FALLACIES by John Chancellor BERT R

DIRECTING MET: Kirk Browning FIRST AMENDMENT FREEDOMS: Bob Packwood THE DOCUDRAMA DILEMMA: Douglas Brode GRENADA AND THE MEDIA: John Chancellor IN AWORLD OF SUBTLETY, NUANCE, AND HIDDEN MEANING...

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S'} TELEVI e \ QUATELY

CONTENTS EDITORIAL BOARD

EDITOR 7 VIDEO VERITÉ: DEFINING THE RICHARD M. PACK DOCUDRAMA by Douglas Brode

CHAIRMAN HERMAN LAND 27 THE MEDIA AND THE INVASION MEMBERS OF GRENADA: FACTS AND ROYAL E. BLAKEMAN FALLACIES by John Chancellor BERT R. BRILLER JOHN CANNON 39 THERE WAS "AFTER" JOHN GARDEN BEFORE SCHUYLER CHAPIN THERE WAS ... by John O'Toole MELVIN A. GOLDBERG FREDERICK A. JACOBI 51 PROTECTING FIRST AMENDMENT ELLIN IvI00RE IN THE AGE OF THE MARLENE SANDERS FREEDOMS ALEX TOOGOOD ELECTRONIC REVOLUTION by Senator Bob Packwood 61 THE "CRANIOLOGY" OF THE 20th CENTURY: RESEARCH ON TELEVISION'S EFFECTS by Jib Fowles

75 CALLING THE SHOTS AT THE GRAPHICS DIRECTOR METROPOLITAN OPERA ROBERT MANSFIELD Kirk Browning -interviewed by Jack Kuney

93 REVIEW AND COMMENT: Three views of the MacNeil/Lehrer S. BUSINESS MANAGER NewsHour by Bernard Redmont, TRUDY WILSON Jim Snyder and George Rosen

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The docudrama is an increasingly popular television format. Does it hype history and distort reality? Is it really an art form? her love affair with a commoner. The BY DOUGLAS BRODE Saudis charged the film falsified the situation, fabricated 'witnesses,' and failed On April 10, 1980, the London to convey the strict religious framework Daily Mail carried a front page within which the princess had been tried banner reading: "Saudi Arabia and executed. threatening to break off diplo- Thomas insisted he had researched matic relations with Britain." To head off thoroughly before shooting a single foot a crisis, foreign Secretary Lord Carring- of film, changed the names of Saudi in- ton recalled from vacation England's terviewees only to protect the people from ambassador to that country and sent him governmental retaliation, and ulti- to Jeddah to appease King Khaled, while mately assumed as his interpretation that Carrington himself mailed personal the princess had been executed not for messages of apology to the monarch. sexual misconduct, but for her anti -Es- Despite such precautions, word spread tablishment, Antigone -like flaunting of that Saudi Arabia planned to halt oil her crime, purposefully drawing atten- supplied to Britain and embargo English tion to it rather than hiding her actions, imports. Within two weeks, Saudi Ara- after being affected by the Western fem- bia had recalled all members of its royal inist movement. But the significant point family from England, requested the im- remains that it was the dramatization of mediate withdrawal of the British am- an actual incident in documentary -style bassador, and banned flying of British that produced the outrageously escalat- Airways Concordes over Saudi territory. ing political and economic tensions. Finally, after more than three months of For now, Death of a Princess may rep- diplomatic negotiations, the two coun- resent the extreme example of contro- tries announced they had achieved an versy surrounding a television 'amicable settlement' and were restor- docudrama, but the kind of debate the ing full diplomatic relations. genre kindles is indigenous to the form. But an amicable settlement to what? In fact, when Princess was exported to One might guess the spark that ignited the United States for broadcast on PBS, such an international explosion to be it also caused a lot of flack and fury. something on the order of a political as- As Communications Review noted: sassination, an economic upheaval, or "PBS was heavily pressured by private a military incident. In fact, it was none industry and citizen groups. Exxon and of these: it was the broadcast on April 9 Mobil, both partners in an Arabian - of Death of a Princess, Anthony Thomas' American oil company, contacted PBS. film for television about the real -life ex- The two firms, multi -million dollar con- ecution several years earlier of a royal tributors to public television, urged that Saudi woman, ostensibly as a result of the 'extremely unfortunate' program -

7 ming decision to broadcast the show be an American audience would not toler- 'reviewed'. Citizen groups, working ate a film about the execution unless the through the U.S. Courts alternately show was cleverly contrived to spark no sought to block or force the showing of controversy, while still leaving the au- the program. ..." The U.S. State De- dience with the impression it had seen partment also tried to influence PBS not a film which dared to face a serious is- to air the program. sue. To achieve this end, Eddie Slovik was characterized (by Martin Sheen) as a loser Princess and the other British exam- who self -destructively brings about his ples of this form are more correctly own death sentence by failing to legally referred to as "dramatized -documen- argue for his life with any great passion. tary"; the thrust of these English pro- The military officers in the case are de- grams is to make a documentary but, picted as weighing Slovik's case with since there are certain incidents that ob- deep concern. At the end, then, we feel viously cannot receive on -the -spot doc- none of the anger toward the system umentation, the 'documentary film' can which killed Slovik that we do, say, to- only be completed if that scene is dra- ward virtually the same kind of system matized after the fact. On the other hand, when it executes three soldiers at the in the case of the American cousin (where end of Stanley Kubrick's theatrical film the hybrid form is popularly known as Paths of Glory (1957). "docudrama") what we experience is, Kubrick portrayed his victims as des- essentially, a work of drama, though perate to live, the officers as callous and owing both to its content (reality) and cynical. The ending of that film angered technique (video -journalism) the rever- and upset audiences; in Slovik, the char- sal of adjective and noun is necessary. acter's death comes as a kind of relief. Besides, if the American counterpart Likewise, Slovik continually empha- often seems more balanced than the sizes the fact that the execution was the British, it is largely because our com- only one of its kind, thereby reducing the mercially produced, ratings -conscious case to an aberration within the system filmmakers and the networks shy away rather than as a source for condemna- from the strong partisan positions ("pro- tion of a corrupt system, as Paths of Glory gressive realism" is the term critic John did. Caughie coined to described the British Jim Allen's Days of Hope took an op- dramatized -documentaries) that have posite approach to that of The Execution been the basis of so many British proof Private Slovik: dramatizing what was, ductions. For instance, when Days of in fact, an aberration of the British mil- Hope on the BBC in 1975 portrayed World itary as though it had been a frequent War I conscientious objectors being tied occurrence. Such treatment of consci- to posts in no man's land during heavy entious objectors did occur in World War enemy fire, screen -writer Jim Allen found I, but rarely, and the officers in charge himself at the center of a furious na- were investigated-a fact Allen's film tional controversy. ignores. Ultimately, Allen's way winds However, when The Execution of Pri- up angering half his audience at the mil- vate Eddie Slovik on NBC in 1974 de- itary system, the other half at his film. picted the only American soldier shot for Whether it's the frequently passion- refusing to fight during WWII, the net- ate, often politicalized (slanted?) British work received no significant negative dramatized documentary or the more reaction, although there were many neutral (timid?) American docudrama, compliments about the high quality of on both sides of the Atlantic the Video this television movie. American viewers Verité format continues to flourish-each are not more tolerant than the British: in with its own virtues, each with its own fact, the writers of Slovik concluded that limitations, differences largely gener-

8 ated by the contrasting British and Star Trek-The Movie immediately shot American systems of broadcasting, as onto the list of all-time box office champs. well as cultural differences and tradi- But TV equivalents to those films, such tions. as Battlestar Galactica and Buck Rogers, The American boom in docudrama just as quickly faded. Movies were the parallels the continuing expansion of place for far-out mythologizing; televi- news programming on the networks and sion, the realm of reality. The unex- especially by local stations, starting in pectedly high ratings of such reality - the late 1960s when Mort Sahl first based shows as Roots, Holocaust, and quipped that the Vietnam War would even Elvis (up against Gone with the soon qualify as the longest running show Wind, no less!) convinced many produc- on television. First Watergate, then the ers the announcement a made -for -TV Iran hostage situation added to the movie was based on truth would ensure impression that we live in fascinating if it extra ratings points. frightening times: no fictions that pro- grammers might manufacture could match the remarkable truths of our ex- plosively complex world. In the past de- In England, British filmmaker Caryl cade, the surprise success of "reality Doncaster went so far as to claim "The dramatized -story documentary is one of its the few art forms pioneered by televi- The docudrama with sion." exploitation of pop sociol- In fact, the word 'pioneer' is incorrect. ogy and instant history After all, the early moviemaking by and Peeping Tom appeal France's famed Lumiere Brothers con- carries its built-in promo- sisted of 'actualities': ten to twenty sec- tional values. ond slices of real life (a train pulling into a station, a mother feeding her baby) captured by the camera at the turn of the programming" as diverse as the probing century. Even in this basic state, the doc- Sixty Minutes or as superficial and ex- umentary was not for long free from ploitive as the vacuously voyeuristic Real dramatization. Filming a snowball fight People confirm the public's increasing in a Paris street, the brothers felt the interest in actuality. need to add an element of entertainment Scanning the front pages of maga- by having a passing bicyclist pummeled zines and newspapers for story mate- by snowballs. This was not reality rial, producers of made -for -television 'caught in the raw' but a contrivance of films developed a bargain format for the filmmakers, carefully rehearsed to grinding out quickie movies: a reality - make the scene more entertaining. What based film with its immediately recog- we see, then, is a hybrid of dramatics nizable names, events, and themes de- and documentation. pends less on stars and is a cheaper, In America, a similar merging of the easier, more dependable way of attract- dramatic and the documentary was im- ing a large audience and ratings than mediately in evidence. The first true relying on fiction or original screen- American motion picture is usually plays. With its exploitation of pop so- thought to be Fred Ott's Sneeze, shot in ciology, instant history, and Peeping Tom Thomas Edison's Black Maria Studio by appeal, the docudrama carries with it Bill Dickson in 1889. This 41/2 second film built-in promotional values. features one of Edison's employees doing On television, at least, the public ap- exactly what the title says. But the movie pears to prefer dramas rooted in fact. is less a 'document' of his sneeze than The fantastic seems more at home in the it is a crude 'docu-drama': Ott had movies, where films like Star Wars and sneezed moments earlier and was en -

9 couraged by Edison to recreate it for the historical events, but, significantly, did camera. so in documentary filmmaking tech- When Edwin S. Porter produced what nique. Gone were the conventional is often considered the first 'story' film, characterizations, dramatic motiva- The Great Train Robbery of 1903, it, too, tions, and narrative lines Griffith had was a forerunner of docudrama: a me- adapted from the stage and the novel. ticulous recreation of an actual Old West Eisenstein proved painstaking in his incident, photographed in the wilds of recreation of an authentic look and feel New Jersey with several former frontier for his varied subjects, journeying to the outlaws (recently released from jail) hired actual port of Odessa for the sequence as historical consultants to insure ac- depicting the massacre of workers by curacy. Finally, the first feature-length Cossacks on the steps; talking the Czar's motion picture, D. W. Griffith's Birth of former servants into playing themselves a Nation (1914), provided the first great in October. Yet his approach was some- controversy concerning the emerging thing other than 'I Am A Camera,' for his medium's power by accurately depicting films are far from objective. Eisenstein certain elements of history, altering oth- was both a creative artist and (at the ers unforgivably, and slighting others time) a political hardliner: this combi- altogether in order to present a powerful nation of qualities caused him to over- (and dangerous) romanticized, but con- state points, to exaggerate incidents. vincing, image of the early Ku Klux Klan. The danger of his films is that they Griffith held to a personal, interpre- appear like newsreels. Even more than tive, totally subjective "truth"-and por- in Griffith's case, where there is at least trayed it in his film so vividly-and with a melodramatic storyline to remind us such a detailed and precise historical it's only a movie, viewers experience the accuracy for the surfaces of events-that film as documented reality; we tend to he generated the problem of impres- overlook the 'dramatic' aspect of Eisen- sionable viewers accepting his work of stein and over -emphasize the 'documen- art as actuality, a problem which still tary' quality, when in fact we should do plagues TV docudrama makers today. precisely the opposite. Hollywood eventually would look to At the same time Eisenstein was fash- journalism's front pages for inspiration: ioning his propagandistic masterpieces, Little Caesar, The Public Enemy, and the American Robert Flaherty created Scarface were among the social -realist what came to be thought of as the 'pure' films of the thirties that borrowed heav- documentary tradition. Yet beginning ily from contemporary history; similarly, with his first major project, Nanook of biographical pictures as diverse as Paul the North (1926), Flaherty sensed the need Muni in The Life of Emile Zola and Errol to 'dramatize' the subject he had sup- Flynn as General Custer in They Died posedly set out to 'document.' One early With Their Boots On found a middle - sequence in which the Eskimo children ground between reality and invention. take castor oil for upset stomachs, then lick their lips with pleasure, is staged- the children having been 'directed' to Ultimately, the docudrama as we now make their enjoyment 'more visual' for know it has less in common with such the camera. When the great hunter Na - Hollywood movies than it does with those nook wanders across the ice, searching films by Sergei Eisenstein in the years for a seal hole, then discovers one di- following the Russian Revolution. Bat- rectly in front of the camera and at- tleship Potemkin (made in 1925, about an tempts to catch it, the sequence is of incident from the failed 1905 revolution) course staged: Nanook had earlier found and October: Ten Days That Shook The the hole, waited patiently while Flah- World (a 1927 film about the 1917 Soviet erty set up his camera, then acted out revolution) recreated relatively recent the bit of business as Flaherty captured

10 the restaged reality. Importantly, this this century. was not done to distort reality but to cap- If Doncaster is wrong however, in as- ture the essence of an Eskimo's real life serting that television 'pioneered' the as it could never have been captured by form, there can be no question that TV random shooting. has perfected it-thanks to a natural af- finity of this medium to docudrama technique. In addition to kitchen -sink The blurring of fact and melodramas like Marty, the 'golden age' fiction into 'faction' ap- TV playhouses also presented such pears less an invention of docudramas as The Plot to Kill Joe Sta- the TV docudrama than a lin. And long before the made -for -TV -tell- movie was a staple, the You Are There marked shift in story series (CBS 1953-57) paved the way for ing style over the course TV docudrama by 'reporting' famous mo- of this century. ments in history as they might have been viewed by a news -team doing straight- forward coverage of the incident. Flaherty's attitude toward the mixing Today, You Are There is recalled as a of documentary and drama would there- charming curiosity from television's f or- after reign supreme. In his famed Why mative years. Actually, it is one of the We Fight Armed Forces film on the Pearl rare programs which completely cap- Harbor attack, John Ford recreated those tures the notion of TV as a medium. Al- scenes he did not have sufficient news though it was preceded by a radio footage of, though his film purports to version, it was the TV version that clicked: be pure documentary. the notion of a modern news crew car- Actually, the movement toward doc- rying their equipment onto Boston Har- udrama can be traced in other than cin- bor to interview colonists or stopping ematic works. For example, John Dos Wyatt Earp on his way into the O.K. Cor- Passos in his novel, U.S.A. attempts a ral for a few questions is basic to the fusion of fact and fiction in print form. television experience. You Are There was Going far beyond the boundaries of con- the first great example of pure televi- ventional historical novels, Dos Passos sion, a dramatic storytelling form that not only created fictional characters and made use of the new medium's essential set them against factual backgrounds; properties. he also attempted to break the limitations of normal novelistic tradition by creating a kind of multi -media experi- Because of the small screen, televi- ence: part journalistic reportage, but sion programming is drawn to sub- imaginative speculation. jects that are intimate in scope; because Recently, writing by novelists such as of the importance of the television news Truman Capote (In Cold Blood) and Nor- programming that has always preceded man Mailer (The Executioner's Song) have the evening's entertainment, prime time further blurred the distinction between viewers experience a carry-over effect: fact and fiction, just as the work of the the entertainment becomes on some level New Journalists like Hunter S. Thomp- inseparable from the preceding news son (Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas) and program. In a way, there is a natural Tom Wolfe (The Right Stuff) make use of tendency, then, to run the two together, traditions and techniques associated and the docudrama is an extension of with fiction. Ultimately, the blurring of this principle. Conversely, Hollywood fact and fiction into 'faction' appears less motion pictures that try to operate in a an invention of the TV docudrama in the docudrama manner have been few and 1970s and '80s than part of a marked shift far between. Jack Webb's feature movie in storytelling style over the course of -30- (about one evening in the life of a

11 major newspaper) and his D.I. (a marine film. In telling the story of John Reed corps drill instructor's method of train- (Beatty) and his love affair with Louise ing raw recruits) were flops, but Webb's Bryant (Diane Keaton), set against the similar docudrama TV series (Dragnet, backdrop of the Russian Revolution, Emergency, etc.) proved extraordinarily successful. Dragnet was TV's first smash Like it or not, the hit police series, in part because it aban- creator doned earlier formats (which were imi- of docudrama, whether he tations of radio and movie police tales) sees himself as an enter- for a low-key, understated, docudrama tainer, a journalist, or style, and a remarkable early under- both, is an historian. standing of the television form; Webb's subsequent failure to shift his docudrama format to theatrical films indi- Beatty and his scriptwriters combined the cates the public's (if not the producer's) factual material with imaginatively cre- implicit understanding that docudrama ated scenes, interspersing all this with is more at home on TV, then in the movie 'testimonies' of actual witnesses, blend- theatres. ing it all into a larger -than -life vision True, the recent popularity of the doc- which comfortably filled the wides- udrama form on TV has had a certain creen. Instead of the hard -edged news- carry-over effect to theatrical films (the reel look Pakula seized upon for current Right Stuff and Silkwood being President's Men, Reds is high -style, Hol- obvious examples), though most often the lywood gloss-historical drama laced results have been mixed. The most ex- with comedy, engaging entertainment treme case is All the President's Men with an 'up -cry' at the end. Understand- (1976), Alan Pakula's version of the Wa- ably, Reds plays less effectively on ca- tergate investigation featuring Robert ble TV than does President's Men: Wash- Redford and Dustin Hoffman as sometimes a TV broadcast can only harm ington Post newsmen Bob Woodward and the effect of a true theatrical film. Carl Bernstein. Pakula scrupulously followed the docudrama approach of total authenticity. The problem with the movie Whether we are exploring the the- is that, although it perfectly duplicates atrical motion picture or the made - the surface of events, President's Men for -television movies, how are we ulti- fails to capture the essence of Water- mately to define the docudrama? gate -era America. It is as much a failure Inevitably, the search for definition can- at artistically communicating the mood not focus only on technique. It must con- of paranoia at that time as it is success- front the ethical problem of the ful at realistically recreating the manner docudrama: how it deals with facts, with in which two reporters track down a reality, with history. complex story. Besides, there is a de- As A. Benett Whaley and his col- cided disappointment in seeing Redford leagues point out in their recent article and Hoffman (superb actors as well as on docudrama in The Journal of Broad- major movie stars) never allowed to 'act' casting "Docudrama raises practical and but rather forced to do low-key imper- ethical issues: practical because pro- sonations. ducers and directors must rely on imag- It makes sense that President's Men inative sources which are selective in plays far better on television than it did perception and interpretation; ethical, in the theatres. However, Warren Beat- because the burden of proof of the docu- ty's Reds (1982) offers the perfect exam- drama's documentary side of production ple of a theatrical release that borrows struggles against the use of embellish- from the TV docudrama approach but ef- ment which seemingly is inherent in fectively reinterprets this for a theatrical drama."

12 The writers and producers of docu- history books for details. As Walper sees drama must face up to their awesome it, history on television has a limited role; responsibility. They have an accounta- it is "supposed to give an emotional feel- bility to reality. How much can situa- ing and a sense of what it was like ..." tions, characters and events be changed Historian Eric Foner in the Nation also for the sake of drama-of entertain- questions the docudrama approach to ment? How much is too much? history. He finds that docudrama film- Like it or not, the creator of docu- makers "begin with the laudable inten- drama-whether he sees himself as an tion of illuminating an aspect of the past", entertainer, a journalist, or both-is an but too often "... allow fiction to mas- historian; a pop historian perhaps, but querade as history" since writers "play nevertheless an historian. fast and loose with the facts while re- The British critic Carl Gardener calls taining the veneer of historical authen- the docudrama "an attempt to humanize ticity." history..." Maurice Wiggin writing in This leads to a situation, Foner adds, the Modern Times says it is "reporting in which writers "... want the creative raised to the level of an art..." freedom of the artist, but also the im- Others fear the form. Lord Carrington, primateur of the historian, an air of au- who spearheaded the attack on Death of thenticity without the full responsibility a Princess claims "... the new form for- that goes along with it." mula of mixing fact with fiction, dramatization masquerading as documentary ... can be dangerous and misleading." Even Anthony Thomas, author of Death Although the challenge by historians of a Princess is worried. In the Daily tel- is valuable because it illuminates egraph he warns of the peril of the do- the continuing ethical responsibility of cudrama (not his, but others!) He criticizes the makers of docudrama, it is not es- "... that artistically promising, but fac- pecially helpful in the attempt to evolve tually treacherous class of dramatized a definition of the docudrama as a genre. documentaries, where authors, losing The British critics Andrew Goodwin themselves on real events, assume a and Paul Kern have a simple definition freedom to elaborate on the facts in or- "... the combination of dramatic and der to improve the entertainment, documentary convention." But this is too sharpen the drama or point a moral ..." broad, and would include everything Historian Lawrence Said, in the Wash- from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar to ington Post asks "To what extent ... does Truffaut's Jules and Jim. dramatic license excuse errors of facts In his perceptive book of essays about and distortions of historical record in do- the TV medium, Michael Arlen the TV cudramas? Since Roots blitzed the na- critic of the New Yorker, writes that "This tion in 1977, historians, media critics and hybrid form is too various to be de- producers have debated the level of truth scribed by ... exact definition, but gen- required in productions purporting to tell erally speaking a docudrama is a story it the way it really was ... More and whose energy and focus has shifted from more, people's perceptions of subjects fiction to what is supposed to have ac- such as Watergate, the Holocaust and tually happened." the Presidents and the Vietnam war come An excellent starting point, though from watching history according to tele- under so broad a concept, the docu- vision." drama label could be applied equally to David Wolper, producer of Roots, Blind Roots, The Missiles of October, and The Ambition and the feature film Bridge at Jayne Mansfield Story. What's needed Remagen, disagrees. He believes that now is to pare down the possibilities; to docudramas should provide "an overall agree on a more limited and limiting truth" and that audiences can go to the definition that will formally establish the

13 docudrama as a specific and legitimate Wedding of Charles and Diana (1982) genre. For this purpose, we need to as- represented the romance of the Prince of certain a series of basic qualities com- Wales and his bride, but under this con- mon to all examples of the docudrama dition, the latter would still be easier to form: acknowledge as a docudrama (its quality of course open to debate) than the former. An interesting problem is posed by Roots: Roots I, with its study of eigh- 1) Because a TV movie is essentially teenth and nineteenth century slavery, 'realistic' in approach does not neces- would best be considered an historical sarily qualify it as docudrama. From the drama; Roots II, The Next Generation, 'fourth wall' theatre plays of Ibsen and which takes the story through the twen- Strindberg created at the turn of the cen- tieth century and concludes with a con- tury to the Neorealist films fashioned in frontation between author Alex Haley post World War II Italy by DeSica and (James Earl Jones) and American Nazi Rossellini, the realist/naturalist tradi- leader George Lincoln Rockwell (Marlon tion has been marked by liberal -societal Brando) qualifies as docudrama. slice -of -life dramatizations of the common man's plight. Most often, this has been achieved by creating a fictional character who symbolizes the working 3) A key distinction between docu- of his time: Willy Loman in Death of a drama and contemporary history play Salesman, Terry Malloy in On The resides in the intended meaning of the Waterfront. On television, made -for -TV work. Shakespeare's plays on British movies like A Great American Tragedy historical subjects are sometimes cited (1972), with George Kennedy as a mid- as antecedents of the docudrama form, dle-aged aerospace engineer who loses but in fact, Shakespeare worked in an- his job, speaks to and for the many who other manner entirely: freely interpret- experience such problems. The Morning ing history, imaginatively exaggerating After (1974), with self-confessed alco- events and personalities to use history holic Dick Van Dyke as a man unable to as a conveyer of his own personal come to terms with his craving for the themes. A writer of docudrama might, bottle, similarly made its singular char- like Shakespeare, compress the time acter into a universal symbol of his type. scheme of events in Anthony and Cleo- Both are striking examples of TV movies patra, but he would be wrong to over- that work in the realistic/naturalist tra- emphasize Richard II's failures or Henry dition, though neither are docudramas. V's accomplishments in order to make those men handy symbols for wicked or idealized royal behavior; a docudrama filmmaker would not invent a hunched 2) The docudrama, in its present form, back to make Richard III's villainy phys- concerns itself with relatively 'contem- ically obvious. porary' history. It is, of course, ridiculous Clearly, history can still be revived for to set rigid limitations, although, as a the purpose of contemporary commen- general rule, any program which reaches tary: Little Big Man (1970) is ultimately back beyond fifty years or so for its ma- less interested in Custer and the Indians terial should be considered less a do- than in employing them for a statement cudrama than a period -piece historical about Vietnam. But a true docudrama is play. The Last Ride of the Dalton Gang less concerned in using history to make (1979) may have recreated the incident a statement about today than in pre- in which those wild west 19th Century senting an 'open' vision of an historical outlaws were demolished in Coffeyville incident which audiences are relatively with far more authenticity than The Royal free to interpret. The Day America Died

14 (1979), an overview of the effect of the at its highest level. 1929 stock market crash, fits the bill. On the other hand, Sadat, although it won rave reviews for its striking pro- E duction values and a superb performance by Lew Gossett, Jr., troubled some 4) The docudrama must attempt some critics because of its lack of objectivity. semblance of objectivity. Not the kind of Harriet Van Horne in Newsday com- rigidly even-handed balance and timid mented "Historians are bound to note that neutrality the American networks usu- this biodrama is a gloss. We are not told ally favor in dealing with controversial that Sadat's sympathies were with the concepts. Rather, the true docudrama Nazis in World War II...."' must necessarily investigate various aspects of its subject. Intriguingly, it is a E non -network show-Operation Prime Ti- me's syndicated Blood Feud-that is one 5) The true docudrama is not a bio- of the best examples. In recreating the graphical film, but must concern itself animosity between Bobby Kennedy and with one specific instance, however brief Jimmy Hof fa, the TV movie manages to or long its span of time, while studying make both men fascinating if flawed in- this incident from as broad a spectrum dividuals, each sympathetic but in en- of views as possible. For instance, Kent tirely different, even complementary, State (a 1982 TV movie about the 1970 ' ways: Kennedy ruthless and naive, Hoffa campus demonstration that ended in the ruthless and street smart; Kennedy shooting of several students by national classy, spoiled, idealistic; Hof fa rough guardsmen) and Death of a Princess fit hewn, self-made, realistic. The two-part into this definition of docudrama, while film chronicles the need for Kennedy's Marilyn: The Untold Stow (a collection 'get tough' attitude toward organized of dramatized, unrelated episodes from crime but also the lack of insight and Monroe's life) and Graziano (a hokey Hollywoodization of the original Rocky's While maintaining a life) should rather be considered TV of a biopics, a separate (though not unre- sense objectivity, lated) genre. The Missiles of October (with docudrama must address Martin Sheen as Bobby Kennedy) is a some social issue that is docudrama; Kennedy (with Sheen as Jack still relevant, even Kennedy) is a biopic. In the former, the controversial. focus is on an incident while, in the latter, it is on the man. Golda which impressively conveys the judgment with which he approached his impact of Golda Meir's life is a fine biopic; mission; it illuminated the extent of Hof - Franklin and Eleanor, an effective dram- fa's corruption while also portraying him atization of the relationship between FDR as a victim of a system which pre-ex- and his wife, is docudrama. The excel- isted his entrance into it. lent, carefully crafted Raid on Entebbe Blood Feud presented this clash of and the sloppy, slapdash Victory at En- Kennedy and Hof fa not as a battle be- tebbe, both qualify as docudrama, how- tween right and wrong but of mutually ever different their quality. exclusive characters, drawn into conflict by each man's strange combination of E animosity and admiration for his polar opposite. It is this objective overview of 6) While maintaining a sense of ob- the feud, accompanied by an informed jectivity, a docudrama must deal with vision of its complexity, that makes Blood some social issue that is still relevant, Feud an example of the docudrama form even controversial. Kill Me If You Can

15 (1977) with Alan Alda as death row vet- Doors (1978) presented the events lead- eran Caryl Chessman rates as docu- ing to the Watergate break-in in a much drama rather than biopic because the more flamboyant form. The president, film raises, then explores, the capital played by Jason Bobards, is here called punishment issue, through a study of Richard Milhouse Monkton while every Chessman's plight. But the two-parter character in the mini-series is fiction- Murder in Texas (1980), starring Sam El- alized. The filmmakers were thus free to liott as a real -life doctor who murdered invent various romantic and sexual lia - his wife, does not qualify, settling for sons with no basis in truth, which made melodramatizing (very effectively, in fact) the otherwise overly -politicized drama the more sensational elements of the tale far more appealing on the level of soap without developing any of the issues in- opera. Despite this, Washingon still had herent in the story. a distinct advantage over Blind Ambi- tion in capturing the overall truth (just as it operated at a disadvantage in presenting facts). None of this is new: ro- 7) To be a docudrama, the film must man -a -clef was developed as a literary whenever possible keep the original device centuries ago to allow writers to names intact. This concept is often ren- capture the essence of an experience dered difficult by legislation involving while taking liberties with specific facts. the rights of privacy: anyone who is dead The writing of a docudrama is some- is considered fair game, but a living per- thing else entirely; as Norman Swallow son can only be dramatized (without per- said in Sight and Sound: "the person re- mission) if he is considered a 'public sponsible for the text is not a 'dramatist' personage.' Thus, the Death of a Cen- or even an 'author,' but an 'editor' or terfold film could dramatize magazine 'compiler' of factual information." publisher Hugh M. Hefner (played by Mitch Ryan), while slain Playmate Dor- othy R. Stratton's (Jamie Lee Curtis) lover, director Peter Bogdanovich, was not 9) Though it is permissable (even nec- thought to be in the public domain and, essary) for docudramas to combine cer- refusing to cooperate with the project, tain characters for the sake of space and could not be portrayed. Instead, Stratton time and simplification, a show cannot becomes involved with an older, taller, be considered a docudrama if the main more ruggedly handsome film director characters are fictitious, no matter how (played by Robert Reed) with a fabri- factually accurate the portrayals of their cated name. This left the program a time -frame may be. The perfect example strange, unsatisfying amalgam of au- would be Holocaust (1980), NBC's pow- thenticity and invention, rendered erful study of the German slaughter of stranger still considering that Bogda- the Jews. The central family was an ap- novich is one of the few film directors propriately representational one, but who is in fact a public celebrity: what since they were fictional, Holocaust is other movie director, other than Orson best viewed as a television counterpart Welles, has ever hosted The Tonight to contemporary historical -fiction, which Show for a vacationing Johnny Carson? also employs a fictional melodramatic plot to increase our emotional involve- CI ment with history. The powerful Playing For Time, a film 8) If forced to choose between specific inspired by the true story of concentra- facts and overall truth, the docudrama tion camp inmates who used their mus- must opt for facts. Certainly, the film of ical talents to avoid execution, was so John Dean's Blind Ambition is a docu- thoroughly dramatized for television- drama, but Washington: Behind Closed some characters were based on real

16 persons, others invented-that it must focal concept of the Kennedy mini-series be considered a history -based drama, is that President Kennedy's complex re- rather than docudrama. lationships with family and friends directly effected his dealings in the Oval Office, so the inclusion of both elements is essential to the show's vision of his 10) The performances in a docudrama presidency. must not be 'acting' in any sense of creative characterization, but rather a CI heightened form of impersonation. This does not mean the performance should 12) The docudrama label applies to be mimickry on the most superficial level, form as well as content, and must be but rather that it is part of an entirely viewed as a storytelling technique as well special aesthetic, quite apart from con- as a tendency toward certain kinds of ventional acting. The performers may not stories. Friendly Fire (1970), acclaimed be doubles for the real -life people in as one of the finest TV movies, centered question, but will not be far from them on the actual attempt of two parents in terms of type; even key mannerisms. (played by Carol Burnett and Ned Beatty) Their talent must be applied to captur- to break through the cover-up surrounding the surface of the front page or his- ing the death of their son (Timothy Hut- torical characters as the public viewed ton) in Vietnam; Death of a Princess them. Rip Torn as Richard Milhouse concerns a British journalist's attempt to Nixon in Blind Ambition offered what is discover why a young Saudi woman was perhaps the finest example so far of the beheaded. Although the American film docudrama performance, whereas Jason deals with material as historical as that Robards's role as Richard Milhouse in the British film, it is not true docu- Monkton in Washington: Behind Closed drama because its style owes nothing to Doors is an equally fine example of more the cinema-verité concept of hand-held conventional acting: the creating of an camera movement, which can invest a entirely new character, based on a real- commercial feature-length movie with lif e personage. the quality of a TV news program's capturing of reality in the raw. Friendly Fire, however, stands more in the classic tradition of Hollywood 11) To succeed, a docudrama must craftsmanship; even the choice of two throughout maintain a sharp sense of fo- name stars for the leads signals the cus. An example of one that fails to do viewer that this is a drama based on this is Ike: The War Years (1979). At- contemporary history and not a docu- tempting opportunistically to attract both drama, in which we should be unaware the male portion of the audience (always there is any acting going on, and instead up for a good war story) and the female share in the illusion-best achieved (who supposedly still prefer a romance), through lesser known performers-that the writers attempted to blend and bal- we are viewing the actual people. With ance General Eisenhower's (Robert Du- its unknown performers and lowkey style, vall) involvement with strategy Princess more comfortably fits into the deployments and military rivalries with docudrama category. One might well his alleged affair with his British driver expand the concept beyond made -for -TV Kay Summersby (Lee Remick). But the movies to include certain series as well. two plot elements have so little to do The police show Hill Street Blues and the with one another than the film never cre- medical series St. Elsewhere both owe ated the necessary point of focus. This a great debt to the docudrama, although is not to say the public and private can't no one would ever say the same for Ko- be blended to striking effect. Indeed, the jak or General Hospital.

17 By having various characters speak Indeed, this film boldly announces in directly to the camera, as if being inter- its opening credits that in order to con- viewed by a TV news team, a height- solidate the wealth of information on its ened sense of reality was achieved subject without totally confusing an au- recently for Choices of the Heart, built dience, diverse real -life characters have around the tragic story of the lay mis- been consolidated into composite fig- sionary Jean Donahue (Melissa Gilbert) ures: the newspapermen who covered the and three American nuns murdered by rise and fall of McCarthy are repre- National Guardsmen in El Salvador in sented by a single character, played by 1980. This sensitive human drama was John Forsythe. also noteworthy for taking an uncom- This of course again raises the crucial promising political stance, siding with issue that must be explored in any se- the rebels and against the existing gov- rious discussion of the docudrama form: ernment; this is the sort of forthrightness responsibility. The writers insist they cut we find sometimes in theatrical motion and consolidate only to eliminate the pictures like Under Fire, but rarely in TV audience confusion that would result if movies. the full canvas of life were depicted on- Peter Goodchild, who produced the screen in all its complexity; critics argue Oppenheimer series, insists the verité that merely by selecting what is to be style is "only the use of a particular 'real- left in and out, the makers of a docu- ity technique' to involve your audience." drama predetermine the audience's Others would argue it represents a de- emotional and intellectual reactions to ceptive means of presenting drama that the material; the danger is that we ex- has the impact of document. Both de- perience the illusion of objective reality, fenders and detractors of the form im- which convinces us we are seeing the plicitly agree that form and content, style unstructured truth. and subject, should not-indeed, can- Understandably, then, England's David not-be separated: thus, the meaning of Edgar in his essay In Defense of Drama- a docudrama exists less in any individ- Documen taries, writes: "I think it is .. . ual story being told than in the way doc- highly patronising and elitist to argue udrama tells a story. that, while clever, educated people are able to recognize a thesis when they read it in a book or journal, ordinary television viewers can somehow be fooled into The twelve points presented above are accepting an argument as objective fact meant to be descriptive, not pre- and will, to quote one critic, for ever af- scriptive: they are intended as avenues terwards view Churchill and Eden to open up our awareness of an individ- through (filmmaker) Ian Curtis's eyes." ual program's intentions, not to narrow But Edgar's assertion misses the key point the perimeters of what is possible. Just about television as a further extension as there are works of fiction that cannot of what Robert Warshow once defined be easily categorized (often, the most ex- as the basic appeal of film: The Imme- perimental and intriguing fiction), ex- diate Experience. isting somewhere between poetry and While reading a newspaper column prose, narrative or drama, so too, will few people of intelligence have diffi- certain TV films confuse us: Tail Gunner culty comprehending that they are being Joe (1977) is a biopic to the degree that influenced by another person's thoughts, it dramatically retraces the life of Sen- put into words that may possibly sway ator Joe McCarthy (Peter Boyle), a docu- them about an issue. Yet watching film drama to the degree that it recreates the or video, we tend to believe that what process by which a contemporary re- we see is closer to truth; something porter (Heather Menzies) investigates the captured on -the -fly by a camera- McCarthy story. however false this impression may be.

18 Eisenstein, when casting his 1938 film nesses, or the viewers of the evening Alexander Nevsky, reflecting how little news who, according to research, rely was known about the physical appear- more on the networks for their news than ance of that ancient czar, decided, "If I on newspapers. The docudrama com- choose a large actor, then Nevsky will bines television's informational and en- be large ... and if I choose a small ac- tertainment elements in a way that is as tor, he will be small ... forever." By the natural to the medium as it is frought same token, an American artist, com- with moral questions of responsibility missioned to do a portrait of Daniel Boone which defy an easy attempt at an an- for a Washington, D.C. exhibition, found swer. that no matter how hard he tried, he could produce nothing except a painting of Fess Parker. What's next for video venté? Several With this in mind, we can look at Pe- significant 1983 shows suggest that nelope Mortimeí s April, 1980, comment the American docudrama may be mov- in The New Statesman and see the an- ing in the direction of the British dra- swer to what confused her about the matized -documentary, as well as experimenting with provocative techniques. Special Bulletin, broadcast one The docudrama combines Sunday spring evening by NBC, pre- television's informa- sented a fictional account of the nuking tional and entertainment of Charleston, South Carolina by a ter- elements in a way that rorist group, treating the incident as is as natural to the though we were watching TV news -coverage of an actual event in progress. Al- medium as it is fraught though Jean Firstenberg hailed the show with moral questions of as "something truly 'new- in the pages responsibility. of American Film, Special Bulletin has its roots in the classic Orson Welles radio broadcast of 1938, War of the Worlds, Death of a Princess controversy: "The as well as Peter Watkins' British film The story of Princess Misha's execution was War Game (1966), which portrayed the published in full in The Observer of 22 fictional atomic bombing of London with January 1978, complete with every detail such terrifying realism that, after com- in the film ... It's hard to see why the missioning the film, the BBC then re- film of such a story that has been public fused to show it-and still does! property for over two years should cause Whether NBC's decision to air Special such a fuss ..." Not so hard, perhaps, Bulletin grows out of a courageous at- if one recalls that when Edward Emer- titude to confront controversial issues son Hough published his historical novel with new techniques that have the most The Covered Wagon, the surviving fam- immediate impact, or only from an at- ily of real -life mountain man Jim Bridger tempt by that network to capture bigger offered no serious objection to his de- ratings through a programming ploy, is piction as a drunkard; when the movie open to debate. version was released in 1923, they sued. One of the most unusual docudramas Such is the impact of the movie me- of 1983 was the product of a local tele- dium; today, television has extended the vision station-a rare event, because lo- potentials and the power, as well as the cal broadcasters rarely attempt to dangers and the dynamics, of this situ- produce the complex and expensive do- ation. As a people, we do believe what cudrama format. The Saving of the Pres- we seen on television, whether we con- ident was produced and first broadcast sider those soap opera fans who, on the by WJLA-TV in Washington, D.C. Later, street, assault actresses cast as villai- it was also aired nationally on ABC's

19 20/20. It was impressive-and contro- ten, produced and directed by former versial. newspeople, but this American film is This new -form docudrama opens with the work of the network's own news de- a reenactment of the shooting of Presi- partment. dent Reagan, with actors portraying the The result is a landmark although TV President and the secret service agents. critic Marvin Kitman in Newsday argued But when the scene shifts to the hospital, that "It's a dangerous trend. What if this all those pictured working on the Pres- exciting, dramatic recreation gets a high ident are the actual orderlies, nurses and rating? Will the acting out of the news doctors who were there at the time (al- be credited? Will real news, documen- though an actor again plays Reagan in tary reporting, old-fashioned boring in- these scenes). In a sequence which is not vestigative digging that turns up dull part of the dramatization, President Rea- facts-all of which defy re-creation-tend gan himself appears at the end of the not to get done?" program in a specially filmed bit at the What Kitman fails to acknowledge is White House, in which he asks ques- that, following the relatively brief sim- tions of the doctors who saved him. ulation of a situation, which of course Tom Shales, the Washington Post TV could not be documented, the majority critic praises this hybrid film highly, al- of the program's running time was given though he is disturbed about its impli- over to what Kitman calls an "old fash- cations: "The docudrama raises questions ioned boring investigative" bit of dig- of propriety and journalistic license and ging into who was in actuality the proverbial right -to -know; but such responsible for the near -tragedy; the questions crumble into nuisance when early sequence of simulation is justifi- balanced against the excellence and im- able if one considers that viewers first pact of the film ... There are discom- had to be made to experience the inci- forting aspects to the production, and the dent itself in the most immediate and whole concept of reenacting such an compelling manner possible before they event using many vested interests in- could be expected to sit through that volved." "boring" investigation. Richard Witkin, writing in the New York Times, defended The Plane not so much Another novel 1983 documentary in terms of the moral question of its right which also raised questions about to exist, but rather for its effective and the validity of its production concept was accurate simulation: "This technique was The Plane That Fell From The Sky, the a gamble that could have produced a CBS Reports special on the near crash of cascade of amateurish histrionics. But it TWA Flight 481 on April 4, 1979. The in- did not ... it is an uncannily real rec- terviews with the pilots, who blamed the reation ... an absorbing, innovative, Boeing 727's sudden direct drop on the intensely human docudrama." By as- manufacturers, but feel they have been suming such a stance-by accepting the made the scapegoats by both the airline film's premise and judging the work in and the manufacturer, are not any dif- terms of how successfully it lived up to ferent from any other CBS Reports in- its intended effect-Witkin made a judg- vestigative piece. What is different is the ment on an example of an emerging dramatized simulation of the near crash genre instead of arguing whether a genre itself, with the real pilots and passen- that does exist should exist. After all, gers portraying themselves. Indeed, in call it docudrama or dramatized docu- style this program not only approaches mentary, the video-verité form is, above the British dramatized -documentaries but all else, an inevitable product of TV in a way it is more controversial because technology, a natural blending of the of its source: the English films may boast form and content of television. Let's not a venté look because they are often writ- forget that several hundred years ago,

20 there were critics who complained about QUOTE . the very existence of that 'degenerate' .. new literary form called the novel, while UNQUOTE others began writing serious criticism of various examples of the new genre. Today, the debate over whether the video-verité form has a right to exist should be put to rest. Instead, there ought The persuasive politician. to emerge new debates about whether In politics, as in the media, it is individual docudramas treat their sub- tempting to draw a distinction jects sensitively or superficially. And between performance and content. The when we analyze the moral question of dread phrase 'TV personality' has no ex- responsibility in terms of the docudrama act parallel in the press, although the in relationship to reality, we must cease stereotype is not unknown in Parlia- facile judgments about the irresponsi- ment. Verbal agility, appearance, voice, bility of an entire form and rather ana- charm: these are all characteristics of lyze the degree to which a specific the broadcast communicator which may, example of that form achieves a proper but need not, also be found in those who the need to inform and balance between work on newspapers.. . the need to entertain. It is a mistake to spend too much time dancing on the heads of two pins la- belled 'performance' and 'content'. In the in politics people have to learn 'The controversy on Sadat continues. Egypt re- media as cently banned it, and all films distributed or to express themselves effectively, in produced by Columbia Pictures, producers of speeches and in writing. Some will have the mini-series. The Minister of Culture claimed greater natural gifts than others... I have the film contained "historical errors that distort no reservations at all that persuasive- the accomplishments of the Egyptian people." The New York Times correspondent also re- ness, or advocacy, is a necessary part ported that Americans in Cairo who saw a pre- of politics, as it always has been. Nor view noted that the film "... did not show Mr. do I believe that television has, as was Sadat's sweeping crackdown on dissidents..." once feared, led to politically irrespon- nor "... the widespread corruption tolerated by his regime." sible but telegenic charlatans 33 hogging the screen. -Lord Windlesham

Douglas Brode, a frequent contributor to Television Quarterly, teaches film and writes about the movies, and television. His most recent book is a biography of Dus- tin Hoffman. He is currently completing a history of the made -for -television movie.

21 Thirty years ago, network news was an idea whose coverage of major eventsthan CBS, NBC and time had come. But today, the world moves too ABC put together, fast to wait for an evening report. Watch Cable News Network. And leave the The issues are too complicated for superfi- past behind. cial summaries. And most of us are just too busy to pllan our lives around the networks' rigid schedules. That's why CNN gives you the news whenever you need it, 24 hours a day. With programs you can sink your teeth into. On topics from sports Anything else to politics, money to medicine. And more Five is old news.

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`L, DONA XEPA QUINCAS BERRO D'AGUA LAMPIAO AND MARIA BONITA SLAVE -GIRL ISAURA the '79 Ondas Award from the the '82 Ondas Award from the Spanish Broadcasting Society Spanish Broadcasting Society and Radio Barcelona bestowed for the program "Life and Death on the series "Malu, Woman." Severina." INTERNATIONAl the Golden Teleguide Award, the Silver Medal at the '82 offered by Mexican critics for International Film and TV AWARDS the serial "Dona Xepa." Festival of New York for the documentary "Amazon The the '80 Ondas Award for the - Last Frontier." special "Quincas Berro d'Agua." the Gold Medal at the '82 the '81 Ondas Award given Globo TV is Brazil's largest International Film and TV for the special "Vinicius for television network. Festival of New York for the Children." With a ratio of its own mini-series "Lampiäo and production among the highest in the Prague D'Or Award at the Maria Bonita." the world. Globo TV continuously 17th International Television the '82 Golden Emmy for the creates and produces TV Festival of Czechoslovakia, programa "Life and Death programs which attain huge presented to the actress Regina Severina" in the Popular Arts success. Duarte for her performance category. In Brazil, its programs are the in the series "Malu, Woman." absolute leaders in audience, the '81 Fonte D'Oro Award million reaching nearly 80 from the Italian Association Abroad, have televiewers. they of Television Critics. won over the public and critics in more than 90 countries. the Guaicaipuru de Ouro The high technical and Award, granted by the trade artistic level of Globo TV's press of Venezuela to the Globo programs is attested by 23 Network as Latin America's best international awards. Among television. cr them: the Silver Medal at the '81 NETWORK OF BRAZIL the 1976 Quality Trophy from International Film and TV Festival of New York, granted for Rio de Janeiro - Rua Lopes Quintas, 303 the Madrid Editorial Office. Telefone: 294-9898 - Telex: 22795 the special "Vinicius for Roma - Piazza del Tempio di Diana, 4 Salute'79, offered by the Children." Telefono: 575-5238 - Telex: 614519 National Academy of Television New York - 903 3rd Avenue - 21st Floor Telephone: 7540410 - Telex: 423583 Arts and Sciences of the U.S.A.. the '81 Golden Emmy granted for the program "Vinicius the '79 Iris Award by the for Children" in the Popular National Association of Television Arts category. Programming Executives - NATPE - bestowed on the the '82 Iris Award from NATPE series "Malu, Woman." offered for the program "Vinicius for Children." The Group.

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THE NBC TELEVISION STATIONS THE MEDIA AND THE INVASION OF GRENADA: FACTS AND FALLACIES

where I was when I heard you. I was BY JOHN CHANCELLOR at my golf club with a scotch and soda in my hand, along with about Ithink if Chet Huntley had been here fifty other guys. When you said what tonight, he would have wanted to you did about the administration talk about the press and the inva- doing things behind the back of the sion of Grenada. One of the rea- people, some guy yelled, 'well, you sons we gather each year to memorialize dumb bastard, what do you think we Chet is that he understood what press elected Reagan for? It's damned sure freedom was all about, and fought for it you were never elected.' " whenever he could. He would be as upset as the rest of us Letter #2 by the exclusion of the press from the From a minister who prepared a ser- fighting on Grenada. His partner of many mon defending the press in years, David Brinkley, testified against Waynesboro, Virginia-"I was sure those press restrictions in Washington, that no one would take offense if I and so did I. defended the Constitution and its Let me say that this talk is not about guarantees of freedom of the press. the substance of the Grenadian opera- I was wrong. In a gathering of our tion. Reasonable people can argue about officers recently, I found that there that. It may turn out to have been in the is a strong feeling against the press. best interests of the United States and There is an anger that would deny the hemisphere. It may not. the press the right to cover wars be- But there is no argument on one im- cause of the coverage in Viet Nam. portant point: The United States govern- They were angry at seeing so many ment kept the press from observing, first- wounded. They were angry at seeing hand, an important moment in the coun- the My Lai Massacre. In their anger, try's history and the American people they seem willing to deny the press, cheered. Not everybody, to be sure, but and themselves, the basic rights that the overwhelming majority thought that are guaranteed in our constitu- keeping the press out was a good idea. tion.' " I thought that's what we ought to examine... . Those two letters represent different points of view, but they both accurately Letter #1 reflect the mood of the country. Fresno, California-"Dear John, Or- Who elected the press? dinarily I would ignore what you said The answer, I suppose, is that the peo- about the President curbing the ple who wrote the Constitution elected press, but I think you should know the press. It is more than just the First

27 Amendment; the framers of the Consti- sonnel. Giving the press advance tution were explicit in their belief that notice of this operation would have the way to keep the United States free jeopardized these people." was to keep its press free. In another way, nobody elected the press and that's Letter #5 the way it should be. The press is not Lima, Ohio-". . .Completely free part of the political process; journalists coverage even at this initial crucial are not politicians; the press represents point in military tactics is in error." different points of view. What makes this a free country is that its citizens have The struggle between the press and access to those different viewpoints. the government over the invasion of Grenada has really nothing to do with Letter #3 "completely free coverage". There is a Grand Rapids, Michigan-"I am a tradition in this country and in most of moderate, sir, but I consider our our sister democracies that when an in- government to be the representa- vasion is planned, the press is "given tives of the American people, be they advance notice." embodied in our diplomatic corps or Here's how that works : When a coun- in the U.S. Marines. If we don't agree try is planning to invade another coun- with the administration's policies, try, a military operation requiring we vote them out." thousands of troops, the civilian military authorities, the ministry of defense or But on what basis do we vote them the department of defense, make up a out? On what information does an elec- pool of reporters and camera people, of- torate depend for its judgements on any ten only fifteen or twenty. administration? There was a wide- Pool reporters are responsible to both spread belief in this country that the colleagues and employers. Radio pool Johnson administration wasn't telling the reporters share their reportage and their whole truth about Viet Nam (although in audio tapes with other radio reporters. my view there was an effort to tell the A pool cameraman shares film or vid- truth in Viet Nam); Mr. Nixon certainly eotape with photo agencies or other net- didn't want certain things made public works. Newspaper 'poolers' (as these about the Watergate scandals. The Ken- reporters are called) share their notes nedy administration just lied about the and observations with other newspaper Bay of Pigs. people. A pool reporter is a represen- I don't believe the press caused Lyn- tative of the press, who is obliged to share don Johnson to decide not to run for re- information with the press. election; he was stuck with a tragic pol- Pools are made up when there isn't icy in Viet Nam and he knew it. I don't room for everybody to go along on the think the press was the factor that caused story. It's an old practice. The White Mr. Nixon to resign; he was about to be House press corps would be impossible impeached, and he knew it. But in both to handle if everybody got to go to ev- of those cases the press played a role, erything on a presidential trip, so the for it was through the press that the peo- press is divided into pools. Those mem- ple were able to make their own judge- bers of what we might call the invasion ments. pool are told to pack their bags, but they are not initially told where they are going. Letter #4 And when they are transported to the Austin, Texas-"I fully believe the scene of the fighting, they are super- surprise element in the Grenada in- vised by the military which also controls vasion of the multinational forces all the communications. saved many lives-the Grenadians, Generally, but not always, they are the students and the military per- not among the first to land on the beach.

28 But they are there soon enough after to got out of Iran. There was no disclosure. do their work; they see the fighting. And only then, when surprise is no longer a Letter #6 factor, are they allowed to file their dis- Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania- patches and send back their pictures. In "Surely when you talked about cen- wartime, a further point of control is sorship you must have understood added through field censorship. Nobody that within one or two days the me- in the press wanted the American gov- dia would have access to all the news ernment to announce the invasion of that was necessary." Grenada in advance. The press wanted access to the story with the understand- Two days after the invasion, fifteen ing that surprise and secrecy would be press people were allowed on Grenada maintained. That not only saves the lives under close supervision for a few hours; of military personnel; it also saves the three days after, 24 were allowed during lives of the press. the day; four days after, 50 were brought The press is less hostile to censorship in during the day. That sounds good, but and to the safety of troops than our crit- the problem is that the significant events ics believe. During World War Two, when in Grenada took place during the first Edward R. Murrow was broadcasting live two days when there was no press al- from the rooftops of London during the lowed on the island. Blitz, he had a military censor standing Had there been television crews on the at his side. If the censor thought that island during those first 48 hours, the Murrow might be heading into an area American public would have seen pic- of sensitive description of what he was tures of the dead and wounded; but the reporting, the efficiency of the search- public would also have seen pictures of lights or the location of anti-aircraft guns, brave American soldiers in combat. My he would tap Murrow on the wrist and guess is, considering how popular the Murrow would start talking about some- invasion was with the public, the Ad- thing else. ministration would have strengthened During the Second World War, Gen- its case by letting the press be in at the eral George Marshall, the Army Chief of beginning. Those pictures might have Staff, had regular briefings for the sen- been a day or two late, but they would ior editors and columnists in Washing- have had a powerful effect. By keeping ton. He would call them in, sit them down, the press out, the Administration weak- and tell them absolutely everything. ened its case, and even the Republican - There was never a disclosure. The only controlled Senate passed a resolution by thing he didn't tell them was the actual 53 to 18, asking that press restrictions be date of the Normandy invasion. But Gen- halted. eral Eisenhower shared that vital piece of information with the pool reporters as- Letter #7 signed to his headquarters in England. Glendale, Arizona-"Oops, John, you forgot to mention that President Carter didn't include journalists Some will say, but that was the Sec- when he sent troops to try to free ond World War; the press is less trust- American hostages in Iran. Didn't worthy today. Yet, in 1980, when the President Ford leave journalists off Iranians were holding Americans hos- the boat when he sent Marines to tage, a number of us in the press learned take the Mayaguez from the Cam- that in Teheran, a few American diplo- bodians?" mats had managed to get out of the Em- bassy and were in hiding in a friendly Quite right. Both of those, the rescue embassy in Teheran. That story wasn't attempt in Iran and the battle for the printed or broadcast until the Americans Mayaguez were pure and simple rescue

29 operations. They had to be done in a accompany the Bay of Pigs inva- hurry and there was no time to assemble sion." a press pool or even a single representative of the press. The point in these No. But some publications knew part cases is that nobody in the press or in of the story and didn't run it. The New the Congress complained that the press Republic had part of the story and didn't was excluded. One was a highly -secret run it when asked not to by President desert mission in which every seat was Kennedy. The New York Times had a good needed operationally; the other was a part of the story, and, again, didn't run response to a surprise pirate raid. In it at the request of the President. But ele- Grenada, the United States sent 6,000 ments of the story did get out. And that troops ashore with plenty of time to as- infuriated Kennedy. Kennedy had good semble some press pools. Incidentally, relations with the press, but the Bay of I'm sorry that the press wasn't present Pigs was not only a military disaster; it in the Iranian desert or at the Mayaguez was an informational debacle. Among fight, because there are still arguments those who were not told in advance were and disputes about what really hap- Pierre Salinger, Mr. Kennedy's press pened. An observer from the press might secretary, and Adlai Stevenson, his rep- have been able to set the record straight. resentative at the United Nations. Government press officers in the field Letter #8 were even worse. American reporters in Concord, Ohio-"Did the Israelis in- Miami, once the invasion had begun, clude you on their mission to were told that an invading force of five Uganda?" thousand was involved. Actually, only a thousand had gone ashore, but the No, but that was another in -and -out American press officers wanted the Cu- rescue mission. I don't recall if the Is- ban people to believe that a giant force raelis sent pool reporters and camera had landed so they would rebel against people, but if they didn't their argument the Castro government. Then, when the could have been that it was such a swift invading force got in trouble, the Amer- strike that the press would only have got ican brief ers changed their story and said in the way. On Grenada it wasn't that the force wasn't five thousand after all, way at all. only a few hundred who had landed anti - Castro supplies. Letter #9 Sometimes you can't believe your own Toledo, Ohio-"President Truman government. And, as most of us know, did not call in the press in advance Kennedy later said to the Times, "If you of the bombing of Hiroshima or Na- had printed more about [the Bay of Pigs] gasaki ..." you would have saved us from a colossal mistake. I wish you had run everything There was no representative of the on Cuba." Incidentally, The New York American press at the bombing of Hi- Times had advance word on the Cuban roshima, but there was a member of the missile crisis, as well, and, again at the press aboard the plane which dropped request of President Kennedy, held up the bomb on Nagasaki. The American its story. government wanted an outside observer to be there, and a distinguished science Letter #11 reporter for The New York Times, Wil- Phoenix, Arizona-"... The British liam L. Laurence, rode in the plane and government did not make press ac- watched them drop the atomic bomb. cess availability in a timely manner during the Falklands war ... the Letter #10 British government knew full well Troy, New York-"The media did not that the press had the power to make

30 or break the success of the war American and non -American press. Only through public sentiment after ex- six were revoked because their holders posure of the horror of the war broke the rules. And for years in Viet through pictures. They remembered Nam the pictures and stories, especially well from the Vietnam experience of the television pictures, didn't seem to the Johnson administration." have had much effect on either support for the war at home or the morale of the That's true. When the Royal Navy task troops in the field. No war is ever pop- force was being put together to sail to ular with the troops, and Viet Nam was the Falklands, the Navy decided not to an example of that principle; yet the take any members of the press at all. public opinion polls here at home didn't Prime Minister Thatcher insisted that the show a falling off in support until after press go along, and a pool of correspon- the enemy's Tet offensive in 1968. dents and camera people was assem- Tet was the great turning point of the bled, 26, in all. (Not a large number, for Viet Nam war, and pictures of that up- a country going to war; the United States rising had a lot to do with its impact. At could have assembed a smaller pool for that time in the war, things were going the invasion of Grenada.) well for the South Vietnamese and the But the British government did take Viet United States. When the Tet offensive Nam into account, and every effort was began, it came as a complete surprise; made to impede and delay pictures going main force and guerilla enemy units back to Britain. Television pictures took fighting all across South Viet Nam, in- two weeks to reach London, an amazing vading, briefly, the compound of the delay these days. An official of the Min- American Embassy in Saigon, captur- istry of Defense told a friend of mine that ing, for a bloody interval, the city of Hue. the British government was not going to Tet '68 was a tactical failure for the have home -front morale sapped by pic- enemy. The South Vietnamese commu- tures of dead British soldiers on the telly nists lost so many people that they were every evening. never again the decisive force in South Viet Nam haunts us all. Viet Nam. Their losses insured that the North Vietnamese would henceforth run Letter #12 the show in the South. But Tet '68 was a Leeds, Alabama-"It is doubtful that strategic victory for Hanoi. The pictures any government ever again will al- of our invaded Embassy grounds in Sai- low media coverage of a war, while gon had a stunning impact here at home; it is going on, to the extent that such so did the graphic coverage of the up- was permitted in Viet Nam. There rising in many South Vietnamese cities. will always be reporters who sym- The street fighting in Hue looked like pathize with the other side or who, World War Two at its worst. for one reason or another, oppose Tet made it look at home as though their own government's involve- the United States was up against a much ment in the conflict. If those people tougher and more resilient enemy than are allowed free reign in the war anyone, including the American mili- zone, especially with television tary, had believed. The American gov- cameras, they can have a devastat- ernment had accurately reported on ing effect on the morale of our troops battlefield success before Tet. After Tet, and of the people back home." some senior American officials, including uniformed officers, were stunned by Did the coverage in Viet Nam have a the ability of the enemy to coordinate, devastating effect on the morale of our in total secrecy, an attack of the size of troops and the people at home? the Tet offensive. The American government issued While the Americans were issuing about 2,000 credentials in Viet Nam to press releases about the great failure of

31 the communists, the Pentagon suddenly swer.... The majority of the on -the -scene sought an increase in strength of 206,000 reporting was factual-that is, the re- men in the armed forces. After Tet, in porters honestly reported what they had General Westmoreland's words to seen, firsthand. Much of what they saw Washington, it was "a new ball game". was horrible, for that is the nature of Tet was in 1968. Richard Nixon was war. It was this horror, not the reporting, elected in 1969. The policy of Vietnami- that so influenced the American peo- zation, turning the war over to the ple." Vietnamese, began soon after. Ameri- There we have the heart of it: the re- ca's role in Viet Nam had changed. porting isn't the problem, the problem is the intrinsic horror of war itself. In earlier conflicts, the horror of war was fil- I go into this in some detail to counter tered to the public through ministries of a myth: the myth that the news organi- propaganda, softened by censorship, zations in Viet Nam changed a defeat for delayed by slow technology. That is not the enemy in Tet '68 into a victory. What true in today's world of instant commu- really happened is that the stories and nication. War reported by quill pens was pictures of that offensive were accurate, more bearable to the folks at home than that the press reported what the press living-room wars brought to us on vid- observed. The symbolism of the Tet of- eotape by satellite. And we have been fensive was more important than the body learning that when civilians at home counts. In its mindless way, the press watch the intrinsic horrors of war on their coverage got the story right. television sets they don't like what they The press coverage of the fighting did see. Parents, husbands, brothers and amplify the psychological effect of the sisters get upset when they see the dead Tet offensive. But the American people and wounded. were growing tired of the long war, and This is handled in the totalitarian Tet made it seem that the war would countries by eliminating a free press. But have no end. Dean Rusk, then the hard- for the democracies, which depend on line Secretary of State, talked about Tet an informed citizenry, it is a unique many years later with Stanley Karnow, problem. How should a government deal author of Vietnam: A History: Rusk said with the public's right to know if that that his relatives in Cherokee County, right to know erodes the support the pub- Georgia, told him after the offensive, lic gives the government? "Dean, if you can't tell us when this war Some of our most respected democra- is going to end, well then maybe we just cies have been turning to forms of cen- ought to chuck it." So I think it is a myth sorship as an answer: Great Britain, to say that the press got the Tet story Israel, the United States. We might not wrong and unwittingly damaged the war be surprised if this had been done in the effort. Philippines or in South Korea, but it's The press did what it always does: it being done, democratically -speaking, in reported what it was able to observe. the best places. And it is being done, And that goes to what we are discussing here at home, at a time when some of here. our fundamental attitudes about war, the One of the best and most thoughtful public and the press have been changed. books on Viet Nam was written by Harry The United States no longer declares G. Summers, Jr., a colonel of infantry war. It didn't in the Korean conflict, in who now teaches at the army war col- which almost 8,000,000 Americans served lege. It is called On Strategy-A Critical and 54,000 died; it didn't declare war in Analysis of the Viet Nam War. He writes, Viet Nam, a conflict in which almost "There is a tendency in the military to 9,000,000 Americans served and 58,000 blame our problems with public support died. on the media. This is too easy an an- The Constitution says the Congress

32 "shall have power ... to declare war." government needs the support of the The fact that over 100,000 Americans died public; the military needs the support of in two undeclared wars caused the Con- the public; the press, if it is to serve its gress to pass the War Powers Resolu- function of independently informing the tion, which restores some war -declaring public, needs the cooperation of the gov- power to the legislative branch-but ernment and the military. since the passage of that resolution, ev- Things get dangerous in a country ery president has opposed it. Declaring when the government takes unto itself war has gone out of style. Yet, a formal the function of informing the public. It declaration of war has some advan- is dangerous because every government tages, not the least of them being that likes to put its best face forward, and unless there is clear justification for a because no government likes to admit war, the Congress will not declare it. its mistakes. When your friendly gov- One of those advantages is censor- ernment press agent, military or civil- ship of the press. Censorship is not a ian, is your only source of information, pleasant experience for the press, but you ought to be worried. when it was been legally invoked by the A free press is, by definition, imper- American government it has, in the main, fect, contradictory, and inefficient. But been fairly administered and obeyed by it is infinitely preferable to a flow of in- the press. Censorship in World War Two, formation which comes solely from the when it was last in effect, gave the pub- government. lic a reasonable picture of the war. America may not declare war any- Could the American government and more, but uniformed Americans are still the American press agree today on an being killed, as we have seen recently arrangement which would satisfy the in both Lebanon and Grenada. In Le- government's requirements for security, banon, there was nothing the American secrecy and surprise, and the press's re- government could do to keep the public quirements for access to the story, within from being exposed to the horror of war, bounds, while it's happening? as it affected Americans. In Grenada, it That might not be easy. It would be was possible to keep the deaths off tele- extremely difficult in places like Leba- vision, which decreased their impact from non, where the press comes from many the visual to the statistical. countries, some of them hostile to the Government policy in Lebanon is un- United States. It would be hard to do in popular; government policy in Grenada Central America. But it could be ar- is popular. ranged in cases where American re- For governments, that's a lesson. porters and camera people are covering For citizens of the democracies, it American forces. Grenada is such an exis a warning of what may happen in ample, and it could have been arranged the future. there. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs is setting up a panel of the military and This article is the text of the fourth annual the press to look into all of this, and we Chet Huntley Memorial Lecture delivered can only wish it well. The military, more recently by John Chancellor at New York than many civilians think, understands University. The series was inaugurated by its relationship with the press, and in NYU to honor Chet Huntley, and to rein- force the moral and ethical standards of my view (the curiosities of the Grenada journalism that guided Huntley's life and invasion notwithstanding) the military work. John Chancellor, now commentator has behaved well toward the press. We for the NBC Nightly News, was for 12 years may be an irritant, but our responsibil- the program's anchorman. For NBC News ities are understood. he has also been a foreign correspondent, The fact is, we all need one another if host of the Today program, and chief White this system of ours is going to work. The House correspondent

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"We're producing results" BEFORE THERE WAS "AFTER," THERE WAS .. .

Once upon a time there was a television drama written and produced about what would happen in a small midwestern community if a nuclear strike were ever launched against the United States. But almost no one ever saw the program. Wait a minute, you say, obviously I haven't read the Nielsen's. The Day After drew a rating in the fifties. Oh, but this was long before that program. Twenty-four years before. Strike begins with two remarkable BY JOHN O'TOOLE people, Paul and Carol Schafer. A physician and nurse, respectively, they were On June 8, 1959, some two hundred civilians working for the U.S. Army Med- people gathered in an audito- ical Corps. They were educators and rium in Atlantic City. The oc- media pioneers. They were, also, adept casion was the annual at miracles. American Medical Association Conven- Somehow, the Schafers had per- tion; the audience, mostly physicians, a suaded the army to set up a television few spouses, a sprinkling of military. The division at the army's Walter Reed Med- colonels and majors were there because ical Center in Washington, D.C. Instead the audience was about to view Strike, of being content to broadcast open-heart a 90 -minute television drama on the surgery to a few thousand military phy- aftermath of a nuclear attack on the sicians, this energetic couple began pro- United States. Less than two months ducing dramas on problems in army later, The New York Times television critic psychiatry, and what we might now call Jack Gould would call the program "per- holistic medicine. Note, I said "dramas." haps the most powerful editorial drama Not content to assemble a production unit yet designed for television." Gould was of some fifty talented draftees (remem- one of a handful of Americans who would ber the draft?) to man cameras and video, see Strike. Within three weeks of its first the Schafers insisted they needed screening, all prints of the program had professional writers and directors. been seized by the U.S. Army. I'm sure Somehow, they conned the army into you never heard of Strike. I know some- providing a modest budget to do it. That's thing about it, because I wrote it. where I came in. Sitting in my cold -water flat at Sev- The play is Strike by John O'Toole. It enty-seventh and York, I was enjoying is a gripping, intense, and hard-hitting my first year as a free-lance writer. It account of the ordeal of survival for a was November, and cold, and I was tired "pocket" of Americans who are not in- of showering in my mother's house stantly wiped out when 100 enemy nu- in Queens, and having canned soup clear missiles are dropped on the country. for dinner. When I was offered a job in -The New York Times, Sunday, 7/26/59 this mysterious place, I grabbed it. I

39 THE TELEVISION DIVISION WALTER REED ARMY MEDICAL CENTER SYNOPSIS OF THE PLAY presents The action is established in Redfield at the Chicago suburban home of the McDermott family some of whom become part of a survival pocket at Fort Kendall, an Army poet some distance from the city.

ACT ONE Begins in the McDermott home and progresses to Fort Kendall between December 24.26.

STWICE ACT TWO Fort Kendall from December 29 to the middle of January.

ACT THREE Fort Kendall between March and September.

IA brief panel disc on will follow the presentation of each act of the play. Participante produced by are listed on revenu side.) PAUL W. SCHAFER, M.D. developed by CENTRAL CHARACTERS E. CAROL SCHAFER (in order of their appearance) directed by Lt Col Alan McDermott... Chet Leaming NORMAN MORGAN Executive Officer, Fort Merrill Hospital written by Sheila McDermott Sally Chamberlain JOHN O'TOOLE his wife

Fred Borkhardt Leo Penn art direction: fighting: hie brother-in-law, a building contractor LOWELL NESBITT DAVE MYATF Claire music consultant: assistant director: Burkhardt _._._.. Mary Jo Randall STANLEY SCHNEIDER TONY VERDI Alan's sister, a nunc music written by: technical director: Guy Speull RICHARD HYMAN BOB STOJINSKI Alan'. father, a eemi.retired physician performed h, Brig Gen Alexander Clay Tom Gorman THE UNITEDisSTATES ARMY BAND Commanding Officer. Fort Kendall ámerrcording t,.. Col Elton Corel...... Phil Foster SIGNAL BRANCH-WRAMC Commanding Officer, Fort Kendall Army Hospital PROGRAM NOTE: .STRIKE is a dramatization of something which has never hap- Lt Col Donald Bixby...... Ben Hammer pened-something we pray never will happen-a major nuclear weapons strike on thin nation Radiologist, Fort Kendall Army Hospital -one hundred major target complexeshit without warning. To portray this fantastic reality We have aubstituted individual human beings for numbera-emotions for chars-perhaps AMA 1959 ANNUAL MEETING s.,metimr sacrificing the strict accuracy of the lecture for the emotional validity of life. The people in this play make mistakes-they do not have all the answers. MILITARY MEDICINE SECTION 10 June, Atlantic City, N.J. STRIKE is not a"how-to-doit" for humanity. It merely shows what we think might 2 p.m.-Room A-Convention Hall happen. All we hope is that it will make you thing. imagined I'd spend my time writing do- This was in the days when that name cumentaries on the history of the stethe- meant something more ominous than an scope, but at least I'd have a radiator. I airport. got far more than I bargained for. I found myself furiously penning dra- there is no local defense which alone mas on all sorts of complex human is- ... will contain the mighty land power of sues which happened to involve military the Communist world. Local defense must personnel, everything from childbirth to be reinforced by the further deterrent of racial relations. More I got to exciting, massive retaliatory power. see the scripts competently mounted and The to to produced (in color, yet!) in a small but .. ability get the verge with- adequate studio, with real professional out getting into the war is the necessary If to run from it, if you actors. After a year of such invaluable art. you try away are scared to go to the brink, you are lost. experience, I was ready for anything and Dulles everything (you think that way when -John Foster you're twenty-six) and that's about what I got. The Schafers told me we were going I had come to adulthood with the rhet- to produce a drama on how military phy- oric of nuclear brinksmanship echoing sicians would attempt to cope with a nu- in my ears. I had sometimes wondered clear attack on the United States. In short, if I would live to see thirty. But I was not, we would think about the unthinkable I hasten to add, what some high ranking and I would get to describe something officials call "politically naive." I did not which had never happened, but had been (and do not) think that the Soviets were giving me nightmares. a peace -loving bunch who were just ach- Some of you younger readers may think ing to get into the plough -share busi- that nuclear sabre -rattling began with ness. I simply have never understood how the Reagan Administration. Permit me it helps us to have crazy people on both to introduce you to John Foster Dulles. sides of the negotiating table.

40 My Dulles -phobia not withstanding, I MP SGT TACK: Say. Lieutenant Evans, these approached the research on Strike civilians keep coming in, and I think we need painstakingly. Shepherded by Carol some kind of help-I mean a bigger set-up- around. Schafer, who was in charge of the writ- they're milling ers, I attended meetings, read reports, (CUT TO: CLAY AND EVANS.) questioned experts, and was gradually CLAY: How many has he gotten? immersed in the best and most thorough (CUT TO: MP SGT.) of information (short classified material) MP SGT TACK: So far? All together? Close to that the army's medical experts could a thousand-No! I'm not kidding! .. . offer. As the months went by, Carol (LOWERING VOICE) Schafer and I were getting used to being stunned. to go for the de- It was much worse than we had imag- In April, we decided ined. It was much worse than most of finitive version, a ninety -minute drama the individual physicians grasped. Many dealing with the whole story. We would hos- of them focussed on one small aspect of zero in on a prototypical military the cataclysm. This man talked about pital near a mythical town called Red- radiation; this man about the phenom- field, Illinois. We would try to show what civil- enon of pneumonia; this one talked about would happen to the military and the poisoning of the water supply; that ians living around the base in the event one about psychological trauma. But as of a nuclear strike. In about a month, I we made our rounds, we were beginning had finished the script. to see something which the individual expert seldom saw; we were beginning (CUT TO: BIXBY & CORPSMAN MOORE) to see the whole picture. It was horrific BIXBY: You've got to find blankets! We can almost beyond imagination. But it had save some of these people, but not if they die to be imagined and dramatized. of pneumonia. MOORE: (WEARILY) I'll try, sir. But there ain't (THOUGHTFULLY) any. FRED: One doctor for every two thousand- (HE TURNS TO GO) That's not so bad. The pioneers had it worse BIXBY: Sergeant- ... We'll just have to be tough. (HE TURNS. BIXBY HESITATES) ALAN: But that's not two thousand people using yellow tags on people with normal complaints, Fred. Maybe a I'm going to start with over a thousand r No blankets for thousand of them could be fractures and ... those people .. . burns .. . (THEY LOOK AT EACH OTHER. THE SGT (QUIETLY) NODS) SHEILA: Yes, burns are bad. I remember during the Blitz ... and don't forget people hysterical, just out of their heads. I've seen Actors were being brought down from that-that's the worst. New York, and our director, Norman Morgan, began kinescoping (no, kids, We did not rush into the writing or pro- there was no color videotape then) the duction of Strike. As a sort of dry run, hundreds of scenes. There was no way we first wrote and produced four sepa- that we could do the show "live" in story rate one -hour dramatizations on aspects sequence. Our small studio couldn't be- of the nuclear attack dealing with ra- gin to accommodate the dozens of sets, diation, trauma, etc. While I wrestled and fifty or so performers we would use. with ways to come up with a suitable It was shot like a motion picture, except microcosm, the production people were that for reasons of economy, we did long becoming increasingly skillful at simu- takes without stopping, and no retakes lating radiation burns and infected unless something went disastrously wounds. wrong.

41 JORGENSON: (TO BIXBY) Are - you - a doctor? really got a system working now. If we only BIXBY: That's right we'll take care of you had twenty more doctors .. . now...

JORGENSON: Why - do - I keep - vomiting? By the end of April, all the scenes had BIXBY: It'll pass - you'll feel better been shot. Sometime during the ed- tomorrow .. . iting process, some of our military med- (HE HESITATES, THEN TIES A YELLOW TAG ical advisors did begin to grasp the TO JORGENSON'S WRIST) potential for controversy Strike presented, but the commitment to the Amer- When we had finished, I knew we had ican Medical Association had already something quite powerful. But I'd been been made. The Schafers were increas- inside the story for so long. It would be ingly protective of the program, alter- a while before I appreciated just how nately rebuffing inquiries, and powerful. reassuring frightened superiors. Paul and Carol Schafer understood far more than ... the play stands as a memorable any of us what was at stake. Certainly, theatrical challenge to the folly of man- their careers were in jeopardy. This hus- kind toying with nuclear suicide." band and wife team never flinched. They -N.Y. TIMES knew how important Strike's message was. The program notes described what I've been asked whether Strike was was to come in a deceptively low-key done in secret, whether it was somehow fashion: "sneaked by" the military medical ad- "The action is established in Redfield visors? Quite the contrary. The script was at the Chicago suburban home of the seen by a dozen advisors. Some were in McDermott family, some of whom be- the control room for various scenes. Some come part of a survival pocket at Fort were at screenings. Why did no one blow Kendall, an Army post some distance the whistle? To start with, these were from that city." decent men, none of whom perceived the By the time arrangements were made program we were preparing as a threat for the AMA screening in June, there was to national security. Some of our ques- certainly concern among army physi- tions perplexed them, or made them un- cians in charge of the project that the easy. But even when they saw their program not be "misunderstood." Not only answers turned into dialogue, the im- would there be a panel discussion about plications escaped them; even when they Strike, there would be three, one after saw segments being produced in the each act. Of the eleven panelists, nine studio, they couldn't project beyond their were military. own military -expert mindset to visualize What they saw was a typical middle- the impact of those scenes on people class family gathered for the Christmas outside the circle. holidays. Oh, I stacked the deck with doctors for obvious reasons, and made (CUT TO: CLAY AND COREL AT FIELD TABLE, the eldest son an army physician, at that. EXAMINING DIAGRAM.) We were out to show the medical night- COREL (O.C.): It's really quite simple. mare presented by a nuclear attack. But (CUT TO: CHART.) there were farmers, businessmen, me- The CBR men separate them at the gate into chanics, parents, children, the Ameri- "hot" and "cold"-then the hot ones go to the can family extended. showers, clothes burnt- CLAY: Those showers are using a hell of a lot ... I believe in one instance here where of water- the mother gave birth to the premature COREL: I've ordered strict economy-then infant that they should know that all they go to Bixby for treatment ... We've pregnant women who are survivors of

42 the Hiroshima and Nagasaki blast that plaints of the critics ringing in his ears. none of their offsprings have developed ... our in the leukemia and I don't think there have You know much of activity been any monsters recorded among them United States is under scrutiny by people either. And it takes two people to de- who are not friendly to us in other coun- sort velop a monster. It takes the egg and tries. And vehicles of the type of this sperm both as a rule. are just made for reproduction one way Panelist: Rear Admiral Wendel G. Scott or another and displayed as a reaction of American people under circumstances As the program unfolded that day in in which they would be expected to act Atlantic City, it was clear that we would differently .. . have no trouble holding the audience. Panelist: Waltman Walters, M.D. but as the cumulative effect of the de- ... the author of this film completely struction was perceived, those on the portrayed the American as being so lack- panel who had misgivings grew more ing in capabilities or imagination, that and more vocal. he can't meet situations that are presented to him for the first time. I have ... if this nation is going to survive a great faith in all Americans to meet un- thermonuclear attack and recover, then usual situations. We see it every day. we must have national leadership and There is nothing more interesting than this word must get down to these iso- to watch youngsters, be they in grade lated communities; some word of en- school, high school, or college, the way couragement, give them something to they develop combined programs. And look forward to. Certainly the medical you can't tell me that even in a refugee problem is not the only problem, trans- or civilian camp some of these things portation, signal communications, wouldn't come out. banking facilities. I didn't see a single Panelist: Brig. Gen. Richard L. Meiling check cashed in this film .. . Panelist: Colonel James T. McGibony O Events after that blurred, as discomfi- ... if there be a sound framework for ture rapidly moved to disapproval to- establishment of a civil defense effort and disappearance. Before the AMA screen- if despite this the medical profession as ing, the plan had been to show Strike to a whole is apathetic, which I doubt, then the medical audiences around the coun- this film might have some value. Oth- try, and not just military medical audi- erwise, I think the thing should be canned ences, either. Now, there was talk of and never more seen. revision, or re-evaluation, of review at Panelist: Colonel Robert L. Hullinghorst higher levels. The Schafers read the signals and went into high gear, contacting By the time the heated panel discus- people in television whom they believed sion was halted, there were a lot of wor- would be sympathetic to the program's ried -looking colonels around. There had message. That message was in the pro- been numerous pointed suggestions from gram notes: the panel that it would be better if the public never saw Strike. One of the Strike is not a "how -to -do -it" for human- show's more indignant critics made the ity. It merely shows what we think might mistake of asking for a show of hands happen. All we hope is that it will make from the audience. How many would ever you think. want to see such a thing again? To his surprise, the show of hands from the floor As we raced around New York with was pro -Strike. On this discomfiting note, one of the few existing prints, we found Brigadier General Harold C. Leuth, Mc, an amazing array of communications USAR, closed the session with corn - people eager to help. In a week of

43 hurried meetings, people such as the Dysentery, tuberculosis and influenza distinguished director, Fielder Cook, and spread. People in the cramped, cold and the late Fred Coe of live -television fame, makeshift quarters grow careless over arranged screenings for people as di- sanitary conditions. Freshly dug wells verse as The Saturday Review's Norman that may be uncontaminated by radia- Cousins, film producer Dore Schary and tion are spoiled. In hunger animals are Channel Thirteen's Ely Landau. Lewis eaten, in thirst faces are bathed in radio- Freedman of Channel Thirteen/WNTA active puddles of water. screened it, wondering if they might not As time passes, the civilians begin to shoe -horn it into their Play Of The Week yearn for some sense of purpose. On the series. All of this frantic activity culmi- Army colonel who is a surgeon has fallen nated in a screening arranged by Coe the administrative responsibility of trying for the television critic of The New York to cope with those not accustomed to rig- Times, Jack Gould. It was clear at the orous discipline for their own good." end that Gould was impressed. How impressed we would discover in the The Schafeí s strategy was clear: make Wednesday morning edition of The New sure that Strike could not be made to York Times on July 22, 1959. It began: disappear quietly into the bowels of the bureaucracy. They had gone public with "An absorbing and chilling television the Times piece. On Sunday, Jack Gould drama of a 'pocket' of survivors of an en- drove the message home with a three - emy missile attack on the United States column spread right next to a picture of has been prepared by the Walter Reed Jack Paar celebrating his second anni- Army Medical Center in Washington." versary as host of the Tonight show. Af- ter a brief synopsis, Gould launched into The Times story goes on to synopsize a plea for the program's survival. The the story I wrote better than I could: Schafers had been skillfully arguing that Strike was, after all, useful as an ar- "Strike, which was seen yesterday at gument for a more realistic civil defense a private screening, deals with life at an policy. The Times' television critic picked Army post upon which the civilian pop- that up and carried it much further. ulation descends after 100 nuclear missiles have fallen on major cities and "But so skillfully is the work's basic in- military targets. Through the account is formational data incorporated in the body woven the individual fates of members of the drama that Strike is fully as much of the family of an elderly doctor. a towering theatrical accomplishment. The drama shows the need for marking With vividness, compassion, and insight an "X" on some of the cards worn around it never forgets to relate the individual the wrist by survivors. This means they human element to the agony of a society had no chance of recovery and indicated that must begin all over again the task that medicines that were in short supply of living. should not be wasted on them. As such, Strike is perhaps the most At first clothes are burned or buried to forceful editorial drama yet designed for avoid radiation poisoning; later they are TV. If the need for adequate home de- required for warmth because there is not fense is made painfully clear, at the same enough fuel for heat. time the play stands as a memorable In Strike there is no suggestion that theatrical challenge to the folly of man- conditions of extreme hardship might last kind in toying with nuclear suicide. If only a few days; the crisis goes on for commercial TV wonders what can be ac- months. With most cities wiped out and complished within the dramatic form, let military forces preoccupied in the emer- it consult Walter Reed Medical Center. gency, outside help is out of the ques- Ultimately Strike, which runs approx- tion. imately ninety minutes, should be tele -

44 vised on a network. Thus far it has had gust. They promptly hired me to write a only limited screenings, primarily for a script on the nuclear aftermath for Arm- group of members of the American Med- strong Circle Theatre. During August and ical Association. But, with the addition September, I labored to turn the same of perhaps only a few explanatory notes message into the very specific docu- for a lay audience, the work could go on drama format of this highly respected the air as is. Unquestionably, it would network series. Conferring with script receive consideration for prizes." editor Barbara Schultz, I created another "pocket of survivors" in a town called Strike did not win any prizes. Nor were Princefield, Douglas Edwards' opening there to be any airings or showings. One narration layed it out for the audience. by one, the less than a handful of prints were seized by the Army. The Schafers EDWARDS: Good evening, everybody coast to argued forcefully but to no avail. The coast. Douglas Edward speaking.-Here is a programs were government property and map familiar to all of us. we were light-years from the Freedom of (HE X'S TO MAP OF U.S.A. LARGE CITIES Information Act. The last copy of Strike SHOW AS BLACK DOTS WITH ROADS, was taken from the Schafers at their home RIVERS, RAILROAD TRACKS CRISS- CROSSING FROM THEM) by a team of U.S. Military Police. We have studied it in school, seen it in a ... it puts the military in a very unfa- thousand newspapers and magazines .. . vorable light. It does not build confi- here is an unfamiliar map and a frightening dence in our Armed Forces or for one. command, or how to act under situations (HE X'S TO ANOTHER COPY OF SAME MAP, such as this. It is filled with a complete EXCEPT THAT WHERE THE BLACK DOTS FOR list of bad manners, and conduct unbe- CITIES WERE, THERE ARE NOW BLANK coming officers of the United States CIRCLES. THERE ARE HUNDREDS OF THESE BLANKS, LEAVING A TANGLE OF BROKEN I to Armed Forces. would hate have the LINES) Russians see it and to think that we would It shows a country which we hope will never act in such a way-it embarrasses me. exist-a United States without Chicago .. . It does not me, it disgusts me. stimulate (HE POINTS) Panelist: Rear Admiral Wendel G. Scott ... without Atlanta .. . (POINTS) In the next few months there were ef- ... without Los Angeles .. . forts to persuade the U.S. Army Med- (POINTS) ical Corps to reconsider and return some ... without New York ... Tonight we bring of the prints. They would not, of course, you a program on an important subject- admit that they were suppressing it. survival-In just a few moments ... "D IS Strike was being evaluated, reconsi- FOR DOOMSDAY" .. . dered, analyzed, etc. So was the Walter SUPER FILM: ARMSTRONG OPENING ... on Reed Television Division! The word fil- the ARMSTRONG CIRCLE THEATRE. tered down that budget cuts would be In spite of the title D Is For Doomsday, used to squeeze the Schafers and their my new script was no more pessimistic trouble -making writers out. It took about than Strike had been. Humankind was two years to turn this vibrant educa- not wiped out. There was hope for the tional center into a place that broadcast future, albeit an incredibly grim future. dentistry in color. The Feds call it attri- tion. ACT THREE There was an interesting coda to the FADE IN: (FILM: AERIAL VIEW OF H-BOMB Strike story. A publicist who had read CRATER) EDWARDS: (VO) the Gould review put me in touch with Plus three weeks. The first efforts to assay the Talent Associates, the agents, in Au- damage and repair it.

45 CUT TO: (AERIAL VIEW OF GUTTED CITY people who remembered the Strike ex- AND SUBURBS) perience. As I write this, they are once One quarter of all private homes destroyed. again searching for a print. I hope some- More than twenty one million buildings badly one finds it, but in the end Strike is not damaged really important in itself. We'd probably CUT TO: (AERIAL VIEW OF SCORCHED find it woefully old-fashioned, and it FORESTS) would certainly contain some inaccur- Forests, crops destroyed or contaminated. Rail acies after more than twenty years. What and telegraph lines broken. is important is that something be done by television to begin to focus public debate on the terrifying problem of nuclear arms escalation. I believe the ABC pro- The script was accepted, the parts all gram was a step in that direction, and cast, a talented young director, Paul Bo- should have been applauded for that gart, assigned to direct. At the end of reason alone. the second day of rehearsal, it was can- Was The Day After better than Strike? celled. I was told that the sponsor found That's the question I have been asked it "too gloomy." most often. Well, they revealed a re- Was that the end, until The Day After? markably similar story line, but that's Well, yes and no. We did not turn defeat because the bomb writes the story. The into victory back in 1959. This was, after ABC production values were of course all, still the era of Papa Eisenhower, and more elaborate. I do think we did a bet- dissent was, by today's standards, dec- ter job of avoiding a preachy tone. Nei- orous. There was a series of small ges- ther program is or was perfect, nor could tures of defiance over the years, none be. What's important is that we need very effective. In 1961, the December 26 more such efforts. Many more. Three edition of the Washington Evening Star sentences close the Strike program notes. re -told the story of Strike, but nothing After twenty-four years they still sum it came of it. A year later, the Schafers, up pretty well: their jobs abolished, staff scattered, opened a private production firm, vow- Strike is not a "how -to -do -it" for hu- ing to produce a new version. Their ven- manity. It merely shows what we think ture into commerce was, alas, might happen. All we hope is that it will unsuccessful. make you think. In 1965, I was by then a producer and writer of syndicated documentaries in New York. I managed to produce a low - budget documentary on nuclear war for the series Perspective On Greatness, fo- cussing on Robert Oppenheimer and Ed- ward Teller. But by now, the nation's John O'Toole has followed up his frustrat- attention was not on Armageddon but on ing, but revealing, experience with Strike, a little country called Vietnam. with many years of writing for television, In 1967, I was an Executive Producer radio and film. For PBS, he has contributed for a PBS series, and those in charge of a notable adaptation of James Fenimore the series became interested in the story Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales, as well as scripts for Kennedy Center Tonight, NPR's of Through their efforts, Senator Strike. All Things Considered Special, and the Hubert Humphrey's office was per- current Smithsonian World. He has also suaded to make inquiries. Humphrey's written specials and other programs for the staff ran into a brick wall. commercial networks. His films have won many awards, including twelve for his When the publicity began for the re- documentary about the creation of the cent ABC special, I began to hear from Hirshhorn Museum.

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US Representative DL Taffner Limited 31 West 56th Street, New York, NY 10019, USA Tel: (212) 245 4680 Telex: 620084 PROTECTING FIRST AMENDMENT FREEDOMS IN THE AGE OF THE ELECTRONIC REVOLUTION

A leading advocate of deregulation argues the case for repeal of the Fairness Doctrine and equal time for political candidates.

BY SENATOR consumers and as decision makers in a free society. The democratic system they BOB PACKWOOD established is rooted in the right of free expression. Take that freedom away and The First Amendment is the crown all the others will go with it. jewel in the treasure house of I am often asked why I have taken up American liberty. Most political the fight for First Amendment rights and thinkers in the country cite the why I am so adament about it. There are Amendment as the foundation of all of many reasons. First, deregulation has our freedoms. They understand that the always been high on my legislative Amendment was added to the Consti- agenda because I believe an open mar- tution in 1791 to protect free thought from ketplace encourages research, promotes government intrusion. They understand development, refines products and pro- that the nation's Founders sought to pre- vides consumers with high quality at low vent the kind of press censorship that cost. Second, throughout my career I have had dominated England and the Colo- fought for individual rights because they nies prior to the Revolution. And despite are essential to creativity and the ad- certain aberrations, such as the Alien vance of the social order. But most im- and Sedition Acts (1798-1801), and the portant, are the historic precedents which suspension of Habeas Corpus in war- clearly demonstrate that the restriction time, America has consistently returned of freedom of expression leads to the re- to the ideal of our Founders when it comes striction of other rights and the eventual to protecting free speech. fall of the republic. Where speech is not That is why every journalist ought to free, the society decays. be deeply concerned by the extent to The First Amendment has served this which the First Amendment's guaran- nation well. No doubt it would have con- tees of freedom of speech and press are tinued to serve to the end of time were being eroded now. Journalists, though it not for the genius of our inventors. The their stake in press freedom is obvious, electronic technologies they have given will not be the only losers if we let the us have transformed communications Amendment's purpose be smothered in and will continue to do so. Imagine the well-intentioned but potentially danger- possibilities we face in the near future: ous government regulation of electronic 100 channels of cable -delivered news and communications. entertainment; doing your shopping Indeed, the real losers will be the at home over your television; paying American people both as information bills on your personal computer without

51 having to write a check. In fact, it is be- FCC authority over the content of cable. coming more and more possible to live On first blush, these regulatory pro- in total independence of the outside visions may sound reasonable. Starting world: Teletext will put newspapers and with the Wireless Telegraphy Act of 1910 other information on our television screens; videotex will allow us to inter- Even if these First act with the outside world without leav- Amendment restrictions ing our living room. But the revolution in information pro- were justified in the cessing and home services is only the 1930's, they certainly tip of the iceberg. Fiber optics, micro- have no basis today. wave broadcasting, cellular radio and integrated digital networks will remake the telecommunications industry into one and proceeding through the Communi- of the most powerful, efficient and mul- cations Act of 1912, the Dill -White Radio tifaceted in the world. The impact of this Act of 1927, and the Communications Act electronic revolution upon society, though of 1934 as amended by subsequent Con- clearly enormous, is only now begin- gresses, legislators have tried to pre- ning to be felt. It could produce a new serve scarce airwaves and guarantee sense of individualism and indepen- two-sided news coverage, editorial com- dence as well as a new feudalism ment, and equal access by candidates wherein the consumer becomes lord of for public office. In the period preceding a self sufficient, computerized manor. World War II, these measures may have As Americans are served by new tech- seemed rational. Television broadcast- nologies and discover their potential ing was primitive and scarce. Newspa- benefits for society, they must ensure that pers had tended to support Republican freedom is enhanced rather than inhib- candidates over Democrats, and so the ited by outdated regulations. Eventu- New Deal sought parity in the electronic ally, we will have to write into our most media. sacred document of liberty-the Consti- tution-language that will guarantee that expression among citizens is to be free Sut even if these First Amendment re- of government control. But at the present strictions were justified in the 1930's, time, it is critical that we provide sta- they certainly have no basis today. Their tutory relief for those whose editorial and application has severely restricted the news content is being regulated by the public's access to both candidates and federal government. issues. If the Republican and Demo- That's why I am seeking support for cratic candidates are given air time in repeal of certain sections of the Com- a debate, then all other filed candidates munications Act-mainly Sections 315 must be given equal time, regardless of and 312a-through Senate bill S. 1917. the size of their following. This means Repeal of these sections would elimi- that broadcasters have to give free time nate the statutory basis for the Federal to as many candidates as have filed for Communications Commission's en- a single race regardless of their quali- forcement of the "Fairness Doctrine," in- fications or number of supporters. (The clusive of the right of reply and the FCC has wisely suspended this rule for personal attack rule. It would eliminate 1984 but could reimpose it at any time.) the equal time requirement for political If the broadcaster takes an editorial candidates that is imposed on broad- stand on a local issue, the "other side" casters as well as the low rate require- must be given a chance to respond. But ment for airtime. It would also eliminate who determines who the other side is the only language in the Communica- and that there is only one other side? If tions Act which specifically gives the a corporation wishes to discuss an issue

52 in its commercials rather than advertise When the truth is known, my bet is a product, then some provision may have that opinion leaders in this country will to be made to provide free time for a support legislative reform. Already such response. Given these rules, broad- organizations as the Society of Profes- casters often choose to avoid the prob- sional Journalists, the Association for lem altogether by granting no time to Education in Journalism, the American any person on any controversial issues, Society of Newspaper Editors, and the by not televising political debates, and American Newspaper Publishers Asso- by turning down corporate advertising ciation have called for the repeal of the that might "rock the boat." "Fairness Doctrine." I have no illusions about the difficulty These facts, and their traditional fight of getting this reform legislation passed. for First Amendment rights, have acti- Some broadcasters like to hide behind vated the print media as never before in the "Fairness Doctrine" and use it as an their fight for reform. Print journalists excuse to avoid advocacy advertising or are no longer indifferent to the plight of discussion of controversial issues. Some their colleagues in the electronic media. politicans prefer a law that prevents de- With the help of organizations like the bate, limits issue discussion, and favors Freedom of Expression Foundation, the incumbents. two groups are being made aware of their mutual needs. As New York Times columnist William Already such organiza- Saf ire noted (Times, November 11, 1982), tions as the Society of "Where you stand, depends on where you Professional journalists, sit." And he rightly noted that broad- the Association for Edu- casters and print journalists now are sit- cation in journalism, the ting at the same table. It is "better that our (press) freedom protection rub off on American Society of you (broadcasters) than your fairness re- Newspaper Editors, and quirement rub off on us." the American Newspaper Until recently, newspapers and mag- Publishers Association azines were guaranteed First Amend- have called for the repeal ment rights of free press. In the Miami Herald case, the Supreme Court over- of the Fairness Doctrine. turned a Florida law which required equal space for political response. (The law, on the books since early in this cen- That is why it is important to be re- tury, had been upheld unanimously by alistic in approaching this type of der- the Florida Supreme Court in 1970.) But egulation. It may take five or more years today, newspapers and magazines may to create a First Amendment environ- be surrendering those First Amendment ment for broadcasters because with each protections as they take advantage of Congress new legislation must be writ- the cost -savings and other competitive ten, shepherded through appropriate benefits of satellites, microwaves and committees, debated on the floors of other communications technologies Senate and House, and then fought for which are substantially regulated by the in Conference. And yet I'm hopeful that federal government. Their intimate in- a great deal can be accomplished in 1984. volvement with cable, which is bur- The Administration is committed to der- dened with "must carry" and egulation, and a majority on the FCC, programming regulations, also opens the led by its Chairman, Mark Fowler, has print media to regulation. pledged itself to do all it can to remove This nation's broadcasters have en- rules and regulations not clearly spelled dured the sometimes noxious interven- out in statute. tion of governmental regulation for a long

53 time. It is true that such well-meaning we must extend Freedom of the Press to regulatory devices as the "Fairness Doc- broadcasters. But it's really a Hobson's trine" and the "equal time rule" gener- choice, because there is no choice at all: ally have been applied as fairly by the freedom is in the Constitution and fair- Federal Communications Commission ness is not." as is possible. And there is no question that some regulation is essential. Tech- If "fairness" were to be written into the nological regulation is still needed to Constitution, government regulators keep frequencies untangled and to in- would decide not only what is seen and sure high quality of signal. The Prime heard in the land, but also what is read. Time Access Rule, which stimulates competition, should be untouched by current efforts to reform. Libel, slander, Given a choice between and pornography must be controlled by state and local laws. government regulators The fact remains, however, that even and the journalistic judg- "fair" application of news and editorial ments of free men and content regulations has had a chilling women, we must choose impact upon electronic publishers. Why the latter, or we court should a television station risk its li- tyranny. cense or an expensive legal battle before the F.C.C. when these trials can be avoided by simply refusing any programming that someone may think is of- And regulators are of necessity censors. fensive? Why should a radio station History will not allow us to view even broadcast a political debate between the the most well-meaning governmental leading candidates when they will have interference in free expression as any- to give equal time to all other filed can- thing but the beginning of the end for didates no matter how esoteric? Why liberty. should a broadcaster televise a com- Our founders sought to rectify the mercial that endorses the free enterprise abuses the colonies had suffered under system when such action may result in British rule. They were denied the right having to give away free time to some- to express grievances to Parliament. They one endorsing socialism? The losers in were denied the right to assemble to voice this overly regulated environment are the their complaints. They were forced to en- viewers and listeners. They are de- dure the censorship of the British crown prived of informed opinion, the right to as well as limitations of their right of hear qualified candidates, and the kind free expression imposed by the British of aggressive and lively commentary that Parliament. is permitted in the press. Our own national memory, if re- Fairness in journalism, be it print or freshed by a few examples, ought to give broadcast, is a noble goal and one that sufficient cause to reconsider faith in professional journalists ought to pursue. Congress, the President, or the courts as In a free and open society, competition protectors of free speech. In 1798, it was among the media is the best guarantee Congress which acted to abridge our lib- that all sides will have a voice, that the erties by passing the Alien and Sedition truth will emerge, and that distortion or Acts, under which newspaper publish- misrepresentation will be pointed out. ers were jailed. In the 1830's, it was Pres- But again, to use Safire's words: ident Andrew Jackson who abused our liberties by prohibiting the mailing of ... either we must extend Fairness- abolitionist tracts into the South. the right of access, with government as In this century, we've seen the courts the ultimate editor-to newspapers, or uphold the internment of native-born

54 American citizens of Japanese ancestry. We've seen a United States Senator run roughshod over the liberties of artists, VIEWPOINT actors, and writers. We've seen a Pres- ident and members of his administration threaten the media with reprisals for their criticism of him. Given a choice between government regulators and the journalistic judgments of free men and women, we must choose the latter, or we court tyranny. Is Mr. T Progress? And the only way to guarantee free- While I am certain that Mr. T is a gen- dom of expression is to pursue with all uinely nice and well-meaning individ- of our energy every means at our dis- ual, I am concerned whether the posal to diminish and finally eliminate character he plays is the best possible governmental intervention in commu- role model for children. I am also dis- nications. mayed that he is quite possibly the most Our founders gave us full freedom to visible black person on television today. the only forms of mass communications Why does an industry that studiously known to them when they wrote and avoids portraying the pantheon of black adopted the First Amendment to our heroes which spans this country's his- Constitution. Had they known of satel- tory choose to make a folk hero for our lites, microwaves and lasers, I do not children out of Mr. T? doubt they would have granted them In the 50's and 60's, America's folk he- equal protection with speech and press. roes were Daniel Boone, Davy Crockett Their goal was to guarantee freedom of and the Cartwrights of Bonanza. There expression. We must follow their ex- were no black heroes. In the '70's we had ample if we are to be good stewards of Kojak, Baretta and Starsky and Hutch, the freedom they entrusted to us, and if not to mention Charlie's Angels. Again, we are to pass that freedom on to our no black heroes. Now in the '80s we have children more secure than we found it. Mr. T. I guess Hollywood would call that progress. -Rep. Micky Leland (D) of Texas

Bob Packwood (R), the junior U.S. Senator from Oregon, at age 36 was the youngest Senator when elected in 1969. He is chairman of the Senate Committee on Com- merce, Science and Transportation, and a leader in a continuing campaign to de -reg- ulate federal controls on the communications industry. Senator Packwood recently helped organize the Freedom of Expres- sion Foundation, which is dedicated to ex- tending First Amendment rights to the electronic media.

55 WE GAVE THE WORLD VIDEOTAPE...

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METROMEDIA TELEVISION THE "CRANIOLOGY" OF THE 20th CENTURY: RESEARCH ON TELEVISION'S EFFECTS

A critic charges that some TV research is a travesty, about as scientific as old theories of intelligence based on measuring skulls.

A thorough -going bibliographic survey BY JIB FOWLES of all the published research into television's effects, conducted in the early Areport billed as "the largest fol- 1970's by the Rand Corporation, identi- low-up study ever done on fied 2,300 studies. Apparently the num- aggressive behavior" was re- ber has doubled since then; another leased recently, to be greeted bibliography published in 1981 and con- cordially by scholars and indifferently centrating on research done during the by television professionals. Both groups 70's lists 2,500 titles. could have predicted the findings in ad- As the amount of television research vance. The research team, headed by expands, however, the proportions of Professor Leonard Eron of the University studies with negative, neutral, and pos- of Illinois at Chicago Circle, had studied itive findings remains about the same. hundreds of children when they were 8 A rough index of these proportions comes years old in 1960, and then studied the from a review published in Public Opin- same people again when they reached ion Quarterly which summarizes just the age 30. No surprises: the higher the vio- violence studies. Over 75% of these stud- lence level of the television programs ies supposedly found that viewing tele- the child had watched, the more likely vision mayhem led to subsequent he was to be violent and criminal later aggression; 20% of the studies came to in life. no definite conclusion; only 4% discov- Two colleagues at the university where ered media violence to have a positive I teach, knowing of my uncommon stance effect and reduce viewer hostility. There on these matters, independently sent me is near -consensus in the academic com- clippings about this study through the munity about the harmful influence of interoffice mail. They wanted to make television. sure I took note of the latest indictment My thesis is that this body of re- of the medium. search-extensive, avid, and seemingly The Eron study gets stacked on an decisive about the effects of watching enormous pile of television research re- television-is one of the grandest tra- ports with condemnatory findings. A vesties in the uneven history of social second pile of studies with no statistical science. In my judgment this literature conclusions one way or the other about is consigned to oblivion. To understand television is much, much smaller, while this position regarding television re- the pile of studies with proof that search, it is helpful to look at another the medium has positive effects is so false science-the science of craniol- tiny as to hardly exist. Taken together, ogy, which flourished in the 19th cen- the three piles comprise one of the larger tury. This analogy is distant enough in literatures in the behavioral sciences. time that we may be able to look at it

61 more or less objectively, and use it to patchwork of fudging and finagling in shed light on present circumstances. Both the clear interest of controlling a priori craniology and television research are convictions. Yet-and this is the most ostensibly impartial, yet both are open intriguing aspect of the case-I could to charges of pre -determined findings. find no evidence of conscious fraud ..." Sexual differences were the subject of another scrupulous craniologist, Paul Craniology is not to be confused with Broca (1824-1880), a French professor of its contemporary, phrenology. clinical surgery and founder of the An- Phrenology occurred when someone in thropological Society of Paris. Broca, a flowing robes pressed fingers on your stellar scientist, felt that brain weight skull, felt around the bone, and then on rather than cranial size was a more tell- the basis of your bumps and hollows, ing measure, especially for the brains declaimed vaguely on your personality. he himself had carefully removed and Craniology was different. As the disci- weighed in the Parisian hospitals where pline of accurately calibrating skull sizes he conducted autopsies. He calculated or brain weights, craniology was thor- an average weight of 1,325 grams for 292 oughly scientific in its pretensions. Skulls males, and the lesser average of 1,144 from different groups would be exam- grams for 140 females. The 181 gram dif- ined, and their average sizes would be ference, he felt, confirmed the inferiority ranked, in the interest of establishing a of women. ladder of mental superiority and inferi- As well as recording brain weights, ority. The craniologists were so sure of Broca also set down height and age for their work, and so meticulous as scien- his cadavers. With this information Ste- tists, that many preserved their raw data. phen Jay Gould was able to carry out a Over a hundred years later, their cal- reappraisal. Brain weight is known to culations can be refigured. increase with height, and Broca's males An early leading craniologist was averaged six inches taller than the fe- Philadelphia surgeon and scientist males. Professor Gould statistically dis- Samuel George Morton (1799-1851). Hav- counted for height in his recalculations. ing amassed a collection of skulls rep- Brain weight decreases with age, and resenting several races, he set out to Broca's female subjects had outlasted the measure their volumes. His first method males by years. Taking these two factors was to pour in mustard seed, but the into account, Gould found that the real seed proved compressible enough to give difference was not 181 grams but 113. inconsistent readings, so he switched to Gould went on to speculate about ad- lead shot. One by one, he calculated and ditional dampening factors, ones for recorded the size of his skulls. Then he which he had no data, in his book The made appropriate numerical adjust- Mismeasure of Man. Cause of death, for ments and figured the means. Whites, instance: a degenerative disease will he said, had the largest cranial cavities, sharply reduce brain weight. Since Bro- Indians were next, and blacks were on ca's females were markedly older, they the bottom. had probably died less traumatically and Recently Harvard University scientist had smaller brains as a result. "Thus, Stephen Jay Gould has tried to replicate the corrected 113 gram difference is surely Morton's analysis. He did not have Mor- too large; the true figure is probably ton's original skulls, but he did have closer to zero and may as well favor Morton's recorded measurements. Re- women as men," says Gould. "In short, working this data, Gould was surprised Broca's data do not permit any confident to find that there was no significant dif- claim that men have bigger brains than ference in skull sizes between the races. women." Gould reports, "In short, and to put it Craniologists like Samuel George bluntly, Morton's summaries are a Morton and Paul Broca were two highly

62 accomplished scientists who saluted ob- the students see how well-meaning so- jectivity no less resolutely than modern cial scientists could innocently structure day researchers. To all appearances they a study to come out "right." In one or and other craniologists were out to get several of its aspects, my bogus study the facts and nothing more. Yet some- resembled almost all of the early work how, ingenuously, their conclusions done by television researchers. perfectly matched their preconceptions. They asserted that white males had larger brains than females, Indians, and 1. Do a laboratory study instead of a blacks, when this is demonstrably not field study, I would instruct the class. the case. Craniologists now lay exposed Going out into the field, and collecting to us in part because values have shifted data from people's normal social con- over a century, and the cultural rankings texts and normal viewing situations, can which they accepted as self-evident we produce some unexpected and un- no longer do. At our remove, we can see wanted results. UCLA psychology pro- what craniologists were really doing: fessor Seymour Feshbach, for example, under the guise of conducting science, did a field study (reported in his book they were simply elaborating the biases Television and Aggression) which dem- of their day. onstrated that viewing violent shows re- Television researchers can be as ten- duced the hostility of teen-age boys. You dentious as craniologists were. Just as wouldn't want to risk getting such find- craniologists started out in the sure ings. Do a study in a laboratory setting knowledge that some groups were in- instead. This will make your subjects herently inferior, so television research- uncomfortable about their viewing, and ers begin with an underlying belief that more likely to take subtle clues from you the programming is somehow reprehen- about the "correct" responses. sible. Just as craniologists managed to prove that other cultures were beneath their own, so television researchers 2. Use subjects who have no psycho- manage to prove that broadcast popular logical need for violent fantasy. This is culture is contemptable if not danger- the key to indicting television action/ad- ous. venture shows. Subjects who are a little To the best of my knowledge, televi- hostile when exposed to a violent show sion researchers are not frauds, any more will use the fantasy content to discharge than craniologists were. But the majority aggressive feelings, and in post-tests will of behavioral scientists studying tele- reveal a drop in hostility levels, accord- vision are the captive of the prestige sys- ing to an early study by Seymour tem in place, as their 19th century Feshbach. But the same study also predecessors were. Both groups of sci- disclosed that subjects with low levels entists have in effect generated support of harbored aggression at the outset for the status quo. "Appeals to reason," were stirred up by the filmed violence. shrewdly observes Professor Gould, So try to get people who are calm and "have been used throughout history to collected for your experiment, as opposed enshrine existing hierarchies as proper to people who are in the fraught state and inevitable." of mind that viewers often are when they turn to rip-'em'up programs or football games. These cooler subjects are Facetiously I used to teach my stu- bound to test higher on aggression dents how to construct a piece of re- after seeing your violent stimulus. The search that would be totally above board best trick here is to use a lot of females yet have the guranteed result of "prov- in your subject population. Females are ing" that television violence causes real socialized away from the use of violent world hostility. My intention was to let entertainment; what makes them anxious

63 and snappish will often relax males. The major finding of the longitudinal study makes intuitive sense: "For males, it appears that those subjects who were seen as more aggressive at age 8 rated 3. As a stimulus, use violent content themselves as more aggressive at age which looks more like reality footage than 30, were rated by their wives as more fantasy footage. Shots of actual battle- aggressive, had more convictions by the field firefights will get almost anyone Criminal Justice System, committed more apprehensive and riled up. On the other serious crimes, and had more moving hand, violence perceived as non -threat- traffic violations, and more convictions ening fantasy will tend to have the op- for driving while intoxicated," Dr. Eron posite effect. So pick footage as gruesome reported at the 1983 annual meeting of and realistic as possible. James Bond the American Psychological Associa- won't suit your purposes well. tion. In other words, the aggressive child becomes an aggressive adult. My reservations begin when Eron 4. Make sure your subjects see only vi- delves into the causes of this consistent olent segments of a show, and not the aggression. A high correlation was found dramatic resolution. Don't take any between self -reported frequency of tele- chances that your subjects will experi- vision viewing, especially of violent ence closure and catharsis by seeing the shows, and various measures of ag- end of the program. Apologize for not gressive behavior. On the basis of this having enough time to show the entire correlation Eron is comfortable saying, half-hour or hour program. Show just the "The evidence seems compelling that amount that will stimulate a viewer's excessive violence viewing is a cause of hostile feelings but not allow for their increased aggression." discharge. He may be comfortable asserting this, Do these things, I would tell my stu- but I am not. A correlation does not a dents, and the results will take care of cause make. A much more likely expla- themselves; television will be de- nation, in my view, is that children nounced once again. As a teacher's ploy, growing up in pressured and punitive this four-part injunction served my pur- households will turn to television viol- poses well. But television research has ence for vicarious relief of the retaliative evolved beyond the point where the bulk anger which they cannot discharge di- of the studies are done in the laboratory. rectly at the adults in their lives. Tele- Nowadays it is large field studies which vision fantasy may ease their burdens receive the most attention. Such a study but it cannot remove them; these chil- was the one we began with, done by dren will still be hostile in later life. And Leonard Eron and his associates. in fact Eron's data reveal a correlation There is no questioning the extensive- between a harsh family life and subse- ness of Professor Eron's field study. He quent aggression. studied 875 third graders in 1960, then The data themselves do not compel studied the 427 of them he could find ten Eron to jump to his conclusion about tel- years later. Of the original group 409 were evison viewing and aggression. There tracked down for a third study in 1981. are other interpretations. But this leap Since I am not able to replicate the study he makes by choice. It is a choice dic- (a function not only of the lack of fund- tated, I believe, by preconceived views. ing, but the lack of a time machine- there is no way to get back to 1960), I have no just reason to doubt the data. Other behavioral scientists are giving Professor Eron and his colleagues show up the effort to irrefutably link tele- every sign of being very careful scien- vision violence with real -world viol- tists. ence, and instead are searching for

64 different noxious effects. Chief among viewing and fearfulness were true, then them is Professor George Gerbner, dean shouldn't non -viewers be the least fear- of the Annenberg School of Communi- ful of all? But Hirsch discovered that non - cations at the University of Pennsylva- viewers (whom Gerbner had apparently nia and perhaps the most widely known left out of his presentation) were among television researcher. Annually Dr. the most fearful, paranoid, and suicidal. Gerbner and his collaborators release If the relationship Gerbner asserts be- counts of the violent acts on a represen- tween viewing and fearfulness were true, tative week of prime -time television (la- then extreme viewers (over 8 hours a day) beled "Violence Profiles") as well as should be more fearful than heavy view- reports ("Cultivation Analyses") on the ers (4 to 8). But they aren't; extreme view- relationship between viewing hours and ers are less perturbed than heavy viewers' fearful misperceptions of real- viewers. ity. In short, Hirsch discovered there was The Violence Profiles need not con- no statistical relationship between ex- cern us here, as they are probably ac- tent of viewing time and degree of fear- curate accounts of violent video deeds fulness. Hirsch ended with scholarly as defined by the Annenberg group. The reserve, "We therefore conclude accep- Cultivation Analyses (named for the tance of the cultivation hypothesis as purported ability of television mayhem anything more than an interesting but to "cultivate" feelings of victimization unsupported speculation is premature among viewers) are of greater interest, and unwarranted at this time." Let me since they supposedly offer quantitative venture what Hirsch was reluctant to: no proof of television's effects. doubt unconsciously, Gerbner has ma- In the construction of a Cultivation nipulated his categories so as to mask Analysis, Professor Gerbner correlates contradictory evidence and to substan- respondent's category of viewing time- tiate his own values about television. Light (less than 2 hours per day), Me- Several years have passed since this dium (2 to 4 hours), and Heavy (over 4)- statistical debunking was published, yet with answers to questions designed to Hirsch's reanalysis remains largely ig- reveal the person's degree of fearfulness nored, while Gerbner's reputation soars. and apprehension. Supposedly, heavy Newsweek in 1982 referred to Gerbner as viewers are more likely to find the world "the nation's foremost authority on the a mean place to live; the assumption is social impact of television." Why does one of cause and effect. this situation exist, we have to ask our- The data for a Cultivation Analysis are selves? The reason, I presume, is that not generated by Gerbner himself, but academics and those that listen to ac- for the most part are drawn from the Na- ademics are determined to prove that tional Opinion Research Center's (NORC) television is bad, no matter what, and annual General Social Survey. Admin- Gerbner is their champion. They are the istered to a representative sample of the minions of their prejudices, like cran- American population, the NORC sur- iologists. veys are obtainable by any interested researcher. Because of their availability, Professor Paul M. Hirsch of the Grad- In truth, the largest conceivable ex- uate School of Business at the University periment has already been done of Chicago has been able to reanalyze thirty years of exposure to the medium Gerbner's statistics. by virtually the total American popula- In a two-part article published in the tion. My challenge to my colleagues in journal Communication Research, Hirsch academia is that there exists absolutely disclosed troublesome inconsistancies no evidence of widespread social dam- in Gerbner's Cultivation Analysis. If the age. The two most frequent charges- relationship Gerbner asserts between those of rising crime rates and dropping

65 reading scores-simply do not hold up. been used with pre -video age children Let's look briefly at these two. in 1940. The differences were substan- After a century -long slide, crime rates tial-not only were the 1965 students' in the United States began a dramatic abilities at reading and comprehension rise in the 1960's. Annual homicide rates, much higher than those of 1940, but so which stood at 4.7 per 100,000 in 1960, were skills at conceptualizing, handling rose to 8.3 in 1970. The start of this un- abstract symbols, and reasoning. In In- happy ascent coincides with the near - diana the statewide reading scores for total penetration of television into Amer- sixth- and tenth -grade students in 1976 ican homes. Was the violence -filled pro- were compared to those of 1944; the find- gramming behind the rise in social ings were of unmistakable improvement violence? Many social analysts as- in reading skills for children of the tele- sumed so. vision generation. The real answer to the zooming crime "The nation as a whole is concerned rates turns out to be a deceptively sim- today's children do not read well," re- ple one. Statistically speaking, crime is marked Dr. Roger Farr, who conducted the handiwork of the young. Teenagers the analysis at Indiana University. "Any and males in their twenties get arrested well-done study such as this is evidence at rates five and ten times those for older to the contrary. Children are reading as age brackets. What a demographer well as in 1944-45-actually, reading far would see as the greatest change oc- better." curring in the 60's was the arrival into Scores on national reading tests car- adolescence of an unprecedented hoard ried out during the 1970's also confirm of baby-boom children. The sheer num- the unfaltering reading abilities of bers of this particular group was enough American youngsters. Funded by the to make the general crime rates take off. federal government, National Assess- It is the odd post -World War II demo- ments of Reading were conducted in 1970, graphic profile of the United States that 1975, and 1980. They disclosed that 13 - lies behind the acceleration of crime sta- year olds and 17 -year olds did not slip tistics, and not the arrival of television. at all over the course of the decade, while The resolution of this is easy to predict. in the 9 -year old category, significant As the baby boom cohort ages, and gains were registered. Nine-year olds at passes into its 30's and 40's over the next the end of the decade were reading much few years, the crime rates will subside. better than 9 -year olds at the beginning. This has already begun; reported crime The most -cited evidence in support of dropped 3% in 1982 and 5% in the first the view that reading abilities are on the half of 1983. Assuming practices of crime decline comes from the standardized reporting stay constant, crime rates College Board tests given to college as- promise to decline steeply by the end of pirants. These language scores began the 1980's. Will those who were quick to their long-term drop in 1963. Why is there associate television with rising crime turn a discrepancy between the College Board about and credit it with the decline? Un- results and those of Iowa, Indiana, and likely. the National Assessments of Reading? The problem lies not with the tests themselves; their scores are accurate enough. In a similar way, the issue of reading The difference is mainly accounted for scores cannot be used to support an by the nature of the pools of students anti -television position. Almost every- being examined. The ethnic and in- one assumes that reading abilities are come -level composition of the Iowa and eroding, but the truth appears to be the Indiana schools, as well as the national opposite. In 1965 the state of Iowa ad- school -age population, has remained ministered to all elementary school chil- relatively stable over time, permitting dren the same diagnostic test that had valid comparisons. But from the early

66 60's on, the College Boards were in- nipulations of data, spurious deductions creasingly taken by kinds of students who from correlations, improper inferences, previously did not finish high school, a misappropriation of social statistics- much less aspire to university educa- it is an unholy record. In service to pre- tion. conceived ideas, scientific minds have In 1975 the College Entrance Exami- been misguided if not corrupted. nation Board itself convened a special The truth of the matter is that the dis- advisory group of 23 experts to discover cernible effects of television are minor why the scores had been dropping. Their and innocuous. What the medium does report, made public in 1977, cited the is nothing more or less than relax view- "notable extension and expansion of ed- ers. Survey after survey has discovered ucational opportunity in the United that when Americans are asked with an States." The dropping College Board open-ended question why they watch scores told not of a dip in reading abil- television, the most frequent response is ities, but of the recent opening of higher to rest and relax. education to groups previously discour- One of the few innovative and infor- aged. It is ironic, but the flagging scores mative studies in the literature on tele- reveal social progress, and not the revision was published recently by a verse. University of Chicago social scientist. He Again, it is easy to forecast the out- outfitted 104 adults with beepers, and come. Once the composition of the col- had them paged at random times during lege -bound population becomes stable, the course of a week, to find out what the scores will level off. Apparently this they were doing and what their mood process has begun, starting in 1981. In was. "Most notable among the findings time a modest rise is predictable. is that TV watching is experienced as So neither crime rates nor reading the most relaxing of all activities," he scores can be used to condemn televi- reports. Television -viewing, the most sion. The remarkable thing about the freely chosen and most desired of his medium is not that it has so much neg- respondents' activities, was linked by ative influence, but that it has so little. most of them to feelings of drowsiness. Given the vastness of the audience and I wish I could forecast that the anti - the enormity of the programming (some- television crusade of academic re- thing over 5 million hours of broadcast- searchers is going to end because their ing annually), it is interesting that there faulty premises have been exposed (as is so little traceable impact upon the I have been trying to do here). The cru- nation. Even the number of reported sade will end, but unfortunately not for untoward incidences-when an impres- this reason. Truth counts only slightly sionable viewer imitates something seen more in the conduct of social science than on a show with damaging results-can- in the conduct of our daily lives. not be more than a few dozen a year. How and why will television get off The trade-off for our highway system is the hook? Again, history provides in- about 40,000 lives yearly, but television sights. In his Theories of Mass Commu- comes virtually without adverse costs. nication, Melvin DeFleur notes something in passing that is pertinent here: "His- tory reveals that public outcries against Just as 19th century craniologists at- the harmful effects attributed to violent tempted to confirm the social preju- media content tend to focus on the new- dices of their day, so 20th century est mass medium." television researchers attempt to con- It is the newest mass medium which firm the cultural prejudices of our times. serves as a whipping boy; perhaps this Adopting a patrician posture, they con- is something like a rite of passage, by jure evidence to deride plebian culture. which the medium wins acceptance into Dubious experiments, questionable ma- its social context. Penny newspapers,

67 dime novels, movies, and radio have QUOTE .. . each in turn been subjected to the sort of chastisement which in television's case UNQUOTE has come in the form of social science. As time marches on, however, attention will shift to newer media-video games, videocassettes, and certain cable chan- iSports are only one of the voltaic nels. piles that generate teletrivia. When this happens, academics will Others, just as tireless, are the non -ath- begin to treat television much more letic games-tune-guessing, price - kindly, in the way they now embrace old matching, blind -dating and all the rest. movies and 30's radio serials. Television Innocent enough fun, and enjoyed by research will be stripped of its moral tone enough people to warrant their exis- and condescension. And the literature tence-but so many games? .. . on television's effects which was pro- Giveaway programs in general are like duced from the 50's to the 80's will look sweet -flavored gelatinous cultures on as foolish and dated as craniology does which greed and hysteria colonize like now. "How," we will wonder to our- bacteria. The hysteria is visible to the selves, "could such good scientists have viewer, but the greed is not so obvious. been so misled?" Not lightly to be forgotten ,are the quiz scandals of the late 50's, which ended in grand jury indictments. There have been no frauds since then (at least none has been disclosed) but big money, princely prizes, paroxysms of delight at winning, childlike dismay at guessing wrong answers to fribbling questions, tears, shrieks, kisses, ringing bells, rasping buzzers, hours of production and transmission, all come together to fill the public's time with pablum. -Norman Corwin, Trivializing America.

Jib Fowles is professor of Human Sciences at the University of Houston-Clear Lake, Texas. He is the author of Television Viewers vs. Media Snobs: What TV does for people.

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musical director I know and he does al- KIRK BROWNING most no musical shows. But there's mu- INTERVIEWED BY sic in everything he touches. And I'm fortunate to have been born very musi- JACK KUNEY cal. I have a response to music, I understand music, I feel music, I feel The Metropolitan Opera is now cel- textures and rhythms and dynamics- ebrating its one hundredth anniver- whatever strengths I have as a director sary, so this seems an appropriate time come out of those-out of that sense of to spotlight the life and works of the orchestration. I did write music at one television director who has made the time, music with Pat Tanner, who wrote Metropolitan Opera broadcasts an event Auntie Mame. He was my lyric writer. in millions of homes across the nation- Pat Dennis, he called himself then, but Kirk Browning. Although to many he is it was Pat Tanner. And Pat and I wrote best known for programs like Great some songs for the Blue Angel right after Performances, Live From Lincoln Cen- the war, and then I got married, and went ter, and the Met, Browning is one of the out to the country to become a farmer. great all-around directors, and has also I had an egg route and I sold eggs to been responsible for many outstanding the music director for NBC, Samuel dramatic programs, variety shows, and Chotzinoff. He and I became great specials. friends. He was interested that I had Here he discusses his ideas and his opted for egg farming, because he rather career with a fellow director, Jack liked the music I wrote and he tried to Kuney, in this exclusive interview for promote it. Television Quarterly. Did you play the piano? BROWNING: I had studied the piano KUNEY: I've heard you described as one when I was a kid and I had an extraor- of the few members of the DGA who is dinarily good musical memory. I could not tone deaf. Is that true? I mean, just go to a movie of the thirties and forties, how musical are you? Do you play an and come home and play the whole score. instrument, do you read a score? But I never learned to read music be- BROWNING: Well, I'm not a musician, cause I was so good at picking up ev- but I am musical. And I attribute about erything by ear. As a matter of fact, I 80 percent of whatever I've been able to once had a job playing pop music at the achieve, not only in the musical line, but cocktail lounge in the Savoy Plaza. in everything I direct, to that musicality. I think any director, basically, has to be So how did you get into television? musical. George Roy Hill is the most BROWNING: It was Chotzinoff-after a

75 while he said, "Kirk, how long are you Anything you can tell us about those gonna stay out here in the country?" And early years? Was it easy? Did you catch my wife, dear Barbara, she was dying on quick? to get back to the city. Anyway, Chotzy BROWNING: Well, I had the advantage said, "Why don't you come into televi- of being assigned to shows that were sion?" He brought me into the NBC music down my alley. Bell Telephone Hour, library, and I was there for maybe a Toscanini Symphony broadcasts, month or two sort of biding by time. That Hurok's Producer's Showcase, and the was 1948, and I broke into TV in '49 as a NBC Opera. In those days, it was mostly stage manager, and I did a number of a question of learning the craft, of ma- shows, and one of the principal shows nipulating and managing all that live that I stage-managed was the first NBC television meant. The logistics of how to Opera, which had started around then. work cameras, booms and pictures all at once in any kind of consecutive, sen- Just what was that first opera? sible order. Now that's something any bright person can learn; it's BROWNING: Minotti's Amelia Goes to the reasonably of there's Ball, commissioned as a radio opera in not a question art. Obviously, some degree of selection, and I had the the late 30's by NBC. It had its first tele- to put those things together vision production in '49, and then we did basic talent off the air. Down in the Valley, by Kurt Weill. And and get us on and Fortunately, I knew how to handle the the first opera that I directed was Mon- sieur Chou fleury, a one -act Offenbach musical part of it. The moment I heard those pieces of music, I instinctively knew opera in 1950. what to do. I had a little show called Recital Hall, which was nothing more It all sounds so easy. than a single artist coming out in the BROWNING: Well, it was. It was ex- studio and playing for half an hour. Well, traordinary in those days how cavalier I could listen to what they were playing people were about television. Now, it was or singing just once, and know basically just as true at CBS, but CBS had much how to make pictures out of what I was more respect for TV. NBC was still largely hearing. Some people haven't the re- radio oriented. The day I started there, motest idea how to make pictures out of they also hired an elevator operator and music. a member of the page staff. A page, an Did I ever tell you how I got to be the elevator operator, an egg farmer, all director of the NBC Symphony concerts eventually became television directors! with Toscanini? They had a sports director doing them because it was a re- You were a nephew of one of the great mote, out of the studio, in Carnegie Hall. television pioneers, Worthington Miner, He'd read on the program that one of the producer of Studio One. Did he guide selections was going to be "The Girl With you or help you? the Flaxen Hair," by Debussy. At the time BROWNING: Somewhere along the line I was working with Chotzinoff. I don't I went to talk to Tony and he discour- think I was any more than an A.D. at the aged me. He thought that I didn't have time, but anyhow, I was watching the the credentials to work in television. He program on a monitor at Carnegie Hall said, "You just can't. This wanting to get with Chotzy as it was going on live-I'm into TV isn't enough. You've got to know looking at this picture of the maestro, something, you've got to have some- Toscanini, conducting, and all of a sud- thing to give, something to say, and then den, supered over the maestro's face, is you can use television to say it. But at this picture of a girl, sitting in front of a the moment, you have no reason to be mirrored lily pond combing her hair with there, other than the fact that you just a brush! want to do it." Chotzy turned to me and he said, "Kirk,

76 from here on, you're directing the Tos- and a 135 mm. I used the 50 quite a lot, canini shows. I don't care what you do because you could move very easily with with the picture-just never be on any- a 50. From 75 on up, it was difficult to thing but Toscanini." make moves because it was hard to So that's how I started doing the NBC maintain focus. Then, to get close-ups, Symphony! I would skip the 90 and I'd go to a 135. The 35 was your picture shot, and showed Didn't you ever shoot the orchestra? you everything, and your 50 was for get- BROWNING: Not without Toscanini in the ting a little tighter. But the cameras picture. There was never a single shot worked right up against the people, be- that didn't include Toscanini in it. cause those early cameras were gigan- The first thing I did was to move all tic. my cameras behind the orchestra. In those days, you didn't have zoom lenses, How big were they? so the only way I could get various pic- BROWNING: About six feet from the tip tures of the maestro, without his back, of the lens to the eyepiece of the cam- was to move everything around. That eraman. really started the whole technique of shooting the reverse angle. In Europe, Could the cameraman move it by him- they're still shooting TV concerts the way self? an audience sees them-sections of the BROWNING: Well, some cameramen orchestra, and the conductor from the side were wonderful at moving those huge or the back. But the whole idea of shoot- monsters. It wasn't a question of moving ing over instruments into the conductor, the camera, because they were counter- was something unique. balanced, and the floors were wonder- I recently saw the first show I ever did ful, and all the gears worked. But the with Toscanini-it's at the Museum of cables were maybe an inch and a half Broadcasting. I wouldn't change it to- in diameter-well, you can imagine three day. The miracle of the whole thing is of them bound together. Every three feet that the constraints of the medium of that of cable, you had to have a man pulling time were just right for Toscanini. You them. It became an enormously compli- couldn't move the camera, and you had cated thing to move cameras, because to have enormously long takes. Today I you couldn't cross cables. just cut and move. I never stand still. And then your booms had to be in be- But the maestro was one of those ex- tween your cameras, so they couldn't traordinary people. The more you stayed cross. Finally, you had those monstrous on him, the better the picture. cranes that would give your movement, but to try to relate them to all the other 1 always tell my students that. Don't equipment, it was-well, challenging, cut unless you have a reason to cut. to say the least. BROWNING: The main reason in those days was the size of the cameras, the You were talking the other day about size of the equipment. picture sequences, about building picture sequences. How far ahead do you Describe one of those cameras for us. plan your shooting? Not only in your BROWNING: The pedestal of the camera blocking, but the way you envision weighed, I don't know, five, six hundred something. pounds, and the camera itself weighed BROWNING: It depends on the degree of two or three hundred pounds. Eight or control I have. If I cover an opera at the nine hundred pounds total weight. The Met, most of it has already been done. camera had a turret with four lenses. All I have to do is to photograph it. Now, You usually had a 35 mm which was your obviously, I'm trying to do several things wide-angle lens, then a 50 mm, a 75 mm, in reporting this whole business with my

77 cameras, I'm trying to keep the audience Well, let's say the Met plans four op- oriented to what's happening. eras a year as potential television productions ... Do you then have the When you talk about audience, I as- opportunity to sit down with the stage sume you're talking about the television designer and make changes for televi- audience. sion? BROWNING: Yes, I'm trying to let the TV BROWNING: In theory, that could hap- audience see what the house audience pen. In practice, up to now, it hasn't. For is seeing, so that they have some feeling TV, usually they schedule an opera which of sharing something-a common lan- has already been in the repertory that is guage. either being brought back, or revised. My main interest is people. I think one Now, for example, we're doing the Verdi of the strengths of working out of some Ernani for next year. They've asked me place like the Metropolitan Opera House to go up and look at the plans and see is that you are able to exhibit-put right what problems they present. I suppose up front-Pavarotti and Domingo, and if I saw a problem that would make it Sutherland. There may be five ... ten difficult from a television standpoint, and ... twenty other people doing some- I came up with some sort of suggestion thing interesting on the stage, but if that was reasonable, I could influence there's a Pavarotti or a Sutherland or a the production a little-that is, if it didn't Domingo, I'll find some way of keeping make any difference to the designer. the reference on them almost the entire time. Simply because that's what the au- Well, I would assume then, it's a very dience is interested in. rare stage director at the Met who is con- When I used to work with Beverly Sills, versant with the workings of television. if Beverly came out on stage, I didn't care He's there dealing with his audience. what anybody else was doing, I was on BROWNING: That's right. Beverly. Because that's what everyone tuned in to look at. So then how do you transfer what has been staged for an opera performance to When the Met calls and says they want television? you to do this or that performance, are BROWNING: There are two things that I you ever brought in early enough to in- try to do. One is, obviously, when they're fluence that performance, or the way the doing a production featuring some su- singers perform? perstar, like Pavarotti, I will anchor-in BROWNING: No. terms of emphasis and picture, and what's happening-on that star. It is always a matter of reproducing someone else's work? Well, that loses one camera for you. BROWNING: I have been asked to look BROWNING: I don't really mean it in that at something and comment-do you think sense, but I will design my shoot so that this will work on television? But once the that person is related to almost every- Met makes the decision to produce an thing that's happening. In other words, opera, it's done without regard for the that's my intent. Now it isn't always pos- cameras. Now, I'm not saying that ad- sible, because the person there with his justments aren't made, but they're not back turned or facing the wall, or stand- made for me. They're just made because ing there not doing anything, and then they make sense. Obviously, you don't you just forget it, and get on with the put in five scrims into a show that you rest of the production. want to televise. Or if you do have a scrim, you find out if there's a way that How many cameras do you normally you can get rid of it for television and use to cover an opera? And where do you not ruin it for the opera house. place them?

78 BROWNING: At the Met, I ordinarily use but if I'm going to err on any side, I'm six cameras. I use four cameras from going to err on the side of what I would basically low positions, either eyeline or call an active camera. In a way, you see, under eyeline along the front of the house. it's as though the camera were a committed member of the audience. It gives When you say eyeline, do you mean you a point of view about what's going the singer's eyeline? on. If you sit too long on a frozen shot, BROWNING: The singer's eyeline, yes. with the camera totally passive, what Two cameras are at the extreme ends of you're doing stops being subjective. I'm the orchestra pit, left and right house. trying to use a subjective camera in the And two are either side of the conductor, sense that the camera is one person ex- almost lower than the stage level, not to ploring everything. And when you ex- impinge on sightlines from the audi- plore, you are active, you don't just sit ence, because we can't clear the audi- there. ence out. But they're very low angle, as The thing about television is, if you low as I can get them and still see the think of it as a set of eyes looking at a stage. That gives me four cameras across piece of material, and somehow trans- the front, and I have two more cameras mitted to an audience, the director's rather far back and a bit higher up on psyche is such that he can see a wide the side boxes. I don't use the center box shot or a closeup, a medium shot, or he ordinarily, unless I'm working with can pan. He can do all these things, in- Franco Zeffirelli. When I did La Boheme dividually, yet there's a continual psychic for Zeffirelli, he said, "Kirk, you can do activity. You know, your involvement in anything you want, but please give me what is going on ahead of you. What you a center shot of the set-it's the one thing do is always in the context of an overall I want." framework so that you don't really think So I gave it to him, I just put a camera of each shot as being an interrupted se- in the center box, simply to show him ries of impressions. each of the sets head on. But ordinarily I don't bother to do that. It's not one of One thing that occurred to me as you the main priorities, to show the set head were saying this is that people don't on. That's not what the audience is really watch television to watch cameras at going to remember. work. BROWNING: That's right. 1 assume that most of what you do then is cross -shooting? They want to get involved in the show. BROWNING: Yes. I know it must sound They want to participate in whatever heretical, but I found that the most in- they're viewing. teresting and theatrical way to shoot BROWNING: You're absolutely right. grand opera singers is off the full face, That's the paradox of our business. It from the side and rather low. They seem would appear as though it's simply self- to retain their kind of larger -than -life aggrandisement on the director's part to persona that way. I don't go for the high assume all those judgments about when shot that a lot of the European opera you should be close and when you should houses use, the box shots that show a be far. Well, the point is, that if you're lot of floor, and the singers, you know, clever enough about it, it should look from overhead.... I've always thought like the judgment of the home viewer. It it was demeaning to the performer. It should look as though it's what the home just makes him look unimportant, un- viewer needs to see, and it's not the di- interesting. rector being gratuitous. You can't possibly please every viewer, You're always zooming in? because they each come with different BROWNING: I think I do a little too much, perceptions. If I were doing an orchestra

79 show for a convention of timpani play- in brocade and there's an enormous ers, obviously they want to see what the amount of fanfare, and people coming timpani's doing. So, if I know that, I'd in and servants running around, and then probably structure the show so that I'm you have Sophie about to accept the rose, 80 percent of the time on the timpani. and you have Octavian coming in with There's no easy answer to how you treat the rose, and the doors are thrown open. these things. I'm basically trying to ap- Musically, it works up to the biggest cli- peal to a lay audience who has no par- max in the entire opera. You have about ticular predisposition for any one aspect five chords ... Da da da da da... and of this. They simply want an experience on those five chords, which is where ev- which is not going to bore them, and so erything is happening on stage, I cut to I work very much for a general audience. a closeup of Octavian's hand holding the I do what I think the general audience rose. Now, obviously, that is a liberty will respond to. that I'm taking because I must weigh, in all honesty, that for someone sitting in Do you think that imposing television the house, you are not going to really limitations on a staged performance hurts single out the hand with the rose at that or helps the performance, and the per- moment. I mean, it is obviously stretch- formers? ing a point, but somehow you have BROWNING: In opera I think it helps. something called Rosenkavalier and you've been singing about this damn rose But I don't think the theater has been for two acts, and suddenly, the guy comes equally successful. More often than not, in a presents it. I just thought, well, this shooting a play off the stage is disaster is what the opera's all about. This is the time. key moment, so it ought to be on the BROWNING: I totally agree with you. I'm rose. Nobody complained, but I think presently working on Alice in Wonder- people were aware of the fact of what I land and I'm taking it out of the theater was doing. You know, the director is im- milieu, and putting it into a studio. I'm posing his judgment on all this. doing a whole new version of it. In the process of shooting opera, you Do you try and make pretty pictures? have operas with different styles and dif- In other words, are there any aesthetic ferent intensities: Strauss, Mozart, we principles that you apply? Or is it just a have Verdi, we have the Wagner. In other question of eyeballing something and words, a wide selection. Is TV coverage saying that this or that looks good, or different for each? Are you shooting dif- looks bad, and should be rejected. ferently for Mozart than you would for BROWNING: I don't discredit the me- Verdi? dium in terms of its ability to be picto- BROWNING: Yes, I think the music does rially interesting and attractive and impose a different way of shooting on appealing, but I think it's a very low dy- each opera. A Mozart quintet, where we namic in the spectrum of television's have five people singing is quite dif fer- qualities. I think the focus of the picture ent from the Verdi. There's a totally dif- is always what people are interested in, ferent rhythm, and as a result, there's a and pretty pictures, if that's what you're different way of telling the story. I mean, talking about, mean very little in terms it's really built into the piece. So I imag- of television's environment. ine I would do it differently. I don't know I may be wrong, you know. For ex- to what degree, but some degree. ample, I did Rosenkavalier. The biggest single moment in Rosenkavalier is the presentation of the rose. You have this What happens when you start an op- enormous silver -white mylar set, with era from scratch? Like in the old NBC about 500 people on stage, all dressed Opera days, for example. How much do

80 you participate in the pre -production vironment, that seems so silly for people planning? when they're singing opera. But Ponelle BROWNING: At that time, that was en- and Zeffirelli are great enough artists so tirely up to me. For good or worse, it that they take realism, and then they really started with the director. God, I make it theatrical; they make it a met- even used to do all the sets. aphor for something. They are such extraordinary directors, Did you start with the score as a play their eye is so right, they know how to script? make a meadowland look like some- BROWNING: When I started to do an op- thing besides a meadowland, when era, I really knew very little about opera, someone has to come out and sing in it. so I really started with it as I would with But if you're not careful, you can get into a play. the terrible trap of style... . So, yes, in design, the director has more With the libretto? to say than the designer on television. BROWNING: That's right. I started with It's a thankless job for the designer, be- the libretto. And since I hadn't been pre- cause you end up, unfortunately, not conditioned too much to a lot of stage seeing too much of what he does any- performances that I'd seen, I built from way. It all becomes background. there. Fortunately, I had material that I was basically in tune with. I didn't try Lighting... . impossible operas. I had things like Boh- BROWNING: I'm not terribly sensitive to eme. You know, Puccini is especially lighting nuance. I don't think in terms of gratifying for a director who's starting exact lighting tone or lighting texture. out because he is so theatrical. He leads That's one of my weaknesses, that I don't you so comfortably into what's right. If pay enough attention to lighting. I think I had started with Parsifal, I wouldn't a director should. have know what in the world to do with it, or this Ring that I just saw that Cher - Rehearsing the music, the orchestra, eau did on PBS. I think he's a genius, the singers? .. . but I wouldn't have had any idea what BROWNING: When it touches perfor- to have done-if I'd been given Wagner mance, yes. Obviously a conductor works in the beginning of my directing career. within a certain framework that he controls. But when it comes to certain move- Let's explore the manner and the de- ments, particularly in recitative, where gree of your participation as the opera there's some flexibility in the musical is being readied for the opera house. De- line, where you can have long firmatas. sign. To what degree do you get involved How long should the firmata be? What with design? do you want to do? Do you want five BROWNING: Quite a bit. I try to get the closeups before the next thing happens? overall shape of the piece, where people On the stage you've got to keep it going, are, what they have to do, the area in because very often there's nowhere else which they have to function. You have to go, but on camera, you have the pos- so many opportunities in television that sibility for some detail which will take you don't have on the proscenium stage; some extra time. Now, basically, the a director's just missing the boat if he conductor controls it, but the stage di- thinks literally in stage terms. Of course rector should have some input. a lot depends on the amount of money you've been given. But I don't think op- And the conductor? Is there any con- era, unless you're a great, great artist flict between you and the conductor? like Zeffirelli or Ponelle, should try to go BROWNING: Some, but he starts right out and shoot on location, because there's from scratch like I do, and it's usually something about a totally realistic en- resolved.

81 He rehearses the singers, but you do How much preparatory work do you do the blocking and staging? on a show? How much homework? BROWNING: Yes. The translation is BROWNING: Well, I have to be very well something that both the conductor and prepared. There are some directors that the director should be involved in. If you can come in and try to build as they're translate. going along. I just am not secure, unless I'm totally prepared. But I hope I've learned over the years to be very open Now, you've participated all the way to change. In other words, you come to down the line with this. Does your vision the studio with an idea of what you want come through on the screen? to do every single moment of the time, BROWNING: I don't think my vision ever but then you should be ready to throw it comes through. When you're doing it, you out if you don't like it and change. But I think it does, but when you look back on would be terrified if I didn't know in ad- it, it's always less than you think it should vance what I wanted to do at a certain have been. moment. I can't do that. I have to have a plan.

Do you ever do any picture research? What is the nature of that preparation? I've seen some directors who go to the BROWNING: I have to have a scenario, library when they're about to start a pro- which, in my mind, is a finished show, duction, and they'll get period pictures when I go into the studio. out of the library, and start to get some notions of what something should look A marked script? like. BROWNING: A marked script! BROWNING: Obviously if I'm doing Boris I've got to know a little bit about Gudonov camera? Every shot? what the Kremlin looked like, you know. Every BROWNING: Every camera. Every shot. When we did "Boris" we did a hell of a Every single one. Now, obviously, there lot of research on the architecture and are things that you have to see before the design of that period, because even can know what you're going to do. though you don't see a lot on the screen, you You know, there may be a certain se- you've got to get the characters with some trick that you have to work around them, and it better be quence, something in and fiddle around something that represents the truth. But with-so you go with it, and imagine how you're going on the other hand, I must say I think it's to do it-piece it together. But basically, a terrible waste of money to try to be my overall plan is to have something super realistic on television. there, when I first start rehearsal. I won't I know there are some productions like but I will Brideshead Revisited that have been say I have every camera shot, have every scene in mind, so that I know enormous triumphs because of their pro- it be shot. duction values, and I'm not saying that how can television shouldn't do it occasionally, during rehears- but if you have a limited budget, it's mis- Do you mark any shots spent if you spend a lot of money on pro- als? During the day I usually duction detail, and scenic detail. I come BROWNING: I home that from the old school that thinks you should just rehearse, and then go get your money's worth. I'd rather work night, and on the strength of what I've the ac- in limbo with a couple of good hand seen, in rehearsal, knowing what props, and get good performances, and tors are doing, I finish marking my script. that's what the audience sees and ap- preciates. All the other stuff is just back- I seem to discern a new wave in TV ground. direction, influenced, initially, I believe

82 by the look of rock concerts, now some- got to ... look now, we've installed a what more by the success of MTV ... it D3-35 in here, and you have 547's over seems to feed off light flares and star here, and I haven't the remotest idea what filters, oddball shooting, distortion. Do they're talking about. I say, well, you you think this kind of thing will influ- know, as long as I can do my show, and ence your work in any way? I can get pictures, I'm happy. But I don't BROWNING: No. I don't quibble with the know what the hell they're talking about content, but the rest is all packaging. It's most of the time. They say, what kind of not content. I don't demean it, but I do camera-you want a TK -76 or a TK -83? think, considering that the material it- And I say, look, I want a camera that's self doesn't have that much substance, about this big, that looks like this, and you might as well go for lots of flash. I it sends out pictures. I don't give a damn think I'd be lost in that area. Some of it's what the number of the camera is. very inventive, but ultimately, when you tell an audience all things are possible, Really are there any changes in di- and they realize that all things are pos- recting techniques that you are aware sible in terms of style, it's very hard to of, and that might be influencing your keep any interest going. You've opened work? up such an enormous thing, there's no BROWNING: I haven't seen them yet. I'm discipline. really terribly grounded in the old val- You can do anything, you know, just ues of the closeup, the face, the feeling. to be kooky. Turn pictures upside down, I know I'm probably missing the boat in you can rotate them ... you can color some of these areas, but I just don't see faces purple. After you do that for 30 sec- any of these advances doing more than onds, unless you're a great artist, unless superficially glossing up the material. you impose some discipline its' going to be just another visual gimmick. Where do you think W, as you have known it, is going? I mean, what's in the I would assume then that you would future for us, not only in the coverage of feel the same way about digital effects? opera and music, but in television as a BROWNING: I'm bored to death by them. whole? I think they're fascinating to look at and BROWNING: I think where it's going de- I mean, I look at these commercials where pends on what happens in the technol- a flat plane becomes a three-dimen- ogy. I really don't care where it's going, sional car, and then it turns into a re- if it simply stays as a little kind of ap- frigerator, and I absolutely don't know pliance in the living room, where it has how they do it. But I don't know that the no authority, where the audience has all audience really cares after a while be- the authority. Where you come in, slip cause they know, well, it's possible. But it on, turn it off, and even walk by it, if you know, and I know that machines can you choose. But I'm afraid the technol- do anything, so what's so great? What ogy will get to the point where you're are you supposed to feel about it? It going to have wall -sized screens and it's doesn't have any emotional or thought going to have its own strength, bigger quality, which is where the strength of than we are. the medium lies. Two thousand line picture definition? Do you stay aware of the new tech- BROWNING: Let's hope it will be some- nology? thing that will make you appreciate BROWNING: Oh, I see it, but I don't care what's inside that screen. Right now, I about it. If they talk about it, I don't know don't have any great hope that peoples' what they're talking about most of the perception will grow with the medium. time. I mean, I went up to the survey for I think you can do good programs and Alice in Wonderland, and they say, we you can do bad programs, but I don't

83 think you're going to make a great dent on the great public perception of television, until television gives them some- REPLAY thing brand new in the way of how the picture is received in the home.

You're kind of in conflict with yourself then. You say you don't want to know about the new technology, yet in a sense Convention Coverage you're preaching for the acceptance of some new technology. The voracious demands of television must not be allowed to reach the fun- BROWNING: I am preaching in terms of damental institutions of our politics. I audience. I don't care what they do in - for the terms of methodology, in terms of how find it regrettable, instance, that convention is being to make television happen. But I just wish national nominating they'd do something so that audiences written off by many people as an an- had a little bit better opportunity to re- achronism, as a bore, as too long and I don't agree with that at spond to the content of the show. I think unnecessary. it's awfully difficult to care about what's all. In my own view, the national nom- on television today, with the low def i- inating convention is something like the nition on that small set in our living grass in the praries. It is a part of the rooms. way our parties have developed and our federal system and the great ethnic divisions of the country, as well as the great geographic divisions. I think that the na- © Copyright 1984, Jack Kuney. tional convention is something that is as natural in our system as the Presidency itself. -Tom Wicker, Television Quarterly. Winter 1966.

Kirk Browning's most recent Live From Lin- coln Center broadcast was the special con- cert featuring James Galway with the New York Philharmonic. In March, he directs a satellite transmission from Europe for the Metropolitan Opera of Verdi's Forza del Destino with Leontyne Price for airing this Spring. The recent production of You Can't Take It With You on Showtime was also directed by him. This summer, he'll su- pervise the taping of Tales From Hoffman with Dame Joan Sutherland at the Sydney Opera House.

Jack Kuney, a veteran TV director and producer, is an Associate Professor in the radio/TV department at Brooklyn College. This interview is one of ten he has done with top TV directors; these will be the basis of a book.

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TELEVISION

Copyngnl < 1983 Twentieth Century -Fox Film Corporallon. All rrgols resolved. REVIEW AND COMMENT

Editor's Note: This section is usually BRAVOS FOR devoted to reviews of books about tele- MACNEIL/LEHRER vision, but with this issue we depart from our usual format to review a television program; we plan to do this occasion- BY BERNARD S. REDMONT ally, and to take a critical look at a program of significance, and possible influence. TV criticism in the newspa- The good news about the MacNeill pers and weekly magazines usually cen- Lehrer NewsHour is that it's more than ters around the first program of a new twice as good as the old half-hour Re- series, a practice that is not always fair. port. Usually it takes quite a while for a new Those who can wean themselves away show to find itself, to develop its style from the snap -crackle -and -pop diet of the and format. Often ultimate success is built commercial network news are rewarded upon early flaws and failures, the cour- with serious, nutritious adult fare, live- age to try the new and to give up what lier and more creative than the previous doesn't work. For an in-depth look at this version. It may take some getting used new in-depth news program, Television to, like nouvelle cuisine, but it's possible Quarterly assigned three news profes- to eschew the fast-food pablum of CBS, sionals of different backgrounds to sam- NBC and ABC, if you are so inclined. ple the program frequently, starting with No longer is MacNeil/Lehrer only a its first week in early September of 1983, supplement. It is a genuine alternative, and to base their reports on several and a good one, despite its imperfec- months of watching. R.M.P. tions. As promised in the promotional ads, "Now you can get the news where you got the analysis." The news sum- MACNEIL/LEHRER NEWSHOUR mary headlines are there, and so are the Executive Editor: Robert MacNeil. Asso- stories in depth. ciate Editor: Jim Lehrer. Executive Pro- The viewer gets headlines at the start ducer: Lester M. Crystal. Correspondents: and the end. The middle has time to Charlayne Hunter -Gault, Judy Woodruff, breathe and expand, as needed. Dis- Kwame Holman. cussions are planned and organized, but it happens that they take off, free wheel- A production of WNET/THIRTEEN, New ing, if going well. They are not strait- York. WETA/26, Washington, D.C. and jacketed to the split-second, as with the MacNeil -Lehrer -Gannett Productions. networks. It's even possible to forego your Funded by AT&T, Public Television sta- newspaper on occasion and be well in- tions and the Corporation for Public formed, which is more than you can say Broadcasting. about the product of the networks.

93 At last, a one -hour (actually 57:48 min- dominance of show -business -oriented utes except at "pledge time" when it's producers-many of them lacking news 52:58) news program is offered nightly in training-over correspondents and re- early -evening prime time. If only for this porters. The original MacNeil/Lehrer Re- first, courageous plunge, by beating the port had far more reporters than non-cable TV networks to the punch, producers, and the expanded NewsHour MacNeil/Lehrer deserves our cheers. has an equal balance of the two. At Of course, the plaudits need to be MacNeil/Lehrer, the reporters usually tell qualified with some minor reservations. the producers where to go, not the other MacNeil/Lehrer still lacks enough of its way around. own field reports. Much of the time, it From the debut of the NewsHour in depends heavily on "talking heads." But, September, a comparative analysis talking heads are better than talking hair- proved rewarding. Both MacNeil/Lehrer dos. and the CBS Evening News took off from We have, at the least, two rare major Labor Day celebrations to examine the TV anchors who regularly practice jour- state of the labor unions. CBS gave the nalism, ask good questions, listen to the piece two minutes. MacNeil/Lehrer took answers and thus keep us well in- 17, interviewing top union and govern- formed, instead of just reading the news. ment officials and doing an on -scene report on labor strategy for the election year to come. It may be argued that MacNeil/Lehrer When Interior Secretary James Watt can sometimes be dull and gray. As- resigned, the NewsHour devoted 15 min- suredly, the program calls for a different utes, not so much to his foot -in -his -mouth audience mind -set than the "disco beat" gaffes, but to the larger issue of his en- to which the commercial network viewer vironmental policies. is attuned, by visual razzle-dazzle, When Barbara McClintock received the breakneck pace, flashiness and super- Nobel Prize for Medicine, the big net- ficiality. works briefly clipped her news confer- The NewsHour has what MacNeil calls ence and mentioned her genetic research. "an appreciation of complexity, a will- MacNeil/Lehrer interviewed her biogra- ingness to entertain complexity." Here pher, analyzing the importance of her at last is something for those who, in research, and exploring why it took so MacNeil's words, "want to use TV for its long for the 81 -year -old winner to be rec- information, are repelled by or dissat- ognized. isfied by the commercial product: the The day after The Day After, most news brevity, the hype, the sensationalism, the programs examined the fallout and cov- emphasis on catastrophe and violence, ered the West German Parliament's vote the lack of explanation or context." to approve new intermediate missiles. If the commercial networks were ever The NewsHour, with the aid of Judy to persuade their affiliates to give the Woodruff, probed more deeply into the news a full hour, the chances are they feelings of two average families, and set would probably increase the number of up a lively and penetrating debate among action -oriented stories, rather than give articulate experts which surpassed the more time to individual items or add longer, but thinner, ABC Nightline dis- analysis and depth. MacNeil/Lehrer is cussion the night before. giving us two to four stories in reason- The NewsHour could not match the able depth every night, exploring and network's action pictures of demonstra- probing them, not just with celebrities, tions in West Germany, although it did but with those people who can best in- have some vivid footage from Lebanon, form and edify us. with a voiceover by a BBC reporter. Much of what's wrong with commer- One of MacNeil/Lehrer's problems is cial TV news can be ascribed to the pre- its penury in pictures. It does make use

94 of the BBC, CBC, Viznews, West German and then get it landing, live, for the end - and Japanese TV, as well as other sources piece. including its own, but it can't skip around MacNeil/Lehrer's analysis of the the globe at will. It has no foreign crews meaning of the historic agreement of its own, and thus lives with a shortage bringing employees of Eastern Airlines of action news footage. into the business was far better than anything ABC, CBS or NBC were capa- ble of doing in a few minutes. Nevertheless, it has done some great But you can't say there's never a dull overseas reporting, with stories from El moment. A case in point was a long Salvador by Charles Krause and a piece monologue on the World Series by Roger by Ann Medina of CBC on two Lebanese Angell and an interview with Nepal's villages, one Druse and the other Chris- Ambassador to the U.S. tian. On December 5, a discussion by Nevertheless, the NewsHour proves specialists on Lebanon did far more to that Americans don't necessarily have a illuminate the problems of that unhappy child's attention span. The prominence land than all the "bang -bang" of the big given to live interviews, clarifying dis- networks. A Moscow news conference by cussions of vital issues, has provided us Marshal Nikolai V. Ogarkov, followed by with television's best, most responsible a penetrating interview with a Council news and public affairs coverage. on Foreign Relations expert, Robert Ratings have improved since the ex- Legvold, did more than any commercial pansion, although sponsors of the pro- network to clarify the state of U.S.-Soviet gram feel that is not an essential relations. consideration. MacNeil/Lehrer viewers may be dis- The show's scheduling represents a concerted on a day of bombings in Le- problem in some locations. In Boston, banon and Jerusalem, to have more air viewers are privileged to be able to get time -15 minutes in each case-de- MacNeil/Lehrer in its entirety from 6:00 voted to U.S. race discrimination and af- to 7:00 p.m., with CBS, NBC and ABC firmative action and to warnings of following at 7:00 to 7:30 p.m., an oppor- communal violence among the Sikhs of tunity for those who want to compare India, a simmering, little-known but im- and watch both. A repeat of the NewsHour portant issue beautifully done by Gavin is even available in Boston at 11:00 p.m. Hewitt of CBC, but both were significant In New York, however, MacNeil/Lehrer stories. airs opposite and overlaps the network NBC Nightly News had an excellent newscasts, posing the dilemma of choice story one evening with Garrick Utley for half of the time. One radio station in looking at stalled land reform in El Sal- Los Angeles likes MacNeil/Lehrer so vador, but the NewsHour had a more re- much it has simulcast it on radio drive markable 20 -minute package that time. included coverage of President Rea- All in all, the judgment from this seat gan's Commission on Central America, is: Bravos to Robin MacNeil, Jim Lehrer, a profile of the president of El Salvador Al Vecchione, Executive Producer Les by Charles Krause and an interview with Crystal, correspondents Charlayne rebel leader, Ruben Zamora. Hunter -Gault and Judy Woodruff! You A mini -documentary by Charlayne won't outdraw the networks, but you've Hunter -Gault on teen-age suicides was given us a choice, an excellent one. memorable. Although more leisurely than the gal- loping pace of the networks, the Bernard S. Redmont is a former correspon- NewsHour was still nimble and flexible dent for CBS News in Moscow and Paris. enough to cover the return of the Colum- He is now Dean at Boston University's bia space shuttle early in the program School of Public Communication.

95 with two and a half minutes." But when NOT A BREAKTHROUGH ... you have an hour to fill one big interview is not enough, and the NewsHour efforts to fill the rest of the time with additional BY JIM SNYDER interviews, correspondent packages and gleanings from the CBC and Viz News When MacNeil/Lehrer expanded from points up the greatest strength of the a half hour to an hour, Robert commercial networks. MacNeil told the New York Times "We Day in day out those network news sense a hunger for an alternative to the operations deploy hundreds of people all network news, a place where the news over the world to do the work, take the can breathe." Jonathan Friendly of the physical risks, spend the money, take Times called the NewsHour "a venture the chances, and generate the enter- that could blaze new trails for PBS and prise that has to be there if you are going for network television news." to compete. They've been doing it for So the program and one of its best years with unflagging commitment, friends, the television department of the while their critics ignore it and concen- Times, invited comparison with the eve- trate on whether 22 minutes is enough ning network news shows. It seems to time to cover the news. MacNeil/Lehrer be an obsession around PBS news ef- just does not have that kind of back up, forts, constantly to seek praise at the ex- and it shows in the NewsHour. That's pense of those crass information one of the reasons network news people compacters at the networks. MacNeil has are not finding any inspiration in the gone on record many times, as a stern MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour. critic of network news-a stance un- MacNeil/Lehrer are most effective when likely to alienate all those print critics there is a major Washington or inter- who thrive on regular assaults on the national development which breaks early network news folk. in the day so they have time to develop Recently, I asked for a reaction to a solid background report. The two an- NewsHour from a top network news ex- chors rise to their best when they have ecutive who has been around longer than a top drawer guest who has not been most. He said of the show: already worked over by other interview- 1. "We don't see anything in it for us. ers. Their program gets good marks for It's not causing any waves around here, staying on top of the news and at times very little conversation anticipating major changes in the news 2. Most nights the show has a slow agenda. But most times when you switch pace we would not accept. over to the network news you find they 3. They operate on a different set of have not been scooped by MacNeil/Leh- standards than we do. If we in commer- rer and CBS, NBC and ABC always have cial TV news committed some of their better spot coverage. production flaws, the critics would tear us apart. But they seem to get a pass from the newspaper critics." That gets us to the basic question con- I think MacNeil and company play a fronting MacNeil/Lehrer: "if you are an dangerous game in inviting comparison alternative to the network news what is with the networks now that they are doing you are doing that is so innovative, com- an hour. Their old half hour show built pelling, or enterprising to make your each night around one interview session program must viewing for a major por- on a hot news topic often with heavy - tion of the American news audience?" hitter articulate quests, was great for I don't think "more time for stories" is comparison ... "look at us we gave 19 an answer. "Breathing room for the news" minutes to the top story of the day and doesn't do it either when some corre- those sleazy old networks kissed it off spondent packages would not survive the

96 scrutiny of most network news produc- assumed Judy was scolded by the other ers. Some I have seen have been down- anchors, or someone, because she has right pedestrian. been married to the script ever since and I think another major problem with the has kept those dangerous smiles to a MacNeil/Lehrer program is its commit- minimum. ment to live interviews. Too many of the Judy is a valuable addition to the pro- interviews I have seen in recent months gram. Her presence is an opportunity to have brought the program to a screech- show the commercial networks how a ing halt. Live interviews every night ex- woman anchor can be effective in prime pose you to various hazards, including time news programs. But to date the rigid, inundation in self-serving statements and earnest, sobersides approach of the unadulterated filibustering. In this age NewsHour has prevented Ms. Woodruff of everyone -gets -on -tv -sooner -or -later, from breaking any new anchoring many of the government types, think-tank ground. stars and business world spokesmen To sum up, MacNeil/Lehrer is a pro- have been screened, trained and pack- gram that is not a breakthrough in tele- aged to prevent the interviewer from ever vision news; is not teaching the network extracting a spontaneous answer. There news programs new tricks; is unlikely to have been nights when some of the in- build much upon the loyal audience it terviews on MacNeil/Lehrer have in- had as a half hour, and is still struggling duced sleep, or encouraged one to shout with the hard truth that more is not nec- back at the screen. essarily better. Part of the problem is the polite interview style on the program. One night I found myself fantasizing how good it Jim Snyder has been Vice President of News would be to have Ted Koppel appear as for the Post -Newsweek Stations since 1969. guest interviewer on MacNeil/Lehrer just From 1965 to 1969 he was a news producer to have him say occasionally "sir, that for CBS News, including two and a half years as Washington producer for the CBS is outrageous" or "sir, that is particu- Evening News with Walter Cronkite. larly self-serving" or "gentlemen, we are not developing any real information here." Too often, MacNeil/Lehrer are willing to give 8 or 10 or 12 minutes to people who should be cut off at three A MIXED BAG minutes. I also have fantasized on what can be BY GEORGE ROSEN done to reduce the earnestness quotient of the program. John Carmody, the TV columnist of the Washington Post has In the beginning it was acclaimed as described MacNeil and Lehrer as "sob- perhaps the most prestigious of TV ersides," a polite way of saying the pro- news programs, corralling, as if by a gram desperately needs more change of miracle, day to day and within 24 -hour pace not only in its content but in its notice, the expertise needed for the in- anchors' style. Maybe they ought to have depth analysis of the day's top news Charles Kuralt sit in on a few nights to event. After several seasons they must encourage everyone else on the program have figured that twice as long should to display just a touch more humanity. be twice as good, and thus the Robert When she first appeared, I thought Judy MacNeil -Jim Lehrer report became the Woodruff was the answer. It was during MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour on the Public her first week when she actually ad- Broadcasting Service. They couldn't have libbed a comeback line to something that been more wrong. In fact, it's been such had been said by the other anchors. It a major disappointment that, on the ba- was effective and welcome. However, I sis of what's been shown so far, perhaps

97 the time is now propitious for the three nalism. That, coupled with Agronsky & commercial TV networks to reassess their Co.'s no -holds -barred freneticism by the thinking about going to a full hour, and politico -oriented Katzenjammer Kids let matters rest where they are. (Carl Rowen, George Will, Elizabeth As matters now stand, the expanded Drew, Hugh Sidey, James Kilpatrick) can PBS hour is a mixed bag of Monday-thru- only serve to illustrate where the new Friday programming still struggling to MacNeil/Lehrer show falls short. find its way through its transitional pe- It wasn't until the twin crises in the riod to hit on a correct formula. In a bid closing days of last October-the Le- to siphon off some of the NBC, CBS, ABC banon Marine disaster and the Grenada audience, it has slotted the program in invasion-that the MacNeil/Lehrer Hour some of the major TV markets (such as began hitting its old stride, with its ex- New York, Washington, Miami, New Or- tended play -it -for -all -it's -worth analysis leans) directly opposite its competition, and discussion for eminently satisfying thus inviting diminishing ratings. Au- results. But lo and behold, ABC, CBS, diences long accustomed to the more NBC were matching them, head for head, searching camera work and extensive with equally compelling results. Soon it global coverage by the commercial net- appeared that everyone had exhausted works, might easily switch away from the round-robin of personalities avail- PBS. able for expertise. The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour has now Not that the two co-anchors are to be taken on a "something for everybody" faulted personally, for both MacNeil and facade, which includes a runthrough of Lehrer have long since established their the day's top stories both at the top of credentials as professional TV journal- the show and at the close. In between ists of the first rank. Also commendable are about half a dozen or so "expanded is their new Washington correspondent reports" including on -the -spot film, but Judy Woodruff (wooed over from NBC). with watered-down analysis. On occa- And not to be overlooked is Charlayne sion there's a sprinkling of mini -docu- Hunter -Gault, both as reporter and a sort mentaries, culled mainly from affiliate of sub -co-anchor. stations and CBC or British success. Too As for the executive producer, Les much of it is run-of-the-mill, and too much Crystal, the former president of NBC run-of-the-mill creates dullness. By News, the problems ahead remain. watering -down its once -cherished in- Thoroughly schooled in the crisp global depth treatment on analysis to compete coverage of commercial network news, more effectively with the rival networks' he's now venturing into new and tamer "spot time", it would seem to add up to TV pastures. Perhaps given time he may a "catch 22" situation (not to be confused find his way in achieving a clearer sense with catching a 22 share of audience). of direction, or at least make it a more True, the "talking heads" format for in- diverting hour. We wish him luck. depth examination, since the days when MacNeil/Lehrer had the field pretty much to themselves, has become more widely used. And a lot of it comes off with hap- pier results. The Ted Koppel late -night hour on ABC, properly situated at a time when the major stories have been thorough aired, has achieved a respectabil- ity that cannot be denied. The same George Rosen for 24 years was television network's Sunday morning David Brink- and radio editor of Variety. In that time, ley program generates a kind of excite- he estimates he reviewed more than 3000 ment and insight that makes it a top- programs. He later worked for NBC News level presentation, unique in TV jour- in London and New York.

98 SYMBOL OF EXCELLENCE

THE ABC OWNED TELEVISION STATIONS WABC-TV NEW YORK WLS-TV CHICAGO WXYZ-TV DETROIT KABC-TV LOS ANGELES KGO-TV SAN FRANCISCO GROUP

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Group W Radio Group W Television Group W Cable Group W Productions Filmation Associates Group W Satellite Communications Group W Television Sales Home Theater Network Muzak Group W Radio Sales TVSC We'd like to interrupt this Quarterly with a couple of important words for people in the television industry:

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OFFICERS BOARD OF TRUSTEES TRUSTEES -AT -LARGE Lee Polk, Joe Abrell Ossie Davis Chairman of the Board Rod Burton B. Donald Grant John Cannon, President June Colbert Agnes Nixon Jack Moffitt, Vice Chairman Michael Collyer John Severino Paul Rich, Vice President Irvin Davis Richard R. Rector, Secretary Dave DeBarger HONORARY TRUSTEES Michael Collyer, Esq., John Douglass Treasurer Holly Fine FORMER PRESIDENTS Micki Grant Ed Sullivan Don Elliot Heald Harry S. Ackerman George Heinemann Walter Cronkite Linda Hobkirk Robert F. Lewine Ralph Hodges Rod Jim Karayn Serling Beverly Kennedy Seymour Berns Arthur Kent Mort Werner James Lipton Ann Loring FORMER CHAIRMEN Art Pattison OF THE BOARD Paul Rich Marty Schultz Irwin Sonny Fox Robert G. Simon. W. Sarnoff Howard Shapiro Thomas Christine Spencer John Cannon Frank Strnad Richard Rector Jo Subler Robert J. Wussler Joel Chaseman

THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL

OFFICERS BOARD OF DIRECTORS Stelio Molo, Switzerland Mark Cohen, President and Gene Accas, U.S.A. Robert E. Mulholland, U.S.A. Chief Executive Officer Yasushi Akashi, U.N. lwao Ono, Japan Renato M. Pachetti, Chairman Ralph Baruch, U.S.A. Lee Polk, U.S.A. Edward Bleier, Vice Chairman Vittorio Boni, Italy James Shaw, U.S.A. Donald L. Taffner, Treasurer John Cannon, U.S.A. Dieter Stolte, Fed. Rep. of Germany George Movshon, Secretary Joel Chaseman, U.S.A. Donald L. Taffner, U.S.A. Richard Carlton, Executive Murray Chercover, Canada Edwin T. Vane, U.S.A. Director Talbot S. Duckmanton, Australia Arthur Watson, U.S.A. Dennis Forman, Great Britain George Waters, Ireland Bruce Gordon, U.S.A. Jean-Louis Guillaud, France FELLOWS Tadamasa Hashimoto, Japan Ralph Baruch, U.S.A. Karl Honeystein, U.S.A. Bleier, U.S.A. Gene Jankowski, U.S.A. Edward Irwin Sonny Fox, U.S.A. A.W. Johnson, Canada Ralph C. Franklin, U.S.A. Thomas F. Leahy, U.S.A. Robert F. Lewine, U.S.R. James Loper, U.S.A. Movshon, U.S.A. Robert Marinho, Brazil George Richard A. O'Leary, U.S.A. Ken-ichiro Matsuoka, Japan Alasdair Milne, Great Britain Kevin O'Sullivan, U.S.A. Renato M. Pachetti, U.S.A. John Mitchell, U.S.A. David Webster, U.S.A. VPR-3 VIDEOTAPE RECORDER

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