external relations such as cause and effect." "Itetaphor regards remote cor­ respondencies and results from any apt resemblance." "Irony operates by contraries." (Pg. 356.)

The following are tropes on very important occasions and for solemn purposes. A. liken wen to Ood. 1. Some are derived from the Supreme Being. Jehovah to Moses« "Thou shalt be to Aaron instead of Ood." "See I had made thee a Ood to Fharoah." 2. Idols are thus denominated. This is generally the use of irony. 3. Prinoes, magistrates. Be careful about using tropes in references to Idols and Princes. U. There are other tropes like "omnipotent architect" et cetera. These don* t oauee objections. Dr. Young's description of man1a nature is good. 289

"Dim miniature of greatness absolute I An heir of gloryl a frail child of dust! Helpless immortalI Insect In fin ite! A worm! A Ood I B. Figurative use of heathen mythology. !Pope, bryden, Addison and Hilton all use heathen mythology as a basis for tropes* McKean*s opinion is against this practice. Allusions to mythology are trite and tedious. "The epithets, godlike, divine, heavenly, inspired are figures subject to great caution - A1lovable if occasion and audience are suitable•" If overused these tropes lose force. (Pg. 360.) If lightly used they are irreverent. >irltual beings who people heaven. ise are somiimes used to advantage • "angels of the churches." "the guardian Angel." They are appropriate and significative if discretely introduced. D. Figures from the Scriptures. Hilton and Young are examples. McKean praises a woman (Miss Moore) for her use of figures from scriptures. Bishop Sherlook la an example of a writer tSio makes good use of this kind of figure. "The attmapt to make natural religion destroy the gospel is a kind of parricide - for this only could and has restored the religion of nature. CXight the withered head which has been made whole, to be lifted up against him) or should the dumb man*s tongue Just loosened from the bonds of silence, blaspheme the power that let it free.” CsicJ (Pg. 312.) McKean lashed out against those who profane or burlesque the namea of those in the Bible. &• Figures derived from nature. TRese furnish practically all of the material for figurative language. Campbell uses a figure from nature. "Obediency of feeling is a stony heart. "Petulance is waspish." There is a material difference between the figures of poetry and prose. CHAPTER XZZ CHAPTER XXXT DIVISIONS OF STYLE (February 28, 1812, February 25, 181U, November 10, 1815.) McKean stated, "In commencing the subject of particular or special Elo­ cution, the almost infinite varieties of style, with some of the moat obvious and influential causes of this 290

diversity, were considered. The respective intel­ lectual and Moral endomaents and attainments of men, ara almost aa various aa thair features of countenance or constitution of body; and those facul- tlaa of mind and quailtlaa of heart, together with thair dlffarant tampers, nodaa of education, hatolta of Ufa, all tand to produce the diversified color­ ing and aha ding, with idilch thought is dreaaed and decorated. (Pg. 385.) A. The requisites for a forceful style are* vigorous intellect, active imagination, lively sensibility and acute dleoariiaat. Add to these qualities retentive mmnory, profound and exten­ sive knowledge, virtue and piety, diligence and observation and competent experience and you have nothing wanting "in the qualifications for high literary reputation, and valuable literary labours•" B. The kinds of style vary according to tine, countries, societies and individuals. Quintilian divides style into three kinds, Aelatiok sio , Attick and Rhodian. The Oreeks (Athenians) guarded against luxury and effeminacy and cultivated dignity. The Asiatloks stressed ease, and voluptuousness. This cor­ responded with the gaiety and looseness of their principles. The Rhodians combined both. Aeschines introduced it to them (the Rhodians). This style blended anoothness and strength.

The style of Lysias, Isocrates, Machines and Demosthenes dif­ fered greatly.

C. The style of speaking is affected by the character of change as a language. Cicero makes the point that styles change as a language or nation progresses. A History of English from Alfred to Elisabeth is pre­ fixed to the Standard Dictionary of Johnson. Robertson's notes to the translation of Claude provide a clear view of the progressive improvement of the style of English preaching. The subject treated will effect an Individual's style. Demetrius Fhalereus adopts the following divisions* simple, elevated, ornamented and nervous. These differences result from sentiment, language and ornament. Dionysius of Halicarnassus discusses the austere, florid and middle styles.

Cioero categorises styles as the magnificent, simple and middle. 291

According to ^lintlllan the simple st/la la uaed for conveying, the elevated style la uaad to make an impression and tha mlddla style la uaad to afford gratification* Tha Moderns, among than Keckenean, Voaalua and Ward, apaak of the low or humble or plain, tha middle or tei^erate and tha loft/ or eubllne atjlaa* Lawson apaaka of the oonolaa and nervous, tha copious and sweet and tha vehement and sublime styles* Ogllvle, whose philosophical and critical observations had for a time a high and deserved popularity, oatagorlaad style a Into the following headsi simplicity, perspicuity, elegance, strength, grandeur or sublimity and propriety* Campbell bases his consideration of purity on grammar* He dis­ cusses perspicuity, vivacity, elegance, animation and music in language* Blair approaches rhetoric from two points of view* They are thought and ornament which is broken down in the dry, plain, neat, elegant and flowery styles* Barron 11ata styles under five heads following the precepts of Phalereus. They are as follows: nervous and concise, the diffuse, the simple, plain and neat, the elegant and the vehement* There is a Oreat Variety in Styles* XXXII THi LOW STH£ (March 27, IB12, March U, 13Hi, November 15, 1815*) (Pgs. UOO-U16, Pg- 3U0.) Tho low style is diminutive in nature* Cloero oalls the low style "conversation*" "Simplicity sesma ao unaffected that it appears easy of imitation** "but nothing is found on trial more difficult*" Sim­ plicity la the hardest to be copied* Quintilian states that the slsple style is to be used for style and information* Thera are two matters to keep in mind in determining style* A* Object* In tha informational apeech you don't try to conceal thought* Tou try to make thought clear and luoid* In con­ vincing, an appeal to the agreeable is one of the speaker*a devices* Lively thoughts and good sense must be introduced to keep the speech moving* Sallies of wit can be entertained* OoId smith is a good example of sprightlineas* B. Language* Language must be suitable to th is s ty le . Me Kean stated, "The general rule that words should ever have a near and ultimate correspondence, with the ideas they convey, - that thoughts should ever be cloathes fsicJ in a garb 292

suitable to their nature, carefully con­ sidered, will furnish hints for Most that la necessary to be remarked under this head*” (Pg. 3US.) There is little solicitude for musloal cadence here. Use terns of current usage• Purity and precision are needed here. Terns against thleh the unlettered object are those which the taste of the learned sill con­ demn. Cannon sense and rhetoric go hand in hand. In the low style, the usual order of construction is the best. Inversions will be avoided. Gorgeous figures are to be avoided* The low style Is not mean or vulgar. The low le a negative rather than a positive at­ tribute easier desorlbed by shat it avoids than what it possesses. The low style le used in dialogues and epistles, didactic of a speculative and philosophical nature, scientific disquisitions, acadsnlo lectures, literary Journals, historical annals and narra­ tive and argumentative parts of oratorloal discourse. Further, Locke and Swift are cited as exsmples. Other examples of this style are Ward, Crevier, Voltaire and Fleuri. Rollin'a Bellas Lettres ranks high*

TTTTTT THE KIDDLE STILE (April 2k, 1612, March 11, lBlU, November 2k, 1615.) (Pgs. Ul6-b31.) The middle style embraces all between simplicity and plainness and grandeur and sublimity. Some writers who fall at the middle could have done well with the simple style. Me Kean stated, “The apprehended difficulty of reaching the sublime, conspires also with the proneness to contean I sic] the low style to Increase the solicitude and efforts of most to rank in the intermediate.” (Pg. Ul6.)

The outline of this lecture was the same as XT XT I. McKean breaks down his dlsousslon into "thoughts and words." Cicero is an example of the middle style. He used neither the plainness of the humble style nor the splendor of the sublime. This style is the beet adapted for the greatest number and variety of pur­ poses.

A. To achieve perspicuity, an abstract science and elementary prin­ ciples, the low style is desired, ftrspicuity is necessary but lively Images are also helpful in this style. The middle style is used specifically In explaining and en­ forcing moral and religious truth, dlsousslon of taste and polite literature, many kinds of history and oratorloal discourse. This style Is recommended by concurrent voice of tha beat standard critics. 293

B. The properties distinguishing the style between low end sublime thoughts ore dignity, delloecy end novelty. 1. Dignity. The dignity of subject is important. 2. Delicocr (oonbinotion of grooe and purity.) Delicacy helps in panegyrics. Bald praise embarrasses. Ward1 s examples of delioaoy are stated. 3. Novelty. The love of novelty is strong in man. It is very difficult to pin down plagiaries. What is new? A thought not necessarily novel ean be put in a novel way. The art or fashion may be new. C. The language of the middle style requires purity and propriety. The kind and degree of ornament, vivacity and force depend on the nature of the occasion and the audience. A free and copious manner of expression is sought. The boldest and most impassioned tropes should be avoided. Everything else in this "garden" can be used. D. Harmony should be sought. Avoid harsh inversions and abrupt conclusions. The faults of the middle style are too great a brilliancy or affectation. Writers of fancy and little Judgesnt display figures in the most gay and conspicuous positions. This is affectation. Ore at men are usually Imitated but their faults are Imitated before their strengths. Artificial and extravagant manner is characteristic of the modern writer of our tongue. Johnson nay be in part responsible. Elegance can be found in Plato, Cicero, Corneille, Racine, Raynal, Pension, Sir William Temple, Shaftesbury, Bolinbroke, Pope, Goldsmith and Addison. x x n v TH jl s u b l im e s t i l e (May IB, 1912, March 16, 10 IB, December 0, 1615.) (Pgs. UJ2-Ui5.) McKean follows Longinus in his consideration of the productive sources of sublimity. They are grandeur of thought, the pathetic, just and elevated figures, dignified and graceful diction, proper and magnifioent composition of periods. Blair's definition of the sublime is as followsi it is "such a description of magnificent objects, or exhibition of sentiments in themselves Important or affecting as shall give strong Impressions of them." This definition is too broad according to McKean. A. McKean elaborabed on Longinus' five points. 1. Grandeur of thought. Sublimity is an echo of true dignity of soul. Grand thoughts are necessary for a grand style. 29k

Some examples are Ajax in tha Iliad, tha introduction to tha Pentateueh, CoraaiUa and Racine, Pompey, Horace and, more recently, Anes, Hamilton and Wash­ ington. 2. Pathetic, Emotion is a characteristic of tha sublime. Examples are Sappho, Hamer, Demosthenes, Cicero. Demosthenes mas sublime in the concise. He was thunder. Cicero was sublime in the diffuse. Ha ms slow fire.

3* Just and elevated figures. Tropes lend to a grand style. Tha use of the Metaphor, Interrogation, Apostrophe, Personification and Hyperbola is a part of tha grand style. Pope's works offer examples of personification. Shakespeare was a master of the hyperbole. U. Dignified and graceful diction. Terms should be proper, magnificent and dignified.

5. Proper and magnificent composition of periods. Tho Ancients insisted on periods. Great thoughts grandly decorated equal the sublime. Trivial thoughts grandly decorated are silly «id ridiculous. OTVI STYLc. OF HISTORY (June 10, 161U, June 1U, 1616.) (Pgs. ii£3-b69.) McKean stated, "this kind of writing embraces the relation of whatever Is memorable, respecting nature, society and man." The great purpose of history Is the investigation of truth - to, in turn, comunioata instruction. The historian best employs the low or plain style. MoKean stated, "The narrative of events, connected with the rise, progress, state and improvement of nan, oombined in social and political bonds - is denominated civil history) while the detail of the character, circumstances, and exploits of an individual, is named personal history, or, mors usually, biography." {pg. U>0.) A. Sacred history is not a description of the 1. external state of religion or the 2. annals of various associations of Christians or 3. the accounts of saints, martyrs or divines, but the narrative of lives and events in the volume of inspiration the Bible. This Includes tha matter of the Bible, its importance and the manner in tAiich it is expressed. 295

B. Qemrtl history covers the whole of tho civilised world* Particu­ lar history colors individual countries* Priaatly presents nany uaaful considerations in hla aka to ha a and lectures on History and Osnaral Policy* Our ooncam la style* Dionysius of Hali- oamaaaua ccsaaants on Thuoldidas* Cioaro has guided us however* Ho urges that tha rhetorician have a working knowledge of history and vice versa* Herodotus first injected elegance into historical writing* Before it was a dry series of annals* Tully stated a comprehensive law - That a writer, on no consideration, advance what is not true* McKean stated that "••• little satisfaction can be derived from statements, which are mutilated from timidity of offending the powerful or re­ luctance to blame a favorite*M McKean stressed objectivity again* It is not possible, practicaole or desirable to forego all convents of Judgment or impressions by the writer but you would want no statement of the author concerning his views toward tyranny or freedom when recording their development - lessons rather than history would result* The historian will assert nothing doubtful for faot. narratives include dates, plaoes, events and the introduction of ohareoter* XXX7I THE S T M OF POETSX (P g s . Ii71-U73.) Poetry deserves consideration under rhetoric. Aristotle, Cioero, Quintilian, Horace, Tide, Boils an and Pope all c o n s id e r poetry* V o sslu s gave attention to the essential ohareoter, the principal varieties and the peculiar properties of poetlos* McKean raises the question, what constitutes poetry? There are three styles of poetry, tha *jpic, the dramatic and the lyric* These all differ more from prose than they do from each other* Aristotle has settled the question so often since raisedi Is versa essential to poetry? riXVII THE STYLE OF ORATIONS (June 21, 1816.) (Pgs. U7U-^80.) The style of an oration depends on the nature of the subject and the audience* An oration is generally "a speech public ally pronounced before a number of persons on some occasion of considerable importance•" That we need a different style in public speaking is axiomatic*

A* Speaking should have the following characteristics* 1* It should be "instantly intelligible*'1 Amplification, repeti­ tion and exhuberanoe in spoken language are allowed if not required* 296

2* Animation la necessary. In spaaoh abort and broken sentences ean ba powerful.

3. Good sanaa is necessary in spaaoh. Sound opinions and taste dictate against extremes. Rant and rhapsody are the natural consequences of affected emotion# XXXIX PRONUNCIATION (June ZU, L8UU, June 21, 1816, June 11, 1813.) (Pgs. 1*91-502.) The importance of the managesient of the voice is obvious. Ward devotes half of his book to elocutio. Voasius defined pronun­ ciation.

A. He said pronunciation is "the adaptation of the voloe and of the motions of the body to tha subject and the language of a dis­ course .M Demosthenes said that tha first, second and third requisites of spaaoh are all "delivery.* Demosthenes had an impediment in his speech but developed his talent. Cicero said that action in delivery is tha orowning excellence of oratory. White fie Id was one of the most Impressive speakers the world has aver known. McKean gives descriptions of the sermons of Whitefleld. They were "great" when delivered, according to McKean. The modulation of the voice should be the modulation used in ordinary, familiar conversation. How is it same can express themselves with force in con­ versation and not in front of an audience? There may be a difference in degree between publio and private speech. Public speaking requires a more forceful exertion of the voice. The difference is in degree not nature.

B. How should a speaker manage his voice? Follow Nature, said McKean. Defects should be remedied. Some oan*t be overcame. Diligence and perseveranoe can effect much. No exercises are mentioned here. Nature and cultivation are important to developing the voice. Use that pitch which you employ in conversation. Mere loudness will not make you understood. McKean allowed for free and various modulations of accent, emphasis and cadence. A higher pitch will soon wear out. Abrupt and violent emphasis is to be avoided. A more cannon error is too little emphasis.

Quintilian says that modulation of voice is geared to several emotions. XL* ON SERMONS (Pgs. 503-511*.) McKean quoted the rules of his office. He felt that he should not only attempt to, «... Aocosnodate the principles and precepts of Ancient Rhetorio to this new species of 297

oratory, but alao to praaant tha apaoial additional rules to be observed In com­ posing sermons, pointing out tha qualities in tha speaker, Ln his style, and his de­ livery indispensably requisite to form an aoconplished pulpit orator." (Pg. 50lw) Tha pulpit speaker should give especial consideration to the laoture "Ohareoter of a Speaker."

A. What is a sermon? It ia not an essay on b o m great principle of natural religion. It is not abstract dissertation on some general head of manners or morals. It la not a recommendation of human action. But these oen be done in pulpit speaking. However they do not comprise "solemnity of worship." McKean stated, "They are not adapted in the best way and highest degree to Interest and benefit tha greater part of those for whom this novel mode of instruction in designed." (Pg. $05.) B. Christianity does furnish instructions to all classes. The Church is designed to permit people to adore Christ. McKean preferred simplicity and purity of service as opposed to ceremony and the "shocking rites." of pagans. The Reason for preaching is to make clear the character of the Deity to all. There are no races, classes or distinctions in the brother­ hood of man. McKean stated, "A Sermon, then, as a distinctive species of discourse is an exposition of some scripture truth or precept with a refer­ ence to exciting attention, engaging an interest, securing an influence, in the great majority of human beings." (Pg. 507.) C. There are special occasions in the pulpit. These are 1. to prove great truths of the Divine Being, 2. to defend particular articles of doc­ trine or discipline and to defend general ecclesiastical policy. An inspiring preacher should take pains to see that his views are prevailingly benevolent and pious. His worldly powers are not necessarily a criteria for establishing his ability as a preacher* There are two cautions idilch McKean offered. 1. Don't expect great rewards for Preachers don't deserve the things they sometimes get, namely, vexation and wearlsomeness, 2. Don't look for leisure and a chance to display your talents in the pulpit. You won't have much time to prepare your sermons. Your greet Job is to teach 296

"tha children of transgression the way end Meaning of recovery, and obedienoe and happiness." Tou don't work with the holy “ but the wanderers. Tou muet preach submission to God and the love of men* Always work from the Scripture. Only fanatics and visionaries declare against study and preparation. This is obviously false* D. In pulpit oratory the Introduction, proposition, confirmation and conclusion should appear. Narration and confutation may but don't necessarily have to be used. McKean may have been the first to list these divisions for preachers. There are four types of sermons, exposition, reasoning, exhortation and applica­ tion* 1* Exposition. The greatest design for the ministry is exposition. The Text is not only a motto but a guide to all remarks given* Unfolding a great and glorious message is the preacher's job. Too many Presbyterian brethren feel that a paragraph or a chapter iVcm the Bible should be made the basis of historical commen­ tary or practical exhortation. Practical exhortation is not as useful as deemed. It may be interesting but is not a sernon. The preacher needs unity and precision in style* 2* Reasoning. Paul caused Felix to tremble by reason. Reason out of the scripture to set forth law and doc­ trine. Most people believe in ohurch - so don't overdo convincing an audience in the truth and authority of the Bible. Abstract metaphysical argumentation should not be used before mixed assemblies. The preacher must convince the mind in order to influence the will. 3* Exhortation■ Exhortation makes use of the motives and the Tears of nan. Use divine "economy* as revealed in the Sacred Volume* The instruments of ancient persua­ sion are weak to those supplied by the armory of God* The power of eternity is far greater than this life* Use simplicity in your style* MoKean's conclusion emphasised the ascendancy of God over the principles of public speaking* HON FOSSE QRATORuM ESSE, NISI BONUM VIRUM (July 15, lSlii, July 5, IS IS.) (Pgs. 515-517.) Many fall in love with their subject and claim for it "exclusive honors." Quintilian and Cicero did this. McKean said, 2 9 9

"It la preferable to sot tho standard too high rather than too low." "The model exhibited is such as it is desired rather than expected to imitatej constant efforts to reach to Ideal perfection will lead to a nearer approach to the standard of at­ tainable beauty." (Pg. 5l5.) A. What is goodness? This is another department's subject. None but a good man can be a good orator. But McKean stated, "Nor does it seem requisite to insist that in no possible ease, in no individual in­ stance, can a man be eloquent without im­ maculate or even a predominant goodness of character.M B. Thinking is not necessarily connected with goodness. Ooodness is of benefit because virtue gives manly assurance and con­ fidence. Hypocrisy is usually sooner or later detected. Secondly, goodness has ethical appeal. We like a good man.

There are three principle theatres for public speaking, the bar, the legislature and the pulpit. Support virtue in all cases. Particularly if you lack virtue in the pUlpit you may have everything else - and fall. McKean con­ cluded, "Tho he spake in accents of melody and with all the graces of gesture; tho in strains of purest language ... yet lacked this crowning requisite ... the universal suffrage would Indignantly re­ fuse the name and praise of a good pulpit orator." 300

EXHIBIT 9 Lectures Rttd to tho Seniors in Harvard College. Ldmrd T. Chaining (Bostons Ticknor and Fields t~T8">6) pp. ^98. This book was registered by Henrietta A. S. Channing.

PREFACE "I have not attempted a systematic view of rhetoric, either in compliance with tha statutes of the professorship, or according to any Idea of my own." (Pg. vi.) These are "essays upon subjects suggested by rhetoric rather than orderly treatises upon its proper topics." ETC did not use the lectures for the whole course of rhetoric at Harvard for this book. " ••• I have been traveling, in my own way, over old ground." He makes the point that many obligations have been forgotten* There are few footnotes* (Pg* vi.) BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE Edward Tyrrel Cbanning was born in Newport, R.I*, on December 12, 1790* His moat famous brother was William Ellery Cbanning. His father was the Attorney General for R.I. and District Attorney for the U. S. His father died as a young man leaving nine children* Edward entered Harvard in 180U at the age of 13. He was involved in the student rebellion of 1807. He received his degree a few years later* In 1851 ETC got his Doctor of Laws degree. He was admitted to the Boston Bar. He studied law, history, Greek and Roman. He de­ voted himself to literary pursuits*

Charming was active in the early organisation of the North Ameri­ can Review. In 1617 he became editor. In 1819 at the age of 28 Cbanning took over the Boylston Chair* Kr* Edward Everett replaced Charming as editor of the North American Review. In 1851 Cbanning retired from tho ohair at the age of 60. The students he taught number into the thousands. He had a reputation for pure style* He was especially noted for his sound Judgment and taste in dealing with English literature.

His personality as a teacher is disoussed. "The department of thesiss, forensics and elocution has not usually, in our colleges, held a high position, conpared with the other departments, as respects the deter­ mining of academic rank, and the attention to it has been less exact and 301

obligatory. But Hr. Channing carried his department forward until Its relative Influence was so great that excellence in it became essential to honors and high rank* and neglect of it Incompatible with continuance in college at all*" (Pg. xll.) He was a student of Shakespeare* Milton* Burke* Johnson* Goldsmith* Fielding* Riohardson* Scott and Chaucer* Among the theologians* Chan­ ning studied Barrow* Taylor* Smith* Young, Cowper and Bunyan. Chan­ ning read Wordsworth* Coleridge* Byron* Cang>bell and Lamb. He also read Irving* Cooper* Bryant and Dio kens. He had a preference for the philosophy of Reid* He was not an orator. He was a conservative, a Unitarian and mar­ ried his cousin. He was educated in the "school of Washington" and adopted the policies of the Federal party* He had wit* was a conversa­ tionalist* but (above all) "he was best in the pursuit of the serious or contemplative in life." He liked solitude.

He wrote a series of lectures on English literature* THE ORATOR AND HIS TIKES (Dec* 8* 1819 Inaugural Address.) (Pgs. 1-25*) This lecture deals with the "circumstances in the state of society* which distinguish the modern from the ancient orator.”

A. In the ancient Republics rhetoric was a part of all education and oratory was extremely important* These are some of the reasons Why oratory was so vitals 1* The people were ignorant. 2. Ancient Republics were not spread out as today. 3* The orator had greater freedom in the courts of law. ii. The orators used imagination and passion more freely than today* 5* Emphasis on false estimates of national grandeur and happiness. Genius has thrown splendor over the ancients* 6. The orator was the leader to use his power to the worthiest or vilest ends. People used and needed him. He appealed to anything that proved effective* It was a rugged time* Nations sought power rather than internal security. Oratory was the result*

The rules left behind by the ancients (the rhetoricians) are to be applied with regard to the altered condition of society. B. These are the reasons why we study tha ancients todayt 1* rhetorical instruction 2. literature 3. examples of great men 302

U. understanding history 5. understanding human nature

Ws hsar today that oratory Is a lost art. This is not true. Only tha setting has changed. "Still I think it unquestionable, that the oratory of modern free countries is, in character, as precisely formed by and suited to our state of society, as that of the ancients mas acccaeiodated to theirs; and that it would be scarcely less ridiculous to lament over tha decline of their oratory amongst us, than it would be to lament over the decline of good government, morals, and philoso­ phy since the days of the triumvirate• '* (Pg. 12.} C. The object of eloquenoe is the same# " ... to bring men, by what­ ever modes of address, to our way of thinking, and thus make them act acoordlng to our wishes." (Pg# 13*) What are the characteristics of speech today? 1# The importance of one man is lessened. 2. More laws limit a man. 3. Audiences are mors learned. Ancient speaker controlled audience. Today it's vice versa. U. The subject is mors thought of than the speaker. "The splendor that surrounds him £»the speakerJ must be the natural light of truth, not the false brilliancy that startles and blinds,"

The superficial observer would say that oratory is lost because the results are not obvious. Truth will prevail. Speech means little. According to Channing persuasion and the emotional appeal are still oX importance. Today the Importance of character predominates. Charac­ ter is mors important than all the attributes of delivery. Sincerity and conviction are important# Oratory still has dignity. GbWEHAL VlfW OF RHETORIC (Pgs. 26^U5.) Rhetoric has been through the proverbial "mill." Great philoso­ phers have discussed it and certain questions arise. 1. Shall the orator be instructed? 2# Shall he be specifically instructed to be an orator? 3. Is the rhetorician a universal school teacher? I*. Will the art mate men wiser judges?

The word "rhetoric" has come to be a reproachful description of a certain type of style. What does the art truly undertake to teach? Originally rhetoric was intended to instruct men in the composition and delivery of orations. The preparation of an orator includes a lot that is equally appropriate for writers. Drama is a luxury* Speech is a necessary accomplishment in life. Speech is like architecture - prac­ tical. 303

A* Rhetoric, when reduoed to a system In books, Is "a body of rules derived frost experience and observation, extending to all com­ munication by language and designed to make it efficient." (Pg. 31) In thus extending the meaning of rhetoric beyond orators and speakers, the orator gains. Rhetoric analyses methods of per­ suasion. The qualities in man's nature are the same for speaker and writer alike. Both must use the same approach. "I cannot see hov a liberal and philosophical rhetoric can overlook any form of ooaq>ositlon, any use of language that alma at power over the heart." (Pg. 330 Community among the arts makes limiting rhetorlo to speech unwise. 1. The reason for making any course exclusive is to perfect the pupil. It will shut out anything that will Inter­ fere, but certainly not that which Involves the same principle of that which the student pursues. 2. A person will not understand as much about rhetoric aa then he studies It in its various modes, "and even with the faintest differences that may naturally exist between the manner of the speaker and the writer." 3. This liberal concept of rhetoric eliminates the idea that persuasion is a vulgar lnstxnanent.

Rhetorlo finds, arranges and proves argument. This idea has restored rhetoric. It's hard to separate persuasion and argument. Instruction in actual speaking should be general. The prin­ ciples of composition Involve style or the means of powerful ex­ pression. B. There are objections aimed at rhetoric. There are three in number. 1. It is an arbitrary device of sophists to make men orators. ETC says this is no different than philosophy which is respected. 2. It offers the same prescription for all. ETC This is true. There are universal principles. 3* It serves a mischievous purpose. ETC calls this a result of a lack of knowledge.

When light comes rhetorlo will be recognised as a "humble as­ sistant of nature and friend of truth."

ELOCUTION A STOUT (Pgs. U6-59.)

Some say speeon need not be taught. We should Just let nature take the speaker idlers it will. ETC disagrees.

A. We must teach rhetoric. These are the reasonst 1. The principles of rhetoric cultivate natural abilities. 2. Nature has been ill-used by many. Vhately has given us the ideal relationship between speaker, audience and occasion. you

Vie must reseh a balance between nature and acquired skills. Skill with the voice is used as an ax—pie. 3. Education is important to point up the Tact that ardor, sincerity and devotion are all important to the orator* s purpose* U* The naked passion (of the uneducated nan) doesn*t fit a cultivated audience. The uneducated need restraint and moderation* EfcMONSTRATIVE ORATORT (Pgs. 60-71.) A* The purpose of demonstrative oratory is to please* "It may exer­ cise no small moral and intellectual influence) but it proposes to Itself no Csmall or] special practical resultsa" (Pg* 60.) This kind of speech addresses Itself to opinion, taste and feel­ ing* The ancients used this speech for praise or dispraise, panegyric or invective. It is still very much in use. cown—orations, funerals and eulogies. B. The common faults were or are i undue family pride biographies by friends too muoh praise* literary orators are best for this type of speech* "In a social view, the mere bringing people together to have their minds re­ freshed by truth and their tastes gratified by simple, intellec­ tual pleasures, is of itself civilising." (Pg* 67.) Interest in this type of speech depends entirely on the speaker* The Oocaslons are the s—e each year. Don*t read your address. It would be better to stay at home and write* "To answer these demands the speaker needs perfect mastery of subject sustained interest in what he is saying points fixed and always visible statements almost laboriously distinct to keep up a gentle, steady, cheering flame from the opening to the close*" (Pg* 71.)

DELIBERATIVE ORATORT (Pgs. 72-69*) This type of oratory was well known in Qreek times* It is the type of oratory used in assemblies concerning the adaption or rejection of measures* The speaker advises and persuades. Legislative bodies are the most important type of assembly. ETC gives the chief character­ istics of modem legislative assemblies, legislatures are composed of individuals who represent groups of people* Our legislature is divided into branches for eheeks and balances. The eharacter of the Qreek 305 legislature was different in this respect* The Oreeks "Justly con­ sidered themselves aa in a state of perpetual pupilage} where they had an authority, after they cane to the use of reason, not only to retract and control whatever had been determined, but to punish any guardian for measures idilch they had embraced by his persuasion." In other words the orator of /thens was always on trial for his life* We have too many views represented in the legislature for a speaker to "sweep" the entire audience* A* What are the characteristics of deliberative oratory today? 1* It is marked by a spirit of independence* 2* It is intellectual and moral in character* There are less violent changes in points of view* Burke is an example. Some peculiarities are* 1* Deliberative oratory may sometimes be only conversation* Speakers may address equals in a oasual manner* 2* It is sometimes more like discussion than persuasion* If a question is in doubt, an individual may change his mind. Persuasion is necessary for changes that are of benefit to society* JUDICIAL ORATORY THE PROFESSION AND THb TRIBUNAL (Pgs. 90-97.) "A lawyer is an officer of a court of justice, who publicly professes that he will take upon him to give advice in all matters of a legal nature, and to maintain and defend such rights and in­ terests as may be contested before the courts*" (Pg* 70*)

We welcome ministers and doctors* We reject the lawyer* The lawyer speaks to courts and Juries. When a lawyer speaks to the court he needs certainty in tha law and its interpretation* His whole Inquiry is, "What s a l th the law?" lie concludes (ETC) by asking the question, "In law «Siat place is there for eloquence? JUDICIAL ORATORY (Pgs. 98-112*)

Eloquence is defined as that "which can with propriety came under the notice of rhetoric, (is eloquent,) if it be adapted to our pur­ pose."

A. The eloquence of law is didactic or argumentative eloquence* It is marked by* 306

1* calmness, mastery and gravity* 2* distinct order. 3* for©*. I*. warmth and beauty. Warmth and beauty are not exclusively tha property of those dealing with the passions* The Lawyer above all should seek clearness. The us* of "picture- painting1* helps especially with the Jury* When speaking to a Jury oratorloal power is needed. ETC discusses the Jury making the point that the men on the Jury are human beings and subject to persuasion* The sagacity of tha Juror is based on feeling as well as reason* The lawyer must win sympathy as well as conviction. Style when deal­ ing with a Jury should be various and popular. The lawyer alms at per­ sonal influence. THE ADVOCATE AID THE DEBATER (Pgs. 113-119.) ETC deals in this chapter with the differences between the lawyer and the politician. Lawyers have a special education. This is not the case with the politician* A. These are the distinctions between arguwnt in courts and political debates 1* Political debate allows more freedom than the bench* 2. In debate you are involved in changing laws. In law you stiok to them* 3* Debaters us* many sources of proof. This is not true in Law* U* The political speaker speaks to crowds. The lawyer generally speaks to a select group or Judge. The lawyer does not have generally the versatility to meet the needs of a legislative body.

ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT REASONS FOR PREACHING (Pgs. 120-132.) ETC spends a few pages in discussing the general outline of a (or the) history of preaching*

The Greeks and Romans preached through instructors of ethics. The prophets of Old Testament days preached. It was an extremely Im­ portant type of speaking from the days of Christ through the Middle Ages. Preaching is of tremendous Importance today. The speoial im­ portance of preaching today is true because aa civilisation advances, man's life becomes more complex. A* There are two chief reasons for preaching. They aret 1. Religion is intended to apply to human conduct* 2. The preacher*s subjects need Impressive inculcation* 307

Repetition Is Important* If man la to lira a battar Ufa, ha must be continually helped* ELOQUENCE OF THE RJLFTT, THE FREACHEA AND HIS AUDIENCE (Pgs. 133-11*2.) A* What are tha peculiarities of pulpit oratory? 1* The church or place of speaking la sacred. 2* The day la sacred* 3* Tha audience la silent and respectful* U* There la no applause* 5. Tha audience is tha same each time* 6* Tha audience la tha only assembly that is consistently of good slse* This generalisation includes theater* ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT THE PREACHER'S RESOURCES (Pgs. 1L3-Ii*fi*) In limiting his consideration of tha preacher's resources to tha mind of tha preacher, ETC does not mean to imply that God does not play a part* None the lss a he does not include the re source a through God in his lecture*

A* How far may tha preacher go in using his own powers in delivering a message frost God? 1* He can use his own learning and ingenuity* He gives vent to deep human feeling in went spaaoh* 2* Ha can use affectionate persuasion, encouragement and counsel* Let us give the preacher a free exercise of his own powers to achieve the eloquence that comes from ocanton nature* Let us hope that he draws our desires into his thinking* LITERAEX TRIBUNALS (Pgs* 11*9-165#) A* Who establishes whether literature is permanent or shortlived? 1* authorities (critics) 2* common readers

These two groups must appreciate literature if it is to last. A work of literary exoellenoe is universal* The simple man likes it* let those with greater sensitivity study it* In works of a scien­ tific nature wepnerally rely on the expert* Wb also leave the man who contemplates deeply and sets down his ideas with little care for a general audience to the individual critics* 3 0 6

If there Is a decision to be »ada bitimn over emphasis of tha audience or over emphaaia on tha speaker, ETC would pick tha speaker* "All hopa and love of tha ldaal must pariah if tha author or any artiat measures hlmaalf and hla work by tho world withoutt and datamlnaa who tha r an object la attalnabla or desirable, by tha n«bar of thoaa who will ba llkaly to undaratand or oar* about It* Probably no readors, ho we war humble, whoaa attention haa bean drawn to literature would thank him for the condaaoanaioni ao much more agreeable la it to feel one* a oelf growing stronger by exposure to dlfflculties, and to the Influence of grand thoughts Intrepidly uttered, than to ba nursed into a life-long Imbecility*" (Pg* 165*) FORMS OF CRITICISM (Pgs* 166-161*.) For what purposes do we hare different forma of criticism? A* These are the forma of criticism which the writer should seek* 1* Private critic lam* This is much preferred over public oriti- cism. Sometimes a writer loses himself in his work* He can than turn his work over to a friend or a teacher. Whan giving advice be careful* Some people want praise not ad­ vice. Tha big advantage to this form of criticism is that it acbtits detailed criticism or minutest strictures* This is tha most irksome form of criticism that a young writer can receive* Sons times the writer must ignore criticism and stick to his guns. The detailed sort of oriticlmn can sometimes involve words themselves* This sort of criticism should not be looked down upon* The philologist is a dili­ gent worker of service to writers* What la of more importance than words? Do we not think in words?

2* Office of annotators* This is the type of criticism that enlarges on old standard works* A little more prudence and learning is necessary for this job. Generally the annotator illustrates literary productions analyses the author's genius studies tha author's temper, object he aimed for, opportunities, circumstances, etc* A man of this type lives with other people of other times* Too often a critic of this type goes into detail before he catches the spirit of the author* 3* Accounts of times* These consist of collections of materials Indicating something about details of sn era* U* A mimed historical and critical study of a body of literature from a given ago or era. In this type of criticism the obscure 309

art dealt with aa wall aa tha eminent. 5. Philosophical diacuaalons euoh aa Burke* a "Inquiry.1* Thia type of criticism pesulta in tha production of princlplea of a glean subject. 6. Literary reviews• This type is more or less a catch all for everything mentioned above. ETC concludes by pointing out that a critic la not above oriti­ clam. A WRITER'S PREPARATION (Pga. 165-201.) What makes a writer? It is difficult to explain what really changes a vigorous mishap ridden struggler in paper and pen into a "writer." Thia change is not sudden.

A. To start with the student should accept long tried methods. There are two general methods. 1. Some writers ease along according to a predetermined plan or pattern* 2. Others change aa they move along, catching unexpected re­ lationships as they spring up. What use can be made of reading? Reading can engender a "spirit of independence and self reliance." B. There are criticisms of reading books. They aret 1. Books are said to make us indolent. 2. They create a love of plodding accumulation. 3. They create a morbid taste for bibliographical curiosities. li. Reading creates self complacency. ETC doesn't refute these criticisms. He asks the question, "Does reading hurt originality?" First Charming defines originality as a quality of a "mind which, from its constitution and natural action, - not from weak and random eccentricity, but from sound, Inherent ac­ tivity, - takes its own view of things and makes its own use of them." (Pg. 19U.) Charming bases his answer to the charge that reading hinders originality on the definition above. Reading doesn't hinder originality for the original mind doesn't hoard borrowed treasures. It turns every­ thing to gold. "Originality never works more fruitfully than In a soil rich and deep with the foliage of ages." (Pg. 195.) Isolation tends to narrow the soul. A book may be the source of originality. But in the final analysis, all will depend on what is the writer's own from his own resources or barreness. 310

HABITS Or READING (Pgs. 202-207.) Too manor students Indulge in superficial reading. A light, in­ dolent, heedless Inspection of books Is simply literary foppery. Same books should be skinned. The professor may skim but not the student. The student must discipline his powers of attention. "But the mostent he loses sight of duties and advantages, and begins to trifle miscellaneously with books, and erase variety, and talk of general knowledge and of keeping pace with the age, there is reason to fear that he is losing all control of himself, and all perception of the useful In reading." (P~. 205.) Rather than wanting to know something about a lot of books, read everything of one man of an era or age. Tou*11 end up knowing more about an era or reading and writing in the long run. A WINTER'S HABITS (Pgs. 206-217.)

The writer must give his whole attention to his subject. A writer*s self control must be equal to temptation. The writer must write Wien writing Is irksome, when he Is physically exhausted, and when his mind is vacant. It means self-denial, close study and industry. A. Writing Is difficult because 1. One tiresome position must be kept. 2. Tou aim at one point instead of letting thoughts roam. 3* When new th o u g h ts pour In we lose track of them. Self-imposed duty soon becomes a pleasure and the mind moves on with an impulse of its own.

B. Here are some general rules to follow. 1. When warned to a subject don't stop. 2. The first fresh Impression will be the liveliest if pre­ served. If we wait the fire is lost* The best writers will write with all the impetuouslty of ideas when they ooour to him. He will be sincere and exact. "One of the worst habits a writer can fall into is that of stopping to rectify his style at the moment of composing." (Pg. 21U.) This results in a conscious style. The work of correcting should not begin until all else is done.

3. Some may like to write in the morning, others at night. It makes little difference. About general approaches to writing, Some prefer that the principal part of meditation precede writing. Others oannot think without pen in hand. 311

THB 3T0DI OF OUR OWN LAHOUACE (Pgs. 210-232.) Oar own language deserves study. Qraranar la learned unconsciously. A. The growth of a language la uncertain. It is affooted by many factors. Some factors arei 1. the hlatorlc multitudes. 2. human caprice* 3. different feelings and associations that accompany different ages In history. We must try to be vivid and concrete in our use of words*

A person must be aware of the tradition of his language. If a person is aware of tradition then alterations that are needed in language are made in 11 the spirit of the old institutions.1* B. In using words, 1. >to must not look to any one man as an authority. 2. Wb must not simply conform to the standards of our time* Fashion is no standard. But we must recognise change* 3* In using new expressions, we should follow the golden mean* We must combine the old with the new* "My object, a moment ago, was to recasaiend prudence, and now I as again vindicating liberty* In leaving the subject, I may express a hope that my young friends will feel seme pride in doing their part to keep the old Landmarks distinct, - the ancient wells pure." (Pg* 232.) CliARNKSS OF cJCFRhSSlOU AUD THOUGHT (Pgs. 233-2U5.) A* Words are representations of thought* In studying words we must observe 1 1* observe great writers and speakers. 2* know the history of words. 3* analyse terms.

"Ideas cannot be well-defined in our minds, unless they are already wrapped in appropriate terms.1* (Pg. 235.) Some think that if we think clearly, m speak clearly. There are too many examples to the contrary. B* What is precision? It involves appropriateness of diction and defin­ iteness of ideas. Being plain, simple and neat doe an11 give precision. Oh the other hand being free, graceful and Inclined to amplification doesn't mean that a speaker is "muddying the waters." Precision consists in the 512

using of such words only as our ideas demand of right and necessity. C. How doss one achieve precision? 1. Put thoughts on paper 2. Avoid single words as carriers of an entire thought. US I NO WORDS FOR ORNAMENT (Pgs. 21*6-258.) Students take most offense to criticism of their figurative language. "US are trying to learn the law and the principle* - not the glorious dispensations idiich are allowed to great men* The teacher gives the pupil what he holds to be a good and safe rule; but he can­ not undertake to Instruct him in those licenses which are sometimes conceded to mature and cosnandlng genius." (Pg. 2L7.) A. Figurative language is sometimes defined as a characteristic of a fanciful buji . Some say that fanciful language is used to give visibility to ideas. ETC defines figurative language as a trope idiich means "some well-defined form or shape of language* in which there is commonly a departure* more or less striking* from the original or proper use." (Pg. 250.)

B. There is more thought put into figures by youth than by older people. There are two coamnon misapprehensions about figures of speech. 1. Seme purposely attach figures to their composition for beauty. 2. Same purposely stack them up in writing instead of thought. Temper your use of figures with taste. RRMANENT LITERARY FAME (Pgs. 259-298.) A. There are some qualities in a work that lead people to consider it permanent. 1. "Works published in this age must take root in it to flourish in the next." 2. The writer must live life around him. 3* The writer must understand people around him. U. A piece of work must have universal qualities but to get these universal qualities a man must write for his time and country in his language. 5* The writer's tone and spirit must be comprehensive but he may aim at a specific audience. 6. "It is little better than repetition to say that a book* well- established in public favor by impression or opinion* is also established by the often unobserved yet unvarying principles of taste." (Pg. 290.) 313

Let ua as writers strive to be great. "If we should bring into one view the fortunes of still other writers , who are considered as the most prosperous snong the im­ mortals, the lowly might be brought to think it better for a man to sleep quietly when he has no more to do with the earth in the body. But they will not persuade tha soaring spirit that it is not worth ambition to be a great power in the world, ages after one's burial." (Pg. 296.) 31U EXHIBIT 10

The Principles of Rhetoric, Adams Sherman Kill (Haw York* Harpers and Brothers RiblfsKers, ) pp* 3Ul. This is a revised version of the edition of 1678* These are not lectures but chapters In what would be considered a text book for college students* Prefaoe - The purpose of which is definition* "Rhetoric may be defined as the art of efficient ooimunieatlan by language*1* (Pgs* v-vii*) "It is an art, not a sciencei for it neither observes* nor dis­ covers » nor classifies) but it shows how to convey from one mind to another the results of observation* discovery or classificationj it uses knowledge not as knowledge* but as power*" Rhetoric implies two parties* Hill refers to Aristotle tdien making this point* Since rhetoric recognises the hearer, its rules are not absolute but rather relative to the persons addressed. Logic and truth are one* The ways of oomunioation are many* Rhetoric applies to any subject matter that can be treated in words* Rhetoric does not undertake to furnish a person with some­ thing to say| but it does undertake to tell him how best to say it. ASH uses Coleridge's definition of style as a definition of rhetorlo* "Style," says Coleridge* "is an art of conveying the meaning appropri­ ately and with perspicuity* whatever that meaning may be; .. The purposes of Part 1 and Part 2 of the book are stated* Part 1 discusses and illustrates "general principles which apply to written or spoken discourse of every kind*" Part 2 applies to special kinds of prose writing* "Wiile engaged in revising this book, I have seen no occasion to modify in any Important respect what was said in the preface to the first edition* I stlU believe that the function of rhetoric la not to provide the student of composition with materials for thought* nor yet to lead him to cultivate style for style's sake* but to stimulate and train his powers of expression* - to enable him to say what he has to say in appropriate language*"

A few changes (deletions and enlargements) were made in the pages to follow*

ASH profited from criticisms given by LBR Briggs and GL Kittredge* 315

FART I COMPOSITION IN GENERAL BOOK I GRAMMATICAL PURITY CHAPTER 1 GOOD USE Tha foundation* of rhetoric rest upon grannar j for gransnatioal purity is a requisite for good writing* Grammatical inaccuracy is a demerit of substance. There are few \tio achieve constant aocuraoy. A, Purity in grammar Involves three things, 1* writing should contain nothing but English words and phrases* 2* These words and phrases should be used in their English meaning* 3* Words should be combined according to the idigLish idiom* What determines whether an expression is English? One does not inquire into the origin, history or tendencies of a language* We must check into the English being used today. We must not be too over fastidious. Wb can use words like "pell-mell,* "topsy-turvy," etc* Buries uses them* Campbell is too fastidious in his principles on the use of words* B, Thars is only one sound prlnolple governing the use of words* A writer* s language must be the kind that people can understand* This was Macaulay's idea* A writer should avoid pedantry and vulgarity. There are three criteria for understanding* 1* present use. This criteria is opposed to the obsolete or ephemeral. Time la the main factor, Campbell (1750 or so) held that any word which had not appeared in any book since 1668 or which was to be found in the works of living authors only, should not be deemed in present use* Today according to Hill words come and go more quickly. He briefly considers the stages through vhioh words go* 2* national use. This criteria is opposed to local, professional or foreign words. The judges are national writers for national writers set national use. Hill gives examples of provincial­ isms and expressions which have come from professional into general use. Foreign words should be used with care. Words are passing back and forth from England to the U, S, all the time, "One way is for the most part as good as the otheri let each side of the ocean stick to its own way, if only to keep up those little picturesque differences which are really a gain when the substance is essentially the same*" (Pg* 13*) 3* reputable use. This means that the words that are used uni­ formly by writers that the world deems best are reputable* ASH listed words that axe not reputable* 3 1 6

C* Thar® are three rules to follow in the actual practice of choos­ ing words. They are* 1. precision - using a word subject to only one Interpretation. 2* simplicity - pick the simpler of two expressions • 3* euphony - agreeable to the ear* But good use is primary. Many like Milton, Smith, Johnson and Cmnpbell hare failed to Justify these rules in actual practice at specific times. RThese marked failures should warn the student of language, whether he fills a professor1® chair or sits at a pupil's desk, not to try to stem the current of usage when it strongly sets one way." (Pg* 2U*) CHAFTErt II VIOLATIONS OF GOOD USE A. Barbarisms. The following should be avoided. 1* obsolete * 2. novelties* 3* words of foreign origin. b. borrowed finery - generally oomp 5. foreign spelling* 6 * slang* 7. new formations. 8. vulgarisms. "a steal," "tasty," etc. 9. abbreviated forms* "cab," "co-ed," etc. 3* Great writers determine good use* Improprieties or using an English word in a sense that is not English. 1. resemblance in sound misleads* 2. resemblance in sense misleads. 3* others noted by Hill. U* English words with foreign meanings. 5. improprieties in phrases.

0. Solecisms or constructions not ^ngllsh. In conversation a slight Inaccuracy is to be pardoned. In oratory fire is more important than correctness. But a writer can take all the time he needs. 1* errors in the use of foreign nouns* 2. possessive case is not distinguished from the gsnitlve* 3. object of the verb is sometimes put in the nominative case* U. the emphatic pronoun "self*1 is some times confounded with the reflexive* 5* pronoun without grammatical antecedent* 6* misuse of "either," "neither" and "former" and "latter*" 7. singular or plural verbs* 317

8* can or may. 9* a hall and will* 10. indicative or subjective. U, lnoorract tenses. Blair makes this mistake In lactura 17* 12* adverb or adjective* 1 3 * wrong prepositIona* U* split infinitives. 15* double negatives. 16. omissions* Thera is difficulty in applying the principles of good use due to the ravages of time and the differences between and among experts. BOOK XI RHETORICAL EXCELLENCE CHAPTER 1 CHOICE OF WORDS We suffer from poverty of language. If we have Just a few words we overwork them. The result is triteness. A. How can a man enrich his vocabulary? 1. Oather words from the dictionary as Chatham and Browning* 2. Translate from the ancient classics as Choate. 3. Become familiar with the classics of your own native tongue as Stevenson and Franklin. U* Most of us simply absorb* 9. The choice of words depends oni clearness. The writer should use words that can be understood* Reading should be effortless. Macaulay is used as an example of perspicuity. He would write a rough draft of an incident at one sitting) then fill it in on six pages of foolscap per day. He used the same word over again* It is better to repeat a noun than to substitute for it a pronoun. He made Judicious use of connective particles*

Clearness is relative* Words that are effective in one situation are not so in another* "Eloquence is the power to translate a truth into language perfectly intelligible to the person to whom you speak*" (Pg* 91*) Clearness differs from precision* Pre­ cision applies to scientific Jargon* General terms like "nature" have different meanings to different people* Anglo-Saxon words are not the only words to be used* Spencer, a chanplon of Anglo-Saxon words* used Latin derivatives in the defense of the Anglo-Saxon. We should eliminate "fine writing" or "verbal ward­ robes." Be specific not general in your choice of words. 3 1 6

C. fore*. Information requires clarity* Other purposes require "force." Campbell calls this vivacity. Whately call* it energy. Bain calla it strength. The characteristics of force are the univocal, the short, the specific and the familiar. Campbell is an example of forceful writing. The trope is the most used device to get force. "The substitution of a less general for a more general term is the simplest kind of trope, or figure of speech, - the word being "turned” from its usual meaning and employed in a figurative, as distinguished from a literal, sense." (Pg. 11U.) D. There are several kinds of tropes. 1. Words with both a literal and figurative meaning. 2. Synecdoche and 3* Metonymy between which there is no practical value. U« Simile or metaphor. The simile expresses distinctly what the metaphor implies. The metaphor is more forceful than the simile. This idea omi from Whately who got it from Aristotle. Spencer gives economy for the reason why the metaphor is forceful. Use the simile until the meaning is plain and then us* the metaphor. Sustained metaphors are especially useful. Avoid mixed metaphors. f>. Personification gives life to the inanimate. The value of tropes rests in ornamentation as well as force. £• ease. At times this is called euphony* beauty, harmony, smoothness, grace and elegance. When writing has ease the reader goes from one word to another without a Jar. How may ease be acquired? 1* Train your ear. 2. Ease springs out of the character of the writer* It is a gift rather than an acquisition. This gift must be developed by persistent labor. 3. Avoid excessive alliteration and affected euphony. U. Avoid two words alike in sound standing near each other. 5. Avoid the substitution of one word for another that has the same meaning. 6. Eliminate "and which" from sentence structure. 7. Avoid trivial expressions.

Both ease and force are means to an end. "A writer who manifestly strives after vigor is Justly o si led bombastic or sensational j one who manifestly strives after beauty is Justly called affected or sentimental." 319

CHAPTER I I HUMBER OF WORDS A* A groat many consideration* effect the number of words to be used in a sentence. If the subject is fMillar to the audience use fewer words. If the audience la intelligent use fewer words. The best rule of thumb is to avoid extremes.

1. Clearness - The biggest problems In clearness arei 1. Too few words and 2. including too many words. Interest is the criteria here. 2. Force - Too many words hinder foroe. The two big hindrances are 1. unskillful repetition and 2. redundancy. Unskillful repetition may be a result of a poverty of thought. Burke and DsQulncey represent skillful repetition. There are several kinds of redundancy. s. Tautology which is the repetition of an idea in the same or different words. b . Pleonasm which is the addition of words that can be omitted without affecting the construction or meaning of a sentence. Overuse of adjectives is a comnon source of this problem. c . Verbosity the causes of which are paraphrases, circumlocution and prolixity. 3. The answer to this unnecessary repetition is a. selectivity or saying much in little. My Last Duchess by Browning is an example of selectivity. b. power in reserve helps. This is a matter of reserve in composition. Examples are Bright. Mark Anthony. Lincoln and Webster. U. Ease - Ease suffers from excessive conciseness. Authors noted for force are concise. Authors noted for ease are copious.

CHAPTER I I I ARRANGEMENT

This is the most important of the three topics under rhetorical excellence.

A. In the ideal arrangement "the order of the language would distinctly indicate the relative importance of each constituent part of the composition*" (Pg. 177.) This is impossible but a goal to strive toward. 1. Clearness - The writer should give to each word the proper rela­ tion. This is beat done by placing pronouns, correspondents and subordinate expressions correctly. De?uincey and Blair make the mistake of misplacing these elements. 2 . Force - Important words should be put at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. Generally the subject is first but there are plenty of examples to the contrary. "Nearest the heart nearest the mouth." There is a difference between Latin and 320

English* Antithesis helps in force as well as clearness. ASH praises Burke for moderate use of antithesis. ASH hits Johnson, Gibbon, J’mius and Macaula/ for excesses. Force favors climactic order. Cicero and Demosthanes are good examples. Spencer In his Philosophy of Style indicates that the simile should precede the literal assertion. This Is not always true. 3* Ease - It is difficult to prescribe rules to help the student achieve ease in writing. It is sometimes necessary to break the rules. You may even end a sentence with a preposition to achieve ease. The chief offenses to ease aret a. out - of - Dlaoe parenthetical expressions. b. imitation of foreign arrangements. The natural order is best. U. Unity - Every sentence should be a unit. a. ideas should be unified* b. expression should be unified. A lack of unity is caused by a confusion of thought. Blair is used as a poor example of arrangement. 5. Kinds of sentences - Some favor short and some favor long sentences. Coleridge favored the long sentence. The short sentence is favored by most today. De iuincey uses Kant as the extreme example in the employment of long sentences. "Kant was a great man, but he was obtuse and deaf as an antediluvian boulder with regard to language and its capacities. He has sentences which have been measured by a carpenter, and some of them run two feet eight by six inches. Now a sentence with that enormous span Is fit only for the use of a mega­ therium or a pre-Adamite. Parts so remote as the beginning and the end of such a sentence can have no sensible relation to each other." Both long and short sentences have advantages. The long sentence has the advantage of showing the relation of a word with its context. The short sentence avoids a. obscurity b. weakness and clumsiness and c* scattering our shot Alternate sentences. Use the long to unfold thought and the short to enforce It. The beat example is Burke. 6. There are two kinds of sentences. a. Periodic — In this type the meaning is suspended until the very end of the sentence. b. Loose - This type of sentence can be cut off almost at any point and still have meaning. ASH uses good examples of this type of sentence as compared with the perlodio. 321

There la also the balanced sentence "that is, the sentence in which the words and phrases of one part correspond in font and position with those of another part*" In rumary each kind of sentence has Its use* Oood writers use all kinds of sentences*

7* Paragraphs - These divisions have two purposes* 1. Broken texts rest the eye* 2. The paragraph marks a change in thought, ASH gives examples of paragraphs that have clearness, force, ease and unity. Unity is absolutely necessary* The other criteria mentioned may be fulfilled in part or by degree*

6 * Whole composition - The general principles for the whole com­ position should be the same for a oaper of two pages as they are for a book of several volumes* A composition should have ease, force, clearness and unity* Keep an eye on the "whole*" Have a picture of your finished work in mind. Try to get unity with variety* a writer above all else has to interest his reader* The highest praise a student can get from a teacher is "I enjoyed reading your essay*" PART II KINDS OF COMPOSITION A* There are four kinds of composition. 1* Description involving persons or things* 2* Narration involving acts or events. 3* Exposition or explaining anything which requires explanation, li* Argument which deals with anything involving conviction* This involves opinion or action or both* CHAPTER I DESCRIPTION

ASH discusses painting, sculpture and drsna as exanples of descrip­ tion. "Whatever painting and oculpt'ire can suggest to the imagination, language can fully recount* •*• No gallery of pictures, however large, can tell a story as words canj *.*" (Pg* 250*)

A. There are two ways to observe* 1* Scientific analysis (study) Scientific description is for the purpose of analysis and information through comparison* ASH gives exanples from science* 2* Artistic viewing of the whole (enjoyment) Artistic description gives pleasure by affecting the imagina­ tion or producing an illusion* It is suggestive. This kind of description should not dwell on a part unless it is 322

representative of the whole. Stick to fact. Don't give anything but emotion. If emotion is the only thing ex­ pressed, it is better to use the vehicle of music. Don't fall into the Pathetic Fallacy or the transferring of emotions to inanimate objects. The writer should not try to make language do more than It can do. He should make the most of advantages which language has over the other arts, B. How does one make the best of language in description? 1, Set down telling characteristics, 2, By making use of one happy phrase, 3, Use one well chosen word, U, Describe the effect of the object in cpiestion. Use words that suggest motion, 6, Make use of narration. CHAPTER II NARRATION Narration deals with acts or events. Words tell a story better than the chisel or the trumpet, Maupassant is held up as the inaur- passable story teller.

A. In narration movement and method are the essentials. 1, Movement - This can be either slow or rapid. Movement should not be obstructed. ASH gives an especially good comparison of two stories of a bear as an illustration, (Pgs. 286-7.) 2, Method is needed in movement, a. Aphorisms or tangents should be avoided, b . Make changes in point of view dear, c* Keep your central idea in mind. Biography is easy in this respect. History is a little more difficult. Fiction is very difficult. Vision is a product of nature. Method however can be learned, CHAPTER III EXPOSITION

Exposition is explanation. The difference between description or narration and exposition is that exposition does not appeal to the emotions. Its function is to make the obscure clear. Exposition can be used in definition. It can deal with the general or the specific. A, Exposition must have the quality of dearness. How is this obtained? 1, repetition 2 , organisation 323

3. adaptation U. unity Rialpa - string of beads. Exposition, narration and doscriptIon oan be usad together In ona passage.

CHAPTEK IV ARGUMENTATION

A* Argument alms at oonviotlon 1« Proposition and Proof - Thera are two types of proof. a* direct - openly attempts to establish the proposition b* indirect - shows opposite of the proposition absurd Have your proposition well in mind. The burden of proof rests with the one who seeks to change the established order. The presumption is in favor of the person standing against change. This is sometimes reversed by a counter-prosumption. Always take advantage of the presumption. ASH gives an example from VJhately. 2. Evidence - It is the material of proof. There are two general types. a. direct idilch involves our own senses or consciousness. b. indirect whloh means testimony, tradition or the senses of others. There is a difference between fact and opinion. Fact is based on fact. Opinion is based on inference. One must test testimony. There are several kinds of testimony. a. expert b. authority c. unwilling testimony d. undesigned testimony e. testimony of s i le noe f. concurrent testimony In law there is a difference between direct and circumstantial testi­ mony. ASH uses a quotation at this point from Shaw. 3. Deduction and induotlon - Deduction moves from general to specific. Induction moves from specific to general. An example from Aristotle of the deductive form of reason­ ing 1st All men are mortal* Socrates is a man. Socrates is mortal. In the enthymeme ona premise is suppressed. The fallacies of deduction arei a. Begging the quest!on or arguing in circles. This is deducing a conclusion and then using the conclusion to prove the original assumption. 32U

b. Arguing beside the point* The fallacies of induction arat a. Overgeneraliaation. b. Post hoc ergo propter hoc* Induction and deduction work hand in hand, almost simultaneously* U* Antecedent Probability, example and sign* a* Antecedent Probability - This is arguing from cause to effect* This is arguing from past to present or future and present to future* This is used J.n science fiction* When antecedent probability is used it may be necessary to compare conflicting arguments. We have to deter­ mine the preponderance of probability* b* Example - This argument is based on a resemblance which persons or things bear to one another in certain particu­ lars or under certain aspects* ASH gives an exanple which is used by Whately* There are two kinds of examplet a* illustrative and b. argumentative* An argumentative example is much like an analogy* The exmaple that ASH uses to make this point clear is the argument from the comparison of Barth and Mars that there is life on the planet Mars*

Overgeneralisation is a fallacious use of an exanple* False analogies are a product of a lack of enough rela­ tionship between objects being compared* c« Argument from sign is based on an association of ideas* Macaulay and Junius are examples of this kind of argu­ ment. /. sign may be outweighed by antecedent prob­ ability. All three types of arguments are extended in force when com­ bined*

5* Arrangement - Arrangement is needed in argument* "You shall find," says John Quincy Adams, "hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good Ideas upon any subject, for one that can marshall them to the best advantage* Disposition (methodical arrangement) is to the orator what tactics, or the dlueipline of armies, is to the military art* And as the balance of victory has almost always been turned by the superiority of tactics and of discipline, so the great ef­ fects of eloquence are always produced by the excellency of disposition. There is no part of the science, in which the consummate orator will be so decidedly marked out, as by the perfection of his diBpoeitlon•,, (Pg* 380.) 325

Should the proposition or proof come first? If the proposition Is familiar, It is an advantage If you use the novel proof first* If the proposition is hostile* use the proof first. State the proposition and prove it. How should proof be arranged? Place argument from antecedent probability first. Follow with the example and finally the sign. Put the antecedent probability first because it helps to explain and secondly because it gives you the presumption* Refutation should be fairly met. Don't neglect* emphasize or mis­ state arguments of your opponent. Refutation should be placed in the middle of the argument. 6. Persuasion - This is a useful adjunct to arrument. Persuasion is carrying argument into action. It's the "instilment of conviction." Persuasion is addressed to feelings*

To substitute an appeal to feelings for argument is* of c corse, never Justifiable* Persuasion is more difficult than conviction. "Such a triumph C persuasion! was achieved by White fie Id over BenJsatin Franklin." (pg* 380.) Study Webster for exordiums and Burke for perorations. Sometimes it is hard to disassociate argument from persuasion* Of the methods of persuasion very little that is of practical value can be said. Good sense* right feeling and the knowledge of h’tman nature avail more than mien. Here are a few suggestions t

a. Be concrete b* The fewer words the better. c. Climax should be carried through. d. Use variety in content and method* e. Adapt to the audience. The educated are more diffi­ cult to move than the ignorant. In persuasion a bookish style tells far less than a simple ex­ pression of truth. "If a writer or an orator is thinking of his own style* he may please his readers or his hearers with well- turned periods or sounding phrases* but he will not move them; for lie will inevitably betray the fact that manner is more to him than matter. If his mind is full of his purpose* he will express him­ self simply. (Pg. 398.) Sincerity is of utmost importance. Argument Involves intelligence. Persuasion requires heat. People in general hold their opinions so loosely that a nan who be­ lieves anything with his whole heart is sure to make converts. Study the speeches of Burke* Webster* Cobden and 3right* 326

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Paul E. Rlad, was bom In Akron* Ohio* October 11, 1929* I received ray secondary school education In the public schools of Cuyahojf a 'fells, Ohio* and my undergraduate

training at Baldwin Wallace College* which granted me th e Bachelor of Arts dec ree In 1951* From the Ohio State U n i­ v e r s it y * I received the Master of Arts degree in 195^* While In residence there* I vaa a Graduate Assistant of Speech during the year 1952-53* and Director of Youth Ac­ tivities at the Riverside Methodist Church In Columbus

from 1953 to 1955* In June, 1955* I was appointed Instruc­ tor at Hope College in Holland* Kichit an, where I taught in the Department of Speech. I held this position two years. I moved to Denison University as Instructor of Speech in September* 1957* and held this position until April* 1959, when I was promoted to the rank of Assistant Profeasor, While at Denison I completed the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy.