Programming for TV, Radio, and the Internet: Strategy, Development, and Evaluation

Home , Amy Fisher, Broadcast programming, Bruce Bilson, Dayparting, Downplay, Edgar Scherick

Philippe Perebinossoff Brian Gross Lynne S. Gross

ELSEVIER Programming for TV, Radio, and the Internet

Programming for TV, Radio, and the Internet

Strategy, Development, and Evaluation

Philippe Perebinossoff California State University, Fullerton

Brian Gross EF Education, Jakarta, Indonesia

Lynne S. Gross California State University, Fullerton

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Contents

About the Authors xv Preface xvii

1 The History of Programming 1 The Need for Programming 1 The Early Days of Programming 2 The Beginning of Network Programming: A New Lease for Radio 3 Radio’s Golden Age: The Advertising Agency Years 3 The Introduction of Television and Its Effect on Radio 5 Programming Cycles and Trends 6 Radio Redux: The Switch from Shows to Formats 6 Television’s Golden Age of Drama 6 Quiz Shows Take Center Stage 9 The Television Networks Take Over Programming 11 The Development of Public Broadcasting 12 The Financial Interest and Domestic Syndication Rule 13 The Rise of Independent Stations and Syndicators 14 The Explosion of Cable 14 Syndication in Radio 16 New Networks with Targeted and Niche Programming 16 The Quest for a Young Demographic 17 Viewing Patterns and Changing Audience Attention Spans 17 The Decline of Longform Programming 19 Supercharged Programming Choices: The Internet 20 New Media Recording Technologies 21 The Rise of Consumer-supported Media 22 The Video Game Explosion 23 Regulations 23 Globalization 25 Exercises 26 References/Notes 27

2 Sources of Television Programming 29 Beyond the Idea—into the “Deep Pockets” 29 Major Production Companies 30 Independent Production Companies 33

vii viii PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Foreign Production Sources 38 Networks 39 Stations 40 Buyers 41 Syndicators 42 Advertisers 43 In-House Production 44 Members of the Public 46 Newspapers, Magazines, and Books 46 Managers, Agents, and Stars 48 Exercises 50 References/Notes 50

3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 51 Sources of Programming for Radio 51 Syndicator/Network Programming 52 The Purpose of Today’s Radio Networks/Syndicators 53 From Town to City to Metropolis and Syndication 54 Sources of Music Programming 56 Sources of News Programming 59 Sources of Talk Radio Programming 59 Sources of Other Programming 62 Sources of Satellite Radio Programming 62 Sources of Low-Power FM Programming 63 Sources of Internet Programming 63 Every Computer a Potential Source of Programming 64 Obstacles to Internet Mass Usage 64 Traditional Media Sources 64 Internet-Only Sources 66 Private vs. Public Sources of Programming 66 Exercises 67 References/Notes 67

4 Development 69 Television Development 70 Securing the Rights 70 Attaching a Star,Writer, or Showrunner During the Development Process 71 The Role of Agents 71 Development Deals 72 Getting Ready for the Pitch: Creating a Log Line 72 Writing an Effective Log Line 73 Getting a Meeting 74 The Pitch Meeting 75 CONTENTS ix

“Laying Pipe” for a Pass 77 Fundamentals of the Deal 77 Public Television Development 78 Syndication Development 78 Station Development 80 The Pilot 81 Development Ratios 82 Testing 83 The Decision 83 Globalization 84 Radio Development 85 Developing a Format 85 Management and Consultants 86 Developing Programming 88 Proﬁt and Other-Than-Proﬁt Motives 89 Satellite Radio Development 89 Public Radio Development 91 Internet Development 92 History of Internet Development 92 Traditional Developers Adapt to the Internet 93 A New Venue for Independent Developers 95 Exercises 97 References/Notes 98

5 Testing 99 Television Testing 99 Awareness Testing 100 Sampling 100 Focus Groups 102 Minitheater Research 104 Cable-Based Research 106 Telephone Research 106 Station Testing 109 Public Broadcasting 109 Radio Testing 110 Sampling 110 Testing Methodology 111 Research Areas 112 Public Radio 114 Internet Testing 114 Testing (Or Not) Simulcast Content 115 Testing Archived and Independently Produced Content 115 Testing User Friendliness 116 Does the Research Work? 117 Exercises 120 References/Notes 121 x PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

6 Elements of Successful Programming 123 Television Programming 123 Programming Objectives 124 The Search for a Successful Formula 130 Industry Professionals Weigh In 132 Key Elements for Success 134 Radio Programming 150 Programming Objectives 150 Fundamental Appeals to an Audience 151 Qualities Tied to Success 153 Internet Programming 155 Freshness 155 Targeting Content 156 Consistency 157 Innovation 158 Branding 158 Exercises 159 References/Notes 160

7 Influences on Television Programming 161 External Influences on Television 161 Station Influence 162 Advertisers 163 The Family Friendly Programming Forum 164 Pressure Groups 165 The Religious Right 167 Timing 168 The Media 169 Academic and Nonprofit Studies 171 The Government 171 Internal Influences on Television 178 The Sales Department 178 The Finance Department 179 The Broadcast Standards and Practices Department 180 The Top Management 184 The Promotion, Marketing and Research Divisions 185 Exercises 186 References/Notes 187

8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 189 Influences on Radio Programming 189 Internal Influences on Radio 189 External Influences on Radio 193 CONTENTS xi

Influences on Internet Programming 202 Internal Influences on Internet Content 202 External Influences on Internet Content 205 Exercises 212 References/Notes 213

9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 215 Television Scheduling 215 Fitting the Show to the Available Audience 216 Dayparting 216 Launching the Show: The First Strategy 218 Tentpoling 221 Hammocking 221 Counterprogramming 222 Bridging and Supersizing 225 Blunting 226 Stacking 228 Stunting 229 Crossprogramming 230 Theming 231 Stripping 232 Changing a Show’s Time Slot 232 Overexposure 233 Rerunning and Repurposing 234 Boosting the Audience in Sweep Periods 235 Patience 236 Exercises 237 References/Notes 238

10 Scheduling Strategies for Radio and the Internet 239 Commercial Radio Scheduling 239 The Clock 239 Dayparting 243 Launching 244 Satellite Radio Scheduling 244 Public Radio Scheduling 245 Internet Scheduling 247 Exercises 249 References/Notes 249 xii PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

11 Program Evaluation 251 Television 251 Nielsen 252 Commercial Radio 261 Arbitron 262 RADAR 263 The Internet 264 Do the Ratings Work and Do Samples Sample? 267 Variables That Affect Rating Accuracy 267 Rating Techniques 269 Studies and Investigations 269 Programming Aberrations 270 How Programmers Should Use Ratings 270 Exercises 272 References/Notes 272

12 Changing and Canceling Programs 273 Television 273 Unsatisfactory Ratings 273 Exhaustion 274 A Lack of Focus 275 Social Changes 276 Aging Demographics 276 The Wrong Time Period 277 Excessive Relocation 277 A Lack of Awareness 278 Bringing on the Understudy 278 The Desire for Something New 278 Programming Options 279 Giving a Cancellation Notice 283 Radio 284 Adjusting Program Elements 284 Network Changes 286 Dealing with Unwanted Changes 287 Internet 288 Is It Worth the Trouble? 288 TMI: Too Much Information 289 Facelifts and Add-ons 289 Exercises 290 References/Notes 290

13 Programming Ethics 291 The Meaning of Ethics 291 Ethics and Illegality 292 Ethics in Programming Decisions and Business Practices 294 Ethics and Lying 295 CONTENTS xiii

Ethical Guidelines 297 Considering Ethics 298 Case Histories: Actual Incidents 298 Checkbook Journalism 299 Make the Deal, but Don’t Close It 300 An On-Air Murder Confession 300 Sex in Public Places 301 Sharing the Wealth 301 Who Is to Blame? 301 Anonymous Complaints at E! 301 A Suicide on TV 302 Images of the Iraqi War 302 The Right to Privacy 303 First Amendment vs. the Sixth Amendment 303 Entertainment Programming Ethics 304 A Series of Ethical Dilemmas 305 References/Notes 307

Glossary 309 Index 317

About the Authors

Philippe Perebinossoff designed, developed, and gained funding for multimedia arts programs for home- Before joining the faculty of the radio, less and at-risk youth in the Los Angeles television, and film department at Cali- area. He is a web designer and consul- fornia State University, Fullerton, where tant, and his prose, poetry, musical com- he teaches programming, management, positions, videos, art, and theater works and writing, Philippe Perebinossoff had have been presented in anthologies, a 20-year career as a network television books, galleries, radio stations, and per- programming executive. At ABC, he formance spaces throughout the United created guidelines for fact-based pro- States and abroad. gramming, evaluated programs for acceptability, and supervised the development of more than 200 telefilms and Lynne S. Gross miniseries. He has also taught at the Lynne S. Gross is a professor at Califor- New School for Social Research; nia State University, Fullerton, where Eastern Kentucky University; State Uni- she teaches radio–television–film theory versity of New York, Plattsburgh; and and production courses, including pro- University of Southern California. gramming. She has worked as director of programming for Valley Cable TV and Brian Gross as a producer for series shown on commercial, public, and cable television and Brian Gross is a multimedia artist and heard on radio. She is the past president educator. He teaches at EF Education in of the Broadcast Education Association Jakarta, Indonesia; previously, he taught and a past governor of the Academy of writing, audio production, radio opera- Television Arts & Sciences. She has tions, visual journalism, and multimedia written 10 other books dealing with design for 5 years at California State media and many articles for refereed and University, Fullerton. He has also trade publications.

Preface

In electronic media nothing is forever. programming of television, radio, and New technologies force change. Radio the Internet affects our daily lives. executives discovered the truth of this We the authors are not clairvoyant, maxim in the late 1940s when their and are no more able to predict what cozy world was abruptly invaded by an TV,radio, and the Internet will look like invention called television. Thirty years in 10 years than anyone else in the busi- later, TV was turned upside down by a ness. But a programmer who knows the new use of an old distribution form past and who recognizes that certain called cable. Now, the Internet is chang- guidelines reduce the odds against ing established forms and experimenting failure is far more likely to prosper than with its own possibilities. one who has no touchstones. For that But through it all, one thing remains reason, our first chapter deals with the constant: the need for programming history of programming, outlining the content. No matter how state of the art colorful twists and turns that the busi- the delivery system is, it does not mean ness has taken over the last 80 years to a thing if the consumers are not inter- indicate that current strange and seem- ested in what is being conveyed. The ingly unprecedented events are not so material must be appealing to audiences, unusual. it must be presented in an attractive After Chapter 1, the organization of manner, and it must be equal to the book follows the process of creating the challenges placed against it by all programming and describes the differ- forces that vie for the attention of the ences and similarities of this process as public. it relates to various media. Chapters 2 The goal of this book is to help you, and 3 cover the various ways ideas are current and would-be programmers, generated and the various media deliv- succeed in a restless, competitive envi- ery systems available for the ideas. It is ronment by providing practical informa- vital that you know the strengths, weak- tion about television, radio, and the nesses, eccentricities, and curiosities of Internet. Not a theoretical text, this each of these media forms lest you book is designed to give you a close, design a beach ball for a soccer game. very personal look at how programming We describe the various marketplaces works. It does this by clearly defining for which you can construct program- key programming concepts in the text ming and point out how they differ and in the glossary (glossary terms are in terms of creative needs, business boldfaced the first time they are used) arrangements, and distribution. and by including the experiences of The development process—how a programming professionals. Not only show gets from an idea to a go-ahead— will you learn how the process works, is described in Chapter 4. As new pro- but you also will understand how the grammers will discover, the job does not

xvii xviii PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

end with the construction of the show. as looking at a Nielsen rating. Many Generally, it also has to be sold. This other factors determine the success or process has proved difficult for many, failure of a show, and these considera- but there are techniques that can make tions are reviewed in Chapter 11. dealing with an idea simpler and more Unfortunately, not every concept effective. One of these techniques works. Cancellations and restructuring involves testing material to see whether are a painful but unavoidable part of the it has a chance of enticing an audience business. When the deed must be done, and how it can be improved. This there is a right way and a wrong way to process is explained in Chapter 5. go about it, as explained in Chapter 12. There are no surefire methods of Sometimes, however, a product can be producing a hit product. But there are saved by creative changes, such as sharp- several creative elements that, if under- ening the focus of a sitcom, hiring a stood and properly incorporated, can new disc jockey, or refreshing a Web site. provide a better chance of success. These possibilities are examined in the Although they do not guarantee a same chapter. winner, the exclusion of too many of No doubt the electronic media busi- these elements will virtually assure a ness has its fair share of expedient failure. These ingredients are identified corner-cutters. But we believe program- in Chapter 6. mers behave honorably, for the most Programmers are not alone when part. In Chapter 13, we present a variety they create program material.With them of incidents that involve ethical consid- in spirit and influence, if not in body, erations. It is our hope that these exam- are a host of forces that have much to ples will alert you to the kinds of ethical say about the content and placement decisions programmers face daily and of programs. In Chapters 7 and 8, we encourage you to consider the norms of describe the many voices that must be ethical behavior when you have to make heard before material is seen. These your own programming decisions. include advertisers, pressure groups, We believe this panoramic look at government agencies, in-house depart- how programming’s elements are used ments, and professional critics. They are throughout the industry will provide important influences on programmers you with the basic knowledge required and are ignored at great peril. by the business. In today’s world, a pro- One of the crucial processes in programmer may work for Lifetime’s cable gramming many of the media forms TV channel for several years then switch involves the scheduling of shows. Over to the commercial network CBS. the years, several strategies have proved Someone involved with radio program- successful (and unsuccessful). Program- ming may be assigned to oversee the mers must adjust their strategies to station’s Web site. People who under- changing times and must look vigilantly stand the processes of programming will at the plans and procedures being used have broader knowledge and be more by the competition. The vast array of employable than ones who only under- strategies available to programming stand one particular (perhaps soon to be schedulers is the topic of Chapters 9 outdated) form of programming. and 10. Throughout the book, we include Regardless how the program material sidebars that give insight into various is distributed, there is a need to evalu- issues or principles. TV, radio, and the ate its performance. It is not as simple Internet are involved with entertain- PREFACE xix ment. As such, they tend to attract wald, producer and director at Robert colorful and unorthodox personalities Greenwald Productions; Doreen Hughes, who help make the business fun, unpre- senior scheduler at ABC; Rick Jones, dictable, and at times a bit bewildering. director of theatrical films at ABC; The authorship of this book has Kenneth Kaufman, president/COO, changed somewhat from the first PKE; Robert Lee King, a director and edition. Philippe Perebinossoff and writer; Philip Kleinbart, producer and Brian Gross are the main authors. Pere- vice president of business affairs at binossoff, a professor who has more than Robert Greenwald Productions; Ron 20 years of programming experience Kobata, a KTLA sales executive; Brian at ABC and elsewhere, handled most of Lowry of Daily Variety and Broadcasting & the television material. Gross, who has Cable; Mitch Metcalf, senior vice presi- teaching and professional experience in dent of program planning and scheduling audio and multimedia, wrote the radio at NBC; Michael O’Hara, a writer and and Internet sections. Edwin T.Vane, an producer; Judd Parkin, a writer and original author, is retired, but much of former head of movie and miniseries at the structure he devised for the book, ABC; Dan Petrie, Sr., a director; Judith A. based on his many years of program- Polone, president of movies and minis- ming experience at ABC and Group W, eries at Lions Gate Entertainment; Eric survives. Lynne S. Gross, who has cable Poticha, vice president of television TV programming experience and has at The Henson Company; Randy written 10 other books about media, has Robinson, president and executive pro- been a coauthor of both editions. ducer at Randwell Productions; Susan We give special thanks to the many Rovner, vice president of drama develop- industry professionals who generously ment at Warner Bros. Television; Howard gave of their time to provide students Schneider, former vice president of on- interested in the world of entertainment air promotions at Fox; Michael Sluchan, programming with practical, useful director of the development of longform information to enable them to succeed programming at Universal Television; as programmers. Since the previous Eric Steinberg, senior vice president of edition, we have interviewed industry research at CBS; Christy Welker, former professionals including Susan Baerwald, head of miniseries at ABC; and Steve faculty member at the American Film White, a producer and former NBC and Institute and former head of miniseries ABC network executive. at NBC; Ilene Amy Berg, vice president We also gratefully acknowledge other of current programs at ABC; Beverly industry professionals we have worked Bolotin, executive vice president of with over the years whose contributions client services at ASI; David Brownfield, to television, radio, and the Internet senior vice president of current pro- provide the text with valuable informa- gramming at CBS; Martin Carlson, vice tion and insights. We thank Jon Hughes president of business affairs at Fox; for the photo of Ira Glass. We also David Castler, president and CEO of greatly appreciate the suggestions given ASI; Kevin Cooper, an agent at CAA; by the reviewers: Susan Baerwald, Olivia Cohen-Cutler, senior vice presi- American Film Institute; Sylvia M. dent of broadcast standards and practices Chan-Olmsted, University of Florida, at ABC; Erica Farber, publisher and Gainesville; Joyce Chen, University of CEO of Radio & Records; Scott Gimple, Northern Iowa; Tim Frye, Purdue creator of “Fillmore”; Robert Green- University; Louisa Ha, Bowling Green xx PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

State University; Matt Jackson, Pennsyl- wish to thank the students at California vania State University; Jong G. Kang, State University, Fullerton, who read a Illinois State University; and Sam draft of this text and provided valuable Lovato, University of South Colorado. suggestions. A special thanks to Philip S. And we are grateful for the support Mastroianni for his computer knowl- offered by the staff at Focal Press, specif- edge and his work on the index. ically that of our editor, Amy Jollymore, who was always there with encourage- Philippe Perebinossoff, Brian Gross, ment and thoughtful guidance. We also and Lynne S. Gross 1 The History of Programming

In this chapter you will learn about the in the mediums of radio, television, and following: now the Internet, the demands of the marketplace continue to increase, with • Early radio and television program- no end in sight to the quest for material. ming strategies With nearly 14,000 AM and FM • Advertising’s relationship to program- radio stations broadcasting across the ming through the years United States today, most of them 24- • The golden age of network radio hour operations, simple math shows programming and the effect the that stations must find a staggering introduction of television had on 122,640,000 hours of material to air radio each year. Most of that material is new • The switch from advertiser-controlled or original. Add to that the 100 chan- to network-controlled programming nels that now broadcast 24 hours a day • The legacy of the golden age of on two satellite radio services, and you television get a sense of the appetite that radio • Cable and satellite television’s effect alone has for program material. on programming In television, the National Broadcast- • What future programmers need to ing Company (NBC), which began know about the cyclical nature of televised broadcasts April 30, 1939, aired programming 601 hours of programming in its first • The influence of shorter audience year.1 Forty years later, in 1979, the attention spans, interactive content, number of hours NBC was airing per and new technologies on current year had risen to 5,000.2 With the programming explosion of cable and satellite television • Major trends and developments in services and the subsequent increase in programming the number of channels available, as well • The effect of global markets and gov- as the adoption of year-round original ernment regulations on programming programming, the need for material continues its dramatic rise. THE NEED FOR Now, enter the Internet, with theo- PROGRAMMING retically limitless storage and delivery capacity. With a steadily growing Broadcast media has an insatiable number of consumers possessing broad- appetite for programming content.With band Internet connections, a new ever more distribution outlets available pipeline and hunger for audio, video,

1 2 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

phones and huge battery-operated sets just to “hear Pittsburgh,” that is, hear the call letters and phonograph music coming from station KDKA in Pitts- burgh (Figure 1.1), generally regarded as the first radio station. The early stations were supported primarily by companies that manufac- tured and sold radio sets, and they programmed whatever free talent wandered into the studio. For most stations, this included a preponderance of would-be operatic sopranos. The goal was to have something on the air to encourage people to buy radios. Eventually, the novelty of radio wore off and performers wanted to be paid, so some Figure 1.1 and interactive programming is coming economic means of supporting radio KDKA in online. had to be found. Pittsburgh launched All the available outlets clamor for American Telephone and Telegraph its radio product. Where does all this program- (AT&T) hit upon an economic idea programming on ming come from, and how does it find based on its telephone experience. It November 2, its way to an increasingly elusive and established station WEAF as a toll 1920, with this fragmented audience? station. People would be required to broadcast of the Warren Harding– This chapter provides a brief history pay a toll to broadcast some message to James Cox election of radio, television, and Internet pro- all radio listeners in the same way that results. (Photo gramming. In our quest to demystify they paid a toll to send a private message courtesy programming, we examine early pro- from a phone booth.The company built Westinghouse gramming strategies and describe some a studio about the size and shape of a Broadcasting of the major developments and trends phone booth and waited for people to Company.) that affect programming today. We do come and pay to send their messages. not seek to provide a complete history No one did. After a long struggle, of radio, television, and Internet broad- WEAF, in August 1922, finally sold its casting here, but rather to provide ex- first message, a 10-minute announce- amples of some key programming cycles ment from a Long Island real estate and strategies. Because broadcast media company that paid $50. programming is in constant flux, it is Even after this initial commercial, important to have a sense of the past to advertising was not viewed as a primary understand the present and anticipate source of income for broadcasting. the future. Herbert Hoover, who was Secretary of Commerce during the 1920s, said that THE EARLY DAYS OF “ether advertising” was possible, but he PROGRAMMING quickly dismissed the idea. “It is incon- ceivable that we should allow so great a Early radio did not have programming possibility for service to be drowned in departments. The novelty of the advertising chatter,” he said.3 medium was exciting enough that But the production of radio mater- people would stay glued to their ear- ial wasn’t going to pay for itself. As 1 The History of Programming 3

Figure 1.2 KFI, Los Angeles’s ﬁrst radio station, which began broadcasting in 1922, had this rather elaborate studio. Most early studios, although unseen by the listening audience, had elaborate decors that included potted palms, common foliage of the 1920s. (Photo courtesy KFI.)

producers innovated the medium THE BEGINNING OF with live music, drama, complicated NETWORK PROGRAMMING: sound effects, up-to-date news gather- A NEW LEASE FOR RADIO ing, and even unnecessary elaborate sets (Figure 1.2), the quality of radio pro- The answer the radio industry came up gramming improved and the expense with to maximize its resources was the increased. network. The network system involved Bringing in more income could be producing programs that could be used accomplished by bringing in more by a number of stations, thus reducing advertising. But as late as 1930, by which the cost for each station. Wires could time the airwaves were drenched with carry the signal of the program pro- advertising, the industry was still produced in New York, networking it fessing its commercial virginity. Before to stations in Boston, Philadelphia, a Senate committee, Merlin Aylesworth, Washington, and beyond. The first president of NBC, testified, “I am network to be established was NBC, opposed to direct advertising on the air.” which in 1926 broadcast its debut When a senator asked him what he program (an orchestra from New York, meant by direct advertising, he replied, a singer from Chicago, comedian Will “I mean stating prices.”4 The following Rogers from Kansas City,and dance bands year that distinction fell by the wayside from other cities) to 22 local stations. as advertising established itself as the Radio’s Golden Age: means to keep radio growing. The Advertising Agency Years There was a limit, though, to how much advertising the listening public When NBC was formed, it purchased could stomach. Somehow the industry WEAF from AT&T and continued a would have to find a way to stretch its variation of the toll station concept, resources further. wherein advertising agencies bought 4 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

blocks of time for their clients and filled on radio from 1932 until the mid-1950s this time with programming and men- at 7:30 Sunday evening. For much of tions of the sponsor and of its product his reign, he was sponsored by Jell-O. line. Sometimes the product became George Burns and Gracie Allen were on part of the story line—the announcer from 1933 to 1951, primarily sponsored would visit Fibber McGee and Molly by Robert Burns cigars. Dramas, come- and talk about waxing the floor with dies, children’s programs, soap operas— Johnson’s Wax. all were handled by advertising agencies. The advertisers and their agencies The only exception was news, which made almost all of the programming the networks produced and controlled. decisions, keeping top-level radio The stability of this system led to network executives informed as needed. what is often referred to as the golden The advertisers came up with the con- age of radio. Radio listeners loyal to cepts, hired the talent, and oversaw the this exciting new medium tuned in production (Figure 1.3). The networks unfailingly to their favorite shows. provided the facilities for distributing Writers and performers rose to the chal- the programming around the country. lenges of entertaining this rapt audience Of course, the advertisers paid the net- and, with shows continuing for years, works for these services. were able to constantly add to and Under this arrangement, the networks modify the formula of their craft. The did little programming decision making. golden age of radio also allowed As long as the advertiser was happy with unprecedented events to be staged across the program and its time slot and the the country, uniting individuals in the material conformed to the network’s nation unlike any other media ever had standards and policies, it was left alone. before.The most striking of these events The networks distributed the programs occurred in 1938, when Orson Welles’ and collected their money. As a result, exceedingly realistic radio adaptation of many programs aired on radio for years H. G.Wells’s 1898 novel War of the Worlds in the same time slot. Jack Benny was aired. Under Welles’ direction, the play Figure 1.3 The Tommy Dorsey Band was obviously sponsored by cigarettes. Although the home audience couldn’t see them, the enlarged cigarette boxes were prominently placed on stage. Because this program was performed before a live audience, the sponsor’s product was constantly seen by the studio audience. (Photo courtesy KFI.) 1 The History of Programming 5 was performed and written so that it both sight and sound is a long one would sound like a real news broadcast (Figure 1.4). of an invasion of the Earth by Martians. Television’s early duplication of radio A short notice that the production was shows caused radio to take a downturn. fiction played at the beginning of show, Newer and engaging audiences in both not repeated again until nearly 40 sight and sound, television siphoned off minutes into the show. The broadcast radio listeners, giving credence to the created mass, if not universal, panic. fears radio harbored about the threat of Streets were packed with panicked radio television. listeners, people hid in cellars and loaded While radio was floundering, televi- guns, and some even wrapped their sion was experimenting with its poten- heads in wet towels as protection from tial. Not content to merely have poisonous Martian gas. television become “radio with pictures,” This was the power and reach of the early television pioneers, such as radio networks into people’s lives. Leonard Goldenson, who founded the Because most stations of the day were American Broadcasting Company affiliated with one of the four networks (ABC) in 1953, sought to make televi- (NBC, CBS, ABC, or the ill-fated sion unique from radio. Goldenson Mutual Broadcasting System), stations wanted to emphasize television as a mostly transmitted network program- visual medium and sought a movie ming with scant locally produced mate- format instead of a radio format. In his rial. The little the individual stations autobiography, aptly titled Beating the produced on their own was mainly of Odds, he describes his plan: “We would a public service or phonograph music put programs on film and show them on nature. the network the same way we showed feature films in theaters.”5 In so doing, THE INTRODUCTION OF he looked to Hollywood for inspiration TELEVISION AND ITS EFFECT instead of New York, where radio had ON RADIO been king. Figure 1.4 When television broadcasting started to Included here are “The Ed Sullivan Show” (1948, 1932) take off in the late 1940s and early some programs that 1950s, television producers adopted the “The Lone Ranger” (1949, 1933) transferred from network programming methods used in radio to television radio. Once again, advertising agencies “Your Hit Parade” (1950, 1935) during the early provided programs and paid for them in days of television, their entirety—such as “Philco Televi- “You Bet Your Life” (1950, 1947) illustrating how sion Playhouse,” “Kraft Television “The George Burn and Gracie Allen Show” (1950, 1935) radio supplied Theater,” and “Texaco Star Theater.”TV television with adopted not only the programming “The Jack Benny Show” (1950, 1932) some of the new process of radio but also its stars and medium’s signature “The Guiding Light” (1952, 1937) programming.The advertisers. “My Friend Irma” (1952, 1947) first date indicates Numerous radio programs made the when the program transition to television, where they suc- “Our Miss Brooks” (1952, 1948) appeared on cessfully established themselves—many television; the becoming some of early television’s “Gunsmoke” (1955, 1952) second date shows favorite shows.The list of transfers from “The Grand Ole Opry” (1955, 1925) when it started on radio to the medium that featured radio. 6 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

ABC had Goldenson as its visionary station owner Todd Storz was in a bar in the early days. He was not alone, one night in the early 1950s, trying to however, in seeing the potential that drown his sorrows about the decreasing television offered.The Columbia Broad- income of his radio stations. He noticed casting System (CBS) had the legendary that the same musical selections from William Paley whose vision and impec- the jukebox were played over and over. cable taste helped him turn CBS into After almost everyone had left, one of the “Tiffany” network, a symbol of the bar waitresses went to the jukebox quality in news and entertainment pro- and, instead of playing something that gramming. NBC had the skillful entre- hadn’t been heard all evening, inserted preneur David Sarnoff who saw the her nickel and played one of the songs future of television in color. that had been heard over and over. This gave Storz the idea for Top 40 radio, PROGRAMMING CYCLES which he and several other station AND TRENDS owners used to revitalize radio. Obviously, Storz’s “vision,” by itself, True to his vision, Goldenson con- did not revive radio. Another important tracted with Warner Bros., which pro- factor was the rise of rock and roll duced programming for ABC including, music, which gave radio a new sound in 1955, “Cheyenne,” the first prime- and a new audience—teenagers. Thus, time western. By 1959, there were 28 recorded music became the primary fare prime-time westerns on television, illus- of radio and led to a new structure for trating the important tenet that pro- radio programming. Importantly, radio gramming tends to move through became a local rather than a national cycles. medium. Characteristics of the local Anticipating the appeal younger community and the selection of a rigid, viewers offered advertisers, which we daylong format became major factors describe later in this chapter, Goldenson in programming decisions. Advertisers sought to program shows that would no longer supplied entire programs: they attract a younger audience. He did this merely bought commercials within because he was convinced that younger news or music programs. Programming viewers would be more open to change, decision making rested with the local that they would be more willing to turn program managers and station managers, the dial to ABC than older viewers not with advertising agencies as before. reluctant to alter their habits. This kind of counterprogramming strategy TELEVISION’S GOLDEN AGE remains a useful weapon in a program- OF DRAMA mer’s arsenal some 50 years later, not just in television but also in radio and on the The golden age of television is con- Internet. sidered the 1950s, when programs such as “Kraft Theater,” “Alcoa Hour,” RADIO REDUX: THE SWITCH “General Electric Theater,”“Philco Tele- FROM SHOWS TO FORMATS vision Playhouse,” “Playhouse 90,” and “The Texaco Star Theater” flourished, Radio needed to fight back to survive seeking to make television the “theater the threat of television. According to in the home” so many had envisioned. radio lore, the move to bring radio back In keeping with its connection to live to health began when radio group theater and because there was no way to 1 The History of Programming 7 record program material in the early audience. Everett saw Paddy Chayefsky’s days, these shows were almost always teleplay “Marty” as the “quintessential” performed live. The actors, director, and work of the golden age and thought production team rehearsed for 10 days that the title character’s quest to be his and then went on the air live, ready to own man and to “embrace his uncertain conquer the viewing public. future resonated with many of the new One of the reasons the golden age suburban viewers” facing similar chal- figures so prominently in America’s lenges.7 Indeed, “Marty” connected cultural history is that it broke in many with television viewers and went on to performers, writers, and directors who further fame as an Academy Award- went on to significant careers. Actors, winning feature, strengthening televi- for example, include Dustin Hoffman, sion’s position as a place where quality Robert Redford, James Dean, Jon Voigt, mattered. Eva Marie Saint, Marlon Brando, and This view of early television’s golden Paul Newman. Major writers such as age may put too rosy a tint on the pro- Paddy Chayefsky, Rod Serling, Horton gramming of the 1950s, ignoring, for Foote, Gore Vidal, and Tad Mosel wrote example, the control and censorship that teleplays during this time, many of them advertisers exercised. For example, working with legendary television Alcoa, the sponsor of the “Alcoa Hour,” producer Fred Coe, who wanted to in 1956 did not want a lynching in the use television to bring Broadway to teleplay “Tragedy in a Temporary Town” America. Directors such as John to be set in a trailer park because most Frankenheimer, Sidney Lumet, Sidney mobile homes were made of aluminum, Pollack, and Dan Petrie got their start an Alcoa product. Wooden shacks thus during the golden age. had to be substituted for the mobile Drama programming, in particular, park.8 Indeed, not everything on televi- was at this time motivated by a desire to sion during this age was of golden make television be all that it could be quality. by bringing new and established talent During any age, what resonates with into people’s homes. Media observer the public, as we have noted, tends to Anna Everett notes that during the occur in cycles. Many programmers 1950s, “as the nation’s economy grew maintain the quality exemplified by TV’s and the population expanded, television golden age, proving the one constant and advertising executives turned to that matters in programming: quality dramatic shows as a programming strat- depends upon your point of view. egy to elevate the status of television Indeed, some of today’s “quality shows,” and to attract the growing and increas- such as “The West Wing,” “24,” and ingly important suburban family audi- “Hallmark Hall of Fame,” recall televi- ence. ‘Golden age’ dramas quickly sion’s golden age, delivering prestige and became the ideal marketing vehicle for audiences. major U.S. corporations seeking to But from the viewpoint of advertis- display their products favorably before a ing, the entity that pays for most media national audience.”6 programming, shows with mass appeal, Everett saw advertisers using quality although attracting many consumers, dramas to cater to the growing sub- tend to charge the highest rates for urban population. As more middle-class advertising time. If an advertiser’s Americans purchased television sets, product is targeted to a specific group programming appealed to this growing of people, advertising on a quality show 8 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

with mass appeal, although getting the reviews; one reviewer questioning why advertiser’s message to its target audi- TBS called itself a superstation if this ence, may also convey that message to was the kind of program it offered countless others. To receive more “bang viewers.9 The movie, however, scored for the buck,” an advertiser might impressive ratings, beating the competi- choose to advertise during a lower- tion on ABC, Fox, and the WB. It had quality show, a show that appeals more action and good production values, and speciﬁcally, even if less ardently than the its viewers were not disturbed by the quality show, to their target audience. far-fetched plot. Red Water is thus the For example, in 2003,Turner Broadcast- kind of lower-quality, audience-pleasing ing System (TBS) aired a shark movie, show that some advertisers might ﬁnd a Red Water, that received some terrible better buy.

DIRECTOR DAN PETRIE RECALLS TELEVISION’S GOLDEN AGE

Director Dan Petrie, whose television known as “going on to fax” (“fax” credits include “Sybil,” “Eleanor and stands for “facilities”). For an hour Franklin: The White House Years,” and program, for example, there would be the 1985 live television movie, “The two days “on fax.” There would Execution of Raymond Graham” and be a run-through before the dress whose feature credits include Buster rehearsal. Some actors would be and Billie, Lifeguard, and Resurrection, comfortable going on live after the got his start in 1950 in Chicago with rehearsal; others would not. Petrie “Studs’ Place,” a drama created by remembers that the silent-screen star Studs Terkel. He had been teaching Dorothy Gish was so terriﬁed of going at Creighton University in Omaha, on live that when he wished her well, Nebraska, where the equipment from she asked that he pray for her. Another WOWTV was housed. actor froze during the broadcast and Petrie used this equipment to direct was only able to repeat one of his lines, several programs, including a Johnny “Call me Bunny,” no matter what was Carson magic show. After 26 episodes said to him, forcing the other actors of “Studs’ Place,” Petrie headed to to improvise with lines such as, “And New York, where he directed many you’ll remember, Bunny, that you were of television’s golden age presenta- scheduled to go to the hotel to inquire tions—for example, numerous presen- about the whereabouts of your sister tations of “The US Steel Hour,” who has been missing for years.” including the original “Bang the Drum During rehearsals of a show in which Slowly” with a then-unknown Paul he played a deranged man, Lon Newman in 1957. He also cast James Chaney, Jr., picked up the furniture Dean in such programs as “Treasury he was supposed to destroy during Men in Action,” always looking for the the broadcast and said, “and then I go opportunity to cast Dean as a ne’er do like this,” stopping short of dropping the well. Seeing her as a star on the rise, furniture. Petrie recalled that during he cast Grace Kelly in an episode of the broadcast, instead of following “Somerset Maugham Theatre” even through and breaking the furniture, he after she turned down the $75 top-of- did exactly what he had rehearsed. He show offer, demanding and getting picked up the furniture and said “and $125. then I go like this,” again putting the Regarding the process involved in furniture down without breaking it. live television, Petrie recalled that after Recalling the inﬂuence of adver- several days of rehearsals, the cast tisers on programming during the and crew would move into the facilities golden age, Petrie remembered when where the show was to be broadcast, an agency representative came into 1 The History of Programming 9

the control room and saw that one of cast her in the “Robert Montgomery the technicians was smoking a ciga- Presents” production he was directing. rette that was not the brand sponsor- Sherwood needed work, but Petrie ing the show. Petrie was called over knew that she could not be cleared. and told to have the man get rid of the Still, he thought casting her as an extra cigarette or be fired. Petrie understood might slip her under the radar. During that if he did not follow through and a rehearsal, however, the agency have the man get rid of the cigarette, representative showed up, zoomed he too would be fired, even though in on Sherwood, and demanded that what was going on in the control room Petrie “get rid of her.” Again, it was would never be seen by viewers. understood by Petrie that if he did not For Petrie, the advertisers’ greatest get rid of her, he would be fired as well. interference in the creative process Petrie is not sure if the sponsor com- was the blacklist, a list of performers plained or if legendary television deemed un-American for alleged golden-age producer Robert Mont- Communist ties. All performers had to gomery (father of “Bewitched” televi- be “cleared” of any association with sion star Elizabeth Montgomery) was Communism before they could be offended, but he was fired after his cast, and no one on the list could be second assignment directing a “Robert cleared. Petrie remembered being Montgomery Presents” because he called by blacklisted actress Madeleine cast a black actor as the roommate of Sherwood, essentially begging him to a white man.

QUIZ SHOWS TAKE radio and some of the single-sponsored CENTER STAGE presentations of the golden age of television, but it temporarily solved the The idea of advertisers supplying pro- budget problem. gramming did not work as well in tele- In addition, strong-minded TV execu- vision as it once had in radio. There tives were becoming more interested were several reasons. For one, television in controlling their own programs. programming was much more expensive Sylvester L. “Pat” Weaver, while presi- than radio programming. Advertisers dent of NBC from 1953 to 1955, who had easily been able to underwrite devised what he called the magazine the costs of several actors capable of concept. Advertisers bought commer- changing voices to play several parts, a cial insertions in programs such as sound effects person, a small core of “Today” and “Tonight” but had no say audio technicians, a few writers, and a about program content. Those decisions director found the visual demands for were in the hands of the networks. scenery, props, and additional actors and The trend toward complete network behind-the-scenes personnel more than control was accelerated in 1959 when they could handle financially.As a result, the quiz show scandals broke. Quiz cosponsorship sprang up.Two or more programs on which contestants won companies would share the costs of large amounts of money had become producing and distributing a television extremely popular. Contestants on “The series. Programs would be “brought to $64,000 Question” and “Twenty-One” you by Colgate toothpaste, Oldsmobile, were locked in soundproof booths and Marlboro cigarettes.” This form of where they agonized and perspired as advertising made it harder for the viewer they tried to answer very difficult ques- to identify the program with a specific tions.The programs were so popular that product than it had been with early Revlon, the company that produced 10 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

“The $64,000 Question,” found its The television quiz show scandals products had sold out nationwide. were dramatized in a 1994 feature film, The problem was that some of the Quiz Show, directed by Robert Redford more popular contestants on the shows and starring Ralph Fiennes as Charles had been coached about the questions Van Doren. The film was based on a they were to answer and about how to section of Richard Goodwin’s book, act to build suspense and sympathy (see Remembering America. Goodwin, who the “Twenty-One” sidebar). This was was portrayed by Rob Morrow in the done in the name of entertainment so film, spearheaded the grand jury inves- that lively, personable contestants could tigation of the quiz shows. remain on the air and the duller, less likable ones would be defeated.

CONTESTANT HERBIE SEMPLE DESCRIBES THE COACHING HE RECEIVED FOR “TWENTY-ONE”

After they picked me, the producer, It was all done to increase suspense. Dan Enright, took me in hand. He told The contestants were put into an me that we would go over the ques- isolation booth, supposedly to prevent tions and answers before each show. coaching from the producers or the He would be my coach. He told me audience. Sometimes they shut off the not to worry. I wasn’t doing anything air conditioning in the booth so that I wrong. It was just entertainment, show would sweat while pretending to con- business, and everyone knew that was centrate. We all had a role to play. make-believe. But don’t tell anyone, or I was the poor boy from Brooklyn. . . . you’ll get into a lot of trouble. I was supposed to wear the same old They made sure I always worked suit every week, and a shirt with a with the same man. It was the same frayed collar. Once I wore a new suit. with all the other contestants. They Producer Dan Enright got mad. “You’re thought if something went wrong, if not doing your homework, Herbie,” he someone complained or said he had complained. been fixed, it would just be one The contests were usually close. person’s word against another’s. Each question was worth a certain Nothing could be proved. They didn’t number of points, and the first contes- realize, or didn’t care, that as the show tant to reach twenty-one was the went on, a producer would have to fix winner. The prize money was scaled several contestants. They thought they according to the point spread between were protecting themselves. But even you and your opponent. So they that was make-believe. wanted to keep the difference small. My producer didn’t just give me the But as long as you kept winning you answers, but told me how I should stayed on the show.... behave. If the questions had four parts, The whole show was a fraud. for example, I was to hesitate on part Remember how they made a big thing three, pretend to be puzzled, ask if we of keeping the questions in a bank could return to it after I had given the vault? Every week a bank official would answer to the fourth part. Jack Barry come on the show and hand Barry a (the on-air quizmaster) would agree sealed envelope to be opened in front and, after my correct response, would of the audience. Of course, the pro- say “Now, Herbie, let’s try that third ducer had a copy of those questions in one again.” I was supposed to pause, his desk all week. They’re the ones appear as if I was straining, laboring to who wrote them.10 recall, and then look up toward the camera with the right answer. 1 The History of Programming 11

As Goodwin writes, the “exposure of ceasing to rely on advertisers and adver- the quiz show fraud took on monstrous tising agencies for programming, it was proportions.”11 It was seen as a massive only after the quiz show scandals that betrayal of public trust, America’s loss of television fully embraced a new way of innocence. Much to Goodwin’s displea- programming. After the scandals, the sure, the networks did not reap most networks, which were already on their of the blame, claiming they also were way to controlling programming, really deceived and blaming the producers and took over. They began selling commer- advertisers. cial time in most of their shows rather Goodwin believes the networks knew than allowing advertisers to sponsor what was being done. He accuses the them. networks of cowardice on a grand scale, This change led to a new philosophy quoting critic John Crosby who wrote of program decision making. Networks that “the moral squalor of the quiz show began to consider their programming mess reaches through the whole indus- schedule as an overall entity. Previously, try. Nothing is what it seems in televi- a network generally continued to air a sion . . . the feeling of high purpose, of program as long as the advertiser was manifest destiny that lit the industry satisfied with it. But after the quiz show when it was young . . . is long gone.”12 scandals, networks had to take responsi- Indeed, the networks fired anyone, bility for the programs they broadcast— guilty or innocent, who was publicly and they started to exercise authority associated with the quiz shows. over them, using programming to optimize profits from advertising. By the THE TELEVISION NETWORKS 1960s, the amount of money a network TAKE OVER PROGRAMMING could charge for a commercial depended on its rating. Networks, For our purposes, the effect of the quiz instead of depending on advertisers, show scandals cannot be overempha- depended on the public; the networks sized.Tabloid headlines proclaimed tele- wanted shows that produced ratings and vision’s betrayal of the bond between thus allowed higher advertising rates. the broadcasters and the public, fueling Even if an advertiser wanted to pay the the furor. As people became increasingly total cost of a program, the network cynical about television, trust needed to might not want the program because it be restored. One ready solution was proved to be a poor lead-in to another to create broadcast standards and program that contained commercials practices departments to function as from several advertisers. overseers that censored objectionable This happened in 1963 when the programming, thus reassuring the public “Voice of Firestone” was canceled. The that responsible people were minding Firestone Tire Company was the sole the store. More importantly, television sponsor of this half-hour classical music changed the way it operated; specifically, TV program on ABC on Monday nights advertisers who had controlled televi- at 8:30. The audience was small but sion programming during its infancy, appreciative, and Firestone wanted to including television’s golden age, lost continue sponsoring the program. their status as the primary programmers Unfortunately, the low rating for the at the networks. show provided a poor lead-in for the Whereas radio networks had already show that aired at 9:00 P.M. After revitalized their programming strategies, Harvey Firestone, the chairman of the 12 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

advertisers. Both public radio and television had been around earlier than the 1960s in a weak form usually called “educational broadcasting.”The government had set aside part of the FM band, 88.1 to 91.9, for noncommercial radio services and had reserved specific TV channels in each major market for educational TV. Programming decisions for all educational stations were made locally. Most of the radio stations played classical music and produced talk shows that featured one or two people plus some programs from other local educational stations supplied through an Figure 1.5 company, refused to move the show to exchange that mailed programs from Public television’s Sunday afternoons, ABC cut its losses station to station. first big hit was and canceled the show. Although there was some excellent “Sesame Street,” In the 1960s, network programmers programming such as “The Great Amer- which reflected the started exercising their muscle by con- ican Dream Machine,”“The NET Play- changes to quality trolling what shows would air. Using house,” and “Black Journal,” produced brought about by available research sources, they deter- by African-Americans, most of the the Public Broadcasting Act of mined what the public wanted to see: product that aired as educational broad- 1967. The selecting a program such as “Batman,” casting was extremely dull. children’s program which became the first midseason show Then, in 1967, Congress passed the was produced by in 1965, or a program such as “The Public Broadcasting Act, which imple- the Children’s Fugitive,” which portrayed in a sympa- mented most of the recommendations Television thetic manner a man convicted of a made by a blue-ribbon Carnegie Com- Workshop and crime. mission set up to develop improvements began airing in Radio too had started researching its for educational broadcasting. The Cor- 1969. (Photo programming decisions—which songs poration for Public Broadcasting (CPB) courtesy to play for which audiences and how was devised to receive funding from Children’s often. More about the development of the government and apportion it among Television testing and evaluation strategies is local public TV stations, the Public Workshop/ Richard covered in subsequent chapters. Broadcasting Service (PBS) TV net- Termine.) work, local public radio stations, and a THE DEVELOPMENT OF radio network, National Public Radio PUBLIC BROADCASTING (NPR). With this infusion of money from the government, the quality of The purest version of network pro- public broadcasting programming gramming began in the 1960s when improved significantly (Figure 1.5). public broadcasting of radio and televi- The noncommercial programming sion started. By “pure” we mean that the structure is different from that of the content and shows produced and aired commercial networks. In television, PBS by public broadcasting, at least as it was does not produce any programming first envisioned, were determined by the itself but rather relies upon its affiliated network without concern for the wants “member” stations to produce shows of advertisers—because there were no that it can offer to other stations. Some 1 The History of Programming 13 examples of affiliate-created shows are message is coming across. In brief, they the popular “Antiques Roadshow,” and cannot ignore ratings and want to know the critically acclaimed “Frontline,” pro- that the shows they are underwriting are duced by WGBH in Boston, and delivering an audience.Thus, contrary to “Frontier House” and “Charlie Rose,” the original intent of public broadcast- produced by WNET in New York. PBS ing, ratings have come into play, espe- also acquires programming from foreign cially as audiences have become more countries, such as “Teletubbies” pro- fragmented and some cable stations have duced by the British Broadcasting Cor- adopted some of public television’s fare. poration (BBC), and from independent Reluctantly, PBS head Pat Mitchell producers, as evidenced in PBS’s show- acknowledged the quest for ratings on ing of many independent short films public broadcasting and tried to mini- and documentaries. mize reports of declining ratings for In public radio, on the other hand, PBS. Underwriters also want their NPR produces much of its own pro- “message of support” to avoid being too gramming—which sets it apart from discreet. ExxonMobil requested full 30- commercial radio networks that often second spots to continue underwriting make programming decisions and do “Masterpiece Theatre,” and even when much production at the local level. this concession was granted, they pulled NPR also acquires limited material from out, looking for other avenues to other sources, such as from its member explore. ExxonMobil may have chosen stations. It may acquire shows to make to explore other avenues, but 30-second them national, as it did with WBUR in spots, which are increasingly like com- Boston’s “Car Talk,” or air shows such as mercial advertisements, are now more “Fresh Air with Terry Gross,” produced common on public broadcasting. PBS is by WHYY in Philadelphia. NPR’s adamant that its messages are not adver- reluctance to air material from public tisements, insisting it is careful not to radio stations led several of these stations cross the line because its messages do to form a competing network in 1983, not mention prices, price comparisons, American Public Radio, which, in 1994, or inducements to buy and do not after taking a more global stance, include jingles or location information. changed its name to Public Radio Inter- However, Jeffrey Chester of the Center national (PRI). NPR and PRI, however, for Digital Democracy said that it is are not mutually exclusive organiza- wrong for PBS to insist that its under- tions—many local public radio stations, writing messages are not advertisements, such as KCRW in Los Angeles, program blaming the FCC for laxity. He says, material from both networks in their “but even if it walks and quacks like an daily schedules, such as NPR’s “All ad, the FCC says it’s not an ad.”13 Things Considered” news program and PRI’s “Marketplace” financial show. THE FINANCIAL INTEREST Public broadcasting has significantly AND DOMESTIC changed in recent years, causing some SYNDICATION RULE observers to question whether the Federal Communications Commission When advertising agencies were phased (FCC) qualified too many stations into out as suppliers of programs, the net- existence. Because money is tighter and works found other means of obtaining underwriters want to know their money program material.They produced a great is properly allocated and that their deal of it themselves and bought from 14 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

established feature production compa- inserted into their network reruns, but nies. They also started buying from many independent stations saw that new independent production companies, much more advertising money would be such as Mary Tyler Moore’s MTM, available to them if they could compete Norman Lear’s Tandem-TAT, and Aaron with network programs instead of just Spelling Production that had formed rerunning them. specifically to produce programs for With the power of the networks television. The networks underwrote diminished as a result of fin-syn, and most of the cost of production for the with the FCC’s simultaneous authoriza- right to air the program and to sell tion of more broadcast television commercials within it. In addition, the stations, the role and presence of networks received part of the profit independent stations expanded. In from the sale of the show in the syndi- 1961, before fin-syn, there were only 28 cation or rerun markets. With all of stations unaffiliated with one of the these revenue sources, television net- major networks. In 1979 there were works started to look like fat cats getting 103, in 1989 there were 339,14 and in rich off of the “public” airwaves. 1994 there were 400.15 In 1970, the FCC took a hard look These independent stations, although at this situation, declaring that the net- still showing network reruns, began to works had too much power. As a result, struggle to offer the public something the FCC instituted financial interest different and to fill the remaining hours and domestic syndication (fin-syn) of their broadcast day. Initially, indepen- rules that barred networks from having dents started running theatrical films a financial interest in programs produced broken by commercials. They later by outside production companies. The branched out to original, first-run pro- networks could no longer receive part grams, usually produced by third-party of the profits when the programs were production companies called “syndica- sold to stations as syndicated reruns. tors” who sold product to stations as Rules were also instituted that limited opposed to networks. With so many the amount of programming networks independent stations on the air, hungry could produce themselves. for programming, and with fin-syn laws requiring the networks to purchase pro- THE RISE OF INDEPENDENT grams from third-party syndicators, STATIONS AND SYNDICATORS syndication blossomed into a big and diverse business. A handful of independent television stations unaffiliated with one of the THE EXPLOSION OF CABLE major networks—NBC, CBS, or ABC— had existed since early television. Until Meanwhile, a sleeping giant was about the 1970s, the programming on inde- to awaken in the middle of the already pendent stations was confined mainly to rapidly changing television landscape. reruns of network shows. These inde- Cable television had been around since pendent stations seemed to the public to the early days of television broadcasting. be little more than younger siblings trot- No one knows exactly how it began, ting out worn, hand-me-down clothes but one story says that it was started by that the networks had outgrown. The the owner of a little appliance store in independent stations collected limited central Pennsylvania around 1947. He revenues from local commercial spots noticed that he was selling sets only to 1 The History of Programming 15 people who lived on one side of the town. When he investigated, he found that people on the other side could not receive a good signal. So he placed an antenna on top of the hill and ran the signals through a cable down the hill to the homes with poor reception. When someone on the weak side bought a TV set from him, he hooked them to the cable (Figure 1.6). Cable grew during the early days because the only way communities without TV stations were able to obtain TV programs was to put up an antenna, catch the signals as they traveled through the air, and run a cable, often strung from tree to tree, to individual homes. From the 1940s to the 1970s, cable TV was mainly used to retransmit signals from cable systems showed a distant channel Figure 1.6 existing TV stations. Usually these were playing the same program (e.g., the same Early cable TV local stations, but as time passed cable “I Love Lucy” episode) as the local systems placed an companies imported station signals from station because this practice obviously antenna on top of distant areas to provide their customers lessened the audience size for the local a hill to catch with a wider variety of programming. station. The FCC responded by estab- television station signals.Then a Because the cable signals traveled lishing a rule called syndicated exclu- wire with the though wire and not through the air- sivity, which said that cable systems had station signals in waves, cable systems had more usable to black out the distant station when the it, was run down channels than broadcasting could programming was the same. But gener- the hill and accommodate. For example, no local ally the FCC left cable alone to grow attached to various area could air broadcast stations on both on the fringes of the rapidly expanding homes. channel 5 and channel 6 because the television universe, and local govern- two signals would interfere. But on ments granted numerous cable cable, where the signals were shielded, franchises. all the channels (then 2 through 13) But all this changed in the late 1970s could be used. As a result, some of the when Home Box Office (HBO) began cable systems provided viewers with selling a satellite-delivered movie service inexpensive “local programming” placed to local cable systems. Although this was on one of the extra unused channels. a difficult sell at first, mainly because The most common form of this “pro- cable systems did not want to invest in gramming” was a thermometer and the satellite dish needed to receive the barometer with a camera focused on signal, once the idea caught on, the them to allow local residents to see the floodgates opened. A variety of cable temperature and barometric pressure. networks sprung up, offering program- Not much was needed in the way of ming to be placed on the spare channels program decision making. of the cable systems. So much program- Not much was needed in the way of ming became available that engineers regulation either. Broadcast stations devised ways to show more than 12 complained to the FCC when some channels through the TV set. 16 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Between 1980 and 2003, the number local radio stations—they provide of households subscribing to cable TV content, such as national news reports (and its subsequent companion, satellite and other programs that appeal to local TV) grew from 22% to 80%. From 1980 audiences in many locations. to 2001, the advertising dollars spent went from a meager $53 million to a NEW NETWORKS WITH robust $14.5 billion, and the number of TARGETED AND NICHE programming networks from 1980 to PROGRAMMING 2003 rose from 8 to 290.16 Cities that had not needed cable TV because the While networks were losing their defi- reception was excellent suddenly found nition in radio, new networks were numerous companies pounding on the developing in television. The first of doors of city hall—all begging for fran- these networks, the Fox Broadcasting chises to lay cable in the area and collect Company, started operation in 1987. their part of the pot of gold at the end The WB (1990), Universal–Paramount of what seemed to be a promising Network (UPN, 1995), and PAX (1998) rainbow. followed. Essentially, cable television services When Fox began, it was not officially added more independent channels to a network because it did not broadcast the already expanding listing of inde- more than 15 hours of programming a pendents. Though some of the new week (the legal amount needed to be channels, such as ESPN and Cable considered a network). It nevertheless News Network (CNN), produced most provided a large block of programming of their own programming, many of for many independent stations and cut the new cable stations clamored for down on their immediate need for syn- more programming from syndicators, dicated material. further strengthening the business of Standing in the shadow of the three syndication. big networks, CBS, NBC, and ABC, these fledgling networks, if they were SYNDICATION IN RADIO to survive, had to find a way to wean advertisers from their longstanding rela- Strong national networks, of the kind tionships with the majors. Instead of that persisted in television, were a thing trying to compete head to head, these of the past for radio—it evolved into upstarts focused on creating program- a local medium. But although there ming that appealed to specific groups of were no laws like fin-syn governing viewers. The initial lineup at Fox, for where radio stations obtained their pro- example, was geared toward urban hip- gramming, radio stations started to pur- sters. PAX appealed to viewers seeking chase programming from third-party wholesome family entertainment; UPN syndicators. to urban audiences seeking comedies In radio, the line between a network with an ethnic vibe; and the WB to and a syndicator has blurred. Radio sta- teens, teens, and more teens. tions select material provided by net- On cable television, a similar, though works, syndicators, and their own local more focused, change occurred as pro- programmers and mesh it into a unified gramming executives sought to give their whole with a local feel. In other words, networks a clear identity. If the majors both networks and syndicators serve the were broadcasters seeking the widest pos- same purpose to the programming of sible audiences, the cable networks went 1 The History of Programming 17 after the smaller, targeted audience (a Heaven,” and “One Tree Hill.”What the technique known as narrowcasting). WB is proclaiming loudly and con- This became known as the search for the sistently is that its shows attract the “niche” audience—committed viewers desirable younger viewers; that the who identified with the programming of household ratings may not be in the top a particular cable network. 10 or the top 20 is secondary, because These changes forced the big three to it is the young demographic that counts, change, too, as you will observe in the not the household rating. next section, where we examine some Ron Kobata, formerly a WB/KTLA key broadcasting trends. sales executive, says that the WB appeals to younger viewers. Younger viewers THE QUEST FOR A YOUNG are what advertisers want, not entire DEMOGRAPHIC households. Even syndication, which has tradi- Following the arrival of cable and niche tionally been viewed as a haven for older programming, mass appeal ceased to be viewers, wants to lay claim to young the primary goal of the majors. No viewers. A study by Nielsen Media longer were they competing simply for Research, released in July 2003 by the a broad audience. It was the right audi- Syndicated Network Association, says ence that became the key to success. that “About 72% of the audience watch- Many advertisers started to favor certain ing sitcoms in syndication is in the adult groups, or demographics, of con- 18–49 demographic, compared to 61% sumers. The coveted demographic of the sitcom audience on cable TV.”17 quickly became 18 to 49 year olds, This quest for young viewers signifi- ideally 18 to 34.The assumption behind cantly affected today’s programming. If this thinking is that young viewers are a program tests “old” or is perceived to freer with their disposable income and appeal only to older viewers, chances are that it is important for advertisers to it will have a hard time getting on or establish brand loyalty early. For staying on a schedule. A show such as example, young people may not be able CBS’s “The Guardian,”which, according to afford a new car, but when they can to researchers, was not watched by many afford one they will purchase the car under 50, could not remain on the air they are aware of through advertising indefinitely; it was canceled before the and they will be loyal to that brand start of the 2004–2005 season. The throughout their lives. So goes the desire for the young demographic influ- thinking, and finding shows that appeal ences story selection, language, and most to a young audience has become a pro- notably pacing. The strategies or types grammer’s primary mission. of programming that proved effective This belief in the power and attrac- with the 18 to 49 demographic are tiveness of the young demographic taken into account when developing helped Fox when it first aired. The new programming. ratings were not stellar, but young people were watching Fox.This became VIEWING PATTERNS AND a point of pride, something positive that CHANGING AUDIENCE Fox could say about its slate of shows. ATTENTION SPANS Similarly, the WB has received strong advertising dollars for shows such as In 1983, a new cable network, Music “Smallville,” “Gilmore Girls,” “7th Television (MTV), caught fire with the 18 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

18 to 49 demographic. Some people expository scenes. Likewise, in radio, credit (or discredit) MTV’s success in talk show hosts go for the controversial, this demographic with subsequent explosive comment, frequently ignoring changes in the pacing and cohesion (or the background information. Or, in the incoherence) of television program- case of so-called shock jocks, such as ming. The fledgling network featured Howard Stern, programmers and pro- back-to-back 3-minute music videos, ducers assure that each moment of turning the longstanding television material is so inflammatory that it staple of hour or half-hour shows on needs no introduction or denouement its ear. to catch—and hook—a listeners’ ear. In Not only were the “shows” short, but 2003, there were more than 1300 talk they often sacrificed storylines in favor stations in the country,18 most of them of spectacle. In some ways, this was the employing such attention-getting nature of the music video beast. How tactics. do you make a story out of a song Many point to the 1986 debut of with a single sentiment, such as Cyndi Steven Bochco’s NBC show “LA Law” Lauper’s “Girls Just Wanna Have Fun” as the start of the trend toward short, or the Thompson Twins’ “Hold Me action-packed scenes in traditional tele- Now”? The nonstop spectacle of the vision drama. Programmers think they music video, many cultural critics have have to keep it moving to keep the suggested, reduced viewers’ attention viewer from using the dreaded remote. spans—accustoming them to non- A show such as Fox’s short-lived “30 stop action rather than nuanced Seconds to Fame,” on which contestants development. performed for a mere 30 seconds to To be fair, nonstop action was not a compete for a $25,000 prize, did indeed new development with MTV or a new keep it moving. In the half-hour show, concern in television. Programs such as 24 hopefuls had a half-minute each to “I Love Lucy” put a high premium on, make an impression.The creators of this as Lucille Ball put it, not “losing” the show assumed that viewers could not audience by keeping things moving.The get bored in 30 seconds. criticism that many levy at today’s Shorter attention spans have created a action, though, is that it often relies on new viewing style called dropping in, simple visual stimulation rather than the which takes place when viewers choose dramatic tension that “I Love Lucy” to view only a short sequence of a the- used. In the late 1990s, some shows, atrical movie that has aired several times especially children’s cartoons, became so on television. Many viewers are too rest- reliant on quick cuts and flashy graph- less to watch all of a repeat airing of ics that they were linked to causing Pretty Woman, a favorite drop-in movie, epileptic seizures in their young viewers. but they are willing to tune in for a With so many entertainment choices favorite scene—for example, when Julia available on the networks, independents, Roberts puts down the salesgirl who and cable, programmers believe that they had been rude to her. cannot risk losing their targeted audi- Producers are challenged by the quest ence because a show is not moving for numerous short scenes. For example, quickly enough. Quick action scenes are a television movie in the early 1980s often substituted for fully developed might have had 80 scenes in it. Today, ones. In television, it is assumed viewers that same movie would be likely to have would rather see the action than several 150 scenes, with no increase in the 1 The History of Programming 19 license fee or in the number of shoot- THE DECLINE OF LONGFORM ing days. How is a producer to make this PROGRAMMING work? Additional scenes require time and money, and neither is available in The decline of longform programming the current market. It is not easy to keep that started in the early 1990s is another adding new scenes, and it requires a lot significant change in the broadcasting of inventiveness on the part of the pro- landscape, one directly connected to duction team to make a tighter, more viewers’ shorter attention spans (Figure complicated schedule work. But pro- 1.7).Viewers find it increasingly difficult grammers are ever fearful of losing the to commit to watching a 2-hour block. audience’s attention, and one way to By the 1990s, programmers might have guard against this is to pack more action questioned whether viewers would and less talk or introspection into a commit to a miniseries that lasted scene. more than 4 hours, such as “Roots,” Shorter attention spans coupled with “The Winds of War,” or “Shogun,” but the large number of people who multi- now it is considered iffy to expect a task while watching television make pro- viewer to invest even 2 hours in a tele- grammers think they have to bombard vision movie that is not presold with the audience with action to keep them name recognition much less to commit interested. The threats of video games to a 4 or more hour miniseries spread and Internet activity make programming over several days or weeks (see the an increasingly difficult task. miniseries sidebar).

Figure 1.7 The teleﬁlm “Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders,” directed by Bruce Bilson, was the highest rated TV movie of the 1978–1979 season. It aired when longform programming was at its peak. (Photo courtesy Bruce Bilson.) 20 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

ing upon PBS’s “edutainment” mission, MINISERIES TAKE CENTER PBS finds itself fighting for audiences STAGE like everyone else and adjusting its pro- Susan Baerwald and Christy Welker gramming strategies accordingly. were both heads of miniseries at In public radio, however, the pressure the networks, Baerwald at NBC and to turn to high-octane programming is Welker at ABC. They were in charge not as strong.With much lower produc- when longform programming function costs than television, public radio tioned as the flagship of the networks. Miniseries tapped the medium’s stations that try to tell the whole story, potential and earned large audiences rather than just the sensational sound over several nights. Some point to bites, can more easily attract a small but “Rich Man, Poor Man” (1976) as the loyal audience that will support and keep first major miniseries, but it was their efforts solvent through individual “Roots” in 1977 that revolutionized television programming, leading to an contributions. In addition, public radio impressive list of hits: from “The listeners tend to skew into the middle- Winds of War,” “Ike,” “Shogun,” “Holo- to upper-income levels, drawing compa- caust,” and “The Thornbirds” to the nies that sell luxury items as under- 30-hour “War and Remembrance” writers for costs not met by government in 1988Ð1989, the Emmy Award- and individual contributions. winning miniseries that killed the form because it cost a then-unprece- But in commercial radio, the trend dented $100 million and did not bring toward shorter forms started long before in a large enough audience. Both it hit television. Although many drive executives emphasized the impor- time shows may last several hours, they tance of presenting a fully developed typically jump quickly from topic to story as keys to programming success. Fully fleshed stories given topic, always teasing new topics before adequate time to unfold succeeded on frequent commercial breaks. television until the audience looked Interestingly, shorter attention spans elsewhere for its entertainment. seem to coincide with individuals’ ability to handle fragmented, nonlinear stories. In her article “Filing the Film Fragments Together,” Deborah Horn- If there is a place where contempla- blow notes that viewers are not put off tive, slower-moving television drama by fragmented narratives, such as the that harkens to the golden age of tele- ones in the feature films Adaptation and vision persists, it is on public television, The Hours. She attributes this ability although ExxonMobile’s withdrawal as partly to the Internet, television, inter- named underwriter of “Masterpiece active computer games, and computer Theater” in 2003 suggests a possible end use. Television shows such as “The to an era of leisurely storytelling on Wire,” the departed but still critically public television. PBS’s increasing acclaimed “Boomtown,” and “24” illus- dependence on funding from viewers trate this type of fragmented, quick- and corporate underwriters, rather than scenes contemporary programming.19 traditionally nonmarket driven money from the government, puts the future of SUPERCHARGED this bastion of leisurely storytelling in PROGRAMMING CHOICES: question. With cable television stations THE INTERNET such as Bravo, Arts & Entertainment (A&E), Trio, and the History Channel The ultimate in catering to audience co-opting and, some would say, improv- attention spans, however, is engendered in 1 The History of Programming 21 the World Wide Web, which started delayed broadcast on ABC. Audience entering the mass culture of the United members with tape recorders, of course, States in the mid-1990s. With hypertext, also had the option to record radio pro- links, and ever-present search engines, the grams and listen to them again, but this audience can wander off as quickly, as capacity did not have a marked effect on often, and as far as they wish. radio programming strategies. The key for programmers of web Likewise, in 1980 the videocassette content is to make a website sticky— recorder (VCR) was introduced into the in other words, not necessarily to keep commercial market, and by the late viewers on one page of the site but to 1990s it was nearly as common a fixture give the viewer a diverse buffet of in consumer’s homes as television sets. content that will keep them moving Programmers first saw the VCR as a from one page to another without click- danger to their carefully laid program- ing to another site. Though modes for ming choices. Members of the public advertising on websites, and therefore no longer needed to watch programs generating direct revenue, are still when the network executives wanted developing, advertisements are generally them to; they could tape them and placed as banners along the periphery of watch at their own convenience, each page. This mode of advertising, skipping through commercials. But unlike channel changing with radio and notorious interface challenges with television, makes audience choices to setting up a VCR’s record timer dulled move to other content desirable because the device’s promise—and threat. it exposes viewers to new advertise- Although many people learned to ments—as long as they stay “stuck” in operate their VCRs, the device’s main the domain. effect was to draw viewers’ attention Equally important for web program- from broadcast programming. Video mers is giving the visitor the impression rental stores sprung up everywhere, that content on the site is regularly giving audiences more choice about updated, thus giving them a reason to what to watch at home. return. Through experience, web pro- The late 1990s and early 2000s saw grammers have found that users are not the introduction of souped-up digital shy about complaining if a site is not versions of the videotape and VCR. updated often enough. Digital video discs (DVDs) offer higher- quality reproduction of video material NEW MEDIA RECORDING than videotape, and set-top hard-disk TECHNOLOGIES video-recording devices, such as TIVO, have user interfaces that make recording Although less interactive than the Inter- programs for later viewing much easier net, many other new technologies have than the VCR did.With this new tech- and are affecting television and radio nology, programmers are wringing their programming. hands as they did with the introduction Magnetic audio tape was introduced in of the VCR.And advertisers worry that the late 1940s, but its effect on radio was the ease with which hard-disk video most noticed on the production side. recorders can skip commercials will Shows could now be prerecorded for force them to reconsider the traditional later broadcast. Bing Crosby was the first commercial break advertising strategy— to use this technology, recording 26 moving toward conspicuous product shows for the 1947–1948 season on a placement and product integration Magnetophon recording device for in program material. 22 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Cashing in on viewers’ short attention middle of the night to the horse enthu- spans and the new technologies, both siast’s recorder, which would then store NBC and ABC aired 1- to 3-minute it until the viewer is ready to see it. movies in 2003–2004, NBC hoping that inserting 1-minute movies into com- THE RISE OF CONSUMER- mercial clusters will keep audiences SUPPORTED MEDIA from switching the dial. Some of 1- minute movies aired in four parts. Tele- Although the future of many aspects of vision commercials are able to present a programming may be up in the air, it full story in 30 seconds, so why should is certain that the viewing audience for a 1-minute movie not be able to do the traditional advertiser-supported radio same, particularly when viewers have and television has been, at least partly, such short attention spans? And why not eroded by increasing consumer- have 1-minute soap operas, as Soapnet supported media offerings. tried in 2003–2004? When television was introduced, the By 2002, there were more than film industry feared for its life as more 800,000 households with hard-disk people stayed home to watch the new video recorders. With many consumers, theater beamed into their living rooms especially the prized younger demo- for “free.” Although the audience for graphic, turning to their computers as films took a hit as a result of television, the hub of media consumption, many television no more killed film than film manufacturing companies are experi- killed live performances. Each medium menting with ways to seamlessly pack has its own pull on audiences. Just television, radio, and the Internet into because audiences may have new one multimedia box—with one hard- choices does not mean that they will disk onto which viewers can record abandon the old options. media from any broadcast medium. Still, the number of available con- With all of these technological pos- sumer-supported media options, such sibilities looming, the art of program- as pay-cable networks, DVDs, and video ming may be affected in innumerable games, is becoming more attractive to unknowable ways. What used to be consumers, especially if they have niche markets may become big business. become weary of advertising. In 2002, For example, there are undoubtedly a according to the Communications large group of people who are horse Industry Forecast by merchant bank enthusiasts in the United States. Veronis Suhler Stevenson, U.S. con- However, the number of horse enthusi- sumers spent an average of 3,599 hours asts may not be large enough to make with the various forms of media. Time it a sound financial decision for a cable spent with advertiser-supported media, or satellite company to set aside one of such as traditional radio and television, their 100 or so channels for a 24-hour accounted for 57.8% with consumer- horse channel. But with TIVO or other supported media, such as DVD, pay- computer-augmented recording systems, cable networks, and video games, a de facto horse channel could be accounting for the remaining 42.2%. offered to horse enthusiasts without This is a marked change from just 5 setting aside an actual channel for it. years earlier, in 1997, when the distri- Horse programming could be trans- bution was roughly 68% advertiser- mitted as data in the background, over supported to 32% consumer-supported the Internet, or during off hours in the media.20 1 The History of Programming 23

THE VIDEO GAME EXPLOSION ∑ Three quarters of Nielsen TV households with a male between 8 and 34

Video games, which generate more years own a video game system. income per year than theatrical films, ∑ TV viewership among male gamers age 18 to 34 appears to be slightly allow players to control the action, playing the game when and how they lower than among males age 18 to 34 in general. wish, in the process having a direct ∑ The average male gamer plays video games about 5 times per week and effect on programming. A video game such as “Grand Theft Auto: Vice City” spends at least 30 minutes doing so each time he sits down to play. sold nearly 3 million copies in its first ∑ Nearly as many males 8 to 34 say they prefer playing video games (29%) month on the market in 2003, and the as say they prefer watching TV (33%). This group also prefers playing sports gaming industry as a whole had sales of more than $6.5 billion in 2002.There is (48%) and going to the movies (26%) over video games (13%). no evidence that the video game indus- ∑ More than one quarter (27%) of active male gamers noticed advertising try has reached its peak (Figure 1.8). These dollar figures did not go unno- in the last video game they played, with heavy (31%) and older (35%) gamers ticed by the entertainment industry as being the most likely to recall advertising. video games became an increasingly ∑ integral part of people’s lives, revealing Heavy gamers are particularly enthusiastic about product integration; how the public wants to spend its leisure more than half (52%) like games to contain real products and most (70%) feel time. With the VCR, video games, that real products make a game more “genuine.” TIVO, and the Internet, it is increasingly clear that the public wants to control its programming choices. have attempted to capture the feel of Figure 1.8 A study released in July 2003 by the video games by adopting the same visual Some of the key Pew Internet & American Life project look and narrative style, much in the findings of a 2004 suggests that the public is capable of way feature films such as The Matrix and study conducted by exercising this control. The study found the video-game-based Lara Croft Activision and that both male and female students who movies starring Angelina Jolie are struc- Nielsen. (Courtesy play electronic games are able to do tured like video games. Nielsen.) so without neglecting their studies or 21 becoming loners. Television, which REGULATIONS began as a family viewing activity, has become the solitary activity, and video After the fin-syn regulations limiting gaming with friends has replaced it as the television network’s financial rewards the communal viewing activity. were imposed in 1970, there was, as Video game players are used to greater noted, a proliferation of independent interactivity and to faster action, something stations and independent producers programmers are aware of as they seek to ready to cash in on the lucrative distri- retain an audience.Wanting and needing to bution market. As the number of broad- capture some of the excitement that video cast choices increased with cable and games provide, programmers would love to satellite distribution, an argument sur- bring groups of viewers to the television faced suggesting that strict regulations set in the same way games attract groups were no longer needed. The networks of friends. lobbied hard that mergers did not hurt To accomplish this, television shows program diversity and did not eliminate such as TNT’s “Witchblade,” “Dark local coverage. They did not want to be Angel,” and “Super Mario Brothers” hurt financially, claiming that continued 24 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

∑ In 2002, Warner Bros. Television and in-house studio Turner Television of programs owned wholly or partly by the networks airing the shows were behind 15 of the 18 pilots ordered by the WB. (Figure 1.9). ∑ Walt Disney-owned Touchstone Television produced or coproduced all of Others, such as television critic Alessandra Stanley, disagree vehemently ABC’s comedies and had a piece of at least 21 of 23 pilots. that consolidation of ownership destroys ∑ NBC Studios produced or had a piece of 17 of the 20 pilots that NBC ordered. programming creativity. She cites “The Wire” on HBO, a gritty police show set ∑ 22 At Fox, at least 5 of 10 pilots were from parent company News Corp. in Baltimore created by David Simon. HBO is owned by media conglomerate Figure 1.9 regulations would destroy them. Con- Time Warner, and for Stanley, “The Ownership of glomerate mergers became the norm for Wire” is a risk-taking, worthy show that programming. both television and radio as the FCC has not suffered by the Time Warner surveyed the marketplace, agreeing with ownership. She believes that television the networks and deciding that greater has never been more diverse and that deregulation was in order. dramas in particular are taking many The result of this deliberation was the chances under consolidation.23 Telecommunications Act of 1996, which Consolidation in the ownership of increased the number of radio stations a radio stations raises concerns because of single owner could own. In June 2003, radio’s local reach. Independent musical the FCC got rid of the cross-owner- artists worry about the centralization ship rules that prevented a broadcaster of programming and music selection from owning a newspaper and a televi- decisions, combined with efforts to sion station in the same market and maximize profits to keep corporate allowed a broadcaster to increase hold- stockholders happy. Local artists, in the ings to cover 45% of the country from past, counted on local radio stations to the 35% that the 1996 Telecommunica- help “break” local talent—to either a tions Act permitted. Following much local or a national audience. Radio debate and controversy, the cap was corporation executives—such as John changed to 39% with further modifica- Hogan, chief executive of Clear tions likely. Other chapters will examine Channel Radio, which owned nearly the role of the FCC in detail, but it will 10% of all radio stations in the United suffice here to note that the concentra- States in 2003—insist that although tion of broadcast ownership has signifi- ownership may be centralized, program- cantly affected programming. ming decisions are left to local pro- Many people, producers and govern- gramming directors. They admit, ment representatives alike, believe that however, that their operations are pri- consolidation, which results in fewer marily concerned with economics and owners, has a negative effect on pro- giving the public what they want—not, gramming diversity. They worry that as may have been true in the more programming will become homoge- autonomous past, a passion for exposing nized as fewer different voices are the public to inventive or “new” allowed into the tent. They see fewer music.24 risks being taken and argue that hit This controversy about the influence shows of the past, such as “The Mary of deregulation on programming is not Tyler Moore Show” or “Seinfeld,” likely to go away soon. Too much would never have gotten on the air. money is at stake for both the owners They also object to the growing number and the independent producers. As 1 The History of Programming 25 independents continue to lose ground strong as it was. In addition to produc- to the conglomerates, will creativity and ing their own programming and resist- diversity suffer? This heated debate con- ing American product, several foreign tinues on many fronts. governments, such as China and France, have imposed severe limits on the GLOBALIZATION number of hours of foreign programming that can be aired, thus hampering From the 1970s through the beginning the American seller. When foreign of the 1990s, the active foreign market broadcasters adapt successful shows that eased the way for producers and pro- aired in America, they must adjust the grammers. Significant money could be formats to suit local customs. For made through foreign distribution, example, Dubai failed to adjust the enabling programmers to relax a bit reality show “Big Brother” to local about budgets as they anticipated that standards in 2003, and the show was the foreign dollars would provide ade- canceled within a month. When this quate money to produce a quality pro- happens, the negative influence of duction. Likewise, producers were more Western culture is blamed, making it willing to take on large deficits because even more difficult for American pro- they would recoup their investment gramming to sell abroad. abroad. Germany used to be a major market Shows that portrayed Americans in a for Americans, but it no longer buys particular light sold well abroad and at the rate it used to. One has only to made international stars of the cast attend a National Association of Televi- members. Many times, a performer sion Program Executives (NATPE) whose star had faded in the United convention, where producers and dis- States remained a significant draw abroad tributors meet to sell their programs, to and a major selling point for foreign realize how difficult it is to make deals sales, though of little value to American abroad.The convention center floors are network executives. Oftentimes, pro- quiet, and cash registers do not ring. For grammers still have to swallow casting example, a television movie that would such performers in a project simply to have generated in excess of $1 million keep the foreign potential alive. in foreign sales several years ago will be Shows such as “Baywatch,” which lucky to bring in $400,000—and that featured beautiful people doing heroic is little cause for joy. Often, there is actions; “Beverly Hills, 90210,” which no sale, particularly if the program is revealed American teenagers at their deemed too soft, as is the case with photogenic best; and “Twin Peaks,” many movies made for Lifetime, the which revealed a quirkier side of the network for women. Even if there is a American way of life performed well sale, it is often the poorer countries that abroad. But the foreign market dried up continue to buy American shows at low in the last part of the 20th century, rates; the richer countries focus on local hurting both the networks and the productions. producers. Interestingly, the tighter foreign Foreign countries increasingly seek to market dovetails with the push toward produce their own programming, but deregulation. Conglomerates point to U.S. broadcasters are nevertheless forced the softening of the foreign markets as to continue to look abroad for revenue, justification for all the financial assis- even if the foreign market is not as tance they can get. 26 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

The global picture is a complex one The multiplying of channels, the new in terms of both dollars and program- high-tech delivery systems, and other ming. American theatrical films now advances that arrive almost daily will make more money abroad than they do cause constant adjustments in the pro- at home, and American television sales duction and content of programming. As abroad are shrinking yearly. Complicat- veteran writer Barry Kemp (“Newhart,” ing the situation is that some countries “Coach,” and “Taxi”) put it a few years may not like American politics but they ago, “This expansion of the television are fond of American entertainment, landscape has led to a greater competi- particularly action-driven product, even tion for viewers than ever before. The if it can be viewed as propaganda for the result is that we may be finding ourselves American way of life.Thus, a broadcaster in a decade that has the potential to be has to keep the foreign market in mind as creatively exciting as any other in our when making story decisions and history.”25 casting choices to avoid missing out on But these changes will almost surely what foreign dollars may be available. It be modifications of the changing radio is unlikely that a television show that has and TV universe, whether in the form no foreign sales potential will get on the and styling of programs or the manner air, no matter how good it might be. in which they are distributed.Therefore, it is essential that you have a solid grasp The rich and dynamic history of broad- of the sources that control the flow casting has been nothing more than a of television programs, explained in prelude to the changes on the horizon. Chapter 2.

EXERCISES

1. Compare a contemporary television 4. Examine a particular television cycle show with one from the past.What are the by looking at shows from the past and the similarities? What are the differences? How new variations—for example, studying does the storytelling style differ? How do westerns from the 1950s and then examin- the visuals and pacing differ? Is the content ing newer westerns, such as “Deadwood” “racier”? on HBO. How are they different? How 2. Listen to radio programs on stations much time elapsed between the two owned by the same company. Describe manifestations of the cycle? diversity issues. Are the programs similar? 5. Do you have brand loyalty to 3. Follow the foreign sales of a particu- particular products? Which matters more, lar show to see in which countries the brand loyalty or price? Are you loyal to a show does particularly well or poorly and particular television or radio station? attempt to analyze the “why” behind that Why? particular performance. 1 The History of Programming 27

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Bob Shanks. The Cool Fire: How to casting in America:A Survey of Electronic Media Make It in Television (New York: Norton, (Boston: Houghton Mifﬂin, 1996), p. 67. 1976), p. 65. 16. Sallie Hofmeister. “Sale of Comedy 2. Ken Auletta. Three Blind Mice (New Central Stake Sure is No Laughing York: Random House, 1991), p. 93. Matter,” Los Angeles Times, April 22, 2003, 3. Erik Barnouw. A Tower in Babel (New p. C-8. York: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 96. 17. Kevin Downey. “Syndie Sitcoms, 4. Ibid., p. 238. Where the Young Are,” http://www. 5. Leonard H. Goldenson with Marvin mediahtemagazine.com/news/2003/jul03/ J.Wolf. Beating the Odds (New York:Charles jul1414-thurs/news2Thursday.html. Scribner’s Sons, 1991), p. 104. Accessed July 21, 2003. 6. Anna Everett. “The Golden Age of 18. Hendrik Hertzberg. “Radio Daze,” Television Drama,” http://www.museum The New Yorker, August 11, 2003, p. 23. .tv/archives/etv/index. Accessed July 2, 19. Deborah Hornblow. “Fitting the 2003. Film Fragment Together,” Los Angeles Times, 7. Ibid. February 11, 2003, p. E-5. 8. J. Fred MacDonald. One Nation Under 20. Veronis Suhler Stevenson. “Commu- Television (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1994), nications Industry Forecast,” http://www. p. 83. vss.com/publications/forecast/highlights 9. Ray Richmond. “Red Water,” The 2002.html. Accessed May 27, 2004. Hollywood Reporter, August 15–17, 2003, 21. BBC. “Gaming ‘Part of Student p. 20. Life,’” http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ 10. Richard Goodwin. Remembering technology/3052482.stm. Accessed July 9, America (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), 2003. pp. 51–52. 22. Joe Schlosser. “Do-It-Yourself 11. Ibid., p. 60. Development,” Broadcasting and Cable, Feb- 12. Ibid., pp. 61–62. ruary 11, 2002, p. 12. 13. Pamela McClintock. “Blurred 23. Alessandra Stanley. “Waterfront Blurbs: Ad-Free PBS Under Fire for Crime, Stripped of Clichés,” The New York Sponsor Spots,” Daily Variety, July 10, 2002, Times, June 2, 2003, pp. B-1, 8. p. 13. 24. NPR’s “Fresh Air” with Terry Gross. 14. 1990 INTV Census (Washington, http://www.freshair.npr.org. Accessed July DC: Association of Independent Television 23, 2003. Stations, 1990), p. 18. 25. Barry Kemp. “TV an Eroding 15. Sydney W. Head with Christopher Medium? Creatively It’s Exploding,” Los H. Sterling and Lemuel B. Schoﬁeld. Broad- Angeles Times, September 9, 1992, p. F-1.

2 Sources of Television Programming

In this chapter you will learn about the Merv liked the idea, and “Jeopardy” following: recently celebrated its 40th anniversary. A big-name independent producer • The primary suppliers of television driving to work may hear a radio story programming content about surrogate mothers and think of a • The effect of the 1996 Telecommuni- heart-tugging idea for a movie-of-the- cations Act on the distributors and week. Writers may formulate ideas for creators of programming content a children’s program while reading • The role of the public, stars, agents, bedtime stories to their children. Early and managers as sources of morning disc jockeys have been known programming to plan skits based on the dreams they • What future programmers need to had the night before. A soap opera know to succeed as suppliers of writer has confessed to gaining ideas by programming going to bars and encouraging people to dump their problems on him. A group Regardless of the electronic media of students developed sketches about form, the person in charge of program- college dorm life for a public access ming must figure out how to fill the cable series. You have, no doubt, had hours of the day with specific shows, a several ideas that you felt would make a daunting task. For example, an indepen- wonderful TV show, radio program, or dent station on the air 20 hours a day, website. 7 days a week must schedule 7300 hours of programming a year. In 2003, the BEYOND THE IDEA—INTO average home received more than 100 THE “DEEP POCKETS” channels. Where does all the programming come from? Simply having a good idea does not a The answer is complex. Ideas for TV series make. Most ideas must be programs can originate from just about funneled through an organized structure anywhere. For example, legend has it of suppliers. These companies provide that one night Mrs. Merv Griffin said to the money and the technical and pro- her husband,“Why don’t you do a game duction know-how to make program- where the contestants get the answers ming a reality. Despite the massive need and have to give you the questions?” for product at networks and stations, the

29 30 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

come up with $50,000 to close a license Network Studio fee?” It is thus extremely difficult for FOX 20th Century Fox newcomers to get in the game. NBC Universal With the increased number of mergers that have taken place in the ABC Disney world of entertainment since the CBS Paramount deregulation in the 1980s, vertical integration has become the standard The WB Warner Bros. for corporate achievement. With the UPN CBS/Paramount expanded role of conglomerates, a company can now control both the production of programs and the distribu- Figure 2.1 number of supply sources is surprisingly tion systems of those programs, making Network affiliations limited. vertical integration extremely attractive with major studios. The financial risks of making a to stockholders and division heads alike program are high. Few companies have (Figure 2.1). For example, NBC’s strate- the “deep pockets” to suffer significant gic alliance with Universal Television in financial reversals while waiting for the 2003 gave NBC a source of program- next project to take off and earn money ming that the network could subse- in syndication and subsidiary markets. quently distribute over the airwaves. Buyers tend to rely on suppliers that NBC, owned by General Electric, had have delivered successes in the past and been the last major network that did not have a strong financial basis to survive have a studio alliance. for more than a season. Because the networks are parts of A supplier who has not previously companies that now own major studios, deficit financed a program, that is, pro- the role of “the majors” as sources of vided the funds that covered the deficit programming continues to increase between what the network paid for the dramatically. program and the cost of production, will generally not be allowed to function as MAJOR PRODUCTION the sole production entity. Such sup- COMPANIES pliers are traditionally partnered with a company that has previously supplied Large companies such as Universal deficit financing because networks do Studios, Paramount Pictures, Warner not cover the full cost of production. In Bros., Fox, and Disney have the recent years, the deficits have markedly resources to staff several departments increased, more frequently necessitating to develop and produce product for those deep pockets. commercial and cable television. These Programming executives are warned majors are the key suppliers of programs against getting into business with sup- for broadcasters. To maintain their pliers who lack a substantial track dominant positions, many majors strike record, both in creating successful shows umbrella deals with creative indi- and in having established a sound finan- viduals housed at the studio. It is the cial base. Fledgling executives are fre- studio’s hope that these deals will lead quently challenged by business affairs to the creation of hits, as exemplified by negotiators: “Why would you want to John Wells’s deal at Warner Bros., which do business with companies whose resulted in “ER,”“The West Wing,” and finances are so shaky that they can’t “Third Watch,” among others. 2 Sources of Television Programming 31

Broadcast and cable networks, station groups, and stations like to do business with these companies, not only because they have a history of success and access to some of the best producers, writers, performers, and craftspeople but also because they are financially sound and will not have to default on a commitment if unforeseen and expensive hurdles arise. Buyers know that if a program is not coming together well, Figure 2.2 the majors have the resources to do The series whatever is necessary to fix it. “Everwood” Every year, a close tally is kept of the exemplifies the number of pilots and shows a company dominance of has received. Bragging rights are at stake; Warner Bros. as a careers hang on these numbers, and a source of company’s financial well-being hangs in programming. the balance. (Globe Photos, Warner Bros. Television, under the Inc.) leadership of Peter Roth and Susan Rovner, achieved impressive results with the amount of time that transpires as the shows such as “Third Watch.” Granted, film is released to different media forms. Warner Bros. has the WB network ready, Often a movie will have a 6-month willing, and able to embrace its devel- window between the time it finishes its opment of shows such as “Smallville,” theatrical run and the time it is available and “Everwood” (Figure 2.2), but the to cable TV pay-per-view systems. success rate of Warner Bros. is neverthe- Then it has another window of a month less extremely impressive, a testament to or two before it is distributed in video sound programming instincts. stores. Following this is a window that Individuals with an interest in pro- leads to the pay cable services such as gramming as a career might be wise to HBO and Showtime. Only after all of consider associating with one of the these stages are films made available to majors early in their careers. Not only commercial networks. Even further will they learn the intricacies of the down the pecking order are local TV business but they also will be working stations and basic cable networks such as with companies that have many off- USA Network and Lifetime.The length shoots, one or more of which might of time of the various windows differs lead to several different employment from film to film. On rare occasions, the opportunities. order of the releases varies and com- Feature films, produced by major mercial TV may obtain a movie before companies, are also a source of pro- it is shown on cable. Sometimes the net- gramming for networks and stations. works and stations buy the rights to air After a movie has finished its theatrical the films from the major production run, it is released to television. However, companies, and sometimes they buy networks and stations do not get first them through syndicators. crack at it. The distribution is under- A successful, or unsuccessful, showing taken through a series of windows— at the U.S. box office is no clear 32 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

winner. Also, to show that a network is “in the game,” executives may pay a large amount for a “must-have” film, such as Spiderman, making it difficult to have money left over to buy a lot of other films for the network. For example, Spiderman II sold to Fox and FX for approximately $50 million, a lot of money by any standard.Adding to the complexity of the theatrical acquisition game is the cyclical nature of theatrical films on television. At times, feature films are seen as good fillers for the commercial networks because they tend to perform within a given range; at other times, they are deemed to be “not working.” Cable networks such as HBO, Figure 2.3 indicator of how a feature film will Cinemax, The Movie Channel, Starz, ABC’s perennial perform on television. Oftentimes, a or Showtime always want to be able to ratings workhorse, film with strong buzz before it opens announce a strong slate of movies, the The Ten theatrically will command a high price very movies that everyone wants to see. Commandments. from the commercial or cable networks Direct TV and the other direct broad- (Photo © ABC only to fail both at the box office and cast satellite services (DBSs) also play a Photography with television viewers. For example, significant role in the airing of theatri- Archives.) The Bonfire of the Vanities, sold to ABC cal films, touting their film offerings in at a high price before opening in competition with the other distribution theaters, disappointed at the box office, outlets. and subsequently performed poorly on Feature films also have been the basis the air. for many TV series developed by the On the other hand, a film that disap- same major production companies. points at the box office can be a sur- Before the picture is made, the company prise hit on television, such as the Julia will usually negotiate the right to Roberts/Nick Nolte romantic comedy produce a TV version if it seems to lend I Love Trouble or The Shawshank Redemp- itself to that medium.Years ago, a small tion, about a prison uprising. Then film, Moonrunners (1975), written and there is the perennial favorite, The Ten directed by Gy Waldron, led to the suc- Commandments (1956), which defies all cessful series, “The Dukes of Hazard,” analysis, having aired on ABC for more which Waldron created. Similarly, we than 30 years around Easter and never cannot forget the granddaddy of them failed to generate impressive ratings, all, “M*A*S*H,” or “9 to 5” and “Buffy proving that new is not always best and the Vampire Slayer.”Also memorable are that a classic film can bring viewers to a host of television failures such as the set year after year (Figure 2.3). “Clueless,” “Dirty Dancing,” and the Sometimes networks will have too big 2002–2003 failure of “My Big, Fat large an inventory of theatrical films, Greek Life,” based on the surprise hit preventing them from acquiring addi- independent movie, My Big, Fat Greek tional films, possibly missing out on a Wedding. 2 Sources of Television Programming 33

Both the majors and the independents creative contributors. Indies such as the (see the next section) borrow from them- one formed in 1970 by actress Mary selves to develop new shows. Many Tyler Moore and her then-husband successful programs contain subsidiary Grant Tinker made significant contribu- characters who have the potential to tions to television. Named MTM, its carry a new program. Called spin-offs, impressive credits include “The Mary these shows are frequently scheduled Tyler Moore Show,”“Hill Street Blues,” immediately following the parent “St. Elsewhere,”“WKRP in Cincinnati,” program to maintain continuity with “The Bob Newhart Show,” “Lou the established audience. “Laverne and Grant,” “Phyllis,” and “Rhoda,” the last Shirley” was spun off from “Happy Days,” three being spin-offs of “The Mary Tyler which also spun off “Mork & Mindy.”“A Moore Show.” Different World” was spun off from “The Notable independents in the 1980s Cosby Show,” “Frasier” from “Cheers,” and 1990s include Witt/Thomas/Harris, and “The Ropers” from “Three’s who created “Soap,” “Empty Nest,” and Company.” (Not all work: stars on one “The Golden Girls,” and the incredibly show do not always succeed the next successful team of Marcy Carsey and time around. For example, look at the Tom Werner. Former colleagues at ABC, victims of the so-called “Seinfeld” curse, Carsey and Werner’s hits include “The which predicts future failures for the Cosby Show,” which sold into syndica- “Seinfeld” cast, such as Michael Richards tion with an initial offering of more of “The Michael Richards Show,” Jason than $500 million; “A Different World”; Alexander of “Bob Patterson,” and Julia “Roseanne”; “That ’70s Show,” which Louis-Dreyfuss of “Watching Ellie.”) produced superstar Ashton Kutcher; and In terms of successful spin-offs, few “That ’80s Show” (once again, every- can rival Dick Wolf’s “Law & Order,” thing cannot succeed). which spun off “Law & Order: Crimi- Since the deregulation that culmi- nal Intent” and “Law & Order: Special nated with the 1996 Telecommunica- Victims Unit.” In 2002–2003, CBS spun tions Act, however, it has become off “CSI: Miami” and in 2004–2005, increasingly difficult for indies to survive “CSI: New York” from the Jerry as prolific suppliers. Because the broad- Bruckheimer series “CSI: Crime Scene casters can own the syndication rights, Investigation,” a surprise success for indies often find it difficult to make a go CBS, which had expected “The of it financially. Several years ago,Tinker, Fugitive,” not “CSI,” to dominate. “The independent producer and former Fugitive” failed and “CSI” went on to president of MTM, foresaw the diffi- monster-hit status. culties facing independent producers. “I don’t know if the business even exists anymore . . . in a way that I would INDEPENDENT PRODUCTION like to be in it,” he said in reference to COMPANIES the already receding network audience, the lower license fees granted to pro- Until deregulation, independent producers, and the rising costs of produc- duction companies were a prolific tion. Add mergers, consolidation, and source of shows. Known as indies, these the abolishment of fin-syn (see fin-syn are usually small companies whose sidebar) and you have the bleak realities owners frequently function as the chief that indies face. 34 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

THE HISTORY OF FIN-SYN

In the 1960s, the three networks—NBC, The players who profited from fin- ABC, and CBS—funded and produced syn were the Hollywood production much of their own programming. They companies. The networks had to come also had a financial interest in programs to them for almost all of their program- produced for them by production com- ming. They received money from the panies. In other words, the networks networks, which then had the right to would put up some of the money for the air the programs twice. But once the productions in exchange for a cut of programs finished their network runs, the profits. Networks also syndicated the production companies, who held the programs they produced and some the rights, were in a position to capture of the ones in which they held a finan- the profits from the syndication market. cial interest. They were the ones who Times changed. Syndication be- sold these programs to local stations came important; most series, bur- (domestic syndication) and to overseas dened with increasing production companies (international syndication). costs, lost money until they were sold All of this, plus their grasp on 90% of in syndication. The networks, forbidden the audience, made the networks pow- from the syndication market, saw their erful. In 1970, the FCC took a hard look fortunes (and power and audience) at the domination of the networks and plummet. They looked longingly at the decided that the old adage, “power profits being made by the indies with corrupts and absolute power corrupts whom fin-syn rules forced them to con- absolutely,” applied. As a result, the tract for programming. FCC instituted the fin-syn rules. Along came cable TV. Born in a The original 1970 rules stated that period of deregulation, the cable com- networks could only produce and own panies could own the programs they 3 hours per week of their 22 prime-time produced, the networks that distributed hours. In addition, they could not syn- those programs, and even the cable dicate any of these 3 hours to stations systems that delivered the programs to or other buyers in the United States, the subscribers. There were no sanc- but they could act as syndicators if they tions against cable syndication. wanted to sell these programs over- “Why,” asked the network execu- seas. The rules applied mainly to tives, “are we saddled with these series. The networks were free to archaic 1970 rules?” In the early produce, own, and syndicate news, 1980s, the networks began asking this made-for-TV movies, and miniseries. question of the FCC. The FCC set The result of the fin-syn rules was up hearings on the subject. The Holly- that the networks had to pull back on wood community showed up en masse production. In general, they did less to protest. Production companies did than the FCC allowed. (In 1987, for not want the networks back in the pro- example, the only network-owned and duction and syndication business. Led -produced prime-time series was by their flamboyant spokesman, Jack ABC’s “Moonlighting.”) Why bother to Valenti, then president of the Motion set up the structure (and overhead Picture Association of America, the costs) needed to produce and syndi- Hollywood producers managed to cate material when all you had to work stall any decision, thus maintaining with was two or three series? Besides, the status quo. In 1988, the FCC did the domestic syndication market was increase the hours a network could not that great in 1970 because inde- produce per week from 3 to 5, but this pendent stations had not yet come bone did little to satisfy the executives’ to the fore. The fin-syn rules were appetites. resented by the networks, but they Then came Fox in 1987. Fox caused only a minor blip in the over- appeared to be both a network and a stuffed balance sheets. production company. 20th Century Fox 2 Sources of Television Programming 35

had been producing movies and tele- rules. In a spirit of collegiality, it also vision series for many years. When asked that NBC, CBS, and ABC be the Fox Broadcasting Company was given a “waiver.” Valenti and company formed to distribute programs to inde- saw through this maneuver and quickly pendent stations, the Fox production objected. The FCC gave the waiver to company provided some of the pro- Fox but not to the other three. gramming, as did other production “Wait a minute,” said the networks. companies such as Columbia Pictures “This doesn’t seem fair.” The FCC, (“Married . . . With Children”). In no tired of the bickering, told the networks way did Fox want to lose out on the and the Hollywood community to hold money it was making from syndicating meetings on their own and come up its TV series, which included, among with a solution. “If you can’t agree,” others, the highly profitable “M*A*S*H.” said the commissioners, “we’ll get back So Fox Broadcasting Company said it into the fray and come up with some- was not a network. According to the thing no one likes.” Truer words were FCC rules, a network had to “deliver at never spoken. The two sides stale- least 15 hours of programming a week mated, and, in April 1991, the FCC to at least 25 affiliates in 10 or more came up with new rules, which, indeed, states.” For several years, Fox kept its no one liked. program offerings below 15 hours. Then the 1996 Telecommunications Then in 1990, Fox decided it would like Act abolished fin-syn, making things to program 18.5 hours, so it petitioned more difficult for indies, particularly in the FCC for a waiver from the fin-syn connection with syndication.

Some independents have succeeded insisting on some type of ownership to in adapting to the changing climate. cash in on syndication and foreign sales, Writer and producer Steven Bocho, for but that same producer might prefer one, has been consistently rewarded a fee to ownership in the post-1996 with hefty development deals based on Telecommunications Act climate. his ability to generate quality shows such as “NYPD Blue,” which provided ABC with one of its highest-rated shows year after year. Robert Greenwald, a prolific producer of long standing whose credits include the groundbreaking telefilm “The Burning Bed” (1984), about spousal abuse, and “Blonde” (2001), based on Joyce Carol Oates’s interpretation of the life of Marilyn Monroe, said that for an indie to survive it must explore creative financial arrangements, such as previ- Figure 2.4 ously untapped tax credits or filming in Robert Greenwald’s production of “The different locales (Figure 2.4). Audrey Hepburn Greenwald notes that the syndication Story” starring and foreign markets have declined and Jennifer Love production costs have risen, yet license Hewitt was filmed fees have not. At one time, a producer in Montreal. might have scoffed at the idea of simply (Globe Photos, receiving a fee to produce a project, Inc.) 36 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

after everything hoping that something “will stick.” After some 20 years in the business, he also knows the kinds of projects the networks will develop as opposed to the kinds of projects the networks will make and air. Thus, Robinson will not pursue stories he believes will not be produced. He notes that some producers have numerous projects in development, priding themselves on having “30” projects in development, whereas he concen- trates on a few projects that he knows have a good chance of being made. This philosophy keeps him focused, enabling him to keep his overhead under control. Robinson has carved out a niche making movies that are “slightly outside the box.”Therefore, he is often called by executives who steer him into key projects. For example, he was once contacted by an executive at CBS who told him he wanted to “gift him into” a project because of his reputation as a niche supplier. Robinson does double duty: he develops and he is on the set Figure 2.5 One speciﬁc adjustment Philip Klein- every day unlike producers who are A photo of the bart, Greenwald’s producing partner, has either creative producers (development phenomenally made is to pay more money to secure the only) or physical producers (involved in successful “CSI,” services of a star. He feels that the net- production on the set). These factors one of Jerry works are more interested than ever in enable Randwell to survive. Bruckheimer’s star power.Thus, if the network says they Clearly, Jerry Bruckheimer is one television hits. will pay no more than, say, $300,000 for of the most successful independent pro- (Globe Photos, Inc.) a star and the star’s representatives want ducers working in television in the early $350,000, Kleinbart may step up to cover 21st century. When this high-voltage the difference. This is not something he ﬁlm producer with a knack for intuiting would have done previously. In the past, what audiences want turned his atten- he would have simply “moved on,” but tion to television, he and his producing that is no longer possible because a partner, Jonathan Littman, struck televi- backup star may not have the pull to sion gold. In 2003, his series “CSI” interest investors and the networks in (Figure 2.5) was broadcast in 175 coun- paying for the movie to be made. The tries, becoming the most-watched tele- whole endeavor and the costs of devel- vision program in the world. As a point opment up to that point may be lost. of comparison, at its height in the 1960s Randy Robinson, whose company, and early 1970s,“Bonanza” aired in only Randwell Productions, produced “Pro- 70 countries.1 foundly Normal” (2003) with Kirstie According to Rich Bilotti, a media Alley, has survived in a down market by analyst at Morgan Stanley,“CSI” in 2003 keeping a “tight focus.” He does not go supplied more than 24% of CBS’s total 2 Sources of Television Programming 37

Figure 2.6 “From the Earth to the Moon” demonstrated HBO’s hold on quality longform programming. (Photo courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.)

profit from prime-time programming, When it comes to public television, about $259 million.2 When CBS the indies, as well as the majors, have launched the spin-off “CSI: Miami” in little involvement. The structure and 2003, the results were again impressive, programming needs of public television making it the most highly rated new are so different from the commercial show of the season. In addition, and cable outlook that production com- Bruckheimer’s “Without a Trace” and panies do not really fit in. “Cold Case” both served CBS well, There are, however, some companies clearly establishing Bruckheimer as the (most of them nonprofit) that supply producer of the moment. shows to public broadcasting. One of In cable, few producers have achieved them, Children’s Television Workshop, the success of Tom Hanks and his started in the late 1960s, is in a class by company. His Emmy wins for both itself. This organization, which has pro- “From the Earth to the Moon” (Figure duced such highly acclaimed children’s 2.6) and “Band of Brothers” attest to series as “Sesame Street,” “Electric how high a bar he has established, Company,” and “3-2-1 Contact,” is sep- helping HBO to have a near-lock on arate from PBS but is so closely tied to high caliber longform programming. it that it could not exist in its present The producing team of Robert Green- form without the public TV structure. blatt and David Janollari also had great A newer production company, Ken success on cable with another award- Burns Enterprises, has supplied public winning HBO program, “Six Feet television with some highly rated docu- Under.” mentary series, including “The Civil 38 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

channels in particular are receptive to material from the BBC. It is also interesting to note that the show that launched the prime-time reality game-show craze in 1999, “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire,” originated in England. “The Weakest Link,” which had a shorter run in prime-time before moving to daytime TV,also orig- Figure 2.7 inated in England. A particularly suc- Ken Burns, an cessful longer-form reality game show, independent “American Idol,” also was adapted by producer, has Fox from a U.K. show. And “Big supplied PBS with Brother,” which became a summer staple highly regarded on CBS, was adapted from a show that series including the originally ran successfully in Holland. groundbreaking “The Civil War.” It is rare for a show from another (Photo courtesy country to play unchanged on Ameri- Florentine Films.) can commercial television, even if it is in the English language. The sense of pace, the foreign accent of the actors, and the subtle language differences are War,” “Baseball,” “Mark Twain,” and difficult for American audiences to “Jazz,” many of which were gathered in accept. As always, there are exceptions, PBS’s “American Stories” (Figure 2.7). such as the bawdy English BBC comedy Burns’s company, although it is techni- “Absolutely Fabulous” and the Canadian cally independent, has partnered with comedy “The Kids in the Hall,” both of WETA in Washington, D.C., on five which have had successful runs on the projects. Comedy Central cable network in the United States. However, American pro- FOREIGN PRODUCTION ducers are willing to buy good ideas SOURCES from foreign creators and “Ameri- canize” them for U.S. viewers. American companies are ever alert to Turning to public television, for the possibility of adapting a foreign years PBS broadcast so many BBC pro- success to the tastes of American grams that people quipped that “PBS” viewers. Although America is the largest really stood for “primarily British exporter of programs, exporting more shows.” This no longer holds true; PBS shows than it imports, two of the biggest has sought to “Americanize” itself with TV hits of the 1970s were modifications more programs from and set in the of British comedies: “All in the Family” United States. For example, PBS’s and “Sanford and Son.” Many British “Mystery” has featured more thrillers shows have crossed the Atlantic to such as the American Elizabeth George’s America, for example, “Queer as Folk” “The Inspector Lynley Mysteries: A on Showtime, “Trading Spaces” on the Great Deliverance.” And what could be Discovery Channel, and the quickly more American than PBS’s “Ben departed “Coupling” on NBC. Cable Franklin” (2002)? 2 Sources of Television Programming 39

A popular approach in commercial NETWORKS television of recent years has been to develop coproductions. In previous Sometimes networks are the source of decades, this most often meant a foreign programming for other networks. Gone company contributed money to an are the days when a show on one net- American production in exchange for work would not be allowed to have a certain distribution rights overseas.“Not guest performer from another network. anymore,” said David Gerber, the leg- One network often develops shows endary former chairman of MGM/UA for other networks. For example, Fox Television in charge of worldwide pro- Studios regularly develops shows for the duction.“From now on, if we do some- broadcast competition, as do NBC Pro- thing together, it’s going to have to be ductions and HBO Productions. a global partnership.” By this he means With the explosion of cable and the the foreign contributors will participate trend toward mergers, cross-fertilization in story development, casting, and dis- of programming sources continues to tribution strategy, as well as in the divi- take place, with the Disney production sion of profits. company providing programs for The appeal of a coproduction is Disney-owned ABC and the Disney that a much larger pool of money is Channel, Fox for FX, and Warner Bros. available to the production. A movie for the WB. Bravo provides successful of the week that might normally be shows to NBC (both are owned by budgeted at $2 to $2.5 million could General Electric), such as 2003’s “Queer go twice that high with foreign invest- Eye for the Straight Guy,” which NBC ments. These additional funds can give added to its schedule to capitalize on the the movie a much larger and richer Bravo show’s high cable ratings and look and make it more attractive to national media buzz. viewers all over the world. Furthermore, As a result of this cross-pollination, a most countries outside the United new form of program sharing, known as States have limitations (quotas) on the repurposing, has developed. Repur- amount of foreign production that can posing is not the same as rerunning a be imported each year. The goal is to show on the same outlet or at a much protect their actors, producers, directors, later date in syndication. Nor does it and production companies. However, apply to shows that finish their run on any program partially owned by a one network then “travel” to another company of that country has a much network for another run, such as “JAG,” better chance to come in under the which went from NBC to CBS, or quota rules. “Buffy the Vampire Slayer,” which went There are some drawbacks to copro- from the WB to UPN. It is important ductions. Not all types of shows are suc- to note that repurposing takes place cessful overseas. Comedies, in particular, during a show’s run, not after it. What do not travel well. Frequently, the lan- repurposing does is maximize a show’s guage and situations are too uniquely worth by broadcasting it on a different American to interest or amuse foreign outlet shortly after its initial airing. audiences. But as the financial crunch The first show to engage in repur- continues to hurt American producers, posing was ABC’s “Once and Again” the search for foreign partners in copro- in 1999, which aired a couple of days ductions will accelerate. later on the Lifetime cable channel 40 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

shows may allow them to reach an audience they may not usually attract, an audience that might then be more willing to give a second thought to a network’s other programming.The cable networks are also satisfied, not only because network audiences, aware of where the program came from, might seek out the original cable network but also because the rebroadcasting fees Figure 2.8 received from networks allow the cable ABC’s “Once and companies to improve production values. Again” starring The main purpose of broadcast net- Sela Ward (pictured) and Billy works is to supply material to broadcast Campbell was the stations and the main purpose of cable first show to be networks is to provide material to cable repurposed. (Photo systems. Nevertheless, repurposing is a courtesy the nice extra for both in a difficult eco- Academy of nomic climate. Television Arts & Sciences.) STATIONS Some stations supply programming to other stations. This is particularly common among group-owned stations, the owned and operated stations. Frequently, a station group will try out a program on one of its stations to test its appeal. If it shows promise, it will be extended to the other stations in the group. Finally, if it scores well in these owned markets, it will be offered to other stations around the country. The dating show “Studs” was an example of this gradual “rollout.”The program was initially broadcast on Fox’s Los Angeles Figure 2.9 (Figure 2.8). Similarly, USA Network’s outlet, KTTV. When it enjoyed early Oprah Winfrey’s “Monk” aired on ABC after its initial success, it was sold to a limited number show has been one showing in 2002. Thus, as demands of stations. By 1992, it was available for of the most for programming content increase and sale to all stations. successful syndicated money becomes tighter, repurposing The industry has also come up with programs in allows one channel’s programming to variations on this process. In 1991, television history. become another outlet’s offering. The Group W and the NBC-owned and (Photo courtesy the Academy of major networks like this arrangement operated stations agreed to cooperate on Television Arts & because they do not consider the joint development ventures that, if suc- Sciences.) generally small, niche-like cable ratings cessful, would be distributed nationally to be significant competition and they by Group W. The incredibly successful think that airing successful cable niche “Oprah Winfrey Show” (Figure 2.9) 2 Sources of Television Programming 41 began as a local production of the ABC- with ideas. They would rather generate owned Chicago station WLS-TV. The their own ideas and then find the cre- station licensed King World to distribute ative team to execute the concept. For the show nationally, and it now claims a example, when Lindy de Koven was lineup of more than 200 stations. head of the longform department at A unique but growing station-to- NBC in the late 1990s, all members of station trend involves affiliated stations her staff were expected to come to producing news programs for indepen- meetings with several ideas that could dents in the same area. For example, be turned into television movies. Susan WPEC, a CBS affiliate in West Palm Lyne at ABC and Eric Poticha at Fox Beach, Florida, produced the 10:00 P.M. also saw it as their responsibility to gen- newscast for independent station WFLX erate the ideas that would end up on in the same market. WFLX paid WPEC the air. Similarly, Michael Sluchan at for the program, enabling WPEC to Universal sees it as his responsibility as increase its staff by 15 people. The situ- a development executive to suggest to ation is viewed as a win by both sta- other departments how his show should tions. WFLX’s general manager, Murray be marketed and publicized. Green, said, “If our station started a Independent producers resent this newscast from scratch, it would take 3 trend among programmers because it years to get credibility.”3 minimizes their contribution. They also A small core of public television sta- think that programmers who dictate the tions produces much of what is aired on ideas are merely protecting their own the other public stations. Leading the jobs by taking away the producer’s role way are WGBH in Boston, which pro- and giving themselves more to do. duces the popular children’s show Nevertheless, you might consider that “Arthur” and “Nova,” among others, and individuals who wait for producers to WNET in New York, which produces come to them with the good ideas will “American Masters” and “Nature,” probably be seen as lazy, lacking the among others. Not everything on PBS is drive and energy to meet the needs of produced by a few stations. For example, the marketplace. 2002’s “Ben Franklin” was produced by For producers, the flip side of this is Twin Cities Public Television. With the that an idea generated by the network financial crunch in public broadcasting, it stands a good chance of getting on the helps greatly if a station raises a substan- air. If you are lucky enough to be “kissed tial part of the financing before submit- into a project,” why should you com- ting a proposal to PBS for consideration. plain? So what if it was not your idea and you had to stoke the ego of the BUYERS network executives for their “brilliant insights;” you got the job, right? It is a truism that buyers are most recep- The trend toward buyer-generated tive to their own ideas. Because broad- ideas is not new, although its practice is cast buyers are often the owners of a clearly on the ascent. In his book Three show, it follows that they would look Blind Mice, author Ken Auletta states that kindly upon their own creations, cre- in the early 1980s Brandon Tartikoff, ations over which they can exercise president of NBC Entertainment, jotted complete control. Increasingly, program- down the phrase “MTV cops” and ming executives are no longer content passed it on to writer Tony Yerkovich to wait for producers to come to them and executive producer Michael Mann. 42 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

That thought blossomed into “Miami programs.The viewers are the same and Vice.”Another time,Tartikoff visited “an are not easier on shows simply because aunt in Miami and came back with the the budgets of syndicated shows may germ for ‘The Golden Girls.’” Auletta be less than those of their network goes on to quote Tartikoff as saying, counterparts. “Ten years ago 90 percent of the The bellwether forms for Monday- [program] ideas came from the creative to-Friday syndication have been talk, community. Now [1987] it’s only 20 talk-variety, games, service, and tabloid percent.”4 Legendary programmer news. Aside from shows that contain a Tartikoff, regarded by many as the pro- news element, for example, “Entertain- grammer’s programmer for his repeated ment Tonight,” the forms are all capable successes, clearly saw the future. of multiple productions per day. For The American Music Awards illus- example, hour-long talk shows are shot trates how the buyer-to-producer at least on a two-a-day schedule with process worked and continues to work. separate producers responsible for the In 1973, ABC’s 5-year contract to individual shows. The point is to keep present the Grammy Awards expired. In the costs down so that a program can be the judgment of network executives, the competitive in the rough-and-tumble rights fees and other requirements for a syndicated marketplace. renewal were too demanding and they In one season in the mid-1980s, the elected not to meet the conditions. syndicators went overboard on game Instead, they decided to compete with shows; in another there was a super- an awards show of their own but with a abundance of children’s cartoon pro- format more suitable for the viewer and grams. In the early 1990s, talk shows less encumbered by the rituals and polit- were the rage. And there is the trend for ical necessities of the National Associa- court shows, started by the success of tion of Recording Arts and Sciences, the “Judge Judy.” In the late 1990s and early Grammys’ parent organization. 2000s, the syndication market was in a ABC programmers asked Dick Clark bit of a slump, but it came back strongly to develop a format that would fulfill in 2002 with the success of “Dr. Phil,” the goals of the show. Although he had coproduced by Oprah Winfrey. never previously produced a prime-time The following first-run syndicated special, Clark was selected because of his shows generally appear at the top of the success with “American Bandstand” and household ratings charts. In parentheses his familiarity with the music scene.The is the number of years the show has American Music Awards pulled in sig- been on the air as of 2004: nificant ratings for many years. • “Wheel of Fortune” (21 years) SYNDICATORS • “Jeopardy” (20 years) • “The Oprah Winfrey Show” (18 Syndicators supply a great deal of years) program material for local commercial • “Entertainment Tonight” (23 years) stations. Some of this material is pro- • “Extra” (9 years) duced by the syndicators (first run), some • “Judge Judy” (8 years) consists of programs that have already • “Dr. Phil” (2 years) run on the commercial networks (off • “Live with Regis and Kelly” (15 net), and the rest is movie packages. years) First-run syndicated shows must meet • “Inside Edition” (16 years) the same creative criteria as network • “Maury” (13 years) 2 Sources of Television Programming 43

If you intend to enter the syndication ﬁeld, we encourage you to make your own assessment of the market’s needs and stick to your convictions.The competitors are not necessarily smarter or more tapped in; they are just more reac- tive to the needs of the marketplace.

ADVERTISERS

As you saw in Chapter 1, advertiser- Figure 2.10 produced programming was the founda- ESPN’s “The Best tion of network programming from the Damn Sports start of radio through the beginnings of Show,” with Tom television to the early 1960s, when cost Arnold, is generally considerations made ownership of a single regarded as one of program impractical. Only a few adver- the most blatant tisers continued the practice throughout practitioners of the years, most notably Hallmark Cards, product placement. (Globe Photos, whose “Hallmark Hall of Fame” quality Inc.) programs have enriched the medium since the early 1950s. sumers are increasingly wary of adver- In the hard-pressed broadcasting tising, and in-show product placement economy, advertiser-delivered programs provides advertisers with a real degree of are extremely attractive.To the struggling protection. networks, these shows represent time- period sales at full rates.Whenever there PHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIES is a rumor that a particular advertiser is AND PRODUCT PLACEMENT thinking about fully sponsoring a show, everyone in the business becomes ﬁlled In 2002, a miniscandal in connection with anticipatory excitement. with a different kind of product place- What has developed as an alternative ment surfaced when it was revealed that stars such as Lauren Bacall, Rob to advertiser sponsorship in recent years Lowe of “The West Wing” (before he is in-show product placement and abandoned ship over a pay dispute), product integration (Figure 2.10). This and Noah Wylie of “ER” were appear- allows the product to be seen in the ing on television extolling the virtues context of the program without the of a particular drug without disclosing that they were paid consultants for threat of being zapped or skipped using those drugs. Bacall on the “Today” TIVO during commercials, although show talked about how the drug Visu- USA Network’s project “The Last dyne helped one of her friends who Ride” was heavily criticized as being suffered from macular degeneration, nothing more than a full-length com- an eye disease. Bacall and the show mercial for Pontiac. Product placement never revealed her ﬁnancial ties to Novartis, the drugmaker that sells also made it to video games; Electronic Visudyne.6 Extolling drugs was Arts, one of the largest video game deemed unethical once it was out companies, integrated products from in the open, and broadcasters were McDonald’s and Intel into “The Sims quick to announce they would no Online Game” to the tune of $2 longer allow this dubious form of product placement to take place. million.5 As noted in Chapter 1, con- 44 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

At the station level and at cable net- station managers decides what will and works, large numbers of programming will not be produced. The number of heads are accepting infomercials. programs, the content of the programs, These are 30-minute advertisements and the budget for each must be masquerading as informative shows. decided in-house. They use interviews, demonstrations, Live sports events are expensive for and sometimes even dramas to extol the networks and local stations because they virtues of a particular diet plan, baldness must pay for the rights to air the games treatment, kitchen gadget, or brand of and cover the costs for the people and sunglasses.The advertiser pays the station equipment needed to televise the events. for the airtime and provides the For many years, sports programming was program. an unqualified moneymaker. Networks and stations bid against each other for IN-HOUSE PRODUCTION the rights in often bitter battles. But the advertising payments became insuffi- Most networks and stations have their cient to cover the costs, and the audi- own on-staff news personnel who see ence seems to be tiring of the huge that the news is produced each day. amount of sports available on TV.This is Reporters hired by the station or why so much sports programming has network cover specific beats (city hall, left the major networks and gone to Congress, the Middle East) and tape cable, where audiences can be smaller stories about significant events. and costs can be contained. The rising The news department also uses infor- costs of sports have caused a great deal mation that comes over wire services of friction between the networks and such as Associated Press and United their affiliates because the networks have Press International, tips or camcorder requested that the affiliates cover part of footage from individual citizens, stories the costs of broadcasting sports. in newspapers, and information from House-produced documentaries and various databanks. The news business is public affairs shows can also lead to their rather incestuous in that stations and own brand of problems. For example, networks obtain information by listen- after CBS produced and aired “The ing to each other. CNN, for example, Uncounted Enemy” in 1982, it found has become a major source of news itself engaged in a libel lawsuit against ideas for other networks and stations. General William Westmoreland. The Often, the news department is auton- documentary had accused Westmoreland omous from the programming depart- of purposely deceiving President ment. In these cases, the program Lyndon Johnson by estimating that the director has no say over what happens enemy troop strength in Vietnam was in the news department; the news direc- much lower than it really was. Although tor makes the decisions. In other orga- the case was settled out of court with nizations, news falls under the aegis of no clear victor, it demonstrated the dif- the program director. ficulties documentaries can cause. Iron- The other types of programs most ically, this is one of the reasons networks likely to be produced in-house are prefer to produce their own documen- news-oriented shows such as sports taries rather than buy them from outside events, documentaries, and public affairs. sources. At least the networks know the The news director, the program direc- quality of research and the source of the tor, or a committee of network or ideas and can defend themselves. If they 2 Sources of Television Programming 45 accept work from outsiders, they are shows as “Lizzie McGuire,”“SpongeBob liable but have less knowledge about the SquarePants,” “Rugrats,” and “Fairly process of production. Odd Parents.” Starting in 2002, the Documentaries and public affairs pro- commercial networks essentially got out grams are broadcast to serve the public of the children’s television business. interest. Rarely do they recover their NBC turned over its block of children’s costs. Advertisers do not like to sponsor programming to the Discovery network; what might be controversial, and audi- Fox contracted with the toy manufac- ence members often prefer to watch turer 4 Kids to handle children’s pro- entertainment shows. Public television, gramming; and CBS turned to sister not beholden as much to sponsors or cable company Nickelodeon to provide underwriters, ventures further than the children’s programming required by commercial television into documen- the FCC. taries and controversial issues, such as Some of the cable networks, however, those covered each week by “Frontline” employ their in-house units on a full- or Bill Moyers’ “NOW.” time basis. ESPN and the regional cable Networks and stations also produce networks oversee most of their sports- some of their own children’s programs. casts. CNN has charge of the content of The extent of in-house production is a its news, and the same is true of The function of the FCC’s mood regarding Weather Channel. MTV produces its the content of children’s programs. video-jock programs, but the videos are When deregulation is in vogue and pro- provided for free by the record compa- grammers are not required to consider nies. C-SPAN produces its own politi- the educational content of children’s cal material. Other networks produce programs, many buy standard animated some of their own material. When you material from production companies see a stand-up comic on any channel, and syndicators. When regulations that program has probably been pro- require that children’s programs contain duced in-house. Public affairs and talk certain educational or social content, the shows are also likely to be undertaken networks and stations often prefer to by a resident production crew. produce their own so that they can Cable systems also use in-house pro- guarantee the needed elements. duction for local origination shows. A A 1990 FCC ruling, the Children’s local crew will cover news, much as a Television Act, made station license local TV station does, and cable system renewals partly depend on the quality equipment and studios will be used for and frequency of children’s programs, public affairs programs. In-house pro- changing the relationship between in- duction is also used to produce inserts house production units and the world of for some of the cable networks. CNN children’s television programming. and The Weather Channel, for example, Although this ruling might have been leave time for systems to provide infor- expected to increase the number of chil- mation about local news and weather if dren’s shows produced in-house, this has they so desire. The same cable system not happened. staff that produces local origination pro- In the years following the 1990 duces these inserts. ruling, children’s programming on the Public broadcasting stations also commercial networks became increas- produce their own programs, although ingly unprofitable, and cable established less than they used to because of declin- a stronghold in the genre with such ing economics. For example, Los 46 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Angeles’s KCET produces the popular the individual submitting an idea will series “Life & Times” locally. charge that a future show stole their idea without proper compensation. Although MEMBERS OF THE PUBLIC networks and production companies take extensive precautions to avoid Shows such as the seemingly perennial plagiarism cases, they are troubled with “America’s Funniest Home Videos,” suits year after year. Many are of the composed of home videos submitted by nuisance variety and can be quickly dis- the viewing audience, make it seem posed of. Others are more serious and as if members of the public could easily require the expensive efforts of a battery function as programmers. During the of lawyers to refute. height of the reality craze in 2003, some There is one area in cable, however, cynics voiced the opinion that anybody where members of the public have could come up with a reality show easier access, that is, cable’s public concept because there were so many on access channels where the individual the air and “unbelievably bad.” reigns supreme. Of all areas of the elec- The reality is that it always has been, tronic media, public access is the most and remains today, extremely difficult receptive to ideas stemming from the for an individual to break in. Generally, minds of members of the public. Public commercial networks and stations do access is truly a democratized concept. not accept programming concepts that Anyone with an idea who can pull originate from members of the public. together cast, crew, a little money, and This is not because the talent is not enough time to produce a show may do there or the ideas are atrocious but so. Some people (including any number because of legal reasons. Programmers of college students) have started in have discovered that the simplest way to public access, learned a great deal, avoid litigation for plagiarism is to refuse proven themselves, and then moved on any submission from an unaccredited to paying jobs in the broadcast or cable source. worlds. Generally, an unacceptable contributor is defined as one who does not have NEWSPAPERS, MAGAZINES, an agent recognized within the industry. AND BOOKS When unsolicited program ideas arrive in the mail, network and station Although programming ideas can come employees are instructed to send back from anywhere, some of the most the package unopened. If the envelope common sources are newspapers, maga- is not detectable as a program submis- zines, and books, which you should be sion and the seal is broken, the company checking constantly. will return the contents with a release Many producers scour newspapers form that assigns virtually all the rights religiously, always on the prowl for a to the production company. The terms story. Sometimes the story can be a are so burdensome that the sender is small item on the bottom of a page; usually never heard from again. other times it can be a lead story with The primary reason commercial and explosive headlines. One producer, cable networks, as well as production Joseph Nasser, who had great success in companies, are reluctant to get into the 1980s and 1990s with true-story business with individuals is that they television movies, impressed the net- are afraid of plagiarism—specifically, that works and jealous producers alike with 2 Sources of Television Programming 47 his extensive newspaper database that Often, the search for the big story allowed him to unearth so many adapt- leads to a frantic competition to tie up able stories. Although asked, Nasser the rights for a hot article. Getting the would never reveal the newspapers he rights to the “best” newspaper article included in his database, nor would he can mean the difference between a “yes” reveal how many papers he used or or a “no” from the networks. A lot is at where they were from. stake, and the competition can be fierce.

BROKERING THE PENNSYLVANIA MINERS’ STORY

Even in Hollywood, where competition ment agency became involved. The reigns supreme, acquiring the rights to word from Disney Chairman Michael the Pennsylvania miners’ story was a Eisner came down that this was a story race unlike any other. When the story ABC had to have. Large sums of of the trapped miners broke in 2002, it money were offered to the miners, was immediately anointed as the kind along with a book contract, and a deal of story that had all the makings of a was struck. Fully empowered, Quinn great television movie, as was the case Taylor, ABC’s vice president of movies, before it when the Amy Fisher sex and ﬂew to Pennsylvania to hold what was murder story broke and after it when called a “beauty contest,” where each the story of the rescue of Jessica of the producing candidates would Lynch from Iraq caused an avalanche meet with Taylor and the miners so that of interest. Some stories instantly the miners could decide who they liked capture the imagination of producers best. Six producers participated in this and network executives alike, and the contest; one quick-thinking producer miners’ story was one of those, clearly even stopped at a local store to buy a much-needed feel-good story after overalls so that the miners would not the horrors of 9/11. see him as a slick Hollywood player Producers immediately arrived in who wears only Armani. Somerset County, Pennsylvania, ready Only one of the six could win. It was to jockey for position and to conquer a contest with high stakes: a produc- the miners. One producer got on a tion order when such orders were plane immediately after hearing about harder to come by. The stakes were so the story. He was on the scene early high that one of the candidates felt the and was able to meet with the miners. need to eavesdrop on another player He thought he had the inside track but making his pitch to make sure it was a found himself only one of many after fair competition. the International Creative Manage-

A future programmer who spots a Many producers have started their good story might be wise to grab the careers in this manner. For example, rights if Hollywood has not sniffed it Joannie Marks had the rights to Gloria out yet and if a free or low-cost option Steinem’s article “A Bunny’s Tale,” is possible. Arming yourself with a story which enabled her to pair up with you control gives you a certain amount established producer Stan Margulies to of clout.You will not be able to produce get the movie made for ABC. the story on your own, but you may be Magazine articles are also excellent able to pair up with a producer or pro- sources of material. Like everything else duction company with a track record in television, magazine popularity is that meets a network’s “comfort level.” cyclical.There was a time when a People 48 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

small screen on public and commercial television and on cable. The books of Stephen King, for example, were a big part of ABC’s programming strategy for many years.Also, some books are too big for the running time of a theatrical movie, needing the hours that a miniseries can provide (Figure 2.11). Could Figure 2.11 James Haley’s Roots, for example, have Dean Koontz’s made television history packed into a 2- Mr. Murder or 4-hour time span? Probably not. starring Stephen Unfortunately, as explained in Baldwin is an Chapter 1, viewer attention spans today example of a best- make the airing of longform program- selling book well ming iffy, and book sales to television suited to a often suffer. There are exceptions, such television as HBO’s “Band of Brothers,” but it has adaptation. (Photo been a down cycle for books over the courtesy Patchett last few years. Although Michael Kaufman Entertainment.) O’Hara’s adaptation of James Patterson’s First to Die was a surprise critical and ratings success in 2003, it was cut from cover article almost guaranteed a “yes” 4 to 3 hours because it was feared that from the network, again instilling a rush audiences would not stick around for to acquire the rights. Vanity Fair also had 2 nights. Cycles change, however, and a period in which it was deemed a reli- some producers think the book business able source, possibly before it was deter- could come back strong because studios mined around 2003 that being on the are not buying as many books for fea- cover of the magazine was a curse, spoil- tures. It would be a mistake for you to ing actor Josh Hartnett’s meteoric career ignore the potential of books. rise once he became a Vanity Fair cover boy. MANAGERS, AGENTS, The New Yorker and Texas Monthly AND STARS have also proved to be fertile suppliers of articles that made the transition to the Managers cannot solicit work for their small screen. Interestingly, one of the clients as agents can, but because best television movies, 1983’s “Who Will their job is to guide the careers of their Love My Children,” starring Ann Mar- clients, they often locate the material garet and supervised by ABC program- that their clients undertake. It often ming executive Ilene Amy Berg, came works like this: A manager interests his from an article in the often overlooked, client in a piece of material. The client “unsexy” Reader’s Digest. becomes committed to the material, and Blockbuster books such as The God- the client’s “passion” for the project father,The World According to Garp, Seabis- attracts studio interest. Then the cuit, and Memoirs of a Geisha are usually manager, to the consternation of many sold to the movies, but some best-selling producers, becomes a “producer” on the books nevertheless have made it to the project when it is made. 2 Sources of Television Programming 49

Agents also exercise a great deal of formers have created shows. These control over programming sources.They entrepreneurial stars survey the market- represent most books, both big and place, decide what is needed, and use small, and have deals to represent key their clout to push their projects magazines and newspapers. Agents will forward.Teen heartthrob Ashton Kutcher often package properties they represent created “Punk’d” for MTV, where his with their writers, directors, or stars, friends, such as singer Justin Timberlake, formulating an attractive combination are the butt of televised pranks. for the marketplace. In one instance, an Another way cable and commercial agent felt a book his agency controlled networks have entered business with would appeal to one of the agency’s star high-voltage talent is to ask artists about clients, a writer-director, and this mar- their pet projects. Some of these projects riage led to the creation of a successful might not be right for the big screen, television program. This kind of mix- but they might be just the ticket for the and-match technique allows agencies small screen. For example, when pro- to be powerful originators of ducer Kim Rubin learned that Jennifer programming. Love Hewitt had always dreamed of Agents are well connected and can playing Audrey Hepburn, Rubin and quickly get to rights holders to encour- Hewitt ran with the idea and “The age them to be represented by their Audrey Hepburn Story” aired on ABC companies, again limiting access. It is a to strong ratings and favorable reviews. double-edged sword for producers: If There is also the example of Selma the person whose story you want is not Hayek directing “The Maldonado represented or is represented by home- Miracle” for Showtime in 2003. Many town lawyers, the negotiations can prove stars create their own companies, some- to be difficult because “nobody knows times unfavorably and unfairly dismissed how the system works.” If, on the other as vanity efforts, to make sure that the hand, a major agency gets involved, projects they generate will see the light there is likely going to be a bidding war, of day reflecting their particular vision. the price will go up, and somebody represented by that agency will proba- In this chapter, we have examined the bly get the rights. different sources of television program- Some stars, such as Roseanne Barr in ming. In Chapter 3, we turn our atten- “Roseanne,” have had significant cretion to the sources of radio and Internet ative input on their shows; other per- programming. 50 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

EXERCISES

1. Research several television programs, 6. Find a theatrical film that you think mostly television movies and miniseries, could translate nicely to the small screen. that originated with stories in The New Analyze why you think the film could Yorker,Vanity Fair, and Texas Monthly. succeed on television. 2. Find an article that you think would 7. Research an independent production make a good movie. Explore getting the company. How is the company structured? rights. What creative or financial risks does it take, 3. Locate a program from a foreign if any? country that you think could be success- 8. Research the history of a first-run fully adapted for an American audience. syndicated program. What specifically would you have to do to 9. Research the arguments for and “Americanize” it? against fin-syn. 4. Analyze the success or failure of an im- 10. Compare the ratings for a show ported show that has been “Americanized.” repurposed from a network to cable and 5. Analyze the television success or from cable to a network. failure of a particular theatrical film.Why did the film work or not work on television?

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Bob Shanks. The Cool Fire (New York: 4. Ken Auletta. Three Blind Mice (New Norton, 1976), p. 87. York: Random House, 1991), p. 357. 2. Bill Carter. “From Creator of CSI 5. Matt Richtel. “Product Placements Testament to Himself,” The New York Go Interactive in Video Games,” The New Times, August 8, 2003, pp. C-1, 4. York Times, June 25, 2002, pp. C-1, 4. 3. Murray Green. “More Indies Airing 6. Melody Petersen. “Stars Paid to Tout Newscasts Produced by Competitors,” Cures,” International Herald Tribune, August Broadcasting, September 23, 1991, p. 16. 13, 2002, p. 5. 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming

In this chapter you will learn about the mainly focusing on broadcasting music, following: news, and talk. Radio, although it does not have as high a public profile as tele- • The primary suppliers of radio and vision, does have a high presence. In Internet programming content 2002, Arbitron reported that there were • The effect of the 1996 Telecommuni- more than 13,500 radio stations operat- cations Act on the distributors and ing in the United States.With most sta- creators of programming content tions broadcasting 24 hours a day, that • The role of the public and stars as means the radio airwaves of the nation sources of programming consume a staggering 118.3 million • What future programmers need to hours of programming each year. Even know to succeed as suppliers of with the addition of the many television programming stations available through cable and satel- • Different radio formats lite, television cannot possibly match the • Voice tracking sheer bulk of radio’s programming. This • The influence of payola on radio is partly a matter of available bandwidth Radio and television share a common for broadcasting, but it is even more a past in their golden ages of drama pro- matter of economics.Television produc- gramming, but radio’s trajectory was tion requires scripts, lighting, camera forever changed by the advent of televi- operators, makeup, wardrobe, sets, props, sion. The coming of the Internet, directors, grips, catering, actors, studios, although perhaps more of a creeping editors—the list goes on. Some radio phenomenon than television, already has programs, on the other hand, are now profoundly changed the way that media produced in a spare bedroom at the consumers view their media meals. The on-air personality’s home, rigged with a strategies that web programmers employ microphone and little else. may make it necessary for programmers Like television, however, many radio of all mediums to adjust their recipes. programs are produced once to be broadcast many times or, more often, on SOURCES OF PROGRAMMING many stations simultaneously. So, as with FOR RADIO television, the sources of radio programming include a system of network- and Radio, after the coming of television, syndicator-produced materials and local became a medium with a local flavor, sources of programming.

51 52 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Syndicator/Network Programming Metro Networks/Shadow Broadcast Services, provide syndicated material to Although in television, as you saw in stations; others operate stations (which Chapter 2, there is a relatively clean may purchase syndicated material from delineation between a network and a still other companies). As if that was not syndicator, in radio the distinction is complicated enough, Westwood One murky—especially because of the is a subsidiary of Infinity Broadcasting, unprecedented media mergers after the bringing still more stations and services 1996 Telecommunications Act. Major into the mix. But it does not end there; companies such as Clear Channel Com- Infinity Broadcasting is owned by media munications, Cumulus Media, and Infin- giant Viacom,which also owns the CBS ity Broadcasting each own radio stations and UPN television networks; cable broadcasting a range of formats, from channels such as MTV,Showtime, Nick- talk to pop to alternative. But these elodeon, and Black Entertainment Tele- companies do not only provide content vision; and film’s Paramount Studios. to their own stations—they also create All of this is subject to change at any syndicated content for other stations. moment as media companies spin off For example, Metro Networks/ subsidiaries and acquire others. Shadow Broadcast Services provides Once you get past the definition of local traffic reports to thousands of radio radio networks and syndicators, you are stations across the country. Metro Net- faced with two types of syndicated/ works/Shadow Broadcast Services is a network programming that these entities subsidiary of Westwood One, which provide to local stations. calls itself a network and comprises eight additional subsidiaries (CNN Max, Types of Syndication. Some syndi- Source Max, CBS, NBC, Next,WONE, cated/network material for radio is pro- Blaise, and Navigator). Some, such as duced once to be broadcast many times or on many stations at the same time. Examples of this kind of material are “The Howard Stern Show” (Figure 3.1), Ryan Seacrest’s “Weekly Top 40,” national and international news broadcasts “at the top of the hour,” and nationwide talk shows such as those featuring Rush Limbaugh and Dr. Laura. On public radio, there are also many syndicated/network programs, such as NPR’s “Morning Edition” and “All Things Considered” news programs or the lighter fare of “Car Talk” and “This American Life.” Figure 3.1 Then there is customized syndi- Howard Stern’s weekday radio cated/network material tailored to each program is aired in station. Scanning through radio stations major markets in in a major radio market during rush the United States. hour, you might come across the same (Globe Photos, traffic reporter describing the latest Inc.) freeway conditions on several stations. 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 53

The reporter may assume a different for completely automating radio stations tone for each station to match that using prerecorded talent and computers station’s tone. to cue songs, commercials, and deejay banter has been around for decades but Voice Tracking. Another type of syndi- has seen only limited success. Audiences cated/network programming is voice may catch on to the prepackaged quality tracking. This process is aimed at taking of the material and do not tend to one radio personality and using him or respond well. Radio, for many people, is her in many markets but retaining a not just a content-providing service— “local” feel. The deejay’s banter may they rely on it to keep them company be recorded in two types of segments: when they commute or do chores general segments and localized seg- around the house. It is hard to feel ments. The general segments make no comforted by the company of radio reference to local events or information, content that is perceptibly predeter- so they can be played in every market. mined or preproduced. For the local segments, the deejay will record material specifically targeted to The Purpose of Today’s Radio each market in which it will be broad- Networks/Syndicators cast. Every station receives the general segments, and each local station gets Radio audiences tend to perceive sta- segments created specifically for the tions as separate entities rather than part station; it then compiles the show for of a network brand. Notable exceptions broadcast from the combination of the exist, however. In public radio, audiences two. In some cases, voice talent only often associate individual stations with records general segments and the local the NPR network even if many pro- segments are provided by third parties, grams on the station originate from the such as syndicated local traffic, weather, local station or PRI. Pacifica Radio, a news services, or a combination of these. network of left-leaning radio stations, With computer programs specifically also has a strong network identity for its designed for voice tracking, deejays can small but loyal audience. often record a 5-hour show in 1 hour In the commercial world, radio or less because the program skips songs network identity faded with the arrival and commercial breaks, only playing the of television but may be making a beginning and end of material for the comeback as part of the aftermath deejay’s reference. With this sped up of deregulation, particularly the 1996 production method, a deejay in one city Telecommunications Act. The act can create original voice-tracked shows removed the 40-station cap on nation- for several other markets in the course wide ownership by a single company of an afternoon, earning additional per- and allowed companies to own up to 8 sonal income and saving money for the stations in a single market, twice the radio company, which would not only previous limit. Several companies took have to pay the salary but also the advantage of the new rules, buying benefits for what may be a less effective stations across the country. deejay with less sophisticated production By far the most ambitious of these techniques. companies, owning more than 1200 But voice tracking can be a compli- radio stations in 2003 (around 10% of cated business. In addition, it has not all radio stations), is Clear Channel. always been successful. The technology Its biggest rival, Cumulus only owns 54 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

around 300 stations. With several of its has aroused considerable controversy in stations, Clear Channel has started to the industry. How, many wonder, can develop a national brand with a federal one management team negotiate the trademark. Its KISS stations are spread peculiarities of both a decidedly non- across the country.Although each station controversial soft hits station aimed at includes some locally created programs adult women and the raucous format of in its lineup each day, much of the an alternative rock station aimed at stations’ content, especially in smaller teenage males? markets, is voice-tracked by deejays in other locations. Randy Michaels, former From Town to City to Metropolis CEO of the company’s radio unit, and Syndication likened their strategy to McDonald’s franchise system. “A McDonald’s Radio is similar to television news and manager may get his arms around the talk shows in the manner in which on- local community, but there are certain air personalities and producers are sea- elements of the product that are con- soned into the business. Although there stant,” he said. “You may in some parts are notable exceptions, most people of the country get chicken, but the Big who want to get into radio have to start Mac is the Big Mac.”1 in minor markets, where audiences are This new franchise system is in its small and pay is even smaller. On-air early stages. For most stations, brand personalities in minor markets make recognition is still not an important demo tapes of their broadcasts and try issue.What then is the benefit that com- to use them to secure positions in larger panies receive in owning multiple markets. To gain the attention of the stations? programming directors in larger If a network owns, as is often the case, markets, they must have something on a talk radio, a pop music, and an adult their demo reels that distinguishes them contemporary format station in the from the other applicants. Thus, out of same city, there will be little, if any, the necessity to rise from the below- content produced that could be broad- poverty wages of a small market, radio cast on all three stations. There is scarce personalities must innovate and hone financial advantage to the network in their skills and on-air personas. content development and production It is not usually until after an on-air because each station must create content personality makes it to a major market appropriate to its own format. that radio executives feel that he or she The benefit a network gains by may be ready for syndication, where a owning many stations is less in terms of show will be broadcast in numerous sharing production costs and more in markets across the country. In this way, terms of sharing administrative costs. the small markets, where on-air person- Many stations in a network may, for alities and producers cut their teeth and example, operate out of the same build- then move on, may later regain what ing, sharing facilities and management. they lost in the form of a syndicated This shared management arrangement show from the same on-air personality. 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 55

RADIO CAREER PATH: PHIL HENDRIE (Reprinted with permission from www.philhendrieshow.com)

Phil Hendrie was born September 1st, fornia, in 1990. For the most part “fed 1952, and was raised in the Los up” with the business of radio, Phil Angeles suburb of Arcadia. Phil spent accepted the position for a meager much of his youth traveling with his “. . . $1,500 a month at the age of 38.” parents, transplanted Canadians, on According to one interview, his lengthy road trips, during which he current show format was in part born became enamored of the sounds of from a lack of calls on the board. Once American radio coming through the car he discovered the enthusiasm his out- speakers. By the age of 5, young Phil rageous guests brought about in his knew he’d found his calling. listeners, he knew he had an intriguing At 14, he discovered Dylan Thomas, new format with which to work ...and and he considered a career as a writer. it’s been one which has served him But as his interest in radio grew as well. well, he began hanging around But for Phil, it’s more than just Pasadena’s KRLA, watching the likes parody of the medium. In fact, in many of Casey Kasem, Bob Eubanks, and respects, Phil doesn’t care for the very “Emperor” Bob Hudson. industry in which he works. For Phil Phil attended Pasadena City College Hendrie, as well as for many other lis- for two years, but dropped out and teners of the medium, talk radio itself moved with friends to Orlando, Florida, has become too self-important and too to work as a construction laborer/ self-congratulatory. Its hosts take on cement finisher in the middle of the extremist viewpoints merely to keep early seventies Central Florida building calls on the board . . . from callers who boom, and contributed to building Walt often just parrot whatever the host Disney World as well. According to Mr. says. Worse yet, talk radio believes it Hendrie, he “. . . still entertained ideas makes a difference in the issues, when about being a writer but didn’t really it rarely if ever does. write anything.” And perhaps worst of all . . . if it’s on Realizing that he’d need a job to the radio, people believe it as an support himself if he was ever going to absolute truth, despite the fact that get down to the business of writing, he most of what’s on talk radio is simply unwittingly chose his career ...“I opinion. What Phil Hendrie does on his landed a gig as a disc jockey at WBJW program manages to demonstrate that 1440 AM in Winter Park Florida, a rather accurately, each and every suburb of Orlando. I never really did night. start writing anything. And for that In this respect, be forewarned— matter never did anything of note as a through often outrageous humor, Phil disc jockey for some 16 years, drifting Hendrie regularly exposes the media from Orlando to New Orleans to Miami for what it is. But most of all—Phil’s and then home to Los Angeles, spin- show is about poking a little fun at our- ning records and hating it. Real waste selves . . . and he and his listeners of life . . .” have a damn good time doing it. But despite “hating it,” Phil rose While Mr. Hendrie insists that he still quickly through the ranks as a D.J., has a longing to write . . . most of his until he was fired from his final job as fans would probably agree that he’s morning man at KLSX in Los Angeles. already found his niche. It was then that he realized he had to (In 2003 “The Phil Hendrie Show” find a position which would better was syndicated on stations in nearly 40 serve his talents, and began his career of the U.S. States and in Canada.) in talk radio at KVEN in Ventura, Cali- 56 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

still in existence to a limited extent, mostly on public radio and college stations. KCRW in Los Angeles, for example, offers numerous musical programs whose deejays have found loyal listeners both in the local market and on the Internet, such as their musically diverse morning program “Morning Becomes Eclectic,” hosted by Nic Har- court. Such deejay-driven programs have often introduced and popularized Figure 3.2 Sources of Music Programming new artists, whose songs have then been Radio music picked up by commercial stations. In formats and the The main product on most radio sta- 1993, for example, “Morning Becomes percentage of the tions is music. The source for the Eclectic” was the first to broadcast the market they occupy. music is record companies that will- song “Loser” by then-unknown musical (Source: ingly donate copies of their new artist Beck. http://www.cyber releases to stations likely to program Most stations, however, rely on college.com/frtv/ them. Although the records are free, program directors who select a consis- frtv022b.htm. stations must pay license fees to play tent genre of music so that audiences Accessed July 22, music. These fees are paid to The know what they will hear from the 2004.) American Society of Composers, station no matter when they tune in Authors and Publishers; Broadcast (Figure 3.2). Local radio stations Music, Inc.; and the Society of Euro- conduct extensive testing and evaluation pean Stage Authors and Composers, to discover what is hot and what is not music licensing organizations that with audiences, because songs tend to collect money from stations and pay it have a limited shelf life, especially in Top to music composers and publishers. 40 radio. More on this process will be The amount collected is an annual fee covered in the chapters on testing and based on the station’s overall revenue— evaluation. about 1.4%. Each of these licensing organizations has jurisdiction over dif- Radio Consolidation and Music Pro- ferent music. Most stations find they gramming. With the consolidation of must pay all three so that they can air radio station ownership that occurred whatever music they want. The licens- after the 1996 Telecommunications Act, ing agencies periodically collect some worry that local programming playlists from a representative sample decisions might be affected by a station’s of stations and feed into a computer parent company. For example, in the the entries of musical selections from lead-up to the 2003 war in Iraq, the each playlist. Based on these, the agen- country trio The Dixie Chicks made cies decide how much of the money disparaging comments about President collected should go to each composer George W.Bush at a concert in Europe. and publisher. Nearly overnight, their songs were In the early days of musical program- dropped from many radio stations. ming in radio, playlists were mostly Cumulus Media, which owns nearly 300 determined by the deejays that spun the radio stations across the nation, briefly records. This deejay-driven strategy is but officially banned The Dixie Chicks 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 57

(Figure 3.3) from the airwaves of their country music stations. Critics pointed out that many stations owned by the far bigger Clear Channel were no longer playing the until-then best-selling band. Critics also noted that some Clear Channel stations were taking part in war rallies, charging that the company had a right-wing political agenda. Clear Channel Radio CEO John Hogan, in a July 23 interview on the NPR program “Fresh Air,” denied that Clear Channel or its stations were responding to anything other than local market forces when they stopped playing The Dixie Figure 3.3 Chicks. Hogan claims that all music pro- The Dixie Chicks gramming decisions are left to the dis- saw their airplay diminish after they cretion of local program directors, based made controversial on research about what local audiences comments. (Globe want and do not want to hear, and that Photos, Inc.) there was therefore no concerted effort to ban the band. In fact, Hogan said, many Clear Channel stations continued tors give money or special favors to those to play the band’s songs after their con- in radio programming in exchange for troversial statements. airing their music. Radio exposure is Nevertheless, media observers worry such an important factor in a record’s that radio music diversity will, whether success that distributors are willing to do by design or by circumstance, be stulti- almost anything to receive favorable, fre- fied by the conglomeration of radio quent airings. Payola was made illegal in ownership. As editorial observer Brent the 1950s after it was discovered to be Staples wrote in The New York Times in rampant in the radio business. But the February 2003, “independent radio sta- antipayola laws only made it illegal for tions that once would have played edgy, record distributors to pay stations for political music have been gobbled up by airing specific songs. corporations that control hundreds of Soon, a new payola scheme was stations and have no wish to rock the devised, that of the “independent pro- boat.” moter.” In this scheme, the independent promoter is paid by a record company Payola. Although program directors to promote the company’s songs and insist that their playlists are influenced artists to radio stations.The independent only by audience preferences, this is not promoter, in turn, pays an annual fee to always the case. Throughout the history radio stations to have the “right” to of music programming on radio, record promote songs to the station. In this companies have, to a greater or lesser way, record companies and radio stations extent, tried to influence which songs are can make two claims: (1) The record broadcast, when, and how often—a prac- company and the radio station are not tice known as payola. Record distribu- negotiating directly—instead, they are 58 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

is paid to a middleman. And what happens after that is very privileged information. But I know that these things exist.”2 Henley’s appearance before the Senate committee was partly credited for the vow of the largest U.S. radio station owner, Clear Channel, to bar its radio stations from accepting money from independent promoters. Some lawmakers, however, looked upon this announcement with a jaundiced eye, having seen how quickly and consistently radio stations and record com- Figure 3.4 panies had circumnavigated the Don Henley original intent of the payola laws. testified in the Senator Russ Feingold (D-Wisconsin) Senate about said, “I hope that Clear Channel con- modern-day siders this a first step toward reforming equivalents to the industry, not a single concession payola. (Globe aimed at pacifying Congress.”3 Photos, Inc.) Henley also warned against a new potential player in the payola game—the going through an “independent” third concert promoter. Record companies party. (2) The third party is not paying claim that profits have been hobbled in the station to play specific songs; it is the late 1990s and early 2000s by illegal only paying an annual promotion fee. MP3 song file swapping over the Inter- Complaints about this new payola net. Some critics say, however, that scheme have surfaced many times since mergers in the record industry are to the 1960s, but evidence about the prac- blame for sagging profits because they tice and how rampant it may be is hard have made it difficult for interesting to come by because those involved are new musical acts to break into the not eager to disclose details. At one business. As a result, these critics say, point, singer/songwriter Don Henley the public has soured on cookie-cutter (Figure 3.4), best known as a member megamusical artists who are more sheen of the Eagles rock band, appeared before than substance. Whatever the reason for the Senate Commerce, Science, and drooping profits, the music industry has Transportation Committee’s hearing on increasingly turned to live concerts for media ownership.When asked about his revenue, raising ticket prices markedly firsthand knowledge of payola, Henley in recent years. To drive consumers to said,“I know there’s payola because I get concerts, Henley warns that concert billed for it. My record company bills promoters might be trying to get the me back for the independent promotion songs from touring artists into heavy monies they have to give to the inde- rotation on radio stations. An ominous pendent promoter. And they have sign that Henley points to is that Clear worked out a very sophisticated system Channel has become the biggest player to skirt the current payola laws; a very not only in radio but also in concert sophisticated system where the money promotion—and that its song playlists 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 59 may therefore be determined, at least Sources of Talk Radio partly, by self-interest to support its Programming touring artists. Nearly every radio station has an element of talk radio programming in it, Sources of News Programming whether it is a Top 40 music station All-news radio stations have the same with a special guest interview of a hot elaborate source structure as major TV pop star, a soft hits station that reads news outlets.They subscribe to wire ser- romantic dedications at night, or one of vices, networks, and databanks, and they the staple all-talk stations. All-talk sta- hire numerous reporters to roam the tions have taken off in the last 20 years. local streets and even travel nationally In 1980, there were only 75 all-talk stations in the United States. By 2003, and internationally to cover stories.They 5 must have a well-organized but flexible there were more than 1300. infrastructure to incorporate and update the latest happenings. Members of the Public. Unlike televi- However, on many music-oriented sion, many radio programs depend stations, news is downplayed. Since the heavily upon audience contributions— deregulation in the 1980s, radio stations call-in talk shows are built completely are not required to program news, so around audience contributions, even if many of them provide only a minimal only a tiny percentage of listeners call. amount. They do not have their own This is not to say that call-in talk shows full-blown news staffs and choose just open the phone lines and sit back. instead to subscribe to a network (or The content is driven by the produc- several) to receive news. Sometimes the tion team and the on-air personality. stations use the network newscasts just Listeners tune in not to hear what callers as they are, and sometimes they use will say but rather to hear how their the network actualities (interviews with favorite on-air personality will react. people in the news) but surround them Although there are many types of with copy read by a local announcer. call-in shows, they usually involve the The downplaying of news, decreasing on-air host introducing a topic “ripped local origination and increasing automa- from the headlines,” whether the head- tion in radio stations has meant that lines of a newspaper, a tabloid, or even radio’s place as a resource for timely or an obscure article from a small publica- urgent local news has diminished. David tion. Often there is also an expert or K. Dunaway, an English professor and someone directly related to the topic media analyst at the University of New with whom the on-air personality dis- Mexico, cites the derailment of a train cusses various aspects of the issue before as an example:“The best example of the throwing it open to audience comments importance and decline of local origi- or questions. Rarely do call-in shows nation happened in a town of Minot, simply go from caller to caller. Instead, North Dakota, where last January a train the host, expert, or both have pre- derailment released a toxic cloud of arranged talking points about the topic ammonia . . . Emergency workers called to discuss between calls. In addition, the stations, but Clear Channel had fired there is usually a vigorous call-screening the local reporters, and no one could process because the point of call-in notify the public about the toxic shows is less to let callers say their cloud.”4 piece and more to provide interesting 60 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

eventually was broadcast to about 125 stations nationwide. But in 1999 they ended their syndication run, concluding that they are most comfortable and effective when dealing with local and state issues.6 Other call-in shows, such as help or advice shows like the nationally syndicated “Dr. Laura” or “Loveline” with Dr. Figure 3.5 Drew Pinsky (Figure 3.5) and Adam Dr. Drew Pinsky Carolla are driven less by host-derived plays the straight topics and more by the personal prob- man to Adam lems that callers bring to the shows. Carolla’s riffs on Again, call screening plays an important sexual topics in their syndicated role in providing variety and interest talk show, to the content, and the hosts often talk “Loveline,” but the between calls to comment on a topic show mainly brought up by a caller or to talk of other focuses on call-ins. issues of interest to their target audience. (Globe Photos, As noted before, most music format Inc.) stations also include elements of talk derived from members of the public. material for listeners—especially in Audience members request songs or commercial radio. Some shows stick dedicate them to loved (or hated) ones. with topics for long periods; others Again, call screening plays an important might rifle through a dozen topics in an role. Stations do not put on callers who hour. Often the amount of time spent request songs that diverge greatly from depends on the complexities of the the station’s format. WHOM-FM in topic. Portland, Maine, for example, has run Some nationally syndicated examples a show “Love Songs at Night” with of this type of call-in show are “The Sandra Harris since the early 1990s.The Rush Limbaugh Show,” “Radio Factor operations and program manager at with Bill O’Reilly,” NPR’s “Talk of the WHOM,Tim Moore, said that although Nation,” and the fringe “Coast to Coast the songs the station plays in the “Love AM.” Nearly every major market, and Songs at Night” show are not that dif- many smaller markets, also have their ferent from those it plays during the day, own homegrown local call-in shows. “There is a different flavor at night and Many nationally syndicated shows Sandra’s sending it out specifically to started out as local shows that caught one person with that message is what fire and then were retooled to appeal to makes it magical.”7 larger audiences. Some talk show hosts, Many radio shows also have sketches such as John Kobylt and Ken Chiampou that play tricks on audience members or of the “John and Ken Show” from KFI on the behalf of audience members.The in Los Angeles, have made the trip from syndicated “Phil Hendrie Show,” for local to syndicated and back to local example, is an often-outrageous parody again.The pair’s show, which started out of a talk radio show. Unwitting listeners in New Jersey, began syndication after sometimes chance upon the show and they came to Los Angeles in 1992 and are incensed by its farfetched content, 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 61 calling in to lodge their complaints or spar with outlandishly concocted “guests.” Hendrie and his “guests” then take the opportunity to milk these callers for all the comic, if off-color, interactions they can. In Rick Dees’s “Candid Phone” sketch, an audience member calls in to request that Dees make a crank call to a friend or family member—providing Dees with information about the person that he can use to bait his victim. Figure 3.6 Stars. Another source that radio taps In addition to his for programming is known personalities, MTV show, “Total usually from television. With recent Request Live,” media mergers, this “transplanting” of Carson Daly talent is becoming more prevalent. Per- parlays his celebrity sonalities who have developed national into radio gold. followings on television, such as Carson (Globe Photos, Daly (Figure 3.6) of MTV’s “Total Inc.) Request Live,” now have syndicated daily radio programs, such as Daly’s 2000. Although her radio program, “Most Requested” and “Most which has been syndicated since 1994, Requested Rhythmic” shows. (Interest- is the second most listened to talk radio ingly, Daly started out in radio before program on the air, it has stirred being picked up by MTV at age 24.) up considerable controversy—especially But this phenomenon is not limited to concerning comments she made about national television and radio. Many local homosexuals, labeling them “biological television news personalities, after they errors.”This pot of controversy, although are done with their morning television simmering before, began to boil once broadcasts then host radio programs. For plans for her television show were example, Sam Rubin, an entertainment announced. A group of activists set reporter for KTLA in Los Angeles’s up a website, StopDrLaura.com, and morning television news program, also arranged for protests outside of the has a 1-hour entertainment radio Paramount Studios, where the show was program on Los Angeles’s 97.1 FM talk being taped. The protests and website station. received considerable media attention, On the other side of the coin, many scaring advertisers both from Sch- radio personalities have made the jump lessinger’s new television show and her from radio to television, although the longstanding radio program. Less than a results there have not been particularly year after the television show began impressive, showing that radio and tele- airing, it was canceled. The activists at vision are very different mediums. Dr. StopDrLaura.com claimed victory, Laura Schlessinger, whose radio talk although Dr. Laura continues to broad- show is syndicated on more than 300 cast her daily radio program and it still AM stations across the country, made holds its place as the number two talk the move to television in September show on radio behind Rush Limbaugh’s 62 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

program, who also had his own short- inherent in film and television produc- lived television show in 1995 and 1996. tion. Although radio dramas are less Shock jock Howard Stern, however, expensive to produce than TV or film has had moderate and longstanding ones, they are still more expensive and success on cable television’s E! Enter- labor intensive than most radio content. tainment Television network since 1994. However, with the burgeoning billion- His show, unlike the Schlessinger and dollar “books on tape” market, often Limbaugh shows, was hardly modified dramas produced for radio can see addi- for television. Instead, cameras simply tional revenue in a CD after market or, capture the radio show as it is produced, more recently, on satellite radio. perhaps with a few “behind-the-scenes” sketches and interviews with guests Sources of Satellite Radio before they enter the studio. Programming

Sources of Other Programming Unlike terrestrial radio, satellite radio closely resembles television. As a sub- Most radio programming falls into the scription service, the brand of the formats of music, news, and talk, but other satellite radio network is extremely programming exists on the periphery. important. In 2003 there were only two Many stations air play-by-play sports network brands: XM Radio and Sirius. coverage of local teams on weekends. With upward of 100 channels to fill Play-by-play sports can be supplied with content, these networks use both locally, regionally, or nationally. Stations self-produced and syndicated material, that program only sports use all three, some of which is also broadcast on ter- but most stations, if they program sports, restrial radio stations or the Internet. either produce the game coverage in- XM Radio, for example, broadcasts a house or use the services of one feed of Los Angeles’s KIIS-FM Top 40 network. station and NPR’s daily offerings. Radio drama never fell completely Satellite radio features some stations off of the airwaves. Golden-age radio that are wall-to-wall genre-specific dramas are still replayed in syndication. music. Other stations include deejay Equity Radio Network, for example, has chatter between music and exclusive agreements with 22 stations across the interviews or live performances by country. Equity Radio Network’s presi- recording artists. Many talk radio, news, dent, Gary Nice, explained his interest and sports stations are available. But in the shows from the 1930s and 1940s satellite radio also provides stations that by saying, “I wanted to syndicate some- contain material not offered elsewhere, thing different. I wanted to find a niche. such as nonstop stand-up comedians, Originally, I was syndicating talk shows, radio dramas, and niche programming, but they’re a dime a dozen nowadays— like Sirius’s OutQ station, a channel of especially conservative talk shows.”8 news, information, and entertainment New radio dramas have also been programming aimed at the gay, lesbian, produced throughout the years, mostly bisexual, and transgender communities. on public radio. For writers and actors, XM Radio also features Playboy Radio, radio drama can be an attractive a premium channel that subscribers medium in which to try something new must pay extra to listen to. Although without the budgetary nightmares many stations are commercial free, 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 63 others include commercials to augment Despite its establishment of not-for- listener subscription fees. profit and community-based media opportunities such as LPFM, many have Sources of Low-Power FM criticized the 1996 Telecommunications Programming Act and other more recent deregulation of broadcast ownership because it allows Provided for in the 1996 Telecommuni- much of traditional broadcast media to cations Act, low-power FM (LPFM) be swallowed by a few big corporations. radio stations have a small broadcast Critics argue that fewer media owners radius, usually of about 10 miles. They means fewer sources of programming are meant to provide opportunities for and fewer points of view expressed in schools, churches, and other local orga- the media. Publicly traded companies, nizations to use the public airwaves to many caution, have only three con- make their voices heard. cerns—minimizing costs, maximizing The FCC’s eligibility criteria for revenues, and therefore generating profit. LPFM require the applicant organiza- Supporters of the 1996 Telecommu- tion be a not-for-profit educational nications Act say that without it, tradi- institution or organization or an entity tional media would have fallen into the that has proposed a noncommercial red as a result of competition and the public-safety radio service to protect the fracturing of the marketplace. Erica safety of life, health, or property. The Farber, president and publisher of Radio applicant cannot have financial interest & Records, said when she spoke at in any other television, radio, newspaper, California State University, Fullerton, or cable television operation (excluding that the 1996 Telecommunications Act public access) and must agree to broad- allowed radio to “finally function as a cast a minimum of 36 hours per week, real business.” much of which must be locally pro- Although many supporters of the duced programming. Therefore, sources 1996 Telecommunications Act and sub- of LPFM programming are mostly local, sequent deregulation agree that tradi- independent, and not for profit.9 tional media may see less diversity, at The National Association of Broad- least in ownership, as a result of media casters and even NPR have lobbied for mergers, they point to the new media strict controls to limit the proliferation opportunities available to the public, of these stations, pointing to the possi- specifically the Internet. ble signal interference that low-power stations might have on their own signals. SOURCES OF INTERNET Studies on signal interference by LPFM PROGRAMMING stations have been mixed, but they suggest that interference, in most cases, With the Internet, supporters of is insignificant. Some media watchers media deregulation say, diversity of question whether established radio’s viewpoints and sources of programming objections to LPFM may be based more can grow exponentially. Indeed, the on wanting to eliminate possible com- number of unique websites on the petition than avoiding signal interfer- Internet, according to the Online ence. As of July 2003, there were 744 Computer Library Center, continues LPFM permits issued and 220 stations to grow—from 2,636,000 in 1998 to on the air, according to the FCC.10 8,712,000 in 2002.11 64 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Every Computer a Potential Part of the problem with adoption of Source of Programming the Internet by the masses is inherent in the technology and the medium of the The Internet, developed by the U.S. Internet. Radio and television receivers government in 1969, is a vast network require little technical know-how or of computers that can, with permission, training to operate. The same cannot be connect to each other to share digital said for the Internet, which, in most cases, files. Unlike radio or television, which is must be received through a computer. broadcast from one location to be Many people’s computer skills and espe- received in the surrounding area, any cially troubleshooting skills are limited. computer connected to the Internet can When a computer problem occurs, serve as both a broadcaster and a which it inevitably does, users may be receiver. Anyone with an Internet con- turned off, especially if they are using the nection who follows the correct World computer during their leisure time. Wide Web protocols can create content Although creating and publishing in the form of web pages. These can be websites and Internet programming for viewed by anyone else with an Internet consumption by others can be far less connection—provided that they know expensive and difficult than producing the correct uniform resource locator and broadcasting television and radio or address of the desired website. programs, it is still no walk in the park. The Internet was started as a military Once Internet content is produced and tool and soon spread to universities to aid made available to web surfers, there is in research. It did not really start gaining still the problem of letting people know exposure to the general public until the that the site exists and how to get early 1990s, but use and access to the to it. Web producers must submit their Internet has quickly grown ever since. In sites to search engine services, such 1995, Nielsen estimated the number of as Google.com, AltaVista.com, and people in the United States with access Ask.com. With millions of sites on the to the Internet at 18 million, or 6.7% of Internet, web producers must optimize the U.S. population. In April 2002, that their sites so that search engines can number had risen to 167 million, or 12 effectively index them—increasing the 59.1% of the U.S. population. possibility that the site will be listed in the first few results in a search. In short, Obstacles to Internet Mass Usage although the Internet certainly guaran- tees the opportunity for expression to These numbers, however, may be anyone with a computer and an Internet deceiving; they include people who use connection, it does not as easily guaran- the Internet at work, at home, in Inter- tee an audience for that expression. net cafes, and in public libraries. Only an estimated 32% of the U.S. population Traditional Media Sources had Internet access in their homes in April 2002. Comparing that to the Nowadays, nearly every media outlet, 98.9% of households with a color tele- whether a newspaper, television vision and the nearly ubiquitous pres- network, or radio station, has a website. ence of radios in U.S. households, the These websites may range from the per- growth of the Internet, although impres- functory one-page site that serves as an sive, has not been as quick or universal online brochure to a full-featured, inter- as that of early radio or television.13 active website with regularly updated 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 65 text, photos, audio, video, and motion video on the Internet is becoming more graphic content. robust, but it still has a long way to go. Oftentimes, traditional media sources One type of video Internet program- populate their websites with materials ming has taken off in recent years: music taken directly from their traditional videos. As music video networks such as outlets. A radio station may provide a MTV and VH1 have moved toward pro- live stream of the station’s broadcast gramming shows, rather than the wall- online or archived files of previous to-wall videos they started out playing, shows to which visitors to the site can viewers have turned more to the Inter- listen on demand. This is especially net to watch the latest videos of their true with talk radio programs, which are favorite artists.Yahoo’s Launch.com fea- often broken into several files, each rep- tures thousands of music videos dating resenting one of the topics covered in back as far as “Video Killed the Radio the live show. Star,” the video by The Buggles, which For television, connection speeds are inaugurated MTV in 1983. not yet fast enough to stream quality Another type of content that tradi- live video to most viewers. Television tional media outlets provide on their networks may provide short on-demand websites is material that supplements video clips of recent or archived shows. their regular programming. Radio sta- But it is often preferable to create video tions may feature biographies of on-air content specifically for the web. The personalities, “unedited” versions of file compression process used to make interviews broadcast over the airwaves, video files small enough for efficient or other resources for their listener Internet transmission favors images with community, such as calendars of events, minimal movement and detail. Although chat rooms, and message boards. Televi- on television the busy background of sion networks may provide “back- CNN’s newsroom provides an interest- grounders” on specific shows. The ing visual environment, after file com- website for CBS’s hit show “CSI: Crime pression, most of the moving details in Scene Investigation” contains a section the background would look like dis- called Case Files, which shows details of tracting, blurry splotches (Figure 3.7). each of the crime scenes featured on the For this reason, video created specifically show. A Personnel section gives back- for the web usually consists of the ground about each of the show’s char- proverbial talking head with a mono- acters. Among other content on the site chrome background. As better compres- is a Handbook with definitions and sion programs (codecs) are developed, descriptions of the various methods

Figure 3.7 Compression can signiﬁcantly degrade the quality of video streamed over the Internet. 66 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

and tools of crime scene investigation folio, expressing opinions or observa- and pictorial maps of crime labs. On tions, or broadcasting personally pro- some television shows, characters duced forms of entertainment, perhaps mention fictitious website addresses and with the aim of gaining notice from viewers flock to the addresses to see traditional media, making money off of what is there, just as they inevitably call the endeavor, or both. phone numbers mentioned on television If a person or entity wishes to have shows, causing nightmares for the an endeavor reach an audience, however, unlucky individuals or businesses to just as with radio and television net- whom the numbers belong. On the works and stations, associating with a NBC show “Will & Grace,” the charac- known quantity on the Internet will ter Jack mentioned his website Just- greatly help the process. Search engines, Jack.com several times on one episode. web rings, link sharing, and email When viewers went to the site, they marketing are just a few ways to asso- found a modest number of pages detail- ciate websites online. ing Jack’s frothy “private thoughts.” Some television and radio shows use Private vs. Public Sources their Internet sites to allow audience of Programming members to play along, interact with, or even determine the direction of a show. In the early days of the Internet, most The ABC prime-time game show “Who programming was public. Anyone could Wants to Be a Millionaire” featured an view most websites without permission option for audience members to play or payment. As the years have gone by, along at home, and some reality television the percentage of public and private sites shows have relied on Internet audiences has evened out. In 1998, 55% of all web- to determine who stays and who goes. sites were public, with 12% private and News and talk programs on television the remaining 33% “under construc- and radio often ask their audiences to go tion.” By 2002, the percentage of public to the show’s Internet site to vote on sites had dipped to 35%, with the private issues of the day, disclosing the “polling” percentage rising to 29% and “under results at the end of the program. construction” sites staying nearly unchanged at 36%. Internet-Only Sources Often services on the web start out free; after viewers have become accus- Outside of traditional media sources, the tomed to the service, the website starts Internet is host to programming from all to charge a fee for access to the site or manner of other sources. As stated pre- for access to “premium” content on the viously, any person who hooks a com- site. Perennial Internet service provider puter up to the Internet can become a AOL offers its members many services source of programming—whether text, and content available only to members. photography, audio, video, static or motion graphics, or a multimedia com- Thus, the sources of programs are many bination. Nowadays, nearly every busi- and varied, and ideas are brought to ness has a website, and increasingly buyers in a range of forms. Sometimes individuals have set up their own web- they are expressed in a single sentence; sites. The purposes behind personal more frequently they are typed out in websites include sharing personal photos two or three pages. Occasionally, a and other media with friends and family, program creator will present a few serving as an online resume or port- minutes of tape or film to communicate 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 67 the core of the show. Sometimes, as When buyers like what they see or mentioned previously, they strike out on hear, they start a chain of events known their own, creating content, perhaps on as development. This important a website, to draw attention to their process is addressed in Chapter 4. ideas and talent.

EXERCISES

1. Find an article that you think would station play? Argue why a radio station make a good topic for a radio talk show should give the format a try. segment. Identify an expert or person 3. Select a popular television drama or involved in the story who might make a comedy and come up with Internet good in-studio guest. Come up with content that might interest audience talking points to discuss between callers. members. Think of ways to incorporate 2. Design a new music radio format. ﬁctitious websites into the storylines. What type or types of music would the

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Peter Spellman. “McRadio,” 9. The Microradio Implementation http://www.mbsolutions.com/biz/Info30 Project. “National Microradio Advocate .html. Accessed July 15, 2004. Celebrates Two-year Anniversary of New 2. “Testimony from Senate Commerce, Radio Service; Close to 100 Applicants Science, and Transportation Committee in Oregon, 70 in Washington, 3,000 hearing on media ownership: Radio Nationwide,” http://www.microradio.org/ industry,” http://www.azoz.com/news/ mr021202.htm. Accessed July 15, 2004. 0019e.html. Accessed July 15, 2004. 10. Mario Hieb. “LPFM: All That Fuss 3. Chuck “Jigsaw” Creekmur. “Clear for Nothing?” http://www.radioworld. Channel Rejects ‘Payola’ Practices,” com/reference-room/special-report/01 http://www.bet.com/articles/0,c3gb6009- _rw_lpfm_4.shtml. Accessed July 15, 2004. 6758,00.html. Accessed July 15, 2004. 11. Edward T. O’Neill, Brian F. Lavoie, 4. TV Times. “FCC Deregulation Deci- and Rick Bennett. “Trends in the Evolu- sion Draws Controversy,” http://tvitimes tion of the Public Web,” http://www.dlib .tvi.edu/archives/030617/030617_fcc.htm. .org/dlib/april03/lavoie/04lavoie.html. Accessed July 15, 2004. Accessed July 15, 2004. 5. Hendrik Hertzberg. “The Talk of the 12. Michael Pastore. “At-Home Internet Town,” The New Yorker, August 11, 2003, p. 23. Users Approaching Half Billion,” 6. Steve Carney. “Crusading for Truth, http://www.clickz.com/stats/big_picture/ Justice, on Weekday Afternoons,” Los Angeles geographics/article.php/986431. Accessed Times, May 6, 2003, p. PE-1. July 15, 2004. 7. “Ten Years of Love Songs,” 13. Stephanie Battles. “The Effect of http://www.ﬁshlakia.com/LoveSongs/ Income on Appliances in U.S. Households,” default.htm. Accessed July 15, 2004. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/ 8. Radio Guide Magazine. “The Return appliances/appliances.html. Accessed July of Radio’s Golden Age,” http://www.radio 15, 2004. guide.com/sdrad/mag19/goldyear.html. Accessed July 15, 2004.

4 Development

In this chapter you will learn about the Many people find the development following: process hellish because it is time intensive and extremely costly. The odds for • What future programmers need to success are also exceedingly slim. Hits know about the inner workings of do not come easily, and the mandate of the development process a programming chief often is to find a • Ways to pitch a story single hit show, one that functions as a • The role finance plays in the devel- building block for a network. One hit. opment process How hard can that be? As the develop- • Strategies professionals use to get a ment process reveals, it is extremely dif- project into development ficult. Although the odds of developing • The role globalization plays in a show that succeeds out of the hun- development dreds developed each year are not good, • Format development in radio the few that do succeed keep people • What development means in public trying to hit the jackpot. broadcasting Many people are involved in devel- • How Internet program development opment: programming executives, is seeking to maximize the potential researchers, producers, showrunners of the wired world (individuals who are in charge of all day-to-day aspects of a show), perform- Development, sometimes called “devel- ers, financial advisors, and, perhaps most opment hell,” is an essential step in importantly, writers. Writers usually are readying a program for broadcast. Shows paid once a project is put into develop- do not appear ready for public con- ment by a network, but producers do sumption. An idea has to be shaped, not earn money until the start of pro- fine-tuned, and perfected during the duction, causing some producers to rush development process. The daunting the development process and to present blank page that creative people confront a show before it is ready. has to be filled with ideas that translate Development cycles are also apt to into an effective radio format, a success- change quickly. What is hot one ful series that has the potential to make moment can grow cold quickly, leaving millions of dollars in syndication, a the creative team developing a show that reality program that can make a network misses the mark. Although development No. 1 instead of an also-ran, or a way can vary from medium to medium, the to raise Internet usage to greater levels. process nevertheless consists of a series Such are the challenges producers, of established steps.These steps are care- writers, and performers face when fully followed until a buyer believes the they become sellers seeking entry into project has a chance for success and a development. green light can be justified.

69 70 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

In this chapter, we examine how many producers do not want to put up the all-important development process any cash until they know they have a functions. sale. These producers will often develop a project and even risk submitting it to TELEVISION DEVELOPMENT buyers without the necessary rights as long as they know that the rights are When producers, writers, and the cre- available. ative team come up with a concept that How do you know what rights are seems promising, they spend a great deal needed, and how do you know how to of time reviewing it. Many questions are acquire those rights? Established pro- asked. For example, does the idea have ducers have lawyers and business affairs “legs”? Does the series, for example, executives to advise them.They can also have the potential to generate enough sometimes get a book agent to give story lines for 88 episodes, the “magic” them permission to take a book to number that leads to syndication gold? potential buyers for a limited time Are the characters strong enough to without putting up option money. But maintain interest? Can the show be pro- how does a newcomer go about the duced in a way that makes sense ﬁnan- process of securing rights? cially—that is, will a network determine There are several resources available, that the show can be produced under its including Howard J. Blumenthal and budget guidelines? If it is based on a Oliver R. Goodenough’s This Business of book, an article, or a true story, are the Television1 and Enterprise of Holly- rights available? How can the concept be wood.2 The latter has sample contracts made more salable? Is another element for a range of contingencies, including needed? All these considerations, and the basic option acquisition agreement, others, have to be taken into account music assignment of all rights agree- during the development process. ments, and artist performance agreements. Remember to keep any option Securing the Rights agreement simple to avoid making individuals wary of signing on the If your project is based on a book, you dotted line. Once you are comfortable will need the rights to the book before that you have taken care of the rights, the start of production. Similarly, if your you can continue the development project is based on a real person, you process. will need the rights to that person’s An option acquisition agreement story—that is, the permission to portray should include the following: that individual on television. This seems simple enough, but when • The names of the individuals involved and how should you go about securing in the agreement these rights during the development • The date of the agreement process? It is best to option the neces- • The nature of the option agreement sary rights before you venture into the and the duration of the option marketplace. This is the most prudent • The compensation, including how approach, because it protects you from the compensation will be distributed having the rights fall out from under • Veriﬁcation that the individual grant- you. ing the option has the right to do so Securing rights options, however, • Agreement about how the credits for often necessitates up-front money, and the project will read 4 Development 71

• What happens if the individual pur- Star Program Network Season chasing the agreement does not pay on time Sally Field The Court ABC 2001–2002

• Whether the purchaser of the agree- Richard Dreyfuss The Education of Max Bickford CBS 2001–2002 ment can assign the rights to another party Joan Cusack What About Joan? ABC 2000–2001 • Any miscellaneous stipulations of 2001–2002 importance to either party Jason Alexander Bob Patterson ABC 2001–2002 • Signatures Geena Davis The Geena Davis Show ABC 2000–2001

Attaching a Star, Writer, or Bette Midler Bette CBS 2000–2001 Showrunner During the Nathan Lane Encore! Encore! NBC 1998–1999 Development Process Chevy Chase The Chevy Chase Show Fox 1993–1994 The question of whether to add another element, such as a star, is a difficult one Also, many believe that television Figure 4.1 to answer. Enlisting the services of a creates its own stars. For example, Recent star failures major performer may be just the addi- NBC’s hit comedy “Friends” made stars on television. tion necessary to push the project into of its “unknown” cast, catapulting them the win column. For example, the word to salaries of $1 million per episode in on the street may be that Les Moonves the show’s final year. Most mass-market at CBS is looking for a vehicle to star movies are wary of unknown perform- Jason Alexander, and thus attaching ers, preferring to cast established names. Alexander to your show might seem like Many of these became stars through a good idea. But there are significant television—for example, Robin Williams, risks to star attachments.The performer, a graduate of ABC’s “Mork & Mindy,” for example, may not be right for the and Eddie Murphy, a graduate of NBC’s part.The star in question may not fit the “Saturday Night Live.” format of the show. Should the entire Similarly, attaching the wrong show- concept be distorted to accommodate runner or the wrong writer to a project the style of a star with reputed “heat”? can hurt your chances before you leave There have been so many star failures the starting gate. For example, a pro- (Figure 4.1) that attaching even the ducer who did not do his homework seemingly most-bankable star is risky. about who was “in” and who was “out” Also, although some networks, such as was surprised that Lifetime passed on his CBS, are consistently star driven, many, high-profile project based on a best- such as TBS, do not want stars attached selling book. His project was passed on during development, making the deci- because he had attached a writer who sion about attachments even more was out of favor. complex. If you attach the “wrong” star, your project is dead at the start. The Role of Agents Some networks, such as ABC, are reluctant to entertain projects with stars Agents play a significant role in the early attached; they do not want to ruffle egos stages of the development process for by passing on a performer because they cable and commercial television. Agents do not like a project.They do not want are aware of the needs at the cable to hurt their chances of casting that per- and commercial networks. If ABC, for former in a show they like. example, needs a drama for 10:00 72 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Thursday nights, if CBS needs to fill a that the more projects they have, the hole on Friday nights at 8:00, or if better their chances of striking pay Showtime wants to get out of the dirt; others internally develop a limited comedy series business, the agents are number of projects, figuring their able to guide their clients accordingly. chances are better if they focus on their Agents also have access to material, and “passion” projects. they can “package” a program by bring- In recent years, the major studios have ing key creative elements together. sought to beat the development odds Packaging is a complex art and a by striking development arrangements lucrative one for the agencies. Agents known as pod deals. These are seven- collect a 10% fee for representing a figure deals, such as those Gavin client, but if a package commission Polone’s Pariah Productions and Dream- is added, the agency receives additional Works made with NBC Productions income. For example, if a director, star, in 2002. NBC hopes to get a lock on and writer are packaged, the agency some successful shows with high-profile, receives a 10% commission on all three quality production companies, enabling salaries plus a package fee ranging from it to avoid prolonged stays in develop- 3 to 5%. Many credit the Creative Artists ment hell, although the deal with Pariah Agency (CAA) under Bill Haber and was terminated in 2004 over disagree- Mike Ovitz with perfecting the art of ments about comedy development. packaging. When packaging was conceived in Getting Ready for the Pitch: the 1970s, the package commission Creating a Log Line was justifiable and generally accepted by production companies and distributors. Lots of research and planning goes into But over time, agencies sometimes preparing to pitch. First, all aspects of insisted on a package commission even the story have to be worked out: What when they only represented one creative is the genre? What is the opening scene? element. They reasoned that their client Is the start of the story going to capture (a major star, for example) made the an audience? Are the conflicts clearly project viable; therefore, they were enti- established? Is the resolution of the story tled to a package commission. This was satisfying? Are there any “jumps” in the interpreted by buyers as a power play in story—that is, logic leaps? The creative which an agency used the appeal of team has to know all aspects of the story a client to extract a higher commission to be prepared to answer any questions for itself. The device still raises hackles that come up in the pitch meeting. when it is employed with marginal The pitch must then be rehearsed validity, but most agencies happily and perfected, often in front of a critical engage in this profitable practice. audience or a mirror. Mock dialogues are played out: “If we’re asked where Development Deals the conflict is between the mother and daughter, Irv will respond by pointing Everyone in the entertainment business out that . . .” Or, “If we’re asked where wants to have an edge when it comes the character of Amanda worked before to development. Producers, in particular, the start of the story, we have to have a spend many hours figuring how they ready answer: She worked in St. Louis.” can best beat the system. Some pro- One of the most important things in ducers develop many projects, figuring preparing a pitch is coming up with a 4 Development 73 strong log line. What exactly is a log interest. For example,“Jaws meets Saving line? Many writers and producers have Private Ryan” may not make sense, but it stumbled when it comes to defining a might be enough to get the buyer’s log line. It is not a straight summary attention. You would hope that no of the project. It goes to the heart of explanation would be requested about what a project is about in one or two how that particular meeting works. sentences, defining the theme of the In one or two sentences, the log line project. Thus, saying that your project has to suggest change, such as a charac- “deals with a man who lives in the ter’s growth from one set of values to woods and finds true love when a another. It also needs to suggest action. tourist shows up” is more of a plot Starting with the words “when” or summary than a log line. A log line “after” is helpful in this context. For would take the same story idea and example, “When a 20-year-old virgin suggest a bigger meaning. For example, decides to find the perfect man to “When a man who has lived on his marry, she must reject many inappropri- own in the wilderness meets a woman ate suitors who are interested in her for who is on a wilderness trek, he realizes the wrong reasons.” This log line sug- that his cherished loneliness is a facade gests that changes will take place in the that hides his fear of commitment. woman’s life. It’s Jeremiah Johnson meets Sleepless in A log line such as “When a teenager’s Seattle.” life is threatened, he feels he must take the law into his own hands until a Writing an Effective Log Line stranger shows him a better way” suggests change and action: the teenager Time spent fine-tuning a log line is time will take the law into his own hands well spent. The log line usually intro- until he learns the better way at a duces a project; it is extremely impor- turning point in the story. A log line tant for a seller to get it right. The log such as “After a woman’s husband of line has to suggest a connection to what nearly 50 years dies, she must learn to is going on in society and, possibly more live on her own with the help of the importantly, what is going on in movies neighbor she previously ignored” and television. This is why so many coupled with “It’s Terms of Endearment effective sellers describe their projects as meets Driving Miss Daisy” might gener- “successful movie No. 1 meets success- ate buyer interest because it indicates ful movie No. 2.”This is shorthand that changes in the woman’s life and because buyers understand. Referring to success- she will see her neighbor in a new light, ful television programs can also work something many people can identify (“Friends” meets “That ’70s Show”), with. although most “meeting” in television Many successful pitches start with the pitches is done with theatrical films. words “when” or “after;” a second sen- Cynics might say this is because buyers tence uses the “meets” analogy. Practic- do not watch much television and they ing coming up with log lines that “flow” might miss the intended connection; is worth the time spent. Buyers need a others believe that a movie reference is strong log line to use with all the people an easier, more universal connection. who will be evaluating the project’s Even if the meeting you have selected potential (schedulers, members of the does not make a great deal of sense promotion department, the business upon close inspection, it can generate affairs department, the research staff who 74 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

will use the log line to test the viability the lines of FX’s ‘Nip/Tuck’ but with of a project, etc.). Sellers who provide more of a reality base” might be enough strong log lines for buyers greatly facil- to generate interest, particularly if a itate the development process. well-placed agent has discovered that the targeted network is in the market for a Getting a Meeting “hip” show about doctors. The goal of the over-the-phone Before a producer can go in to pitch, prepitch is to get an in-person meeting. however, a meeting has to be secured. Being told that the arena shows promise To request a pitch meeting, you gener- but is not what the network is looking ally must prepitch the story. What this for (“I don’t want to waste your time means is that a preview, that is, a teaser, coming in” is the way the buyer will has to be offered to the prospective generally phrase the rejection) sends a buyer.A call simply asking for a meeting producer back to the drawing board. without providing any information Being told to send a few pages without about the proposed “arena” of the pitch being granted a meeting is only a half usually fails to get you in the door. victory.The pages could sell themselves, Unless you are a producer–writer with but the in-person meeting provides a an incredible track record, you rarely much better platform. will be invited to make a formal pre- Some producers, however, have per- sentation without “clearing the arena.”It fected the phone pitch and prefer to do is regarded a real compliment to be told their selling over the phone. These pro- that no prepitch is needed. “Just come ducers are happy to send the pages and on in and we’ll sit down and talk” are any other requested information. Not the words producers–writers long to scheduling a meeting can save several hear. weeks, and a project’s heat can cool in A successful prepitch is short, just these weeks. Not taking 3 or 4 hours to enough to whet the appetite. “It’s a attend a meeting can also allow more dramedy about doctors with issues along time for additional phone sales.

STEPS TO SUCCESSFUL PITCHING

Judith A. Polone, president of movies ¥ Be brief. If you know your material and miniseries at Lions Gate Enter- well, you can pitch it succinctly and tainment, has been one of television’s effectively. most successful sellers for more than ¥ Be aggressive, but temper your drive 20 years. Her impressive string of and ambition with humor. credits includes “JFK: Reckless Youth” ¥ Refer to a successful project similar (1993), “Riot” (1997), “Wildﬂower” to yours. (1991), and “Malice in Wonderland” ¥ If you are pitching a book, read it. Do (1985). Polone believes strongly that not rely on coverage that may mis- “We are all sellers, and we have to be represent the book. (Polone once got good at it.” A master of the phone pitch, a development deal for a book that Polone has the following suggestions had been turned down “all over town” for making successful pitches: because the coverage used was bad. She read the book herself and found ¥ Approach the pitch with conﬁdence. the appeal that the coverage ignored.) ¥ Be passionate about what you are ¥ Do your homework. Know what the pitching. buyers are looking for and locate ¥ Know your material. material that suits the marketplace. 4 Development 75

¥ Prepare “leave behind” pages for challenge the buyer to question why the buyer that clearly describe the the project is not right or is too edgy, project. Revise the pages as many enabling you to segue into a strong times as necessary. pitch. Telling a broadcast network ¥ Create a solid log line. executive that the project you are ¥ Get to know your buyers as individ- pitching is too edgy, possibly a better uals so that you can engage them on ﬁt on HBO, can be effective when the a topic of mutual interest before you broadcast networks seek to be more start your pitch. like cable. ¥ Occasionally, try a “reverse sell” by ¥ Also occasionally, challenge the teasing the buyer with opening buyer with closing remarks such as salvos such as “This project may not “I want you to know that I am going be right for you,” “This project may to sell this project and you will have be a little highbrow/too edgy for you,” to program against it” or “After you or “This project is too good for you.” have seen this tape, tell me you don’t The reverse sell is tricky and it can want to make this movie.” backﬁre, but, used effectively, it can

The Pitch Meeting project does not warrant their full attention. Sellers usually do not have much choice At the appointed hour, the sellers about to whom they will be pitching. travel to the ofﬁce of the designated Most often, the network hierarchy buyer to present their idea.The compo- determines the protocol, and sellers go sition of the selling team may range to assigned development executives. If, from two to six people. Small produc- however, a member of the selling team tion houses will usually be represented is a major player, appeals can be made by just a major executive of the to pitch to the executive who has the company and the chief creative person power to say “yes” in the room. (writer or producer) connected with the Most sellers agree that pitching to the concept. Large companies will arrive top gun is best; they will go to great with some combination involving a lengths, calling in favors and jockeying major executive, a development person, for position, to get a meeting with the the executive producer, the line pro- “right person.” For example, when an ducer, the writer, and possibly an agent agent found out that his client was or, if it is CAA, two agents (CAA likes going to pitch to a midlevel executive, to show its muscle by frequently sending he complained that the project was a couple of key agents). “seriously being undermined” by this The buyer may be represented by just faux pas. The agent made a quick, per- one person or by an ensemble, usually sonal call to the head of the department, depending on the stature of the pro- asking her to sit in on the meeting that ducing company. If a superstar producer same afternoon as a courtesy to him and or writer is making the presentation, the to the client. audience can include the president of There are, however, some sellers who the entertainment division, the head of prefer to pitch to an underling because all development, and the entire staff they feel the lower-level executive will of whichever department is appropriate ﬁght harder on their behalf. They —comedy, drama, reality, etc. Networks believe that department heads have so are eager to be ingratiating with super- much on their plates that a single stars, and a large turnout for a pitch 76 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

is a way to demonstrate respect and potential. Buyers must train themselves affection. to pierce through the bungled rhetoric The meeting never starts immediately. and find the essence of the idea. No matter how gigantic the project, it Many sellers and some buyers do not is obligatory that the first few minutes like the pitch process. Even a produc- be devoted to trivia. (“How ’bout the tion legend such as David Susskind, breakup of the Lakers?”) Eventually, one whose programs won so many Emmy of the sellers, most likely the senior awards he was elected to the Television executive, will begin the presentation Academy’s Hall of Fame, loathed the with a few scene-setting remarks such as pitch process. He called it “demeaning, the talent of the writer, the appeal of nerve-wracking, and exhausting.” De- whatever story form they are about to spite his revulsion, he was an effective present, or the time needs of the spokesperson for his projects and en- network. The presentation is then joyed more than 30 years of prosperity turned over to the principal architect of and prestige. the show, who describes its concept, Allen Sabinson is a programming characters, and appeals. executive who has had successful runs A successful pitch presentation trans- at NBC, ABC, and A&E. Sensitive to forms a room into the world of the the torment some individuals experience proposed show, with fully realized pitching, he once cut short a writer’s characters and well-laid-out sample pitch because the writer was sweating scenes. The pitch will reveal the show’s profusely, failing to put words together, solid structure and the potential for and dropping his disorganized notes on future episodes. Agents often point out the floor. Not wishing to see the writer why the show has the necessary goods. in such distress, Sabinson offered to read Everyone on the selling side is there to some pages “as soon as they were ready.” lend support to the project. Some buyers seriously question the Most buyers wait for the presentation pitch process. For example, Susan Baer- to be completed before they offer ques- wald, while head of miniseries at NBC, tions and observations. At this point, the never embraced pitches as a way to tell seller’s hours of preparation can pay off. whether a project had the makings of The more buyer doubt removed, the a successful movie. For her, pitching better the chance of a pickup. Any sug- reflects a seller’s personality and sales- gested improvement by the buyer should manship, not a project’s value. Many net- be treated with the utmost enthusiasm; works and studios internally develop the time to quibble over changes is after shows, limiting the need for producers the deal has been secured. to come in and pitch. During internal Some sellers are brilliant at pitch development, the buyers come up with meetings and can make a program the concepts and “break down the sound like another “Frasier.” Frequently, stories,” later “kissing in” an outside pro- the verbal virtuosity conceals conceptual ducer or turning the project over to a weaknesses. The buyer is well advised producer with a deal with the studio or to enjoy the performance but remain network. Nevertheless, pitching remains vigilant; viewers will be watching the one of the primary ways projects can flawed show not the dazzling pitch. On ignite the interest of buyers. the other hand, many program creators For additional information about are not born sales people, and their pitching, see Kathie Fong Yoneda’s presentations fall short of the shows’ helpful The Script Selling Game: A Holly- 4 Development 77 wood Insider’s Look at Getting Your Script execution, has a chance, he or she will Sold and Produced. most likely pitch it to the head of the department. This leads to another kind “Laying Pipe” for a Pass of pitch meeting, specifically, a department meeting where all the executives Following the seller’s presentation, the pitch the projects they like to the boss. buyer will generally ask several questions These midlevel or junior buyers often and then make some sort of pro- have less time to do their pitching than nouncement. If the pitch stands little the sellers. They have to select the chance, the buyer will most often “lay strongest selling points. They also have pipe,” as the practice is called, by saying to make sure the log line that describes the project, although “very interesting,” the project’s premise is on target; this may not be what the network is looking often requires them to revise the seller’s for at that time. Many buyers prefer to original log line to make it work for the lay pipe than to “pass in the room.” A boss. quick pass may be more efficient, but At other times, a detailed bible or some buyers do not want to burst a treatment that outlines the concept, seller’s bubble, especially right after a major characters, and future plot lines heartfelt pitch. is requested by the head buyer. Some- Some buyers, however, make the times, a follow-up meeting with the mistake of being too positive at a pitch sellers is required for the pitch to be meeting by praising the project too repeated for the department or network highly.This leads sellers to believe that a head. If the show’s potential is sub- sale has been made when no sale was in sequently embraced, the parties enter the offing, causing many a disgruntled negotiations to close a deal. seller to face the reality of a pass several days after a pitch meeting. Thus, in- Fundamentals of the Deal experienced programmers are instructed by their in-house mentors to lay pipe. No money will ever be handed by the By doing this, the buyer has something buyer to the seller until a contract is in to fall back on if sellers complain they place. Thus, when an executive says, “I were misled. like it, let’s go forward,” it means, “Let’s One producer who heard the head go forward to the business affairs depart- buyer talking about “finding the right ment where your lawyer and our lawyer writer” for the proposed project will discuss terms and conditions.” It is assumed she had a deal.When the junior not within the province of this book to executive called to pass on the project, cover the range of program deals, some the producer complained loudly that of which weigh slightly less than an air there had been no hint of a pass, that conditioner. everything said by the department head Development is an expensive process. indicated a “go.” This kind of situation NBC, for example, is estimated to have benefits no one. Bruised egos ensue, and spent $40 to $50 million on develop- the authority and management savvy of ment for the 2003–2004 season.3 Buyers the network come into question, again have many concerns when they seek to reinforcing the need to lay pipe. protect their investments. These include If the buyer is convinced there are no license fee cost per episode, the length fundamental flaws and the production, of time their hold is exclusive (cannot with proper scripting, casting, and be taken to another buyer), right of 78 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

first refusal (the ability to match the “program underwriters,” corporations, best offer of a competing buyer when and other organizations. Theoretically, the initial term is completed), who pays the organizations that donate money to cost overruns, and creative control. The public broadcasting do not influence the sellers are equally interested in these content of the programs, but sometimes matters and attempt to preserve their whether or not a program reaches profit potential. the airwaves depends on the financial When the contract is essentially resources. So, in that way, the fund- agreed upon, the project can proceed. In raising undertaken by development the real world, work gets under way departments affects program decision long before papers are signed. If it did making. not, few shows would ever get on the Public television prides itself on being air. Companies that have dealt with each different from commercial television, other many times are sufficiently confi- seeking to air programming that avoids dent that a deal will eventually be sinking to the lowest common denom- made. Unless substantive disagreements inator; however, the expanding world of emerge, the parties proceed as though cable has cut into public television’s the documents will eventually be long-held dominance of quality pro- signed. At times, the decibel levels go gramming, adding to the difficulties ballistic and the cage rattling is deafen- public television is experiencing. ing, but nobody makes money unless A writer or producer seeking to there is a picture on the screen, a fact develop a show for public television both sides are aware of. Most deals needs to survey the programming land- eventually close, although a tight money scape carefully to come up with a show climate can stymie a deal, greatly concept that coincides with public tele- increasing everyone’s anxiety level. vision’s mission to promote quality. In addition, because of the financial crisis Public Television Development public television is experiencing, it is becoming almost essential to have the The word “development” has a different grant money in hand when the proposal connotation in the noncommercial for a show is made. structure. Most public broadcasting organizations have a department of Syndication Development development that is responsible for obtaining grant money.This department In syndication, the process is different is often compared to the sales depart- from that in cable, commercial, and ment of a commercial broadcaster public television. As explained in because it is responsible for bringing in Chapter 2, syndicators sell their shows revenue. As the “public” television name directly to stations. They need to clear suggests, some of the operating budget close to 80% of national coverage before is derived from the public (i.e., tax deciding to proceed to full-production money allocated from the federal gov- mode. According to Mike Stornello, ernment), but public money has steadily senior vice president of development for become scarcer. From 1998 to 2003, major syndicator King World Produc- for example, according to PBS’s annual tions (“The Oprah Winfrey Show,” report, public funds made up roughly “Dr. Phil,” “Jeopardy,” and “Wheel of 10% of the network’s operating budget.4 Fortune”), it takes most of 2 years Most funds (more than 60%) came from to develop a show for syndication. 4 Development 79

Stornello adds that there is lots of that will overrun the convention. To tweaking and changing during develop- encourage this momentum, syndicators ment to ensure success. Syndication make frequent and imaginative use of development often revolves around a hyperbole. Every show is “snowballing,” strong personality in a talk format, but all station lineups and coverage are syndication development can also focus “growing too fast to calculate,” and on a strong idea as syndication seeks to every “I’ll think about it” becomes “It’s move into cable.5 a wrap.”Announcements at NATPE can Once the prototype of the show is be politely referred to as an excess of completed and the decision has been exuberance. made to go to market, the show is basi- In recent years, the convention has cally in the hands of the marketing spe- become somewhat less pivotal to a syn- cialists. Occasionally, the programmers dicator’s survival. Many distributors will be asked to participate in the selling discovered that if they waited for the effort, particularly with executives of convention (usually held in January or station groups or stations in large cities. February) to launch their major sales These buyers like to hear about series effort, they would be too late. Com- plans directly from those responsible for petitors would have contacted key the production. The programmers will markets months earlier and picked up all no doubt have to attend the NATPE the best clearances. At NATPE, syndica- convention. tors often do not set up exhibition NATPE was founded in 1963 to booths on the convention floor and bring together station program directors instead hold meetings in suites at the for an exchange of ideas and viewpoints. convention hotels. This practice reduces By the mid-1970s, the NATPE conven- costs and lessens the carnival atmosphere tion had become the most important that characterized NATPE for so many event in the business life of syndication years. producers and distributors. All pilots, Now NATPE is used more for demonstrators, and promotion cam- muscling the wafflers and establishing paigns were geared for the big push those all-important relationships, beat the convention. With such spirited cause the entertainment business still competition among highly creative and operates in terms of who you know and aggressive personalities, the convention who will take your calls. For in-studio gradually took on a carnival atmosphere. producers who are attending their A buyer could not walk 30 paces first NATPE, it can become puzzling. without being invited to a seller’s suite When they hear that the syndicator by a trio of sideshow barkers, models in cleared Chicago, they become euphoric. nuns’ habits, or a pair of gorillas. The Then they notice that the sales staff is taste level plunged to unacceptable somber. depths, and in the 1980s, NATPE officials took steps to curb some of the “Why aren’t you excited?” more outrageous promotions. “Because it’s a tier deal.” Syndicators have spent hundreds of “What’s that?” thousands, even millions, of dollars to “It means we’ve got prices for six differ- construct exhibition areas designed to ent time periods.” attract buyers into screening rooms “So?” to view pilots. A syndicator’s principal “So, if they run it at 2:00 A.M., you won’t objective is to build a sales momentum get any viewers and we won’t make a dime.” 80 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Station Development One variable that could cause a resur- gence in local nonnews production is When stations decide to program a local changing station compensation. As show, they do not go through the elab- the trend continues toward reducing or orate development process engaged in eliminating the network’s ﬁnancial con- by the networks.The ideas usually come tributions—in the form of payments from within the programming depart- by the networks to stations for airing a ment and are in response to some need show—the possibility of station defec- in the community. As the amount of tions from certain times and dayparts local programming has dwindled in the grows. Some stations may conclude that last few years, so has the amount of a locally produced program in which development. the station keeps all the revenue may be Another reason for downgrading local a better risk than a network-supplied development is that many stations now show for which there is no compensa- belong to large groups: Fox, Tribune, tion and just a few spots in and around Westinghouse, etc. The creation of new the program for local sale. If this were programs is the responsibility of a corpo- to happen, the program director could rate production unit rather than the pro- quickly become a busy person in the gram directors at the individual stations. creative ﬁeld.

Figure 4.2 “Oprah Winfrey Presents: Tuesdays With Morrie,” starring (a) Jack Lemmon and (b) Hank Azaria, illustrates the complex television development process. (Photo courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.) (a) (b)

THE DEVELOPMENT OF “OPRAH WINFREY PRESENTS: TUESDAYS WITH MORRIE”

The development of the television used as a representative case study. movie “Oprah Winfrey Presents: Tues- Kate Forte, the president of Harpo, days with Morrie” (Figure 4.2) can be Oprah’s production company, had an 4 Development 81

advance copy of the manuscript of house. The revised pages did the trick Tuesdays with Morrie by Mitch Albom and the project was put into develop- about his relationship with his former ment. A-list writer Tom Rickman, teacher, Morrie Schwartz. Forte sent it whose credits include Coal Miner’s to her executive at ABC with a note Daughter and Everybody’s All saying she saw something special in American, was hired to write the tele- the book and wondered whether ABC play. After the book became a best- would be interested in putting it into seller and Harpo was wooed to development. abandon television and produce the The executive agreed and pitched it ﬁlm as a feature, Forte refused, saying to his boss, who passed on it, saying it ABC had backed the project when only was about two men sitting in a room a manuscript existed and she was not talking and would be of little interest going to switch from television to fea- to viewers. Refusing to take no for an tures. The movie went on to win an answer, the executive and Harpo’s Emmy Award as the best television director of development, Susan Heyer, movie of the 1999Ð2000 season, redid the pitch pages, stressing helping ABC break HBO’s hold on the Albom’s life as a sports writer to “open category. up” the movie and get it out of Morrie’s

The Pilot network’s financial contribution. The production company must either cut Once the buyers in cable and commer- corners to deliver the pilot within cial television are satisfied that the budget or cover the additional costs. program is fundamentally sound, the Usually they choose the latter. A down- creative team is equal to the creative sized, on-the-cheap pilot might quickly challenge, and the script is in shooting become a dead pilot. Because this is the shape, they face a key decision: to make only sales opportunity the project will or not to make a pilot, that is, an have, the producers, amid much mutter- episode that will enable buyers to judge ing, often spend the extra money. how the executed script plays on the However, because costs have risen so small screen.This decision is not an easy drastically and network revenues have one. At risk is an enormous outlay of dropped so precipitously in recent years, money. A half-hour pilot in 2003 cost network executives increasingly order between $1.6 million and $2 million.6 minipilots, or presentations, (selected Pilots cost more than the average scenes) instead of full episodes. The episode of a series because there are argument in favor of these truncated no economies of scale and anything prototypes is that they reveal enough of done for the first time is more time- the core idea and the staff’s execution to consuming and expensive. Furthermore, make a sound judgment at a substan- if a pilot goes to series, the cost of the tially reduced price tag. The argument sets and props can be amortized, that is, against them is that the chosen sample spread out over the length of the com- may be “loaded” (with guest stars, action mitment. But if the show is not picked scenes, etc.) and not be indicative of the up for more episodes, the entire expense series. Minipilots sometimes become of the pilot must be laid against the more useful as sales tools than as a basis program development budget. for program decisions. “I’d much rather It is not uncommon for the cost do a minipilot,” said Saul Turteltaub, of the pilot to be greater than the veteran writer–producer of network 82 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

but some failed pilots air on cable channel Trio’s “Brilliant, But Cancelled” or as summer “specials;” most of the time, however, they simply disappear, failures on the development highway. Clearly, the pilot process is ﬁckle, expensive, and draining, rather like gambling in Las Vegas. Sometimes it takes a lot of spins before hitting the jackpot. For example, George Clooney was cast in 15 failed pilots before he hit television gold with “ER” in 1994, and Don Johnson was in 5 before “Miami Vice.”8 But when the right pilot comes along, the payoff can be huge, which is why so many producers, writers, and performers continue to put themselves through pilot hell every year.

Figure 4.3 comedies.“It’s much easier to be terrific Development Ratios ABC developed for 8 minutes than for 30.” “Karen Sisco” for Even though the minipilot has its Broadcast outlets develop on different the 2003–2004 flaws and can lead to blundered program ratios depending on their specific needs. season, hoping that choices, it is here to stay because of The standard development ratio used it would appeal to the new economic realities facing the to be four shows for every one that its target audience. industry. makes the final cut, but the development (Photo © ABC Photography In his article “The Wasteland,” about ratios can vary greatly. For example, in Archives.) the 2001 pilot season, Austin Bunn pro- 2002, ABC developed about 90 drama vided an in-depth examination of the scripts for possibly four or five slots pilot process. He wrote,“A network will because the network needed a bona fide buy 100 pitches to make into scripts and drama hit. For the 2002–2003 season, spend millions turning 20 into ‘pilots.’ NBC heard more than 200 comedy These pilots are all made during the pitches, 54 scripts were ordered, and 15 same three months in the spring, which pilots were made.9 For the 2003–2004 creates, as one producer called it, ‘a season, ABC was still in need of a hit climate of fear’ that descends on Los and had high hopes for its series “Karen Angeles—‘fear’ because in that mad dash Sisco” (Figure 4.3), although it turned to delivery, these pilots, despite stagger- out that its comedy development got ing infant-mortality rates, begin better viewer response. inevitably to matter to their creators. In Some networks tend to go overboard mid-May, each network usually ‘picks when it comes to pilot development. up’ somewhere between 5 and 10 pilots Allison Romano, in “MTV: Operat- to become series for the fall. Roughly ing Without a Net,” observes MTV’s two thirds of the pilots, the best efforts unconventional style. She writes, “In a of each network, are stillborn.”7 busy year, most basic-cable networks Presentations cannot be broadcast might greenlight just five pilots, putting because they are not polished enough, two or three on the air as regular series. 4 Development 83

A broadcast network might make 20 pilots. MTV moves at lightning speed, pumping out 50 potential projects. The mantra, quite simply, is that more is more.”10 This method produced the biggest hit of the 2001–2002 cable television season, the reality series “The Osbournes” (Figure 4.4).

Testing

Gone are the days of the fabled, gut- Figure 4.4 instinct buyers who watched a pilot and “The Osbournes” before the lights came up said, “I like it. was a phenomenon Put it on,” or “It’s lousy. Bury it.”Today when it aired on when the pilot or minipilot is screened MTV,changing the by network executives, it is just the face of reality start of a lengthy process of assessment television. (Globe through research.This phase of program Photos, Inc.) selection is dealt with in detail in Chapter 5. The reasons buyers require extensive statistical support before they make a The Decision program choice has been the subject of many conferences, panel discussions, In most cases, before a final judgment and print interviews. The cynics say the is made, several company executives are buyers have no faith in their own consulted. These usually include people judgments and need mounds of data from programming, sales, research, pro- to justify their decisions. They also motion, production, scheduling, finance, claim buyers engage in research to planning, and top management. avoid later criticism. If a program goes The need for each of these disciplines on the air and bombs, their excuse is is obvious. The show is worthless if the that the research was faulty and sales department cannot sell it, the misleading. promotion department has no hook on Not so, counter the defenders. The which to hang a campaign, or both. stakes are high and the criteria for There is no sense in proceeding if the success are inexact. Furthermore, as finance people say it is too expensive to objective as network executives try to ever be profitable or if the research staff be, they are products of their back- says there is only a small audience avail- grounds, which may not be representa- able at the intended time. In many tive of national tastes and interests. Why instances, experts in a specialized aspect should they not sound out the opinions of the company need to be consulted, of those who will be watching (or ignor- for example, the standards and practices ing) the product? Every manufacturer in division if the program contains border- the country test-markets products before line scenes and language. Although launching them nationally—why not censors are involved in the pilot process, networks? the finished product can often present 84 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

unforeseen concerns that need to be up in approximately 19 countries, some addressed before a show is given a 13- key changes to the format had to be week order. made to avoid clashing with local But the pilot process, as unwieldy as customs. As Charles Goldsmith points it may seem, is soundly constructed. out in his article “How ‘Idols’ Around Without input from all affected parties, the World Harmonize with Local a programmer could blunder fatally Viewers,” the word “idol” cannot be because of some overlooked item. Still, used in Germany because it carries the final decision is rarely a consensus of Hitler-like connotations.Thus, the show all the viewpoints. Often, there are two is called “Germany Seeks the Super- or more screening rooms; senior execu- star.”11 Each version of “American Idol” tives are situated in the A room and needs to be adapted to suit local tastes junior executives are in the B room.The “while keeping the show recognizable as executives in the B room may have lots the ‘Idol’ franchise.” Savvy producers of opinions and be willing to voice who envision franchises around the them with passion, but it is what goes globe have to develop a concept that on in the A room that matters. After a can successfully be adapted for many program has been thoroughly discussed countries, as with the 100 or so versions in both the A and the B rooms, two or of “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire” that three top members of the inner circle existed in 2003–2004. will usually go off for a private conclave Similarly, the $25 billion video game where the decision is made. industry has to adjust its games to meet the demands of individual countries. Globalization Topless women in games distributed in Europe sport bikini tops in the Although the global market may not be American versions.12 Violent sex scenes the primary concern during the devel- in the games distributed in Japan are opment process, it should never be toned down for the American versions. ignored. Success abroad is necessary for Sellers lucky enough to see their a show to generate positive cash flow. shows journey successfully through the The foreign market may be in constant development process may not readily flux, but, as explained previously, it admit to the networks that the “tweaks” should not be overlooked. To do so made during production are being done limits a producer’s financial options. to adjust to the foreign market, but this Some markets, such as China, are tol- is often the case. Network programming erant of violence but adverse to sex and executives care about the audiences in nudity. In Germany, bloody scenes are America, not the audiences abroad, but taboo but even frontal nudity is fine. savvy producers have to adjust their During the development process, pro- development toward foreign audiences. ducers have to be aware of the adjust- This is particularly true in the developments that might be needed for different ment of one-shot television movies, markets to maximize foreign sales. where introducing a German character This holds true for franchises and as the fourth or fifth lead can help the video games. For example, “American German sale. It also applies to series Idol” started in the United Kingdom as development—an element introduced in “Pop Idol.” It was a major success, a pilot that makes it to air could turn becoming a likely candidate for export. out to be the key ingredient that guar- When franchises of this show were set antees success abroad. 4 Development 85

Format Number of Number of % Change Formats from fall 1996 Formats in fall 2001 that Stations Stations that no longer existed in did not exist in fall 1996 March 1996 March 2001 fall 2001

Country 45 30 -33.3 ’70s hits ’70s and ’80s

Urban adult contemporary 11 12 +9.1 Adult hits ’80s and ’90s Hot adult contemporary 20 20 0 Black adult contemporary ’80s hits Alternative 40 39 -2.5 Christian country Classic middle of the road Urban 28 28 0 Urban inspirational Hip-hop Contemporary hit radio—Rhythm 15 15 0

Rock 20 20 0 Kids

Adult contemporary 18 20 +11.1 Mix adult contemporary

Active rock 20 19 -5.0 Modern adult contemporary Adult alternative 20 20 0 New age Contemporary hit radio—Pop 45 45 0 New rock Jazz 20 20 0

TOTALS 302 288 -4.6 Tropical (a) (b)

RADIO DEVELOPMENT (hard rock, soft rock, classic rock, album- Figure 4.5 oriented rock, etc.) so that stations can (a) Music formats Development in radio deals more with have a unique sound. through the years. formats than with individual shows. Nevertheless, format names exist, The major music Much of the programming develops and format changes are made with fairly formats and the itself once the format is decided. For regular frequency, partly to take into approximate number of major most radio stations, the format is a par- account the newer forms of music. market stations ticular type of music, but talk formats The job of determining format is usually such as all news, all sports, and all talk playing them in undertaken by top management that 1996 and 2001, can be chosen. Selecting a format may or may not include the head of involves thinking about the type of as compiled by the programming. Often the program direc- FCC. The “% peripheries, such as news and features, tor is hired after the format decision is Change” column that will be used with the basic format. made so that someone with knowledge illustrates the shifts about that particular type of music can in formats over time. Some formats Developing a Format be chosen. In some stations, a format change is made without the program have seen much One of the problems with selecting (or director’s involvement. If, for example, a change; others have maintaining) a music format is that station switches from easy listening to seen none. (b) Some radio music is constantly evolving. “New country, it simply ﬁres the old program formats have wave” does not stay “new,” “progressive director (and disc jockeys) and hires a disappeared from rock” might not “progress,” and “alter- new one. the airwaves native music” may enter the mainstream When a station ﬁrst comes on the air, between 1996 and (Figure 4.5). When a particular type of it must select a format. Few open fre- 2001; others have music, such as rock, becomes popular, it quencies are left in the United States, been added. tends to be subdivided into categories however, so few new stations come from 86 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

scratch. Format changes are common agement (often because they were not among established stations that are not doing well in the ratings and were about doing well in the ratings and among sta- to go under ﬁnancially). tions recently purchased by new man-

THE DEVELOPMENT OF URBAN AND HIP-HOP RADIO

No radio format has seen a more radio stations in the United States. dramatic rise in the last decade than The years between 1993 and 2003, the urban and hip-hop format. Rap or however, saw a meteoric rise in hip-hop began in the New York club hip-hop’s popularity, especially after and party scene in the 1970s, when hip-hop co-opted some of the more deejays speaking on microphones palatable melodic trappings of tradi- over music would make “party shouts” tional pop music. Some point to white either touting their own deejay talents rappers, such as Vanilla Ice and, more or welcoming newcomers to the party. recently, Eminem, entering the fray as One of the first of these deejays, (later forces that made hip-hop more accept- called emcees because they served able to nonblack audiences. as the “master of ceremonies” at the By 2003, there were more than 150 party) Kool Herc (a.k.a. Clive Camp- hip-hop stations across the country, bell), would do a party shout such as with hip-hop stations dominating the “Kool Herc is in the house and he’ll turn airwave ratings in each of the top 11 it out without a doubt.” Over time, these U.S. radio markets. In October 2003, shouts expanded into raps. the Billboard charts saw a first: their In 1979, the first commercial hip-hop entire Top 10 pop singles list was occu- song, “Rapper’s Delight” by The Sug- pied by black hip-hop artists, such as arhill Gang, was released. The song Beyonce, P. Diddy, Lil’ Kim, Ludacris, reached No. 4 on the black singles Jay-Z, and 50 Cent. Even corporate chart and received airplay on many America has gotten on the hip-hop black radio stations. Hip-hop sold its bandwagon; McDonald’s, Dr. Pepper, first gold album in 1984 with Run- Sprite, and Kool-Aid have all used DMC’s self-titled album. The next hip-hop jingles to reel in young year Run-DMC’s King of Rock album consumers.13 reached platinum status, and 1986 saw Seeing the cash cow that companies Run-DMC collaborating with heavy- such as Radio One were milking, major weight rockers Aerosmith for the first radio players such as Clear Channel hip-hop song, “Walk This Way,” to and Cox Communications have dipped reach Billboard’s Top 10 pop singles, into the pot of gold, putting their attesting to both the song’s strong own urban-flavored radio stations up sales and its radio airplay. against existing hip-hop stations in In the early 1990s a few radio major markets. The competition, many stations, notably those controlled by commentators note happily, has forced black-owned Radio One, switched to old and new radio players alike to inno- an urban format that prominently vate and keep their ear out for the next featured hip-hop music. But by 1993, big thing. there were only six hip-hop and rap

Management and Consultants numerous stations now have their own internal format “consultants.” Often A booming business of radio doctors programming directors who preside over (consultants) has arisen to help stations many different stations owned by one make the decision regarding a format company in one area rely on outside change. Some big companies that own consultants to help them navigate the 4 Development 87 formats they may be overseeing, from 2. Lifestyles—If the schools are on a adult contemporary to pop to talk radio. split shift and, as a result, young Many smaller radio station owners or people are available as listeners during general managers do their own research the morning, this could affect the to determine what format would be format and its accompanying features. best, but some hire one of the consult- If a city has massive traffic jams, this ing firms to assist.These consulting com- could mean more time needs to be panies, or their equivalents within large devoted to traffic information than companies, have run research studies in might otherwise be planned. Inter- many cities and have developed a basic views with station management and procedure that usually works. with citizens of the community and They have developed a knowledge trips to shopping malls, restaurants, of the radio business that includes the and parks can give insight into following: lifestyles. 3. Sales of records and CDs—Although 1. The appeals of various formats— Internet sales and illegal swapping of They know, from studies they have music has cut severely into the busi- conducted and from general industry ness of local music stores, consultants reading, the pros and cons of the may nonetheless visit music stores and various formats and the type of talk to employees and customers to people each appeals to. determine who is buying what type 2. Cost effectiveness of the various of music when and where. The age formats—Again through experience, and sex of types of music purchasers they can fairly easily determine the is noted. costs of differing types of programming for specific markets. For Consultants also thoroughly examine example, all-news programming is the competition by noting the more expensive than middle-of-the following: road music and can only be under- 1. What is aired on all the competing taken in markets large enough and stations—Consultants usually spend rich enough to support it with at least one full day listening to each advertising. station in the market.They log every- When the consultants come to town, thing they hear—station identifica- they check out the area, looking mainly tions, disc jockey comments, news at the following: stories, editorials, features, etc. They make careful note of all the formats 1. Demographics—If the community and features on the air. contains many young people, their 2. The ratings of all stations—This con- presence might be a determinant in sists of a thorough breakout of ratings planning for a format. If a large ethnic data for each station that gives not group is within the station’s reach, only its overall rating number but also this presents the possibility for a par- its rating according to specific demo- ticular type of programming aimed graphics and specific times of day. at those people. The consultants use 3. The reach of all the stations—Some census data, Chamber of Commerce stations are more powerful technically data, and personal tours of the com- because of FCC requirements and munity to determine demographic therefore reach a larger geographic information. area. A weak station with a popular 88 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

format might not reach the whole audience could be attracted by the market, so a more powerful station longer news. with the same format could attract Management is free to ignore the listeners on the outskirts. advice of the consultants, and sometimes the chemistry between consultant and The consultants must consider the management is such that the two never opinions of the top station management, come to an understanding. But usually including the following: management will listen to the advice it 1. Programming biases—If the station has paid dearly for and go with what is owner abhors country western music suggested. If it does not work—well, and has stated that he or she does not there are always other consultants. want to be associated with a country music station, that alternative is ruled Developing Programming out, even if it seems to be the most economically viable one. Once management, a consultant, or both 2. General objectives—Sometimes man- have determined a format and an overall agers have specific personal or station programming philosophy, individual goals. If someone wants the station programs must be developed. For many to earn as much money as possible, a music stations, the switch from one different approach can be used by program to another is virtually seamless. the consultants than the one used The disc jockey may change, but the for someone who wants to make a sound of the music remains the same. reasonable profit but to ensure that The programming is not really devel- the station participates fully within oped; it is supplied. Someone has to the community. select the music to be played from all the new submissions and old songs Once the members of the consulting available. At most stations, the program team have gathered and analyzed the director takes total charge of this; at information, they discuss it with the other stations, the disc jockeys have a say management and make recommenda- as to what gets played. Stations that spe- tions. Perhaps they think the station cialize in the newest of the new may should program adult contemporary have a person who does nothing all day with 10-minute news updates on the but listen to submissions and winnow half hour. To support this, they might them down to a smaller stack that is include that a large number of middle- passed to the program director. aged people spend a great deal of time For all-news stations, the program- in their cars traveling between office and ming is also supplied—in this case by factory locations of a large employer daily events.A news director must decide whose business is spread over town. which news services to use, which stories They want information mixed with to cover, which stories to put on the air, relaxation. Although two other stations and how much time to allot each story. in town might program adult contem- Talk stations give thought to the porary, one of them could be low development of specific programs. Hosts powered and unable to be heard at two and their topics of conversation are of the company’s locations. The other thought through, usually by the stations’ could be the second highest-rated programmers. Occasionally, potential station in the market, with news for 2 talent will pitch an idea to a talk station minutes on the hour, so some of its and then be hired to conduct the show. 4 Development 89

Profit and Other-Than-Profit Al Franken as its star host. In a similar Motives vein, some nonprofit social advocacy groups have bought radio stations to Overall, radio development is different provide content that aims to both enter- from that of television.The great degree tain and empower. The Black United of content fragmentation and the less Fund of New York, a nonprofit organi- expensive nature of radio separate it from zation that promotes social and its visual cousin. Despite media consoli- economic development for the African- dation after the 1996 Telecommunica- American community, bought WCKL tions Act, many radio owners are still not 560AM in Albany, New York. Kermit publicly owned entities,unlike most tele- Eady, the organization’s founder and vision owners. For example, according to president, said that the station “will Michiguide.com, there are around 500 surely aid in the empowerment process radio stations in the state of Michigan. and could be our most valuable asset.”15 More than 30% of those 500 stations With so many radio stations still in are owned by 10 companies, with Clear the hands of smaller organizations and Channel alone owning more than 5%. “Ma and Pa” operations, there are many But the remaining 350 odd stations are opportunities for people to pitch ideas owned by more than 100 companies, for radio programming to these more many owning just 1 or 2 stations.14 accessible commercial radio station Although many of the stations owned owners.There is also the opportunity for by smaller entities may be in smaller LPFM radio stations, which, according markets, their programming still goes on to the Center on Democratic Commu- the air, and if it connects with listeners, nications National Lawyers Guild, can it can still be successful. “Success” for be set up for as little as $2000, although smaller radio owners may be defined the bureaucratic process of securing a much differently than in the dollars-and- license can be taxing and lengthy for a cents terms of big radio companies who small operation. have stockholders to satisfy. Some commercial radio developers Satellite Radio Development have goals that favor ideological or community service agendas over financial Satellite radio, a subscription service ones. For example, many liberal and providing a multitude of “stations,” has Democratic groups and individuals, different concerns than terrestrial radio. dismayed by the dominance of con- Even with the draw of satellite radio’s servative voices in talk radio, such as superior sound quality and ubiquitous Sean Hannity, Michael Savage, Michael signal coverage, listeners can pick up ter- Reagan, and Rush Limbaugh, have put restrial radio stations for free, so satellite up large sums of money to develop radio must provide content attractive equivalent liberal shows. Many such and different enough from terrestrial shows have been commercial failures, broadcasts that consumers will be such as those of former Texas agricul- willing to pay for it. Satellite radio, with tural commissioner Jim Hightower and its many stations, can pursue many even former New York Governor Mario avenues of development. Cuomo, but Democrats have not given Because at least some of the operat- up on their search. They started a radio ing costs of the network are covered by network in 2004, Air America, with subscription fees, satellite radio can comedian, writer, and right-wing baiter afford to offer stations with no or fewer 90 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

ABC News & Talk Channel Electronica The ’90s Live on 9 Adult Contemporary Christian Escape into the Movies No Compromise African-American Talk All Love Songs 24/7 Everything Funny Old School R&B Alternative Hits Exciting Fox Style News 24/7 Old Time Country America’s First Trucker Channel The Exclusive Satellite Radio Service of NASCAR Politics & Business Coverage America’s Hottest & Most Controversial Talk Stars Experts Talk Pop Music Mix Anything Can Happen...Really, Anything! Family Laughs & Fun A Premium Adult Channel Audio Books & Radio Dramas From Bluegrass to Newgrass Progressive Country

The Authentic ’60s Sound From the World’s Pop Charts Progressive Rock & Fusion

The Awesome ’80s The Full Spectrum of BBC’s News & Entertainment Regional Mexican Beautiful Music Glorious Gospel Rock en Español Best of the ’70s The Golden Age of Radio Round the Clock Country Hits

Big Bands & Hits of the ’40s The Greatest Music of the Last 1000 Years Sinatra & Friends

Breaking Stories from Around the World Greatest Soul Music of All Time Singers & Songwriters

Broadway & Showtunes Hard Alternative Spanish Pop Hits

Capital of the Blues High-Energy Combination of Sports News & Talk Sports News & Play-by-Play Coverage A Celebration of Folk Music Hip-Hop from Day One The Sound of Africa Cerebral New Age I Want My MTV—Radio! Stadium Rock & Hairbands Christian Music that Rocks Industrial Strength Metal The Tech Station Christian Talk Interactive Top 20 Countdown Tejano Classic Album Cuts Kids & Disney Top 40 Hits from Los Angeles Classic Alternative Latest Entertainment News & Celebrity Gossip Traditional Jazz Classic Country Latin Jazz 24-Hour Crazed Morning Shows Classical’s Greatest Hits The Lounge Lifestyle Lives On 24/7 Business & Finance Coverage Club Hits The Magic of the Human Voice U.S. Government Hearings & Public Affairs CNN in Spanish Mellow Alternative Uncensored Hip-Hop Concerts & Interviews The Most Mighty, Wicked, Dangerous Reggae Ever Underground Dance Contemporary Electric Jazz Music First...Everywhere! Unsigned Bands Only! Deep Album Cuts Music from the Caribbean Urban Adult The Definitive 24-Hour Sports News Network The Nation’s Premier Provider of Weather Information Urban Top 40 Discovery Channel Comes to Radio Neo Soul Where Disco Doesn’t Suck Early Rock ‘n’ Roll New Music...Now World Music Easy Jazz News Eclectic Mix from Celtic to the Blues The Next Generation of Radio For the...Next Generation

(Xmradio.com.) Figure 4.6 advertisements than terrestrial broad- exceed the scope of such interviews and Station listings for casters. This can be a draw for listeners performances typically broadcast by XM Radio. fatigued by commercials. But playing terrestrial stations.There are also stations wall-to-wall music, for example, can also that feature lesser-known songs by become fatiguing for listeners, so many major artists, music from independent satellite music stations, like terrestrial record companies, and tighter niche stations, have deejay patter between sec- programming than terrestrial stations. tions of music to mix things up. Terrestrial stations, to appeal to larger Another way that satellite radio devel- audiences and larger advertisers, must, ops programming to attract subscribers for example, combine pop music from is to provide programming unavailable the 1990s with the 1980s and 2000s; elsewhere. Many satellite radio music satellite radio can set aside a station stations feature interviews of and live for each decade, even subdividing the performances by musical artists that far decades into genres (Figure 4.6). But it 4 Development 91 is not as if there are unlimited stations There is debate about whether NPR on satellite radio, so strategic and achieves its lauded development goal of researched choices must be made—on a an evenhanded approach to the day’s national level. events and ideas. Popular commercial Satellite radio can also attract listeners radio talk-show hosts, such as Rush by providing niche programming aimed Limbaugh and Bill O’Reilly, have vili- at a specific segment or group of the fied NPR for, in their words, using national population. Perhaps on a local public money to push a lopsided liberal level, this group or segment would agenda. As Bill O’Reilly said in a con- not be big enough to justify the expense tentious interview with NPR’s “Fresh of a 24/7 radio operation. With satel- Air” host, Terry Gross, “You’re easy lite radio’s national reach, a minority- on [liberal political satirist Al] Franken population audience can reach signifi- and you’re hard on me . . . this is NPR cant numbers of listeners. The Sirius ...you should be ashamed of satellite network, for example, airs a yourself.”17 station, OutQ, targeting the gay and Although NPR receives some public lesbian community. The network’s funding, less than 2% of its operating controversial decision to develop the budget comes directly from government station in 2003 garnered significant sources. Nearly half of its funding comes media attention, helping the lesser- from member stations (13% of whose known network to gain visibility under overall funding is derived from govern- the shadow of its more well-known ment agencies, some of which filters competitor, XM Radio. It also helped through to NPR); the rest is gleaned Sirius to distinguish itself from XM from grants and support from private Radio, since the two networks mostly foundations and corporations. So NPR’s offer similar programming choices. vice president of development, Barbara Hall, is mainly preoccupied with raising nearly $50 million per year to support Public Radio Development programming that NPR’s think tank of intellectual and cultural advisors devises Where commercial radio networks to serve the organization’s mission develop programming designed to more statement.18 strictly follow what audiences want, For the other major public radio public radio networks, like some of the network, PRI, development is directed smaller, nonprofit commercial radio more by the missions of individual owners, have more idealistic goals. member stations, many of which are also NPR’s mission statement states that it member stations of NPR. But most PRI aims to develop programming that member stations share the idealistic goals creates “a more informed public—one of NPR: to provide both what they challenged and invigorated by a deeper know their audiences want and what understanding and appreciation of they believe their audiences need. With events, ideas and cultures.” Jay Kernis, PRI, the difference is that development NPR’s senior vice president for pro- is not centralized as it is with NPR. gramming, said that he is focused PRI stations and, to a lesser extent, on two concerns, “what public radio NPR are open to “pitches” for new audiences across the nation want— program development, even from and need—to hear on their local members of the public. Some NPR stations.”16 cultural shows, such as “This American 92 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

content charged the imaginations of all who came in contact with it in its early days. The possibilities seemed endless. Perhaps, many thought, the Internet could break the hegemony of media companies, displacing radio, television, and newspapers as the dominant sources of news and entertainment. The Inter- net, many thought, could also revolu- tionize commerce. The opportunities for development seemed to have no bounds. The relatively brief history of the Internet has thus been marked by tremendous hype, hope, and speculation. Figure 4.7 Life” with Ira Glass (Figure 4.7), solicit Most notably, the late 1990s saw what With a smart submissions from their listening audi- U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan combination of ence and receive nearly 50 submissions Greenspan called “irrational exuber- regular contributors per week, some of which, often with ance” for investment in Internet ven- and stories editing and additional postproduction, tures. Investors contributed billions of submitted by the they broadcast. dollars to start Internet companies, most public, “This of which never turned a profit before American Life,” hosted by Ira INTERNET DEVELOPMENT imploding. When the bubble burst, Glass, has become the field of Internet developers was a weekly staple on With the Internet, development of decimated and their investors, many of NPR. (Jon programming can take a mind-numbing whom were individuals, were badly Hughes/ number of routes, from the proud burned. Photopresse.) parents of a newborn placing pictures of But this is not to say that the hype their child on a web page for viewing was divorced from reality. The Internet by relatives, to a garage band uploading has and continues to unquestionably songs to a music website such as transform the face of media and com- MP3.com for exposure, to a social or merce. It has just settled into doing it political activist creating a web log (or less stridently than many had predicted “blog”) of their personal thoughts and or hoped. Instead of sucking the real observations about life and the world, to world into cyberspace with one long a television or radio network such as slurp, the Internet has come to coexist CNN or Clear Channel developing web with the real world, taking over and content to support its brand, to a film improving upon aspects it can perform producer creating an oft-updated web- more efficiently and conveniently. site to build buzz for an upcoming Before the advent of the Internet, for theatrical release. example, personal letter writing was a dying art usurped by telephone conver- History of Internet Development sations. Now email and instant messag- ing have taken a significant bite out The “democratic” development of the of telephone and fax communications, Internet as a technology practically although the quality of email com- anyone could use to create and obtain munication, many would argue, often 4 Development 93 falls far below the standards of telephone conversation and handwritten communications.

Traditional Developers Adapt to the Internet Figure 4.8 Online archives Just as email streamlined the diffusion allow visitors to of personal messages, the Internet allows easily find content companies and organizations to push using various their message or product more effec- criteria. tively and widely to consumers. The traditional newsletter, broadcast, or storefront can now have both a brick- and-mortar version and a cyber subscription services, helping to gener- version—the cyber version available on ate revenue that covers archiving costs demand by consumers across the globe. and, many undoubtedly hope, to gener- With this dual strategy, the develop- ate profits. Public radio, on the other ment cost for Internet content is often far hand, offers staggering amounts of outweighed by the additional exposure a archived material, nearly all without website can provide. Because entities can subscription fees (Figure 4.8). simply retool into a website what they It is doubtful whether, even when have already created for their traditional Internet speeds greatly improve, we will outlets, the development costs are chiefly quickly see mass on-demand offerings of technical, not creative. Numerous radio archived television programs.The syndi- stations, for example, now broadcast the cation market is too robust yet for tele- same content simultaneously over the air vision executives to risk eroding interest and an Internet stream. in broadcast reruns by making them Closely related to the simulcast idea available online. There are, however, is the development of Internet archives. notable exceptions. News or other With the cost of digital storage dropping time-sensitive programming that cannot exponentially, it is increasingly econom- be rebroadcast is increasingly archived and ical to archive nearly anything broadcast, available online, either free or by sub- making it available on demand at a later scription. But perhaps the most widely date. Internet connection rates are not archived and viewed online video yet fast enough for the feasible whole- content, especially by the advertiser- sale distribution of quality video, but cherished young demographic, is music audio archives of radio programs are videos. As MTV and other music-video nearly ubiquitous for syndicated radio television networks have moved further programs. The only cost associated with from their roots of broadcasting wall-to- the development of this material is the wall music videos, videos have moved technical process of breaking material onto the Internet.Viewers can see what into specific subjects or segments and they want when they want it after sitting indexing the material so that it can be through short advertisements before each easily found by Internet surfers. video. Standouts are Yahoo’s Launch.com In recent years, the trend has been for and America Online’s music channel, many of these radio archives to become which features some content, such as live 94 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

streaming concerts, that only subscribers reality and game shows, lend themselves to America Online can view. easily to supplemental websites. CBS’s Another web-based video service multiseason ratings performer, “Big making waves and significant revenue is Brother,” for example, has from the in the area of sports. Major League Base- beginning had an extensive website ball, for example, runs a site, MLB.com, that both gives additional information that offers several services for diehard to loyal fans and helps newcomers to get baseball fans. It sells live video and audio their bearings if they start watching streams of games and abridged game the serial “reality” series midseason. recordings that can be watched in just Although the show broadcast on televi- 20 minutes, cutting the game down to sion is extensively edited before it hits its action essence. MLB.com and Yahoo the airwaves, the show’s website offers have also developed free graphical simu- a bevy of 24/7 video feeds from the lations of baseball games, in which house. The website also allows viewers the graphic of a baseball diamond is to weigh in on and chat among them- populated by representations of players selves about what they think the coming up to bat and moving around outcome of each episode will be—who the bases in real time. will be evicted and who will stay for a But even if television producers are chance at the cash prize. not likely to voluntarily make their pro- For other shows, most notably grams available online until the econom- sitcoms, the development of supplemen- ics make sense, a growing number of tal websites has been much less robust. television programs are being recorded, Because sitcoms rely heavily on single- placed in the digital format, and made episode plots, there is not a lot of available illegally over the Internet. The between-the-episodes intrigue. The music industry was the first to have to NBC comedy “Scrubs,” for example, confront this online piracy problem— has a website limited to roughly 10 both by going after illegal song-file- pages of content, most of it in simple swappers and by developing legal, text: Main, About, Bios, Credits, Photos, fee-based alternatives. Consumers, whether and Episodes. CBS’s successfully syn- through legal or illegal means, have dicated show “Everybody Loves become accustomed to the on-demand Raymond” has even less: Home, About, nature of the Internet. Traditional media and Cast. producers and developers will have to Websites developed for dramas tend respond or be circumnavigated. to be more complex. The perennial Traditional media also develops mate- crime or legal show format allows rial supplemental to its broadcast offer- plenty of supplementary material: ex- ings. Commercial radio and television planations of forensic techniques, networks use the Internet to build upon real-world legal precedents, detailed their brand identity and to give fans descriptions of crime scenes and evi- additional opportunities to bond, and dence, and so on. Some ongoing dramas, even interact, with products. Develop- such as PBS’s “American Family,” ment of these materials often occurs in provide insights into the characters on tandem with development of the origi- the shows. In the case of “American nal broadcast show. Some shows, such as Family,” the character Cisco keeps an 4 Development 95 online interactive journal (Figure 4.9), which was developed by Artifact, an independent integrated content creation company. Artifact CEO, editor, and creative director Steve Armstrong said that the goal of the online journal is to give the audience “a glimpse of this guy figuring things out.”19 With the future of the web and of its effect on traditional media still developing, traditional media wants to be sure not to miss the boat. Experimenting with web development and testing its outcomes is something that programmers must take into account in today’s programming landscape.

A New Venue for chatting partners to become better Figure 4.9 Cisco’s journal, Independent Developers acquainted, even if many suspect and many more discover a rampant element mostly composed of There is plenty of Internet content, proof false advertising. images, is updated duced by individuals or collaborations, For others, self-expression bleeds into with clues about that is not directly associated with a tra- self-promotion. Some personal websites the “American Family” character’s ditional media or commercial entity. have become calling cards, promoting inner motivations, Development of this material arises with job skills and especially artistic endeav- thoughts, and numerous motives, depends on various ors in ways that were much more diffi- impulses. resources, and results in wide-ranging cult before the Internet. In 1981, artist outcomes. Keith Haring, bypassing the exclusive art Chief among the motives of inde- gallery system, took to the New York pendent web content developers is subways armed with sticks of chalk with the desire for self-expression. Many which he drew his soon-to-be-famous individuals have set up web pages with unmistakable artworks on the walls of information about themselves, their the underground rails. The notoriety interests, and their pursuits. For some, afforded him by this public art soon these sites have no other goal than to brought offers to show his works in the inject a personal mark into the global very galleries he had been flouting by community of the Internet. An ever- going directly to “the people.” Today, growing and -contracting group of artists, independent film producers, companies provides “free” advertisement- musicians, writers, and animators use the supported web hosting services that Internet, hoping it will provide them allow users to create their own websites. the kind of public exposure that the The craze of Internet dating or just subways did for Haring. simple chatting would be hobbled Putting content on the Internet is without the ability of potential mates easy. Getting someone to see it is to post their pictures and information another matter. Had Haring put his about their personal attributes onto chalk drawings in the sewage system of easily accessible websites. They may New York rather than the subway, no trade the addresses of these with one would have seen them. Among the 96 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

developers are always vying for top placement in search engines, and search engine companies are always trying to fight off tactics that developers use to trick their spiders into giving them top placement, even if their sites may not be the most appropriate match for a search. One of the many criteria that search engines may use in ranking sites is to index how many other websites contain links to a specific site. The idea here is if a lot of other websites are linked to a specific site, that site must be popular or at least of interest—so the search engine might rank that site higher than other sites that contain the same indexed words. So, along with making sure that a site contains the correct words, it is a good idea to exchange links with other websites. There are entire books written about search engine strategies, so we will not go into them here.20,21 Another way for independent producers to have their programming seen on the Internet is to submit to sites that review submissions and place those that meet their qualifications on their own Figure 4.10 millions of websites on the Internet, sites. The granddaddy of these sites is Screenshot of the people who wish to have their material Ifilm.com (Figure 4.10), which has Ifilm.com website. seen must develop a plan for doing so. launched the careers of many film and (Courtesy After a website is up on the web, the television makers. In some ways, the ifilm.com.) easiest first step in bringing the site Internet has become like a big, ongoing to the attention of web surfers is to film and television pilot festival—but submit the site to search engines, like a film festival, it is not necessarily a such as Google.com, Yahoo.com, and free-for-all. If sites want to maintain AltaVista.com. A computerized program their audiences, they must exercise some called a spider will visit the address pro- editorial quality control. There are vided and index all of the words on the dozens of reputable sites that accept sub- site. Then, when someone puts some of missions from many genres and interests those words into a search engine, the and many more less-reputable ones. engine will return all sites that contain With film sites that accept submissions those words as potential matches. there are animation sites and even sites Although those are the basics of how that target radio. Transom.org is a web- a search engine operates, behind the site with a goal, founder Jay Allison says, scenes things are more complex.Website of getting new and unsolicited voices on 4 Development 97 the radio (Figure 4.11). The site not only accepts submissions but is set up to operate as an online workshop where material can be refined through comments from other site visitors and contributors and from radio professionals.22 Another factor in the development of independent content for the Internet is the resources at the developer’s disposal. With the cost and technical difficulty of video, audio, and animation hardware and software continuing to plummet, producing quality content at home and as a hobby or a vocation has become more possible. Handheld digital video cameras and robust desktop editing software such as Final Cut and Adobe Pre- miere, with simple animation programs such as Macromedia Flash, have put visual storytelling, as long as there is a good story to tell, within reach of even those with very limited budgets. Zeus. There are always obstacles and Figure 4.11 periods of doubt. A strong collaborative Screenshot of the Although the development of some proj- spirit can make the process less lonely, Transom.org ects is more costly than that of others, and a willingness to think outside of the website. (Courtesy all development is a gamble. Decisive- box for solutions to inevitable snags can Transom.org.) ness, confidence, and persistent commit- yield fresh ideas. The ability to lay the ment, however, are qualities that serve all bodies of failed projects before your feet programmers well. Successful program- and use them as gruesome stepping ming does not spring fully grown from stones on the way to the next develop- the ether, like Athena from the head of ment endeavor will also help.

EXERCISES

1. Come up with a drama or comedy make your presentation stronger by antic- series that you feel ﬁlls a void in the tele- ipating these reservations? vision programming landscape. Write a log 4. Envision a reality program that you line for this show. Develop some story lines think will have franchise possibilities all for the show that indicate the potential for over the world. What about your show the show to last several seasons. makes it possible to adapt to different 2. Prepare the pitch for your show.Make territories? a list of ways to get the all-important pitch 5. Write letters to 10 producers of meeting (websites, agents, personal con- shows you have enjoyed. Tell them speciﬁ- tacts, recent graduates of your school, cally why you liked the show. Do not pitch production companies that produce similar them an idea in this initial letter.Wait a few shows, etc.). weeks; contact these same producers, refer- 3. Prepare a strategy to counter any ring to your previous letter; and request a reservations about your show. How can you meeting to pitch your idea. 98 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

6. Review your local market radio offer- stations would you eliminate? With what ings. Come up with a music radio format formats would you replace those three that you feel ﬁlls a void in the local pro- channels? gramming landscape. Come up with a 8. Look at the website supporting one sample song list and a description of the of the television shows you watch fre- type of on-air personalities appropriate for quently. Critique the efﬁcacy of its content. the format. Is it easy to navigate? Does it offer what 7. Look at the XM Radio channel list- you, as a viewer, expect and hope that it ings in Figure 4.6. If you were asked to will? How might it better enhance your consult with the network on how to attract involvement with the show? additional college-age listeners, which three

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Howard J. Blumenthal and Oliver R. 14. “Michigan Radio and TV Owner- Goodenough. This Business of Television ship Guide,” http://www.michiguide.com/ (New York: Billboard Books, 1991). dials/owners.html. Accessed July 10, 2004. 2. Enterprise of Hollywood, http:// 15. Barbara Pinckney. “New Owner www.enterpriseprinters.com. Black United Fund Changes Format of 3. Marc Gunther. “Jeff Zucker Faces Life Radio Station,” http://albany.bizjournals Without Friends,” Fortune, May 12, 2003, p. 96. .com/albany/stories/2003/06/30/story8 4. PBS.“PBS Financial Highlights 2003,” .html. Accessed July 15, 2004. http://www.pbs.org/aboutpbs/content/ 16. NPR. “Jay Kernis, Senior Vice Pres- annualreport/2003/FY03FinHighlightsPub ident for Programming,” http://www.npr lished.pdf. Accessed July 15, 2004. .org/about/people/bios/jkernis.html. 5. Roger Strauss.“Quest for TV Magic,” Accessed July 15, 2004. Los Angeles Times, November 16, 2003, p. 17. Bill O’Reilly, quoted on “Fresh Air,” E-32 through E-33. October 8, 2003, archived at http:// 6. Gunther, p. 96. freshair.npr.org. 7. Austin Bunn. “The Wasteland,” New 18. NPR. “NPR Annual Report 2002,” York Times Magazine, June 23, 2002, p. 33. http://www.npr.org/about/annualreports/ 8. Bunn, p. 35. npr2002.pdf. Accessed July 15, 2004. 9. Gunther, p. 96. 19. Paul Bond. “Family Secrets a Click 10. Allison Romano. “MTV: Operating Away,” Hollywood Reporter, January 28, 2002, Without a Net,” Broadcasting and Cable, May p. 14. 27, 2002, p. 21. 20. Shari Thurow. Search Engine Visibility, 11. Charles Goldsmith. “How ‘Idols’ 1st edition (Berkeley, CA: New Riders, Around the World Harmonize with Local 2002). Viewers,” The Wall Street Journal, September 21. Tara Calishain and Rael Dornfest 29, 2003, p. B-1. (editor). Google Hacks: 100 Industrial-Strength 12. Alex Pham and Scott Sandell. “In Tips & Tools, 1st edition (Cambridge, MA: Germany, Video Games Showing Frontal O’Reilly & Associates, 2003). Nudity Are OK, But Blood Is Verboten,” 22. Cody Ellerd, Associated Press. “Web Los Angeles Times, June 6, 2003, p. C-1. Site Helps Get New Talent on the Air,” 13. Jego R. Armstrong. “Hip-Hop http://www.miami.com/mld/miami Radio War—Good for Fans,” http://www herald/business/6939697.htm. Accessed .sohh.com/thewire/read.php?contentID= October 5, 2003. 4917&highlight=radio%200ne. Accessed June 16, 2004. 5 Testing

In this chapter you will learn about the air, more programs fail than succeed, following: contradicting the test findings. Why do we continue to resort to TV program • The importance of testing in making testing when its failure is so monumen- programming decisions tal? Testing [is] the bane of program- • The significance of sample selection ming. It’s amazing how we still cling • The four primary types of testing to it.”1 • How the effectiveness of testing is Supporters of research may argue that measured failure cannot always be ascribed to • Why Las Vegas is considered an ideal faulty testing. Many cancellations are the testing location result of poor execution, inept schedul- • Individual song and listener-lifestyle ing, unrealistic expectations, misdirected testing for radio promotion, or murderous competition. • User-friendliness testing of Internet And so it goes, attackers vs. defenders. programming In this chapter, we examine the various • Different views on the efficacy of techniques used by researchers and testing explore the strengths, weaknesses, and Research is a heavily used device in the interpretations. No matter what side of programming process. Programmers are the argument a programmer adopts, reluctant to commit huge amounts of knowledge of the testing systems and money to productions without some procedures is essential. evidence from the public that the project has a reasonable chance of TELEVISION TESTING success. That would seem to be unas- sailable prudence. But it is routinely All network programs and most syndi- assailed. Doubters ask the questions: cated programs, regardless of the Who is being researched? How reliable daypart, are subjected to some testing. are these potential viewers? Who is Less attention is paid to testing in cable, doing the interpreting? What is the track possibly because cable tends to keep its record for all this statistical stuff ? testing under the radar. For example, According to some critics, the history Chris Albrecht, HBO’s programming of predictive research in television is chief, says he does not believe in testing, abysmal. Dan Enright, a producer of particularly after “The Sopranos” testing programs since the medium’s inception, was not promising and HBO decided to stated, “Nearly every network program go ahead anyway, creating one of televi- that sees the light of television has been sion’s biggest hits. Programmers wishing tested by focus groups and other mass to start a cable niche channel will more devices.And each has passed its test with than likely test to see whether the flying colors. However, once they hit the concept has potential. In general,

99 100 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

however, testing is not as prevalent in show has become essential. If viewers cable as it is in broadcast television are not aware that a show is on the because programming is supported, at schedule or about to premiere, that least partly, by viewer subscription fees show’s chances for success are signifi- instead of by advertising. cantly diminished. Testing awareness has Because the advertising stakes are so thus taken on great significance. At a high, prime-time network shows go 2003 presentation to a class of radio and through a constant testing process from television majors at California State the initial concept through the first year University, Fullerton, Howard Schnei- on the air and sometimes even later. der, then vice president of promotions at There are several companies that do this the Fox network, sought to determine type of research, the most active of whether the students were aware of which is Audience Studies Institute shows coming to the Fox lineup. He (ASI), a company that claims to be able showed on-air promotional spots to the to test virtually anything. ASI bills itself class to get a sense of what did and did as the largest communications-specialist not work, but what he really wanted to data-research organization in the gauge was the students’ awareness of country. According to David Castler, upcoming programs. president and CEO, the full-service Promo tests become a key gauge of testing facility includes the following audience awareness. However, before a client services: new show airs, the promo developers only have the pilot to work with.There- • Broadcast and cable television pilots fore, there may not be a lot of footage and programs available to create a promo that will • Continuing series generate excitement and audience • Title, concept, and script appeal awareness. It thus becomes important to • Movies made for television use promo testing to evaluate what will • Children’s programs get a show recognized by viewers. If • Target audiences the promos do not connect with the • Program scheduling audience, the show’s awareness suffers • Commercials significantly. • Gaming With the increased importance of • Sports awareness, a company such as ASI • Personalities—News anchors and provides “customized” research. For program hosts example, Castler said that ASI will • Competitive environment conduct studies for a client to determine • Station image an audience’s awareness of a program’s • Brand image existence. Then it will probe to see • Tune-in campaigns whether those who know it is on have • Program and channel awareness sampled it and, if so, whether they are watching more or less than they used to. Awareness Testing Sampling The last item, program and channel awareness, is important because viewers A research design can be developed to have so many choices and because investigate any problem confronting a shows are given so little time to estab- programmer. Its value and reliability are lish themselves. Viewer awareness of a subject to a host of variables, the first 5 Testing 101 of which is the quality of the test sample. Program testing requires the recruitment of groups who represent the universe to be measured. For example, if a producer wishes to test the effectiveness of a program with the 18- to 34-year- old female audience, the testing service must locate a sufficient number of viewers in this category to draw reliable conclusions. In addition, the survey group must offer a balance of economic, social, ethnic, and geographical considerations to prevent tilted or biased results. Beverly Bolotin, executive vice president of client services at ASI, says the sampling selected for a test reflects the To achieve the optimal sampling, CBS Figure 5.1 demographic of the targeted network. A established a testing center in the MGM CBS has found network that caters primarily to a young Grand Hotel in Las Vegas in 2001. Las Vegas to be an demographic will be tested by that Dubbed CBS Television City (Figure excellent place to specific group. 5.1), the research center uses A.C. test shows because According to Paul S. Lendburg, ASI’s Nielsen’s Reel Research online system; of the large cross section of chief consultant, “Sampling isn’t the every seat has a touch screen, allowing individuals most important thing in research today; network executives near and far to track available to take it’s the only thing.”The reason is appar- viewer responses. The facility is geared part in testing at ent. Even the most carefully constructed for maximum efficiency. Equipped with their Television questionnaire or the most skillfully con- two screening rooms that can accom- City. (Courtesy ducted discussion session will yield modate 25 people each, it is also set up Donny Sianturi.) worthless results if the respondents are to handle focus groups, where partic- not representative of the whole. Exam- ipants discuss the merits and deficits of ining 40 18- to 25-year-old females, all a show.Two-way mirrors enable execu- of whom come from the same ethnic- tives to observe these discussions.Video ity and church group in a community conferencing is also available. Serving as of $300,000 homes, is not going to help a magnet to attract test subjects to CBS a producer develop a format for a tele- Television City, next door to the testing vision show intended for a broad facility there is a retail shop that sells national audience. merchandise from CBS/Viacom shows: Respondents are usually selected by T-shirts, hats, cups, etc. Coupons for phone. Data available from many sources items in the retail shop are given to enables a recruiter to establish the individuals who watch the shows being general socioeconomic level of each tested. home to be called. The respondent is According to Eric Steinberg, senior taken through a detailed questionnaire, vice president of research at CBS, Las and if the answers fit the needs of the Vegas provides an excellent cross section study, the person is asked to participate. of the population for testing purposes. There are financial and practical limita- Visitors from across the country visit Las tions to assembling a perfectly balanced Vegas, and many of them have free time sample group. in the afternoons to engage in program 102 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

testing for CBS. The CBS Las Vegas the words are not filtered through a testing center proved so successful and computer or hidden in a welter of sta- cost effective that NBC opened its own tistics. The passion, or the tepidness, of testing center at the Venetian Hotel in the consumers’ reactions can serve as 2004. guidelines for format adjustment and After the sample is selected, the improvement. Because there are only 12 research is conducted. There are four participants, the findings are never quan- primary methods of conducting pro- tified. However, any unanimously nega- gram research: focus groups, minithe- tive expression would be a clear signal ater tests, cable-based studies, and for remedial action. A focus session is a telephone research. hunt for clues and should be used as such. Focus Groups There are three major concerns about this form of research: the limited size of For this method, the research company the group, the potential for a strong- brings together a small group (usually 10 willed participant to unduly influence to 12 participants) to discuss a program- the opinions of others, and an analyst ming matter under the guidance of a who does not connect with the trained moderator. The subject of the members of the focus group.The size of focus group might range from the any group cannot be enlarged without appeal of potential hosts for a game risking a loss of control and candor. show to the acceptability of the lan- However, clients who wish a greater guage used in a sitcom pilot. range of responses can lessen the effect In some cases, the session will begin of the small sample by ordering addi- with a screening of the program to be tional sessions. The second concern can studied, although focus groups have be more damaging. Dominant personal- been used to test program concepts that ities do not always reveal themselves in have not been committed to paper, let a preinterview and can burst open alone videotape. The conversation typi- during the session to the surprise and cally lasts about 2 hours.The moderator chagrin of all. Experienced moderators will have a carefully prepared list of are frequently able to cope with this topics but will not slavishly follow it. dismaying situation by repeated appeals The goal of the session is to stimulate “to let everyone have a fair chance to candid comments that will allow a client speak.” When the dominant personality to hear what the audience really thinks. simply will not cooperate, the session For later reference, the sessions are has to be invalidated and a new one generally videotaped by an unobtrusive scheduled—a waste of time and money camera. to all involved. One of the virtues of focus groups is Scott Gimple, the creator of the chil- that they can be conducted in any city dren’s television show “Fillmore,” expe- with a minimum of equipment and rienced the third situation firsthand. expense. TV sets and VCR or DVD He was stationed behind the two-way units are available everywhere, and the mirror to observe the focus group that moderator only needs to bring a copy would help to determine the fate of his of the show and a pad to be in business. show. He quickly became concerned The chief value of a focus session is that with the moderator’s approach when he the producer or programmer can gain adopted a military style of barking ques- reactions directly from the consumer; tions at the 6 year olds in the group. 5 Testing 103

One little girl even started to cry when she was commanded to answer a question. The test results were more positive than Gimple had expected, but he spent a few anxious moments observing the confrontational style of the group moderator and had to take the moderator’s approach into account when interpreting the results. More than any other method of research, the focus group must be interpreted by a seasoned analyst. After conducting hundreds of these sessions, most moderators, with the possible exception of the one who conducted the “Fill- more” session that Gimple observed, Figure 5.2 “Everybody Loves become sensitized to group dynamics Raymond” initially and are able to detect the most subtle tested poorly. undercurrents. Many times the subtext (Courtesy the of the commentaries will be more valu- Academy of able than the boldly stated opinions. Television Arts & Programmers are advised to listen care- Sciences.) fully to the savvy moderator to learn what the group is really saying.

PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS ABOUT MINITHEATER TESTING

Lynn Gross has conducted minitheater between 24 and 54 who had blue- testing sessions. Here are some of her collar jobs. All 25 people would watch observations. the pilot and ﬁll out the questionnaire, For several years in the 1990s, I but the only answers that would make tested CBS pilots at CBS Television it into the study would be those from City in Los Angeles. We obtained our the targeted men. If anyone with ties participants from people waiting to see to the entertainment industry showed the taping of “The Price Is Right” and up in the sample, their answers were from tourists visiting the farmer’s perfunctorily discarded. We did not market next to Television City. There tell people we might not use their were more volunteers from Los questionnaires, and we certainly did Angeles than anywhere else, but not prevent anyone from watching drawing from these two pools yielded the show. people from throughout the United One of the programs I tested was States. If there were too many people “Everybody Loves Raymond” (Figure from Los Angeles participating in the 5.2). It tested low. The comment I testing, we just threw out their remember occurring most often was answers. If there were too many of that it was a one-joke show—nothing anything, we did not use their ques- but a bunch of mother-in-law jokes. It tionnaires. A production company became a stable hit. Our testing was might, for example, only be interested not always to determine whether a in the responses of midwestern men show would make it on the air. Some-

continued 104 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

times the producers were trying to ﬁne- and “crash.” One time I showed it, tune the series to make it better. Such about 10 of the participants were was the case when we tested “Ink.” Ted students from a local college and the Danson, “Ink’s” star, had a contractual rest of the group was a mixed demo- arrangement with CBS, so the series graphic. The college students loved the was going to make it into the schedule show and laughed enthusiastically at regardless, but the producers hoped to the jokes. All the people in the room ensure its longevity through testing. rated the program high. The next time Such was not the case—it did not last I showed it, about 10 of the participants long. were from a retirement community and I found that the actions of one the rest were similar in demographics person or a small group could affect to the people in the group with college the results of the overall minitheater students. The senior citizens did not testing session even though each enjoy the program and probably did not person ﬁlled out his or her own ques- understand most of the jokes, but the tionnaire. For example, one program I whole group rated it low. Being in a tested started with a woman doing a room with people who either like or do striptease in a courtroom (probably in not like the show seems to affect those an attempt to bounce the needle). who might otherwise be more neutral. During one testing session, a woman The minitheater session leaders, said, “This is disgusting,” and got up other than myself, were primarily and walked out. The show scored actors. Everyone was cooperative much lower overall in that session than about switching shifts if someone in any other sessions. had an audition. It is an excellent job Another potential series I tested was for actors because it gives them a comedy about a computer genius experience in front of people and the that included plays on words related to opportunity to make a repeated computers, such as “log on,” “boot,” canned speech sound spontaneous.

Minitheater Research who receive $50 to $75 each to a specially equipped facility. On the arm of For minitheater research, a sample group each seat is a small electronic device that of people from the desired universe are contains a dial participants can turn to brought to a small theater where they any setting between ++ and --. The record their likes and dislikes. Within dials are connected to a central computer commercial television, the main use of the that records the consumers’ choices. minitheater is to study series pilots.These Responses can be broken into virtually tests allow the programmer and the pro- any demographic configuration desired duction staff to see whether the concept by the client. Also on the dial at ASI is is sound and the execution is satisfactory. a button that respondents can push at Although many of the directorial flaws, the point they would turn to another casting mistakes, and other production channel. This is the “tune out” button. missteps become apparent when the pilot The dial also has a “buy” button that is privately screened, the executives and respondents can push at the point they producers still have no way of knowing are ready to buy a product offered by a whether the public will find the show commercial.The ASI dial was created by appealing. For that, some expression from Castler, and it is the only dial that has potential viewers is required. the “tune out” and “buy” buttons. ASI attempts to fill this need with After participants have been comfort- their minitheater research service. It ably seated and a moderator has invites 42 carefully selected individuals explained the operation of the dialing 5 Testing 105 device, the pilot is presented on a large Castler adds that he would prefer for screen. The dials are preset exactly emotionally attached performers not to between ++ and --. As the show witness the testing sessions, but this is unfolds, consumers twist the dial to not something he can control. signify their pleasure or disinterest in the For many years, ASI conducted its events on the screen. The sum of their theater research on a much larger scale. reactions is instantaneously calculated by Approximately 400 consumers were the computer and converted into a invited to react to programs in a large running graph, not unlike an EKG theater. Approximately 50 of the partic- readout.The people who have commis- ipants were hooked up to special sensing sioned the study are seated in client devices that measured their pulse and booths, watching the same film on a perspiration as the show evolved. The special monitor on which the graph greater these emotional responses, the plays along the bottom of the screen. more effective the show was judged to Clients are immediately able to see the be. However, the results were ambiguous joke that worked, the scene that failed. and difficult to interpret, and the tech- The entire picture, including the graph, nique was subsequently shelved. The is taped and made available for subse- minitheater replaced large-house testing quent second-by-second study. for two reasons: (1) When there were Following the screening, consumers basically three networks, people were are asked to fill out questionnaires that excited and willing to participate in contain personal information and sup- testing on a voluntary basis; television plementary inquiries about the program. was fresh and it was fun to be part of The questionnaires are coded by seat the process of determining what was number and can be linked with the going to be on the air. Today, however, computer readouts of the dial responses. it is necessary to compensate respon- Thus, the client can obtain the reaction dents for the 2 hours they devote to of any demographic subgroup in the testing. Thus, the cost of testing large audience. groups became prohibitive. (2) It is After the screening, approximately 24 possible to achieve essentially the same individuals are asked to stay behind to reliability with a smaller group for participate in follow-up focus sessions, substantially less cost. two sessions of 12 people each. The Also, the smaller sample helped to purpose of this final phase is to probe eliminate a misuse of the service. With the feelings and reasoning behind the 400 consumers in the survey, clients reactions of the respondents. The mod- were tempted to seek one number, the erator has seen the graph and can average score of all the dials over the explore highs and lows in greater detail. course of the screening. ASI has always One potential drawback to having the cautioned against such a simplification creators or performers in the client of the system, but programmers and booth can occur if the focus group is producers found it a short, convenient going badly (“How can someone of his way to interpret the findings. Producers stature be a part of something as awful quickly learned that decision makers as this?”). Castler says that often a were placing great emphasis on that one creator will storm out of the client figure and hit upon a technique to make booth, rush into such a focus session, it work for them.The trick was to insert and take it over to see whether the a high-powered scene early in the show. negative comments can be redirected. The earlier the viewer could be moved 106 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

off the middle reading and toward the scribers willing to participate in a ++ side, the better the chances that the survey. The consumers are asked to overall rating would be impressive. Con- watch the program that will be fed on sequently, veteran producers inserted a certain channel number at a specific rousing action or sex scenes at the time.A reminder call is usually made the beginning of programs, many times with day of the test. Upon the conclusion of little or no relevance to the drama, just the program, an interviewer phones the to bounce the needle. consumer and administers a detailed They would test the show, edit (or verbal questionnaire to obtain the infor- reshoot) scenes, test it again, edit again, mation most desired by the client. and keep up the process until they had As in other forms of testing previ- engineered a lofty overall score. Then ously described, a consumer sample can the pilot would be turned over to the be assembled to meet any demographic buyers for evaluation. The first thing need. Without the distraction of other they did was test it at ASI. Sure enough, participants and within the environment there it was—a whopping number.A hit of his or her own living room, a partic- was assured; everyone was delighted. ipant is more likely to offer reliable Unfortunately, many of those “guaran- responses. teed” smashes quickly wound up in the Nielsen graveyard. ASI ended the game Telephone Research by reducing the sample and withholding any composite number. Clients were Phone research has limited value for encouraged to use the service for its determining reaction to proposed tele- original intent, spotting flaws and dis- vision programs because the consumers covering targets or opportunity. cannot simultaneously watch a program and answer a questionnaire. However, Cable-Based Research phone research can be used effectively to find out information about programs One of the major drawbacks of theater on the air. research, at least as perceived by many Interviewers call appropriate samples clients, is the unnatural setting of the of people and gather their responses to test. Television is usually a solitary or set questionnaires. Sometimes the inter- family experience, most frequently viewers merely screen and obtain the occurring in the comfort of a home.Yet, permission of the people over the phone the testing takes place in a public facil- then mail them the questionnaires. ity with the ever-present possibility that This method usually requires numerous crowd response and other distractions follow-up calls to remind the partici- might influence judgments. This dis- pants to fill out and mail in the satisfaction led to a search for a method questionnaires. by which people’s opinions could be One of the major phone–mail solicited in the normal viewing envi- research studies is TVQ, a popularity ronment. The solution was cable-based evaluation service. These periodic research. studies, provided by Marketing Evalua- Companies that offer this service tions, measure the audience’s familiarity develop relationships with cable opera- with programs and personalities and the tors throughout the country. Through intensity of their appeal. A nationwide these connections, they are able to panel of 1800 viewers completes a recruit the desired number of sub- mailed questionnaire (Figure 5.3) that 5 Testing 107

Figure 5.3 A sample of a TVQ questionnaire. (Courtesy Marketing Evaluations, Inc.) 108 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 5.4 tion to Performer Q, TVQ, and Cable Past Recent Some past and Q described previously, Marketing recent shows that “All in the Family” “Friends” Evaluations offers Sport Q, Cartoon began as borderline “Hill Street Blues” “X-Files” Q, Product Q, Kids Product Q, and programs that Dead Q (performers of the past). survived because of “Cheers” “Everybody Loves Raymond” Subscribers primarily use the data to strong TVQ scores. “St. Elsewhere” “Ally McBeal” determine the intrinsic appeal of a show. (Courtesy When the Nielsen rating is low but the Marketing “Seinfeld” “Touched by an Angel” Evaluations, Inc.) quality of the production seems to be first rate, the programmer will frequently look to the TVQ for glimpses of encouragement (Figure 5.4). If the Q score is high but familiarity is weak, it suggests that those who have seen it like it but that too few have seen it. An expansion of audience awareness through a heavy promotion campaign might result in success. If the ratings are low but the Q score for a particular demographic unit is high, it could mean a time change is called for (Figure 5.5). In terms of television history, David Poltrack, CBS’s head of research and planning, noted that in the 1988–1989 broadcast television season,“without the TVQ ratings, ‘Tour of Duty’ and ‘Wiseguy’ would not have been on this season’s schedule.Their Q scores helped to get them renewed despite low Nielsen ratings.” The application of TVQ findings to casting decisions can be the cause of great concern among performers. The Screen Actors Guild has railed against Figure 5.5 lists up to 1700 personalities (Performer the service for more than a decade. How TVQ scores Q), 350 broadcast television programs Kathleen Nolan, former president of the can predict (TVQ) and 175 cable programs (Cable guild, called it an infuriating catch-22: potential winners: if Q). “If you’re not on the air, you’re not the TVQ score is Results are distributed to clients in familiar. If you’re not familiar, you’re not higher than the the distilled form of two scores, Fam on the air.” Performers believe that a familiar score, that (the percentage of respondents familiar good Q score is a function of the part is a positive sign as opposed to a with the subject) and Q (the percentage being played. The actor who plays high familiarity who checked “one of my favorites”). Saddam Hussein will be less liked than and a low TVQ Demographic breakouts according to the one who portrays a hero fighting score. (Courtesy age, gender, education, household tyranny. Marketing income, employment, race, and religion Program executives generally deny a Evaluations, Inc.) are also offered in the report. In addi- reliance on TVQ for casting decisions. 5 Testing 109

Actors and other on-air people remain skeptical. “They shouldn’t be,” said Tony Barr, a former vice president of dramatic programs at CBS. “In my 11-1/2 years at CBS, I never once even heard the phrase ‘TVQ’ mentioned. It simply was not a factor in any talent decisions.”This is a position many current programmers and casting directors continue to support, at least in public.

Station Testing Little program testing is done by either affiliated or independent stations, primarily because there are so few locally originated shows. Research is confined almost exclusively to news productions. “We do quite a number of focus sessions over the course of a year on our news personalities,” said Bob Brooks, program director of KFOR in Oklahoma City. “It helps us to see if they’re in tune with our audience.” Newscasters historically have resented the figures and come to their own Figure 5.6 being submitted to focus group scrutiny. conclusions. “Sesame Street” They feel they should be evaluated as underwent intensive testing before its reporters, not showpeople, and that Public Broadcasting focus research places too much empha- debut in 1969, sis on appearance and not enough on Testing is not a high priority in public and elements of it are still tested on a journalistic skill. In a perfect world, broadcasting, partly because of its cost regular basis. program executives might tend to agree. and partly because public broadcasting (Courtesy But many viewers base their news shows do not live or die by ratings. Children’s selection on the clothes, hairstyle, Sometimes the producers of PBS pro- Television mannerisms, and personality of the grams (primarily the public TV stations) Workshop.) anchors; as long as that is so, decision will test shows just as commercial pro- makers will take steps to ensure these ducers do, but many shows hit the air- qualities are present. waves without the benefit of testing. When local stations need to make One major exception to this is the decisions about the inclusion of syndi- programming that comes from the Chil- cated programs in their lineup, almost all dren’s Television Workshop, for example, syndicators can produce research by the “Sesame Street.” This organization ton to show why their programs cannot undertakes major statistical pretesting to miss in any market. Station program determine not only how well children directors see no need to conduct their like their programs but also how much own studies to confirm or deny the they learn by watching (Figure 5.6). syndicator’s data. They usually examine Interestingly, Nickelodeon’s successful 110 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

gramming. Advisory boards, although they do not constitute a formal testing audience, are often used as a sounding board for ideas and programs.

RADIO TESTING Commercial radio makes extensive use of testing to determine the effectiveness of potential formats, music mixes, on-air personalities, contests, and promotions. Many companies exist to assist radio stations, networks, consultants, or station group owners with their specific needs. Some of these specialize in specific Figure 5.7 aspects of radio programming, such Nickelodeon’s as adult contemporary music, small “Blue’s Clues” markets, news, or talk, but most of them uses testing will conduct research studies into any- successfully. (Globe thing the client requests. Photos, Inc.) Sampling children’s show “Blue’s Clues” (Figure 5.7) undertook much of the same Radio stations test potential broadcast research as “Sesame Street” at a more material to answer two questions:Will it intense level. As Malcolm Gladwell keep our current listeners tuned in? And wrote in The Tipping Point, “Where will it attract new listeners? Sesame Street tests a given show only Current listeners are broken into two once—and after it’s completed—Blue’s segments: preference 1 (P1) listeners Clues tests shows three times before and preference 2 (P2) listeners. P1 they go on the air. And while Sesame listeners are considered to be a station’s Street will typically only test a third of core listeners—those who respond with its episodes, Blue’s Clues tests them all.”2 the name of your station when asked, Occasionally, a public TV station will “What radio station did you listen to the pretest a local concept. For example, in most over the past week?” P2 listeners 1991, WGBH in Boston decided to are those who name your station as program a talk show without a host. another station they tuned in to over the Because this was a rather revolutionary past week. Usually the other station idea, the station tested the idea all named is a competitor of the P1 station summer and made many changes before that the listener tunes in to when he or launching the show in the fall. she does not like what is playing on the The CPB holds focus groups around P1 station or tunes in to “for a change.” the country to discuss the overall effect Radio listeners who are not part of a of certain programs and how public station’s core P1 or P2 are called the broadcasting can better serve the public. cume, or the cumulative size of an Sometimes local stations piggyback onto area’s radio audience for all stations these focus groups and arrange to have during a given period. A radio station’s the participants queried about local pro- goals, then, are to maintain its P1, 5 Testing 111 convert its P2 into P1, and attract new video programs, audio musical selections cume listeners, ideally converting them can easily be played over the phone, so into P1 or P2 core listeners. people do not need to be brought into To test what broadcast material might a theater where the artificiality of the accomplish these aims, radio stations situation can corrupt the findings. must be able to target their testing to Phone research is usually conducted specific segments of the radio-listening from a research company’s central office population. A radio program director that can be located anywhere in the trying to learn the type of news items country. The people undertaking the that appeal to the station listeners, most phone interviews are all in one location of whom are 12- to 24-year-old males, where they can be carefully trained and would obtain little value from a research supervised. This type of testing is rela- study if the research company used the tively inexpensive. general population as a base. However, people are not usually Research companies often call many willing to spend much time on the people and administer a prequestionnaire phone answering questions and listening before they solicit people for radio to musical selections. Also, the low testing. This prequestionnaire consists of fidelity of the phone system can inter- lifestyle elements such as age, income, fere with a listener’s enjoyment of a and general radio-listening patterns. song that might sound more acceptable When more than enough people have on stereo FM. As a result, minitheater been found to fulfill the needs of the testing (usually called auditorium particular study, a random group of testing in radio jargon) is also used for these people is asked to participate in the radio, particularly when numerous research. Or sometimes, when a person musical selections need to be tested. has been identified from the preques- Typically 75 to 125 people are brought tionnaire as appropriate for the research, into an auditorium to listen to music. he or she is administered the research Focus groups of 10 to 12 people are questionnaire immediately.If the research also used, especially to discuss broad is being conducted for a local station, as concepts such as proposed format opposed to a network, the sample should alterations or changes to call letters. be drawn from a particular market. Often, questionnaires are distributed to To solve the sampling problem, research participants before the focus group to companies or radio stations themselves minimize the group psychology or the sometimes use only known station listen- effects of a dominant personality. These ers as the universe from which to select questionnaires are used during the focus the sample. Stations keep lists of people groups to bring up ideas that may have who call in, write, or e-mail and contact been expressed on paper by the more them when research needs to be under- reticent members of the group. taken. This sample base is not effective if A growing number of radio stations the station is trying to gain new listeners also use the Internet to conduct testing. from the cume, but it is effective if the On a radio station’s website, listeners goal is to please P1 and P2 listeners. can voluntarily weigh in on, among other things, which songs they think Testing Methodology should be played more or less often on the station. Uses for and of Internet Telephone research is the most common testing will likely continue to evolve and methodology for radio testing. Unlike expand, although the Internet poses 112 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

inherent integrity quandaries because it munity response to a variety of struc- is difficult to verify the identities of tures. In addition, participants usually respondents. One person could unde- listen to sample material of various tectably answer the same survey multi- formats and are asked their opinion of ple times out of enthusiasm for a each. Usually this type of research is favorite artist, through mischief, because conducted in focus groups, although of boredom, or with a more malicious a station that has narrowed the format intent, and skew the results. choice to three or four can use phone Some phone testing companies, such as or auditorium research to tabulate Music-Tec (http://www.musictec.com), opinions. combine the old standard of phone • Music within format—Although a testing with new technologies to create good program manager will have a a less-expensive, automated system that feel for which new releases fit within still offers a strong, if not foolproof, the station format, his or her judg- ability to validate its data. With Music- ment should sometimes be checked Tec’s system, targeted audience members or enhanced by playing the new who have agreed to participate in testing releases for audience members and are given a toll-free number and an seeing which they feel belong. identification number. When they call Usually this research is auditorium- the system, they enter their unique ID based because entire selections are number, are given instructions about presented, although short samples of how to use the system, and then are the music can be played over the played samples of songs and asked to rate phone. the songs by pressing a key on the • Music mix—The order in which phone from 1 (hate) to 5 (favorite). various musical selections are offered Occasionally, as they go through the is another element that lends itself to songs, respondents are asked to speak auditorium research. Do the listeners their names into the phone, which like three oldies between each new records them to validate their identity. release, or would they rather have a An added advantage of this system is stronger emphasis on new recordings? that respondents can rate as few or as How often should there be commer- many songs at a time as they like, cial breaks? For this type of research, hanging up whenever they become participants usually listen to several fatigued and then calling back to pick samples demonstrating different music up where they left off. mixes and indicate a preference. • Music callouts—These are con- Research Areas ducted to determine which songs should be taken off a station and Radio stations, because of their local and which should be added. Even though individualistic nature, have a variety of people like to hear their favorite research needs. Some of the most songs, popular music tends to burn commonly tested topics include the out after a short period. Listeners following: switch the dial when something they have heard too often comes on. By • Format—When a station is contem- determining ahead of time which plating a format change and wants to songs are about to burn, a station can find out what direction to take, it will engage in guardian maintenance and commission research to explore com- save itself lost listeners by removing 5 Testing 113

Figure 5.8 Example of a music callout results sheet.

the song before it chases away the disc jockey, the effectiveness of a cur- audience. In a similar vein, listeners rently running contest, the likeability can choose the new releases they of a talk show host, or the desirabil- would most like to hear, and the ity of news on the half hour would station can quickly add these to the be considered perceptual callouts. All playlist.This type of research is usually of the respondents must be people conducted over the phone with small who listen to the station. bits of the old and new songs being • Lifestyle research—Wise radio played and listeners being asked their station program managers will want opinion (Figure 5.8). For most to know something about how formats, this research must be directed audience members live their lives speciﬁcally at people who listen to when the radio is off to better serve the particular format and must be them when the radio is on. Lifestyle conducted weekly. There are those research explores such characteristics who think music callouts are useless as education, income, hobbies, because of fast burnout. opinions on social issues, use of • Perceptual callouts—The term various media other than radio, major “perceptual” is used to refer to the purchases, and personal values. research of items other than music. Through this type of research, pro- For example, phone calls to people to gram directors can not only learn determine the popularity of a new those characteristics that set their 114 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

audience members apart from rival judgment and testing to get the colors stations but also discover particular just right. segments of station listeners who differ on important attributes. For Public Radio example, a sizable group of people available on weekends might like Public radio, on the other hand, plays sports, and those available at 10:00 much looser with the testing ball, often AM weekdays are neutral or negative dropping it altogether.A limited number toward sports. This knowledge might of focus groups may comment on new lead the station to adopt a block programs, some before they air. Net- of weekend sports programming. works may conduct separate focus Lifestyle analysis is easily done groups for audience members and for through telephone interviews. station program directors. Often, different results emerge from these two In addition to these major forms of groups, thus proving to some program research, radio stations often want to directors that they should not program explore other areas. They may desire for their own taste. research regarding new call letters, a new But public radio also may not test logo, the feasibility of a particular pro- programs until they are already on the motion campaign, or any other of a air. As NPR’s Peter Pennycamp variety of subjects related to the overall explained,“The program is given several programming. months to develop and shake out, and Qualitative research is important to then focus groups are brought in.”This the radio business, especially in markets time factor constitutes a major differ- where the competition is keen. Program ence between commercial and public managers who do not keep up with the broadcasting. Because public radio is not latest thoughts and preferences of the dependent on advertiser support and listening audience will quickly lose ratings, it has the luxury to let some- touch—and their jobs. thing grow on its own. Satellite radio also conducts testing in Still, PRI, for example, asks indepen- many of these areas, although with dif- dent producers who are considering ferent emphasis.Akin to cable television, submitting program material to have satellite radio programming is, at least answers for the following questions partly, supported by consumer subscrip- before submitting:3 tions instead of advertising. Program- ming concerns are therefore less about • What is my program idea? keeping listeners tuned in to a specific • What makes my perspective unique? station at a certain time (to hear specific • Why would a national audience be advertisements) and more about keeping interested in my program or series? the audience satisfied with the selection • Why would a program director want and content of the service as a whole. to broadcast this program or series? This is especially important as the • What marketing strategies make good service tries to gain more of a share of sense for this program? the radio market. Recommendations to friends from satisfied current subscribers INTERNET TESTING are the pot of gold at the end of the satellite radio programming rainbow. So As we explained in previous chapters, programmers must exert significant Internet content can be generally 5 Testing 115 broken into two groups: content simul- they air local programming, there is cast over the Internet, such as the live even less done to gauge the likes and streaming of traditional radio or televi- dislikes of an international Internet sion station broadcasts, and content audience. available only on the Internet, which can include archives and web-only Testing Archived and media from traditional broadcasters Independently Produced Content and content created by independent developers. Archived content, likewise, does not need to go through additional testing Testing (Or Not) Simulcast before being placed on an Internet site. Content Even with independently produced web-only content, the interactive and Simulcast content mostly relies on the choose-your-own-path nature of the testing that radio or television entities Internet makes content testing largely have already conducted before the tra- unnecessary. ditional broadcast of the content. Pro- Radio and television stations, unlike grammers of radio stations that are Internet entities, must make difficult simulcast over the Internet (a growing choices about what to air when to gain roster) rarely concern themselves with optimal market share of the available what the potential worldwide Internet audience. But the interactivity of the audience might like to hear on a live Internet allows audiences to request and webcast. Their advertisers are targeting experience the content of their choice the local audience, so that is the audi- whenever they want it. Although MTV ence programmers target. The propor- (in its ever-diminishing lineup of solid tion of local to out-of-area Internet music video programming) must play audience members, especially to com- one music video after the other, risking mercial radio and television, is probably that the second will turn off the viewer negligible. It mostly consists of ex- who was interested in the first, a website residents who listen out of habit or such as Launch.com can place thousands nostalgia or locals who are not near a of music videos on its website and a radio, are out of the broadcast range, viewer can choose which videos will or for whom it is easier to listen on the come first, second, third, and so on. computer—at work, for example. As long as descriptions of content and Noncommercial simulcasts, however, hyperlinks are accurate, audiences will are more likely to garner a more approach only content in which they international audience. The United have an interest. If, however, descriptions Kingdom’s BBC, for example, offers a and hyperlinks are misleading, web live feed of its television news broad- surfers will quickly become frustrated casts, and public broadcasting networks and likely abandon a site forever—so from the United States, Canada, accuracy and truth in advertising is Norway, Sweden, and so on all offer live highly advisable. A website is only as radio feeds (many in English) that world strong as its weakest link. Some audience news wonks tune in to regularly to members may have an interest in gather different perspectives from amateur-produced content; let them around the globe. But where there is know that beforehand and they will not little to no testing of local populations be disappointed with subpar production done by public radio stations before values. 116 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Testing User Friendliness she observes a test subject’s first approach to a new design.What seemed Although testing of content before it a straightforward design can become goes on the Internet is a minor concern, an incomprehensible maze to a web another kind of testing is essential—the neophyte. testing of functionality and usability.The Along with conducting their own term user friendly was coined in the tests, web developers can turn to 1990s when the Internet was going numerous consulting companies that through an awkward puberty.The term will conduct testing for them. As in did not describe most websites of the television and radio, the consultant period but was a guide to what they will want to first determine the target should aspire to be. Thousands of web- audience then to gather a sample and sites were being rushed to market— ask them to rate the proposed site based developers trying to get their content on various criteria. to the public as quickly as possible. Website usability analysis usually Although a baffling array of content answers the following questions: became available on the Internet, trying • How does the target audience use the to navigate through the content was site? even more baffling. With poor naviga- • Will a redesign make the site more tion plans, buttons that did not do as appealing or easier to use? advertised, hyperlinks that led nowhere, • How does the site’s usability compare sites crowded with superfluous graphics, with that of other sites serving the time-consuming and useless introduc- same audience? tory pages and doodads, and especially • Can a visitor find what he or she discouraging experiences of devoting came for, or do users leave without tens of minutes filling in forms only to satisfaction? have the site malfunction upon pressing • Will the site attract the right audience? the final submit button—if it was not for the novelty of the Internet, users When it comes to advertising space— would have long abandoned it in where, when, how much, and what frustration. type—web developers must find ways, But user friendliness became more of often through testing, to answer many of a reality as web developers realized that, the same questions that radio, television, although they may have desirable and and print media must answer. How customizable content, if web surfers much advertising is too much? What have to exert too much effort to get to type of advertising is more frustrating to that content, they will give up and turn users, turning them off from the whole to other more manageable sites. Worse site? For example, as more Internet users yet, audiences may return to their radio switch to broadband Internet connec- or television, where they can consume tions, web advertisers are finding new without heartburn even if the flavor ways to use this bandwidth, replacing may not be as consistently to their static banner advertisements with individual tastes. streaming video, glitzy motion graphics, Today web developers test their user and even animations that drop down or interfaces and designs before they go dance across the content of the website. live with their sites—if they know what Each new advertising format must be is good for them. Even the most sea- tested, both for its effectiveness in soned web designer is often surprised, gaining the audience’s attention and in and somewhat befuddled, when he or conveying the intended message and for 5 Testing 117 the level of frustration it may cause for looking at. Was it a comedy, an adven- viewers. ture, a combination of both, or what? So Another cause for testing is required we ordered a second test and had the by law of websites for nonprofit and moderator come out before the screen- governmental agencies because there are ing to tell them it was a put on, it was set federal accessibility standards to assist fun, it was OK to laugh. And they did. users with vision or other impairments. The second score was very good. We Many consultants offer these services, changed all our promos overnight to both to check for compliance and to fix stress that the shows were fun.The spots those elements that do not comply. positioned the audience properly and we had an instant hit.” DOES THE RESEARCH WORK? “All in the Family,” which premiered in 1971 on CBS, was a show unlike Although usability tests for websites do any other that had ever appeared on not raise much controversy or debate, television (Figure 5.9). The protagonist, attitudes toward whether or not research Archie Bunker, was a bigoted, racist works in radio and television differ male chauvinist who referred to minori- widely and sometimes passionately. ties in derogatory phrases and told his Some producers consider qualitative wife to “stifle” herself. The reaction of research a valuable tool in the shaping the test audience was primarily bewil- of their productions. Others think it is derment with touches of outrage, and a pestilence.They would rather put their the scores were decidedly subpar. faith in the opinion of one experienced Nowhere in the survey findings was staff member than in a battery of there indication that the show would audience tests. Gene Reynolds, pro- become an enormous hit. ducer of many popular shows, including When people seek to emphasize the “M*A*S*H,” a multi-Emmy award flaws of testing, they often point to winner, refused to even read a packet of “Seinfeld,” a phenomenally successful research material that a network had show that tested poorly. But, as CBS’s provided on a new series he was about Figure 5.9 “All in the to launch. He had his own vision of the Family,” with series and was more confident in his Carroll O’Connor own instincts than in the reactions of playing the “lovable untrained critics. bigot” Archie The pilots of two of the biggest hits Bunker, dominated in the history of network television the prime-time received moderate to low test scores. ratings in the “Batman,” a late-1960s weekly prime- 1970s. But when time series based on the cartoon char- the pilot was acter (later converted into a major tested, the show’s motion picture success), was produced breakthrough in a broad, tongue-in-cheek fashion. language and story lines puzzled and With its colorful villains and larger- annoyed than-life leads, it zoomed to the No. 1 respondents, who position in weeks. But before its pre- gave it a failing miere, it fared abominably in a large grade. (Courtesy theater test. As one ABC program exec- the Academy of utive recalled, “The theater audience Television Arts & was puzzled about what they were Sciences.) 118 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

The show, which began in 1996, posted “average” or “below average” scores at ASI. Research found testing groups complaining that the show contains “nothing fresh or new.”4 One of the reasons “Everybody Loves Raymond” has succeeded as well as it has on air and in syndication is that it contains no topical references, references that can date a show quickly.The early testing questioned the lack of topicality, but creator and executive producer Phil Rosenthal refused to alter the show, resisting topical issues and calls to give the show more edge. In terms of concept testing, respondents will sometimes take the high road, indicating they would rather see a serious piece about the Civil War than a piece of fluff about three co-eds who have to pretend to be strippers to save their beloved sorority. The network executive who sees a potential hit in the Civil War movie based on testing might be disappointed in the ratings if he or she goes ahead with it, particularly if it Figure 5.10 Steinberg observed in defense of testing, is programmed against the show about Testing paved the people often fail to consider key factors the three co-eds. Failing to take into way for the success when discussing so-called testing fail- account that respondents do not always of “Joan of ures. He points out that the tested watch what they say they are going to Arcadia” in the “Seinfeld” episode was very different watch can be a costly lesson. 2003–2004 from the show that aired and that Nevertheless, testing professionals season. (Globe became one of television’s landmark maintain that testing can be an indis- Photos, Inc.) shows. For example, the “Seinfeld” pensable tool and that testing inter- episode that tested poorly did not preted correctly rarely fails to be an include the pivotal character of accurate barometer. Interpreting testing Elaine, played in the series by Julia correctly means not looking at testing in Louis-Dreyfus. isolation but rather evaluating it in terms Another show often singled out as a of other factors, such as scheduling, testing failure is CBS’s “Everybody audience flow, and promotional mar- Loves Raymond.”Television commenta- keting strategies and budgets. tor Brian Lowry in an article question- CBS’s Steinberg believes strongly that ing the effectiveness of focus groups programs need to “buy the equity of the notes that the show, which became a audience,” and he points to the success powerhouse for CBS, was dismissed by of CBS’s 2003–2004 drama “Joan of focus groups as “too thin” and “not Arcadia” as a show that benefited greatly current” with a “weak” main character from thorough testing and testing eval- who has a wife who “lacks charisma.” uation (Figure 5.10). The show, about a 5 Testing 119 teenage girl who sees God in various they may have no personal stake in the incarnations, sometimes as a cute production of a song as a television teenage boy or sometimes as an African- programmer may have in a television American cafeteria worker, had to be program. A radio station will be unable positioned to avoid preaching at or to to keep sounding fresh without intro- the audience. Nor could it offend the ducing fresh material, hoping that songs audience. Thus a potentially controver- will catch on with listeners. But pro- sial show about the sensitive topic of grammers know that it only takes one religion avoided pitfalls as a result of lame song to make many audience testing. members change the station, so they Similarly, the testing of the promos of cannot go too far out on a limb when “Hack,” a CBS drama that premiered in introducing new songs to audiences. the 2002–2003 season, revealed that the Therefore, commercial radio program- initial promo, which touted the show as mers often rely on public radio stations “from the writer of ‘Spiderman,’” was to break new acts or songs, such as using the wrong approach. This is Beck’s “Loser” in 1993 and Kelis’s because the promo caused viewers to “Milkshake” in 2003, both of which saw expect a superman-type story instead of their first spins on Los Angeles public a gritty drama about a former Philadel- radio station KCRW. phia cop who solves crimes from the But programmers also rely on an vantage point of the cab he drives. artist’s reputation, combined with Although budget constraints may pretesting, when deciding to air new mate- clude this from happening, testing can rial. This strategy, however, can have also be useful in recasting if a particular inconsistent results. After Pink’s 2000 performer in a pilot fails to connect debut album, with the hit song “Most with a test group. Girls,” programmers held their breath Test findings are most reliable when for the dreaded sophomore album, they are measured against the norms of where so many artists with great debuts other programs of similar and familiar fall, never to be heard from again. The content. Attempting to evaluate unique lead single on Pink’s 2001 Missundaztood program concepts for which no norma- album, “Get this Party Started,” had tive values have been established proves mixed testing results, but as Sean Ross, difficult.The system can be unreliable if Edison Media Research vice president the show departs too radically from the of music and programming, said, “Top norm. Or, as Ken Auletta reports in his 40 programmers, thrilled to have some book Three Blind Mice, breakout shows actual, by God, pop/rock balance on such as “Hill Street Blues” test poorly their stations, held their breath and because they are not familiar.5 waited—playing it a rotation, or two, Because song callouts for radio higher than it might have deserved usually consist of playing the short initially, because it was a record they hook of a song to a test subject in an wanted to work.” Eventually it became unnatural environment, usually over the one of the biggest singles of the year phone, some question the efficacy of and yielded two more hit singles from callouts, especially when evaluating how the album. But when Pink’s third effort receptive the audience may be to an was released in 2003, the first single, unfamiliar, newly released song. Radio “Trouble,” got immediate airplay from programmers want new songs to programming directors who thought, succeed with audiences, even though after striding over the sophomore 120 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

hurdle, Pink’s third album would be filled with hunches, feelings, guesses, and programming gold. “I thought the prayers.Any hard facts that can be intro- record would be so big, I added it duced into the mix can help to reduce straight into subpower out of the box. the number of variables and lead to Wow, did I miss on that one,” said more reliable decision making. Solid WAKS Cleveland Programming Direc- data should be encouraged. So-called tor Dan Mason. Unlike Christina visceral programmers should welcome Aguilera’s “Dirrty,” which had a rough information that will contribute to start too, Mason says,“This isn’t even the more enlightened judgments. But pro- case of a huge phone record that took grammers would do well to heed the a minute to call out. Our audience was words of ASI’s Paul Lendburg: “The just apathetic about [Pink’s new song purpose of qualitative research is to “Trouble”] from the start.” Nonetheless, identify opportunities and help to elim- some testing showed signs that the song inate flaws, thereby reducing risks.” might eventually catch on, so many sta- Research holds a potential danger: tions continued to give it strong rota- any number, no matter how question- tion. It turned out to be throwing good ably arrived at, may be considered more airtime after bad until programmers valid than a seasoned opinion unsup- realized that the positive callouts proba- ported by charts and graphs. All research bly reflected the test subjects’ desire to data should be given its proper weight see Pink’s song succeed more than the and added to the host of other consid- song’s ability to succeed on its own erations that enter a programming deci- merits.6 sion. Many of these other factors are dealt with in the following chapter, This is all to say that testing program- which describes elements that help ming is an inexact art. The process is make successful programming.

EXERCISES

1. Watch a television show, listen to a Do the same with a show that tested well radio program, or visit a website. Make up and performed poorly. a series of focus group questions. Adminis- 4. Ask your local testing service if you ter your own focus group based on the can observe a testing session. Write a paper questions you prepared. detailing what you witnessed. 2. Come up with an idea for a niche 5. Pick an Internet neophyte in your cable channel. Prepare a concept test to see acquaintance and ask him or her to achieve whether your channel is viable in today’s a specific goal on a site that you use often. marketplace. Observe, but do not assist, navigation of the 3. Research a program that has tested site. Note any difficulties and come up with poorly and done well in the ratings. Then suggestions for a redesign of the site that analyze the discrepancy between the show’s might help to alleviate these difficulties. weak testing and its successful performance. 5 Testing 121

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Dan Enright. “Let’s Replace TV 4. Brian Lowry.“When Not to Trust the Audience Testing with Ingenuity and Feedback,” Los Angeles Times, July 9, 2002, Daring,” Los Angeles Times, March 23, 1992, p. F-1. p. F-3. 5. Ken Auletta. Three Blind Mice (New 2. Malcolm Gladwell. The Tipping Point York: Random House, 1991), p. 515. (Boston: Little Brown, 2000), p. 127. 6. Edition Media Research. “Ross on 3. PRI. “Producing for PRI,” http://pri Radio,” http://www.edisonresearch.com/ .org/PublicSite/inside/text_producing.html ross_on_radio_trouble.htm. Accessed De- . Accessed December 20, 2003. cember 26, 2003.

6 Elements of Successful Programming

In this chapter, you will learn about the that have shaped the contemporary following: landscape. In one respect, programming for tele- • How industry professionals create vision, radio, and the Internet is no dif- successful programming ferent from any other marketed product: • The importance of prestige and awards success is measured by the achievement in determining a program’s success of an objective. In most cases, the goal of • How timing, trend awareness, and programs is to attract the largest possible other key factors inﬂuence success or audience—but not always. As you shall failure see, some shows have a different purpose. • The important difference between After an objective is established, the star-dominant programming and programmer must decide how to attract format-dominant programming the audience. Can viewers, listeners, • Radio’s focus on being locally rele- or Internet users best be reached by vant, creating a mood, and maintain- laughter or adventure, drama or interac- ing innovation tivity? Once that decision is made, what • The Internet producer’s need to keep elements should be emphasized to give content fresh, consistent, and innovative a programmer a solid chance at success? • The Internet’s unique ability to Even if these questions are carefully target content to individual audience considered by the programmer, there is members no guarantee of success. Audiences are notoriously unpredictable, and their How does a programmer create product tastes mercurial. But one thing is cer- that has a reasonable chance at success? tain: no show ever succeeded by ignor- Where does he or she start? What ing its objective or dismissing essential factors are involved? What has worked elements. in the past, and what is likely to work today? In this chapter, we examine TELEVISION PROGRAMMING elements that programmers must take into consideration if they hope to Because commercial television and achieve success.We look at past successes basic cable must be responsive to to gain an appreciation of the inﬂuences advertisers, the overriding elements for

123 124 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

success have to do with delivering an But not all segments of the audience audience for the advertisers. In addition, watch the same shows. Children, ethnic basic cable has to provide programming groups, and infrequent viewers are all that keeps subscribers paying their part of a broadcaster’s constituency. Each monthly subscription fees. Premium will probably have different viewing cable channels such as HBO, Cinemax, habits. It thus follows that programs Starz, or Showtime, which do not have designed for the interests of these groups to contend with advertisers, must must be represented on the schedule if provide the type of programming that a broadcaster truly wants to reach the justifies the additional subscription fees largest number of viewers. charged to the subscriber. Cable system Frequently, however, a broadcaster (or managers and consumers alike complain advertiser) is more interested in reach- about rising costs. Cable multiple ing a particular segment of the audience system owners (MSOs) complain rather than a large body count. Not all because cable networks are charging segments of the audience watch the high rates for the MSOs to carry their same programs. For example, a luxury programming, even if the ratings are automobile company may have affluent falling. Consumers complain because males as its principal advertising target. the increasing fees MSOs pay are passed This marketing goal will be better on to them in subscription fees that achieved through commercials in a golf seem to rise too frequently. The five tournament than in a broad-based most expensive television networks for sitcom whose larger audience consists MSOs to carry in 2003 were, in order, primarily of women and children of ESPN (charges $1.76 per household), lesser means. However, broadcasters Fox Sports ($1.16), TNT ($0.78), the must be careful about scheduling pro- Disney Channel ($0.74), and USA grams tailored to fit the specialized ($0.40).1 needs of a sponsor. The “demographic show” with its highly focused but Programming Objectives limited appeal may substantially reduce the audience size of the programs that Various goals may be established for a follow it. The consequent revenue loss program.These are described in the fol- may exceed the profit from the special- lowing sections. ized presentations. The Fox network was founded on Widest Possible Audience. Television is demographic programming. To attract a a mass medium. It is the principal commercially successful audience, Fox leisure-time activity of the nation. It is had to reach viewers who were not also a mass advertising device. Corpora- being satisfied by the three long- tions spend hundreds of millions of entrenched networks, ABC, NBC, and dollars to stimulate desire for their prod- CBS. The company focused on the 18 ucts. Therefore, the objective of most to 34 year olds, the demographic group shows is to attract the largest possible most desired by advertisers. In many audience. The more viewers, the higher ways, there is nothing particularly new the advertising rate, the greater the gross about Fox’s approach. Leonard Golden- revenue, and the larger the profit. Con- son, former president of ABC, said it versely, no audience, no advertisers, no reminds him of the early days of his profit, no broadcaster. network, in the mid-1950s, when he 6 Elements of Successful Programming 125 began with 14 stations and both CBS and NBC had more than 70 affiliates. Fox is “really copying the same thing we did when we started,” he said. “It’s a sound principle—going after young families, trying to counter program wherever you can, trying to come up with some kind of innovation—and take chances.”2 The WB, with shows such as Figure 6.1 “Dawson’s Creek” (Figure 6.1), Katie Holmes and James Van der “Gilmore Girls,” “7th Heaven,” and Beek starred in “Everwood,” similarly attracted the “Dawson’s Creek,” coveted younger demographic as it a show that established itself as a new network. This captured the allowed the WB to charge high adver- targeted audience tising fees on shows that generally had for the WB. low household ratings. Advertisers crave (Courtesy the 18 to 34 year olds, and the WB was able Academy of to position itself as the place to be to Television Arts & appeal to this demographic. Sciences.) The top 10 shows for 18- to 49-year- old viewers are different from the Top 10 shows for 50+ viewers, as are the top households for the same period were shows for African-American and Cau- “CSI,” “Friends,” “ER,” “Everybody casian households. From September 22 Loves Raymond,” “Survivor: Thailand,” to October 26, 2003, the top shows for “Law & Order,” “Will & Grace,” “CSI: 18 to 49 year olds were “Friends,” Miami,” “Scrubs,” and “Monday Night “CSI,” “ER,” “Will & Grace,” “Scrubs,” Football.”4 Note here that only two “Survivor,” “Monday Night Football,” shows, “Monday Night Football” and “Coupling,”“CSI: Miami,” and “Law & “CSI,” overlap. Order.” The top 10 shows for 50+ viewers for the same period were “CSI,” Narrowcasting. Cable differs from com- “Everybody Loves Raymond,” “60 mercial TV in that most of the networks Minutes,” “Cold Case,” “JAG,” “CSI: do not attempt to gain the widest pos- Miami,”“Navy NCIS,”“Law & Order,” sible audience, preferring instead to go “Without a Trace,” and “Two and a Half after a smaller, niche audience. Because Men.”3 Note that only the two “CSI” of the high degree of narrowcasting shows and “Law & Order” overlap. within cable services, particular cable The top 10 shows for African-Amer- networks are more likely to aim for very icans for the fourth quarter of 2002 specific demographic audiences, particu- were “Cedric the Entertainer Presents,” larly when viewers have so many “One on One,” “Girlfriends,” “Half & choices. Being all things to all people in Half,” “The Parkers,” “My Wife and the true sense of broadcasting becomes Kids,” “The Bernie Mac Show,” increasingly difficult. “Monday Night Football,” “Fastlane,” MTV’s target audience is different and “CSI.”The top shows for Caucasian from that of Nostalgia Television in 126 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

terms of age and general lifestyle. instance, does not presume that people Nickelodeon caters to the young; will sit and watch it for hours, although Black Entertainment Television targets they will happily accept someone who African-Americans. Spike TV goes after does. CNN and the various shopping men; Lifetime is aimed at women. Each channels are likely to capture audience of these services must consider its target members for a limited amount of time. audience as it assesses program ideas and What they are aiming for is a large total its advertising possibilities. number of viewers, even though any one person might not stay with the Attracting Subscribers. For cable ser- service for a long period. vices that do not deal with advertisers, the story is a little different. Pay movie Attracting the Elite. The noncommer- channels, such as HBO and Showtime, cial nature of public broadcasting makes receive their money directly from cable it unique because, although it must have subscribers who decide to pay for their enough money to cover costs, it does programming. Therefore, their specific not have to concern itself with profit or audience is the people who have sub- advertising. It does, however, need to scribed. The services must program in provide programming that underwrit- such a way that they keep these people ers, corporations that provide funding happy so they do not become disen- in exchange for a brief mention of their chanted and disconnect. One way they support, will find attractive. accomplish this is by providing pro- In general, public broadcasters do not gramming that the “free” television net- seek (or attain) a large audience. The works cannot match, such as feature broadcasters need to prove their worth films fresh from their theatrical releases, to their funders, but they do not need made-for-TV movies, and miniseries to do so by delivering an overall enor- with large budgets and with stars such as mous audience. They want to attract a Tom Hanks or Annette Bening who large enough audience to make the costs tend not to do commercial television. worthwhile and to have a base of people Premium cable networks may also offer who will donate to a station, but the high-profile sports events and series with nature of the audience is often more adult themes and language such as “G- important than its size. String Divas.” Pay-per-view movies or For this reason, the most important specials are successful if enough people of the objectives to public broadcasters sign up to bring a profit. As media critic involves a specific target audience, a par- Allison Romano wrote, with premium ticular local or national purpose, and a cable, “It’s not just about viewers tuning unique objective that public broadcast- in. It’s about their paying up.”5 ers refer to as units of good, a public broadcasting term used to designate the The “In-and-Out” Audience. Another inherent, uplifting worth of a program. type of specific audience that some Public broadcasting audiences are cable systems try to attract is an in-and- generally intellectually elite and politi- out audience. The Weather Channel, for cally influential. PBS compiles data each 6 Elements of Successful Programming 127 year that highlights the upscale nature of its audience (Figure 6.2). Public television no longer has a monopoly on quality programming geared to the elite. The financial pressures of the FCC mandated convergence to digital, and many channels such as A&E, the Discovery Channel, and Bravo, have made inroads into public broadcasting territory. These channels and others have attracted high-end audiences and forced public television to redefine its concept of successful programming. For one thing, public television now offers more programs with American themes and locations and fewer British shows.

Making Noise. With the explosion in viewer choices that followed the deregulation of the entertainment industry in 1996, it became increasingly important for shows and networks to distinguish themselves from the clutter. In 2003, it was estimated that there were 287 cable networks. That is a lot of choices. Thus, “making noise,” that is, drawing attention to a product or network, became in and of itself a sign of success. A producer like Mike Fleiss, who created “Who Wants to Marry a Multi- millionaire” for Fox (a show that caused considerable controversy when it was discovered that the groom in question had a restraining order in his past),“The Bachelor,” and “The Bachelorette” became sought after precisely because of his ability to create noise.6 Similarly, FX’s “The Shield,” which premiered March 12, 2002, created instant noise with its realistic depiction of violence and its use of strong language. The show cemented its ability to garner attention with an Emmy Award win for its lead, Michael Chiklis. The show helped shine a spotlight on FX Figure 6.2 as it attempted to steal some of the 2003 public television audience statistics from the PBS website. thunder from cable rival HBO. FX’s (http://www.pbs.org/aboutpbs/aboutpbs_corp_audience.html. Accessed January 19, 2004.) 128 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 6.3 “The West Wing” earned nine Emmys in 2000. (Courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.)

subsequent show, “Lucky,” may have attempt to make it worthy of award been a more complex, more original consideration. These efforts are not just program, but it did not succeed in cre- for ego gratification. They can produce ating the kind of buzz “The Shield” did highly tangible results. “Hill Street and it quickly disappeared.The ability to Blues,” a superbly produced and acted make noise may not change the world series, was faring poorly in the ratings of television (see, for example, Fox’s sur- in its first season (1981). However, at prise reality hit of 2003, “The Simple Emmy time it walked off with eight Life,” starring Paris Hilton and Nicole awards. The subsequent excitement Richie, in which two rich girls abandon attracted many viewers, and the show their pampered lives to rough it on a went on to enjoy a healthy 6 year run. farm, à la “Green Acres”). But any show It held the record for Emmys until “The that generates awareness in a crowded West Wing” (Figure 6.3) earned nine in field has achieved a significant level of 2000. success. Prestige and awards are important to the commercial networks (at one point, Prestige and Awards. Prestige and CBS even had a special department awards raise the stature of the network charged with creating shows that would or station and are thus much sought. win awards, and many performers clev- Commercial broadcasters will occasion- erly cast themselves as guest stars in ally keep a poorly rated show on the air network drama and comedy series to be for prestige and awards. For example, recognized at Emmy time). But it is the NBC kept its series “American Dreams” premium networks that really go after for several seasons despite weak ratings this kind of recognition. Showtime, for because of its quality and its prosocial example, lets producers know that what values. Some series on commercial net- they want is “controversy and awards.” works have even been known to invest HBO, in particular, has gone after additional money in an episode in an awards with a vengeance ever since 6 Elements of Successful Programming 129

cable was successful in lobbying to be competing with “regular” television pro- allowed to submit programs for Emmys grams for recognition from the Academy in 1987.7 Because HBO attaches such of Television Arts & Sciences. importance to awards, it sends lavish Public television often supplies packages of its high-end programming award-worthy programming. Under- to members of the Academy of Televi- writers in particular like to be associated sion Arts & Sciences. Network execu- with prestige productions, and many tives are not hesitant to claim that it is public television programs win presti- unfair for them to have to compete with gious awards, such as the George Foster HBO because HBO has larger budgets Peabody Awards. But public television and different programming objectives, does not have the visibility (or HBO’s creating an uneven playing ﬁeld. Many promotion budget) to be a major player feel that HBO, which has the slogan, at many awards presentations (see “It’s not TV, it’s HBO,” should not be sidebar on awards).

SOME AWARDS TELEVISION PROGRAMMERS STRIVE TO ATTAIN

Academy of Television Arts & Sciences positive portrayal of gays and les- Daytime Emmy Awards: For out- bians on television standing achievement in daytime George Foster Peabody Awards: For television achievement in news, entertain- Academy of Television Arts & Sciences ment, education, programs for chil- Primetime Emmy Awards: For out- dren, documentaries, and public standing achievement for nighttime service programs shown nationally The Golden Globes: Frequently under- Achievement in Children’s Television mined for their fan-like approach and Awards: For signiﬁcant contribution their limited membership but never- toward improving children’s radio theless coveted by stars and their and television, presented by the publicists, possibly because the media watchdog group Action for Golden Globe presentation party is Children’s Television (ACT) such a good time and the goodie The American Comedy Awards: For bags are ﬁlled to capacity with lavish excellence in comedy on network gifts programs, syndicated programs, The Humanitas Awards: For writers in and cable shows as voted by the entertainment industry whose comedians work enriches and enlightens American Women in Radio and Televi- audiences sion Awards: For excellence in por- Iris Awards: For outstanding local tele- traying a positive and realistic image vision programs of women Media Access Awards: For realistic The Annie Awards: For distinguished portrayals of people with disabilities work in animation The People’s Choice Awards: One of The Director’s Guild of America many awards that the public votes Awards: For television directing on, this is determined by a Gallup First Americans in the Arts: For out- poll of more than 5000 people standing achievement by Native nationwide Americans Time magazine’s “TV Most” Awards: Freedom Foundation Awards: For tele- For the best and worst that television vision and radio programs that has to offer enhance America’s image The Writer’s Guild of America Awards: The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against For good television writing Defamation (GLAAD) Awards: For 130 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

promote their way into success, and they have even consulted clairvoyants. For example, ABC’s Fred Pierce secretly hired a Hollywood psychic, Beverlee Dean, at a salary of $24,000 a year in 1978 to consult with her about programming decisions.8 To this day, Dean maintains that all she did was give some Figure 6.4 opinions about scheduling and which “The Six Million shows she liked, that she really was not Dollar Man” was a psychic, but hiring her caused Pierce a perfect example signiﬁcant embarrassment: “Hiring a of a format- psychic, what next?” The magic key to dominant show. programming success has long remained (Courtesy MCA elusive, for a good reason. There is no Television key, and there are no shortcuts. Group.) Success is a strange alchemy of The Search for a Successful timing, hunch, hard work, anticipation, Formula professionalism, and luck.This is true for one particular show, a series, or an entire Since television’s early days, program- programming concept, and it holds true mers have sought a “formula” for a hit. whether the program is format domi- They have tried to research a winning nant or star dominant (see sidebar on combination, they have attempted to programming forms).

TWO BASIC FORMS OF PROGRAMMING

All programs, regardless of their objec- than to provide character insights. The tives or their appeals, originate in one principal role required handsome ath- of two forms: leticism, and Lee Majors was chosen from a sizable list of candidates. In 1. Format dominant—The concept of 2003, UPN revisited this type of high- the show is the key to its success; concept show with a younger lead who performers are selected to fulfill the had superhuman powers; it even requirements of the core idea. brought in Majors to guest star. But 2. Star dominant—The star is the key “Jake 2.0,” although executed well, did ingredient; a format is designed not achieve the same level of success around the skills of the lead as its predecessor. performer. More recent examples of format- A classic example of a format-domi- dominant shows include “Northern nant, high-concept (a show whose Exposure,” “ER,” “CSI,” and “Cold premise is quickly and easily under- Case.” Under ideal circumstances, per- stood) program was “The Six Million formers in these types of programs will Dollar Man” (Figure 6.4), an action– add values that may not have been orig- adventure series in the late 1970s. The inally evident and make the series even show was based on the idea that a more appealing, as was the case with badly injured astronaut could be rebuilt the cast of “ER,” where breakout per- with atomic-powered electromechani- formers such as George Clooney, cal devices that would make him Julianna Margulies, and Anthony capable of superhuman performance. Edwards were able to add just the right Stories were developed more to mix to the show. Sometimes a program demonstrate dazzling physical feats will start format dominant but will 6 Elements of Successful Programming 131 become a star vehicle over time the medium or because the format was because a performer has shaped the not right for them. show to his or her own designs, not The strength of star-dominant pro- always to the project’s benefit. “Family grams is that they automatically define Feud” began as a rigidly structured their appeal. If you know the performer, game show with the host serving as an you pretty much know what to expect, affable traffic cop. But not long after the and sampling time is greatly com- premiere, Richard Dawson changed the pressed. On the other hand, if a star- focus by kissing every lady contestant, dominant show begins to slide (or the reading his fan mail, displaying presents artist imposes impossible demands), he had received, and generally favoring there is no way to salvage it. the audience with his view of world Although both format-dominant and affairs. Many episodes required hours star-dominant shows are capable of of editing to present a completed game. delivering big hits, buyers tend to favor The other type of show is one built the former. Their reasons are summa- around the skills and personality of a rized in the experience of “You Bet star. This is most clearly seen in talk Your Life” starring Bill Cosby. This syn- and magazine programs such as “The dicated series was bought by over 200 Oprah Winfrey Show,” “The Ellen stations purely on the basis of Cosby’s DeGeneres Show,” or “Dr. Phil.” enormous success on the network However, it also applies to fictional sitcom, “The Cosby Show.” “You Bet formats devised to display the per- Your Life” had served as a creaky but former’s abilities—for example, “The workable format for the rapier wit of Cosby Show,” “Roseanne,” all of Bob Groucho Marx in the 1950s, but when Newhart’s series, “Everybody Loves it was dusted off for Buddy Hackett in Raymond” (built around the talents of 1980, it was an instant failure. No Ray Romano), “Seinfeld,” or “Whoopi.” matter. This was the 1990s and the Even though a star may be excep- host was Bill Cosby (Figure 6.5). How tionally talented and enjoy a large could it miss? It did, and badly. The following, the development of an series was canceled after one season. appropriate format can be elusive. According to Greg Meidel, then presi- Such illustrious names as Mickey dent of Twentieth Television, there was Rooney, Frank Sinatra, James a lesson to be learned: “Format first, Stewart, Bette Midler, Dolly Parton, star second. You can have a proven Geena Davis, Sally Field, and Tony big star, but you really have to have a Curtis have stumbled in their TV series proven format. It was a great person- either because they were not right for ality in the wrong vehicle.”9

Figure 6.5 Bill Cosby and Carol Burnett at the Emmy Awards. (Courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.) 132 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 6.6 “Friends” was a powerhouse for NBC, acquiring a loyal, almost fanatical fan base. (Courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.)

Industry Professionals Weigh In attract viewers? If the answer was “no,” then he did not go forward, a lesson Industry professionals have many things many programmers might heed, even to say about what contributes to suc- when more programming is needed to cessful programming. fill the floodgates.10 Edgar Scherick, whose career in tele- Alan Landsburg, one of television’s vision and film spanned more than 6 more successful producers in all pro- decades, had a clear programming grammatic forms for more than 5 philosophy. decades (“That’s Incredible,” “Unspeak- Scherick was head of programming at able Acts,” and “The Ryan White Story,” ABC. He created the “Wide World of among others) claims there are really Sports” concept, started the careers of only three themes that count in story- many successful executives (e.g., Scott telling: sex, money, and power.These are Rudin, Barbara Lieberman, Gary the elements that compel people—the Hoffman, Brian Grazer, and Michael subjects that fascinate and motivate Barnathan), and produced many of tele- them. Any drama, or comedy, that vision’s signature programs, such as “The explores these qualities is on solid Kennedys of Massachusetts,” “Raid on footing. Entebbe,” and “Little Gloria, Happy at Sex should be understood in the Last.” In 1965, Scherick developed a larger sense of love, romance, and the programming philosophy that continues eternal, universal quest for the “right to be applicable. Before going forward other person.” Certain groups may with a program, Scherick would ask, “Is object to the proliferation of sexual this project touched with singularity?” Is themes, for example in “Friends” (Figure there something unique or different in 6.6) or in “Coupling,” 2003’s visible the concept and execution that will failure, but the topic of sex continues to 6 Elements of Successful Programming 133

Figure 6.7 “The Love Boat,” whose cast is prepared here for a Christmas episode, lasted 9 years on ABC, another testament to Aaron Spelling’s ability to create shows with wide viewer appeal. (Courtesy of Bruce Bilson.) dominate, often even at 8:00 P.M., kind of money that enables them to which used to be the family hour. maintain their lavish lifestyles. Not to be Cable seemingly thrives on sexual forgotten are the TV game shows that content, and network reality shows such have been trading on the money instinct as “Temptation Island” and “Are You for decades. The winners are news. Hot?” offer sexual innuendo in every Viewers want to see them and fantasize promo and every segment of a show. that they will be next. Episodes about money touch all. The “Power,” according to Henry drive to get it or the fear of not having Kissinger, “is the ultimate aphrodisiac.”11 it are daily concerns. There is also the People strive for it, ﬁght for it, lie for it, dream of sudden riches that makes and kill for it. It has been the stuff of people empathize with those who have drama from Shakespeare to “Dynasty” to come into prosperity. For example, “The Apprentice” with Donald Trump. Ralph Kramden, played by Jackie Pick up any weekly schedule of TV pro- Gleason on early television’s “The grams and read the capsule descriptions Honeymooners,” was always after the of dramatic episodes. You will ﬁnd quick buck that would make him rich. dozens that have a power struggle as The plastic surgeons in cable’s 2003– their foundation. 2004 success “Nip/Tuck” forgo making Producer Aaron Spelling, who gave ethical decisions in favor of making the television “The Love Boat” (Figure 6.7), 134 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

For some, such as producer Marcy Carsey, who with partners Tom Werner and Caryn Mandabach is responsible for many of television’s signature successes Figure 6.8 including “The Cosby Show,” The first-rate “Roseanne,” and “That ’70s Show,” a production values storytelling style that mixes the sweet in “CSI” have and the sour leads to success.12 helped it to develop For Michael O’Hara, Emmy- into a No. 1 show. nominated producer–writer of the (Globe Photos, Inc.) blockbuster miniseries “Switched at Birth” and more than 30 television movies, “the key ingredient for a “Beverly Hills, 90210,”“Melrose Place,” successful television show is striking and “7th Heaven,” among others, a chord with a large segment of the believes that escapist entertainment is audience. This can be a funny chord the key to success. Spelling perfected the like ‘Seinfeld,’ a sad one like ‘Roots,’ or art of casting attractive people in shows a silly one like ‘Queer Eye for the that do not contain too much realism. Straight Guy.’ The Holy Grail for any Realism can be depressing, and many television executive is finding a show people would agree with Spelling that that people want to return to week after after a hard day at work or attending to week.” household chores escapist, entertaining television is what most people want. Key Elements for Success Jerry Bruckheimer, whose shows “CSI” (Figure 6.8), “CSI: Miami,” and Some industry leaders, such as Judd “Without a Trace” provide CBS with a Parkin, a former network executive at ratings edge, places great emphasis on NBC and ABC and now a successful first-rate production values, including writer of television movies, believe suc- a brilliant use of music on all of his cessful shows are mostly a matter of shows. luck. Despite the impossibility of pre- For Susan Rovner, vice president of dicting a hit, there are certain elements drama development at Warner Bros., that winning programs or concepts quality is the key to success. She sees the possess.Their presence does not guaran- drama series as a writer’s medium, and tee success, but their absence almost she thinks that writers with distinctive always assures failure. It is not as simple voices are the key to successful shows. as going down the checklist and insert- She said that shows have to be “about ing each element into the mix. Skillful something” and that talented writers execution must be there regardless of can make “contemporary variations on the ingredients; however, success familiar themes” rise well above the embodies some combination of the ele- mundane. ments described in following sections. 6 Elements of Successful Programming 135

Figure 6.9 The conﬂicts between the two brothers on “Frasier,” whose cast is shown here, created strong comic moments. (Courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.)

Conflict. Many regard conflict as the almost everything, creating comedic sit- most important ingredient. Without the uations that enabled the show to remain collision of interests or attitudes, there is at the top of the ratings for many years. little to hold the attention of viewers. Similarly, the two brothers on “Every- This is true even where it is less body Loves Raymond” clash on most obvious, for example, in talk and issues, helping the show to enjoy its comedy. In situation comedies (sitcoms), crown as CBS’s top-rated comedy for core characters are placed in a primary several seasons. arena where they respond to a story The talk shows that produce the most stimulus, usually a conflict.The genius of interest are those with guests who have successful comedy creators is the ability strong opinions that conflict with other to design characters so sharply that any panelists or members of the audience. stimulus immediately places them in Conflict is why talk shows such as “Jerry conflict. The laughter results from the Springer” have ambushes in which one contrast in the attitudes. In “Cheers,” guest is pitted against another. In an Sam relentlessly searches for a night of ambush, each guest is charged up romance. Rebecca abhors casual love- offstage to come out swinging, creat- making. Any reference to sex automati- ing a staged conflict but a conflict cally triggers a comedic conflict. nevertheless. The two brothers on “Frasier” (Figure The goal of programmers is to con- 6.9) may have some similar personality struct shows that provide collisions. quirks, but they are in conflict about Even when mounting an information 136 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

show, programmers should attempt to Syndication plays such an important offer opposing or alternative attitudes. It role in the finances of network series is not only fair play; it is good television. that a show must be able to hold up for many years after its last episode has been Durability. An idea intended to be a shot. The success of “The Dick Van long-running success cannot be based Dyke Show” in syndication, said the star, on a premise that will flame out after “is attributable to the wisdom of brief exposure. Programmers must writer–director Carl Reiner, who had examine submissions carefully to be sure the foresight not to do any slang or that the fundamental design of the show idioms of the day or topical events.” will sustain interest week after week. The same avoidance of topical events One element that often helps create in “Everybody Loves Raymond” made durability is the opportunity for many that particular show a syndication winner. different characters to appear within Topical material rapidly becomes dated, particular episodes of a series. For hurting the long-term appeal of a show. example, in “Cheers,” all types of char- All rules have exceptions, and the one acters can wander into the bar to inter- about avoiding topical references does, act with the regulars. Similarly, different too. “The Simpsons,” for example, uses individuals can come into the coffee topical references liberally as a basis of its shop in “Friends” to meet up with storytelling comedy; it has had a long the series regulars and generate story run, both in first run and in syndication. complications. Whenever possible, programmers Different individuals can enter the should think of specials and limited emergency room on “ER” as patients or series as something more than single doctors, and many politicians can gather shots. This holds particularly true for in “The West Wing,” providing story reality shows. After a 6-week run, a suc- arcs. Even if outsiders are not used reg- cessful reality show can spawn many off- ularly, a large cast, such as the one on spring. For example, a “Survivor” show HBO’s “The Sopranos,” can allow the in one exotic locale can easily lead to main story to revolve around different another. “For Love or Money” did well characters. enough for NBC in 2003–2004 to offer Even the most durable of episodic reality-obsessed fans a second install- ideas eventually run their course. ment, a reverse in which the woman “M*A*S*H,” “The Mary Tyler Moore who turned down an offer of love in Show,” “Frasier,” and “Friends” had the favor of money in the first show became good grace to remove themselves from the one doing the selecting on the the airwaves voluntarily before their second show. And “The Bachelor” gave durability exhausted itself. eager viewers “The Bachelorette.” The 6 Elements of Successful Programming 137 phenomenal success of “Joe Millionaire” (Figure 6.10) in 2003 led to an international version, which, unfortunately for Fox, did not perform nearly as well as the first one with Evan Marriott. In terms of durability in franchises, it is hard to beat “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire” (Figure 6.11). ABC may have overplayed its hand by putting the Figure 6.10 show starring Regis Philbin on too many Evan Marriott of times a week in 2001, effectively killing the reality dating it on prime-time, but the show survives show with a twist, in syndication with Meredith Vieira and “Joe Millionaire,” all over the world, where the “Million- which was a megahit in 2003. aire” format has been adjusted to meet (Globe Photos, the needs of localism, (i.e., the questions Inc.) have been adjusted to meet local needs). No description of durability would be complete without a bow toward soap operas. “As the World Turns” has been on continuously since 1956 and “General Hospital” since 1963. “Another World” premiered in 1964, and “Days of Our Lives” came on a year later. But the all-time champion is “Guiding Light,” which celebrated its 50th consecutive year on air in 2002.All of this longevity can be attributed to the remarkable abilities of such writers as Irna Phillips,Agnes Nixon, and Bill Bell, who mastered the art of intertwining stories about sex, money, and power.

Likeability. Viewers tune in to people they like and with whom they feel comfortable. It is a truism in Hollywood that viewers feel comfortable with familiar faces. Bill Cosby, Angela Lansbury, Michael J. Fox, Martin Sheen, Ted Danson, Kirstie Alley, and Whoopi Goldberg all exemplify the personalities who generally succeed in the medium. They are the kind of guests viewers are Figure 6.11 comfortable inviting into their living “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire” was a victim of overexposure. rooms. (Photo © ABC Photography Archives.) 138 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Nowhere is the quality of friendliness more evident than with game show hosts. Some are more amusing, better looking, or more clear headed than others, but they all radiate cheer and goodwill. Audiences liked the nasty observations Simon Cowell made on “American Idol” (Figure 6.12), but he was one of three judges. Had he been by himself, his disparaging comments might not have been received so well. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a successful emcee who, by himself, is downbeat, surly, and insulting to his contestants. Within a week viewers would run him out on a rail. One might argue that Archie Bunker, J. R. of “Dallas,” and Erica Kane of “All My Children” are hardly likable; nevertheless, they have developed enormous followings. However, it is important to understand they are playing the role of the burr under the saddle, the person you love to hate, to provide the conflict that makes the series work. Even Archie would occasionally let down his guard to allow some endearing humanity to slip through. When Alan Alda played a doctor who snapped nastily at people who questioned what he was doing with patients on “ER,” this most likable Figure 6.12 television star’s humanity allowed him to “American Idol” found a good mix with its three judges, Simon Cowell, Paula Abdul, and Randy Jackson. (Courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.) 6 Elements of Successful Programming 139 avoid being hated by viewers (Figure 6.13). George Clooney’s character in “ER” was a womanizer with serious problems, but his humanity made him intriguing and likable. Frasier, played by Kelsey Figure 6.13 Grammer, may be a pompous, self- When Alan Alda obsessed individual, but he has never- played a delusional theless connected with audiences who doctor on “ER,” he appreciate his unique sense of humor was able to and skewed view of the world. It also maintain his helps that the writing on the show is humanity because first rate. of his likeability. The insult-tossing cast of “Married (Courtesy the ...With Children” also appears to be Academy of unlikable. But the audience seems to Television Arts & understand that underneath the family’s Sciences.) surface of disrespect is a genuine affection. When the pilot program was tested, the 30 minutes of sarcasm ended with the couple walking up the stair- O’Reilly and Rush Limbaugh, any pro- case, the wife’s hand gently patting the grammer planning to launch a show husband’s behind. Viewer approval with truly unlikable characters should soared with the suspicion confirmed be sure of two things: (1) the material is that deep down the spatters really loved first rate and either very funny or very each other. This was also the case with well executed, and (2) a backup program ABC’s “Roseanne.” Roseanne may have is readily available. had a harsh tongue, but, according to Brett White, who was head of broadcast Consistency. All viewers bring a certain standards and practices at ABC for many level of anticipation to every program. years, viewers knew that deep down she When they tune in to cable’s “Queer cared deeply about her family. Eye for the Straight Guy,” they expect a Despite the trend toward “mean tele- variation on a makeover theme that vision” that coincided with the rise of contains helpful hints that reveal gays reality television and the explosion of and straights can be supportive of each antagonistic talk show hosts such as Bill other. When they watch one of the 140 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 6.14 The “Law & Order” shows give audiences stories that reﬂect current events. (Courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.)

occasional departure can be successful if the episode has a legitimate point to make. Comedies have tackled such serious themes as AIDS or the death of a parent and done them effectively. But these must be produced carefully and at great intervals. Too many laughless shows by a favorite comedy performer Figure 6.15 will in all likelihood send the audience “Murphy Brown,” searching for alternatives. featuring Candice Diane English, creator and copro- Bergen, achieved ducer of the sitcom “Murphy Brown,” both consistency understands the principle of consistency. and topicality. In the winter of 1992 the show sched- (Courtesy the uled an episode based on the rights of Academy of journalists to protect their sources, an Television Arts & important constitutional issue (Figure Sciences.) 6.15). The story idea sprung from the televised Senate hearings of Anita Hill’s “Law & Order” shows (Figure 6.14), allegation that Judge Clarence Thomas they expect a well-crafted story that will was not a suitable Supreme Court reveal unexpected villains and deter- nominee because of his history of sexual mined, well-meaning detectives. harassment. The hearings would never Deviations from these expectations have taken place if Hill’s charges had not disturb viewers and risk alienation. An been leaked to Nina Totenberg of NPR, 6 Elements of Successful Programming 141 who reported the story but refused to Energy. Energy is the quality that identify the source. Totenberg was sub- infuses a sense of pace and excitement sequently summoned to appear before a into a show. It is not a synonym for Senate special counsel. Said English, “As frenzy.And it does not necessarily mean more of our freedoms dwindle, we need motion, which is often just movement to use our freedom as writers to make without a point. Rather, it charges the people know what’s going on. And we screen with pictures that will not let the also have to make it funny.”(Emphasis viewer turn away, whether it is a four- added.)13 man shootout, a whisper, an intense love Writers, directors, and performers scene, or an upraised eyebrow. Actors must be particularly mindful of “staying contribute with their performances, the in character.” Cast members must say best ones making every scene riveting. and do things consistent with the roles Writers develop the dialogue and struc- they are playing. If Nick Fallin on “The ture the acts in ways that produce rising Guardian” had suddenly become tension and climactic endings. Directors extremely verbal, ready to reveal his stage the players and select the pictures emotions about his love life, his rela- that will generate the most satisfying tionship with his father, or his addic- viewer experience. Editors keep things tions, he would have broken character, moving, particularly as the attention violating the premise that creator David span of audiences shortens. If any one of Hollander established for the show. these elements weakens, thereby permit- A writer may occasionally get easy ting the pace to flag and attention to humor or pathos from a line, but if it wander, the loss of energy will quickly is at the expense of the character’s result in the loss of audience. nature, it could be an expensive laugh or Maintaining energy is an essential for tear. all talk show hosts.Too often interview- Sometimes broadcasters become too ers allow their guests to dictate the narrow in their interpretation of this tempo of the program. If the host is not point.There is the classic example of the alert, a low-key, deliberate-speaking executive who read a script of “My guest can drag down the energy level, Favorite Martian,” circled a line of and the two can quickly find themselves dialogue and sent it back to the pro- in the quicksand of boredom. The producer with the comment, “A Martian ducer and director should immediately wouldn’t say that.” cut to a commercial and go on stage to One other element of consistency pump up the host—or give the guest an deserves mention: shows must remain early dismissal. true to their central intent.They cannot be all things to all people; there are Professional Staffing. Rarely, a show limits to what programs can be and who will succeed because of the novelty of they can reach. Broadcasters cannot its format or star even though the pro- insert 1-minute cooking tips inside Sat- duction is slipshod and the writing is urday morning cartoons in an attempt poor. But the success will be brief. The to attract adult women. Shows are what novelty will wear off, the mediocrity they are, and any effort to broaden the will be exposed, and the show’s decline base with inappropriate elements not will be assured. only fails to attract the desired new Many a promising format has been viewers but also alienates the core squandered because of the insufficien- audience. cies of the staff and cast. And many 142 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

an ordinary idea (“Malcolm in the Programmers must look beyond the Middle,” “Becker,” “Just Shoot Me,” or concept of a show and closely examine “Miami Vice”) has blossomed into the credentials of the executors before enduring success because of the skills of committing to its development. Of great the cast, writers, and production team. importance to developers of programming, such as Susan Rovner at Warner Bros., is the participation of an experienced, successful showrunner, the person responsible for the day-to-day execution of a show. Without a showrunner who Figure 6.16 has a reputation for delivering quality “In the Line of shows on time and on budget, many Duty: Ambush at concepts do not progress beyond a Waco” (1993), pitch. To some disgruntled observers starring Tim Daly whose projects do not have a viable as Branch Davidian leader showrunner attached, it can seem as if David Koresh, was the showrunner is more important than an example of a the concept. successful teleﬁlm Unfortunately, sometimes fresh, ripped from the young talent is ignored for established headlines and players who have been on the staff of produced on a fast several successful shows, but newcomers track by producer can and do work in by attaching to (and Ken Kaufman. learning from) the recognized players. (Courtesy Many schools have mentor programs Patchett Kaufman and internships to assist newcomers in Entertainment.) becoming ﬁrst-string players on the entertainment team.

Timing. For a program to work, it must Figure 6.17 be in harmony with the times. For a “A Woman story to work, it must capture the atten- Scorned: The Betty tion of the times (Figure 6.16). Too far Broderick Story” behind and the audience will dismiss it (1992) hit the as outmoded; too far in front and airwaves at just the viewers will rebel against it (Figure right time. The ﬁlm 6.17). starred Meredith “Three’s Company” is an example of Baxter as a a show that hit it just right and enjoyed woman who seeks a successful run from 1977 to 1984 (and revenge when her for many years later in syndication).This husband, played by sitcom dealt with a hot-blooded young Stephen Collins of “7th Heaven,” man and two attractive young ladies marries his young who, for reasons of economy, shared an assistant. apartment.The man, Jack Tripper, played (Courtesy by John Ritter, pretended to be gay Patchett Kaufman to avoid arousing the suspicions of the Entertainment.) landlord. Although every episode was 6 Elements of Successful Programming 143 packed with sexual innuendo, the audience was encouraged to believe that nothing sexual ever happened between the three roommates. Tripper may have been hot blooded, but that did not mean sexual activity took place in a show the producers nevertheless tantalizingly saw as “French farce.” “Three’s Company” was accepted because the time was right. The social upheavals that began in the 1960s and continued into the 1970s made cohabi- tation among unmarried people com- monplace. The network surmised that the condition was sufﬁciently wide- spread to allow the national audience to accept the premise. They guessed right Figure 6.18 (Figure 6.18).The same format, if it had “Three’s Company” found its place and time. (Courtesy DLT been introduced 10 years earlier, could Entertainment.) have provoked a national outcry from media watchdog groups. Some 20 years after “Three’s Company,” the 2002–2003 season saw an explosion of gay-themed shows such as “Queer Eye for the Straight Guy,” “Boy Meets Boy,” “Angels in America,” and “It’s All Relative.” No innuendo here; no French farce needed. These shows contained characters who were clearly gay, not straight pretending to be gay as on “Three’s Company.” Shows such as “Soap,” with Billy Crystal playing the gay Jodie Dallas, which began its 4-year run in 1977; “Brothers,” which premiered on Show- time in 1984; “Ellen,” whose lead char- Figure 6.19 acter came out in 1997; and “Will & “Will & Grace” Grace,” which premiered in 1998, paved took gay characters the way for the 2002–2003 emphasis on mainstream on gays in television (Figure 6.19). For broadcast television. some, it seemed as if every show had to (Globe Photos, have gay characters, where just a season Inc.) or two before sitcoms were thriving on single parents raising children as an inciting gimmick. 144 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Jon Stewart’s “The Daily Show” (Figure 6.20), a fake news show on cable’s Comedy Central, came into its own in 2001–2002, winning Emmy and Peabody awards and receiving excellent press coverage, including the cover of Newsweek for the January 5, 2004, issue. There are many reasons for the show’s success, including first-rate writing that creates stories in the most unlikely Figure 6.20 venues; however, timing also played a Jon Stewart’s “The major role. Daily Show” finds In a country besieged by devastating the right news (9/11, the war in Iraq, a slumping combination of economy, etc.), Stewart and “The Daily humor and edge for Show” found the right dose of humor topical comedy. that had an edge different from what (Courtesy the was available on other shows. “The Academy of Television Arts & Daily Show” found the right approach Sciences.) for the times, an approach that eclipsed that of late-night legends Jay Leno and David Letterman.The headline of Frank The gay-themed explosion could not Rich’s April 10, 2003, article proclaimed have happened at the time of “Three’s Stewart’s “perfect pitch.”14 Company,” just as “Three’s Company” would have been found behind the Trend Awareness. A capable program- times had it premiered in 2002–2003. It mer must also be aware of trends that is all a question of timing, and the savvy might generate a hit or guarantee a programmer has to understand this failure. Riding a trend wave is not an important dynamic. essential element of a successful The idea of a network devoted to program. But it can be a way to tap into documentaries may have been discussed a prevailing audience preference that for years, but it did not become a reality will enable a show to deliver strong until John Hendrink, a history professor, ratings. Similarly, an awareness of a trend felt the timing was right for founding that is over can help a programmer to the Discovery Channel in 1985. Niche avoid a concept whose time has passed. channels such as the Discovery Channel, A programming trend occurs when The Outdoor Channel, Home & producers develop shows or concepts Garden Television, and Court TV, have similar in theme, format, or content. In successfully challenged the previous network prime-time television in the dominance of the conventional net- 1950s, there was a strong trend toward works. Broadcasting targeting the broad- live, dramatic productions; in the 1960s, est possible audience has given way to the favored form was westerns; in the specialized niche programming that 1970s, it was sitcoms with sharp social seeks a particular audience, and the Dis- commentary; and in the 1980s, dramatic covery Channel and the niche networks serials were prominent. In the 1990s, that followed succeeded mostly because comedies and prime-time news shows of timing. dominated, and starting in 2000, the 6 Elements of Successful Programming 145 trend was clearly toward so-called reality shows makes the most sense. Even a television. modest rating performance can deliver a TV syndication has seen similar runs. profitable return because of the low cost In 1982, Group W Productions intro- of production. duced a first-run daily cartoon series, Even more extreme is the trend “He-Man and the Masters of the Uni- toward infomercials—30-minute pro- verse.” Never before had daily, animated grams that masquerade as talk or inter- programming been made expressly for view shows but are devoted to extolling the syndicated marketplace. Within 2 the virtues of some commercial product years there were 28 first-run animated such as a diet, baldness treatment, or series offered for syndication. It is brand of sunglasses. Stations that might another truism in Hollywood that imi- not program this material when times tation is the sincerest form of flattery. are good will do so in lean periods Trends develop in two ways: eco- because the producers provide the pro- nomic or technological necessity and grams for free and even pay the stations phenomenal success of a program, for the airtime. which suggests that variations on the Often trends are started by the emer- form can enjoy similar rewards. In tele- gence of an enormous hit.The industry vision, as opposed to film, the first copy studies the soaring ratings and wonders of a successful program usually delivers, whether other versions of the theme can or so goes the conventional wisdom. be developed. Frequently they can. The The tendency to program live, dra- originator may have fed an audience matic fare in the 1950s was primarily appetite that is not satisfied with just the result of technological limitations. one dish. The industry will immediately The new medium was centered in New offer variations, and the process will York City; tape had not yet been continue until viewers are sated. In invented, the Hollywood film industry many instances, the show that began the disdained the new industry, and film trend will outlast all the imitators. production facilities in New York were “Gunsmoke” triggered the western scarce. But there were excellent actors, frenzy in 1955. By 1961, there were 12 producers, and writers available in New series slappin’ leather each week. In York theater, and they immediately 1975 only one remained—“Gunsmoke,” gravitated to the live dramatic form. which holds the record as the longest- When prime-time network schedul- running series with 635 episodes. The ing turned strongly toward news- same pattern held true for prime-time oriented programs in the 1990s, the serials. The form was introduced by reason was economics. Economics also “Dallas” in 1978 and was an instant hit. supported the development of the reality By 1981, the number of serials had trend. The economics of reality pro- mushroomed to five. Ten years later it gramming plus its attraction of the had receded to two, one of which was desirable younger demographic made “Dallas,” with a run of 357 episodes. reality desirable to programmers. As All trends run their course. Viewers audiences continue to dwindle and costs become saturated, the original idea continue to rise, programmers have to becomes jaded and stale, ratings decline, be mindful of what the trends are and and the search for a new appeal begins. what audiences will watch at what costs. Judging when a trend has crested is Sometimes embracing the live or live- one of the programmer’s more difficult on-tape news presentations or reality decisions. One clue is a rising demo- 146 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

graphic. If the younger viewers, the is worthless if no one will buy it. As most volatile and easily sated segment of Art Astor of Astor Broadcasting, whose the audience, are drifting away, the career spans more than 40 years, said to chances are good that the show has seen a group of students at California State its best days. Even if the audience size University, Fullerton, in 2003, “Sales is remains satisfactory, the older skew will where it’s at. If a good salesperson can’t herald a falloff in revenue.Any new proj- sell a show to stations and advertisers, it ects in the same genre are probably ill simply doesn’t belong.” advised. Salability must be effective at three stages: when the creator is trying to find Adequate Budget. Programmers must a distributor; when the distributor is allocate sufficient funds for producers to trying to find advertisers; and when make their shows. It is true that most both the creator and the distributor are producers will strive to obtain the trying to find an audience. If there is a largest possible budget, especially if they failure at any stage, the program either retain the difference between the will never reach the air or will be off package price and the actual cost of pro- after a brief stay because of lack of duction. But they mostly just want to revenue. be sure they have enough resources to Surprisingly, the selling approach is mount the product they are committed not always the same at all three levels. to delivering. Buyers of programs—networks, syndica- The cost of first-rate special effects tion companies, and station executives— has decreased significantly over the last tend to have fast-paced business days. few years. Companies such as Stargate The phone rings incessantly; associates Digital have perfected the art of special pop in and out; and meetings are forever effects in shows such as “ER” and “Las backed up. They also regard themselves Vegas” at affordable costs, enabling pro- as quick studies, their experience and ducers to deliver the promised product natural gifts allowing them to cut even if production costs are not through rhetoric and pierce to the heart increased. Exteriors on these shows look of the show. Consequently, sellers keep real, using the Stargate technology, their pitches short and concentrate on instead of cheap and unrealistic. This is the “catchiest” elements. important to an increasingly savvy and In syndication, for example, program demanding audience, and it is important concepts are usually presented in tapes to cost-conscious producers. that proceed at a breakneck pace. If pos- Distributors such as networks and sible, they are enlivened with quick cuts syndicators are paid to keep costs down. of spicy or sensational material to main- Therefore, establishing a mutually accept- tain the buyer’s interest and present an able budget frequently triggers a lively image of cutting-edge sharpness. But the dispute. The debate is worthwhile if the program may be successful with the result is a figure that allows the creative audience only if it is produced in a vision to be realized.When viewers reject deliberate, thorough style. a program because “it looks chintzy,” “When Group W launched ‘Hour everyone loses. It is important to find the Magazine’” (an hour-long syndicated money to do it right. woman’s service show that ran from 1980–1989), said George Resing, then Salability. In the world of commercial senior vice president of the production television, the greatest idea in the world company, “we made a zippy bells-and- 6 Elements of Successful Programming 147

(a) (b) whistles 15-minute demonstrator that Newsweek, “‘Queer as Folk,’ a series on Figure 6.21 made the show seem paced like Showtime about the life of gay men in (a) “The L Word” ‘America’s Funniest Home Videos.’ It Pittsburgh, which is an adaptation of a and (b) “Queer as was the only way we could keep the successful British series with the same Folk” on Showtime attention of station buyers. But we knew name, has a 50% audience of women. appeal to a large from research that viewers wanted each Similarly, HBO’s phenomenal success, audience base, not just gays and topic dealt with fully and responsibly. ‘Sex and the City,’a show about the lives lesbians. (Globe Subjects that appeared to be done once and loves of four heterosexual women, Photos, Inc.) over lightly caused deep viewer resent- has a large male following: About 40% ment. But when selling advertisers, we of its audience in the 18 to 34 demo- used a completely different approach. graphic is male”15 (Figure 6.21). We emphasized the wholesomeness and Inventive scheduling can also help a reliability of the program to indicate network to gain crossover viewers. For their commercials would be placed in a example, the reality phenomenon very favorable environment. Pace was “American Idol” on Fox greatly boosted never mentioned. This two-step strategy the ratings of “24,” the critically seemed to work. The show was prof- acclaimed series that began in 2001. itable for 10 years.” Viewers who were fans of “American Idol” may not have been planning to Getting Crossover Viewers. If a show stay tuned for “24,” but the ﬂow from can reach its target audience and one show to the next brought new connect with a subsidiary audience, the viewers to “24,” many of whom found show’s chances for success increase dra- “24” to their liking. Any program that matically. For example, as Sean M. Smith attains crossover status has a good reported in the June 23, 2003, issue of chance of survival. 148 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 6.22 The PBS series “The Civil War,” which featured photographs such as this one of Camp Grifﬁn at the beginning of the war, had one basic authority—Ken Burns. It was also high in prestige, awards, and units of good. (Courtesy Florentine Films.)

One Voice of Authority. Committees reason that people such as Aaron Sorkin, rarely design anything worthwhile. The David E. Kelley, David Chase, Diane compromises required to keep peace in English, Alan Ball, and Steven Bochco the conference room usually demolish represent the best that television has to the original concept. An adjustment offer. Their shows bear their stamps as here, a new element there, and suddenly the individuals in charge. the magic is gone. With deregulation, The one voice of authority, however, significant disagreements between new is not predominant in public broadcast- corporate owners, often viewed as “the ing and in educationally oriented insti- suits” or “bean counters,” and the pro- tutions such as universities. Public duction team often take place, resulting broadcasting has committees and advi- in too many opinions and approaches sors and sometimes advisors to commit- that threaten the integrity of a project. tees. Although some public broadcasting To be sure, constructive suggestions concepts are conceived and executed should be offered and welcomed. But it primarily by one person (e.g., Ken should be clear from the first meeting Burns’s “The Civil War”; Figure 6.22), that one person will make all creative many others are the work of com- decisions.The alternative leads to chaos. mittees. Content experts, educational The single-authority requirement is evaluators, community leaders—all are becoming more important in broadcast- brought in to give opinions. Usually ing. As costs rise and risks grow, there they are not window dressing. They are has been a developing trend toward leaders in their respective fields who are funding by consortium with many con- used to having their ideas taken seri- tributors sharing in the costs of a ously. If ignored, they can cause trouble. project. However, each investor is One college-credit science course was inclined to believe he or she is entitled undermined by a university professor to give creative input. It is best to who felt his ideas had been neglected. address that before the papers are signed This professor, whom we will call Dr. X and to have the authority figure identi- for anonymity, was one of a committee fied in the contract. of professors called in to advise on Although some creators can be content. He tried to dominate all the labeled as micromanaging egotists, too meetings to the extent that the other many cooks spoil the broth. There is a professors asked the producer to remove 6 Elements of Successful Programming 149 him from the committee. Upon hearing familiar theme fresh, but that voice has rumors of this, Dr. X listed all the prob- to provide something new. lems he saw with the design of the series Points of differentiation do not have and then resigned from the committee. to be major departures from all other When the series aired, he nitpicked the forms on the air. A single inventive dif- content and presentation, called the ference is frequently sufficient. It can be press, and “proved” that the course was as simple as producing a conventional basically ill conceived.Although some of form in an unconventional way. his accusations were false, the publicity Programmers should be cautious that he stirred up kept the course from about the following: ever airing again. Despite negative incidents of this 1. Every buyer of network programs has type, public broadcasting does not seem a file full of “breakthrough” program to want to drift toward one voice of submissions that “can’t miss because authority. Some that fund public broad- they’re so different,” such as the one- casting require in their applications the armed detective who lives in a state- names of people who will be consulting of-the-art tree house or the female on program concepts.The longer the list Siamese twins who are defense attor- (especially if the names are prestigious), neys (casting was seen as a problem the better the chances it will be funded. on this one). In the early 1990s, the Although the loss of one voice of celebrated producer Steven Bochco authority often results in chaos, chaos attempted a weekly hour-long musical seems to be more acceptable within drama, “Cop Rock.” It sank like one. public broadcasting than within the The idea was bold and inventive, but commercial broadcasting realm. There the innovation failed to address a need. are even those who profess that chaos Interestingly, ABC at the start of leads to art, but this is a dangerous posi- the 2002–2003 season announced tion that beginning programmers should that it was not going to be introduc- avoid. ing any “breakthrough” shows, relying instead on more traditional program- Innovation and Freshness. More than ming. This angered members of the 50 years ago, a man named Ted Bates press quick to find fault with any built an advertising empire out of a programming announcement, rein- single notion. Every ad prepared by his forcing the notion of television as a agency had to have a unique selling “vast wasteland,” but ABC’s strategy proposition. By that he meant the ad revealed that many programmers are had to find one quality that could only aware of the pitfalls of “break- be found in, or said about, the product. through” programming. That uniqueness distinguished the pro- 2. The acceptability of innovation by duct from all others and thus stimulated buyers is in direct proportion to the a buying appetite in the consumer. economic health of the industry. In The same is true for programs. If hard times, buyers tilt toward conser- there is nothing unusual, fresh, or dif- vatism. Innovation means risk, and risk ferent about a show, why should can mean the loss of scarce dollars. In anybody watch it? The kiss of death for tough economic times, station owners any show is when the viewer says,“I get are loathe to cancel even marginally the feeling I’ve seen it a thousand profitable shows for fear their replace- times.” A distinct voice can make a ments might do worse. Better to stay 150 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

with something that is not losing than that program classical music consider take a chance on a big hit and miss. prestige. These stations do not expect Real success in programming can large audiences or large amounts of only be obtained by invention, advertising, but the owners are willing finding new ways and new people to to continue the format because the pres- inform and entertain. In the first 50+ tigious nature of the audience attracts years of television’s history, only two enough specialized advertisers to gener- animated programs had ever been ate a profit. Public radio networks and successful on prime-time network stations also court prestige, especially in schedules—“The Jetsons” and the their news departments. A track record “Flintstones.” No other animated of honors can help in garnering finan- program had survived in prime time cial support from the government and since “Flintstones” bowed out in the public, especially if the awards are 1966. The gambling, innovative Fox from avowed apolitical organizations network introduced “The Simpsons,” such as the Peabody Awards and the a weekly half-hour animated series in National Association of Broadcasters. 1990.The show quickly zoomed into Two programming objectives deserve Top 20 status and became a market- special consideration. One, fulfilling a ing phenomenon. Such success stories particular local purpose, is more domi- never happen to “safe” derivative pro- nant in radio than in TV.The other, cre- grams. They only occur when a ating a particular mood, is peculiar to dreamer has an inspiration and a pro- radio. grammer decides to accept the risks. A Particular Local Purpose. Radio is RADIO PROGRAMMING more likely than television to attempt to fulfill a local purpose. Interacting with Commercial radio is different from tele- the community helps license renewal, vision in its program objectives. Despite but it is also an essential element of this, the qualities that make program- station operations because radio (satellite ming successful are similar. radio aside) is primarily a local medium. Radio stations often engage in activities Programming Objectives that are part promotion and part local public service. Rarely is a radio audience a large one. For example, KIZN in Boise, Idaho, Because people have such a wide diver- sponsors an annual “Keep Kids Warm” gence of musical tastes, a radio station clothing drive and auction. As its web- that tries to program to reach everyone site states, the event initially sprouted will probably attract no one. Radio sta- from an on-air contest that had no com- tions target a specific audience—teenage munity service tie-in: “Keep Kids Warm males who like hard rock, older women started in December of 1996 with a who enjoy listening to talk, people who single phone call from a young girl that want 10 minutes of capsulated news. was trying to win money from KIZN so Because radio is relatively inexpensive, she could order some heating oil for her stations can make a profit even though family. The morning show at the time they do not have a large audience. (Mark Rivers and Rich Summers), had Prestige and awards are not major been giving away cash with a ‘song of radio objectives, although stations cer- the day’ contest the previous few weeks. tainly tout awards when they win them. The contest had come to an end but The few remaining commercial stations Kissin’ listeners were still calling Mark & 6 Elements of Successful Programming 151

Rich, asking about the ‘song of the day.’ it strives to create a particular mood. When they explained on the air that the Although individual TV programs may contest was over, the studio phone rang, make a person sad or angry, the moods and there was Christian, a young girl do not usually affect what a person is who asked Mark & Rich this question, doing other than watching TV.For a TV ‘If I can’t win the money,can I win some program to put you in a certain mood, heating oil for my family? . . . our house you must give it your attention. But is cold, and we just want to be warm for such is not the case with radio, which Christmas . . .’” The annual drive brings encourages inattention. Music is back- in about $40,000 per year and has ground oriented and can influence how numerous sponsors, including country people feel about other activities. Radio artists, NASCAR teams, sports greats, programmers try to select music that and entertainment celebrities, who con- will fit the predominant moods of their tribute on-air auction items.16 target audience. Many stations program short seg- Rhythm, pitch, loudness, instrumenta- ments that describe upcoming weekend tion, melody—all of these aspects of happenings. The Beat, 95.5 FM in music can affect mood. For example, Atlanta, Georgia, along with making on- high-pitched music is more pleasant and air announcements, heavily promotes its playful than low-pitched music, which online events calendar, where listeners tends to be serious or sorrowful. Saxo- can find an exhaustive listing of local phones are more romance inducing than events broken down by location, date, trumpets. Loud music is more capable and type. than soft of providing isolation—a sound In addition, call-in shows concerned wall to keep out other people. Program- with local issues are often top rated on mers must think of the music they select stations with all-talk formats or even sta- in terms of its general appropriateness tions that only do occasional talk shows. for the target group and the specific Talk show hosts and disc jockeys appear activities that the audience might be at many charitable functions in the engaged in at various times of the day. community, partly to add allure to the For example, young men like fast, hard community event and partly to build music and older women prefer some- awareness (and ratings) for the station. thing slower and softer. But early in the Even the numerous contests where lis- morning, when everyone must move teners can win money, tickets, or CDs rather rapidly, the music played on a often have local tie-ins. For example, the station appealing to older women should tickets may be for a concert by a local be more sprightly than it is late at night, music group. Hometown involvement when audience members are more likely makes good, sound business sense for to be relaxing or winding down. most commercial radio stations. Even Overall, the primary objectives that with voice tracking, disc jockeys record- radio programmers deal with are those ing shows in San Diego to be broadcast of attracting a demographically specific in Albuquerque go to great lengths to audience, fulfilling local needs, and add segments that specifically reference establishing a mood. local events because the feel of localism is so important to local audiences. Fundamental Appeals to an Audience A Particular Mood. One of the main programming objectives of radio, which Although television serves a smorgas- is not really apropos to television, is that bord of appeals to audiences, radio, after 152 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

6.23) was pulled from many stations after initial negative feedback from listeners who were uncomfortable with the song’s references to the hot-button issue of abortion. WSM-FM (Live 95) Nashville’s programming director, Kevin O’Neal, pulled the song, “just to be safe,” after a handful of spins because of listener complaints. He later reversed that decision, saying,“I think the song is reality ...We are not in the censor business.” Figure 6.23 But if O’Neal’s station were more Country superstar squarely in the nation’s Bible Belt, he Tim McGraw’s might sing a different tune, as did Oper- “Red Rag Top” ating Manager/Programming Director proved challenging Ron Brooks of WCOS Columbia, for programming South Carolina. Brooks said his station directors in some “played ‘Red Rag Top’ on a Friday localities in 2002. afternoon and took calls for about 45 (Globe Photos, minutes. We did not say what the song Inc.) was about; (we) just asked the audience to listen closely and give us their opinion. Approximately half of the calls were strongly against the song due to the advent of television, has thinned its the characters’ choice of abortion. Many menu and purpose, sidestepping comedy folks also felt that that song did not and drama for the aural comfort foods reﬂect nearly enough remorse over the of music, talk, and news, much of which decision, regardless of their personal serves as background for listeners’ other stance on abortion. Abortion is the most activities. divisive issue in our nation, and it is a very hot topic in this part of the Music. There is no question about the country.” audience for radio music. It is just Brooks added, with some frustration, a matter of selecting the right sound that local listeners do not kowtow to for the right group.This is easier for sta- stardom when it runs up against or even tions than for networks or syndicators seems to challenge their beliefs. “It’s because stations can take into account frustrating to me to go in to the fall the moral attitudes of the local commu- (ratings) book anticipating new music nity. Networks and syndicators that from one of our current superstars and program rock and hip-hop music, in we get something this dangerous. Our particular, have trouble because stations superstars can get away with a lot, but in certain parts of the country do not there are also limits. The country audi- want to broadcast profane or sexually ence in Columbia expects WCOS to be oriented lyrics. But other formats can a radio station where they don’t have to run into this problem, too. In 2002, a worry about their kids being exposed to new song, “Red Rag Top,” by country what they would consider dangerous music superstar Tim McGraw (Figure content.”17 6 Elements of Successful Programming 153

Hard News. Radio is a vital factor in professional stafﬁng. The latter often many people’s lives for obtaining infor- translates into a need to have people mation. Waking up to radio news is who really understand the type of music common. People want to learn what has the station plays. A professional, high- happened during the night—or some- minded person who really knows jazz times they just want assurance that a will be of little use to an easy listening major disaster has not happened. Once station. they are convinced that life is going on Formats need both durability and as usual, they are willing to switch to consistency. If a format is too narrow in another appeal, such as music. Often the scope, it will not endure. For example, main elements of news broadcasts that one radio station decided to try an all- attract audience members are the ones Elvis format. It did not last long. Disco that affect them most personally— music was also short lived because the weather, trafﬁc, or both. All-news sta- music was not varied enough—all of it tions provide hard news throughout the was high energy and glittery. However, day so that people can know about the if a particular station’s sound is not con- latest happenings at any time. sistent, listeners will change the dial. When radio was deregulated in the Imagine the result if a classical music 1980s, stations were no longer required disc jockey, bored with Beethoven, to broadcast news. Although some have decides to send out to the listeners Dave dropped all newscasts, many others have Matthews’ latest hit. Or vice versa. Sim- continued to bring listeners news at least ilarly, people who have put a rock once an hour because people want to station in their car radio settings will know what is going on in the world. tune out quickly if they hear a cooking show when they push the button. Soft News. Talk shows are the most Timing and trends can help bring a profuse supplier of soft news. Call-in radio station success. A station that shows on which people discuss their switches to an all-news format just problems, their questions regarding before a major international or national sports, or their opinions on current crisis has the fortune of good timing. events cater to curiosity.Soft news is also One that latches on to a new sound in programmed from features supplied music that becomes big has cashed in on by syndicators and networks, such as a trend. commentaries on controversial subjects, But of all the qualities tied to success, background information on stories in the two that are probably most important the news, and interviews with celebrities. for radio are likeability and innovation.

Qualities Tied to Success Likeability. Likeability is important for disc jockeys. They are the single-most Although radio is an exclusively aural distinctive element in radio program- medium and TV relies greatly on the ming and are largely responsible for visual, the qualities that make program- attracting the audience, especially if ming successful are the same. For several stations in one market program example, conﬂict is often an important the same type of music. One of the element in talk radio. These programs major elements that makes a disc jockey come alive when the caller takes issue likeable is energy.This is especially true with the host or other callers. Likewise, for radio formats that feature music with radio stations need adequate budget and high energy. 154 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

and antipathy toward Stern himself, or perhaps he fulﬁlls a deep vicarious need for his audience. Stern says things and asks questions the audience may be thinking themselves but would not dare say—certainly not in public. More traditional talk show hosts, such as Neal Conan of NPR’s “Talk of the Nation,” stand in for the audience in a more conventional way—asking some questions audience members might ask were they in the room. Conan limits his comments to neutral questions; other hosts express strong opinions, such as the Figure 6.24 uncompromised moralizing of Dr. Laura The band Nirvana tapped into an and the political commentaries by the unexpected likes of Bill O’Reilly and Al Franken, audience in 1991. some of whom claim that their opinions (Globe Photos, are not just opinions but the truth. Inc.) Listeners are drawn to the material, whether they agree with it or not, simply because it provides addictive conﬂict and drama.

Innovation. Innovation is supplied pri- Several program directors were asked marily by changes in musical tastes. Each what they looked for in a disc jockey. generation tends to develop its own Most of the answers related to likeabil- style of music.A radio programmer must ity—“upbeat people who don’t feel they be attuned to the changes and be aware have to talk a lot,” “someone who of when a music format is reaching a sounds natural and not like a radio per- midlife crisis and needs a change. The sonality,” “the ability to relate locally world moves on and what works in and know the town,” “a sense of radio today may be out of date tomor- humor,” and “energy and a knowledge row. Often the changes in musical taste of music.” are dramatic—almost unbelievably so. Talk show hosts must be either The early 1990s saw, perhaps, one of the people you like or people you love to most shocking and swift changes in hate—although sometimes they are a musical taste. Pop audiences had been combination of the two. So-called shock consuming a diet of sugary, feather- jock Howard Stern has received much weight fare, such as Milli Vanilli’s “Girl flack for his caustic talk show but has You Know It’s True,” which highlighted remained an unflappable force in radio the emphasis of late-1980s music on for years. His insulting and no-holds- image rather than substance when it was barred approach to callers and in-studio disclosed that the band members, after guests is instrumental in creating attention- receiving a Grammy for best new artist, sustaining conflict. Perhaps some of the had not even sung on their own album. secret to his success is that his style But in 1991, a band out of Seattle, engenders sympathy for interviewees Nirvana (Figure 6.24), whose first album 6 Elements of Successful Programming 155 had come and gone without notice, INTERNET PROGRAMMING released its follow-up, Nevermind. Almost overnight, the pop airwaves, which had The Internet, allowing a convergence of been lightly sprinkled with electronic all media, relies upon many of the same keyboards and purple prose, were being elements for success as television and assaulted by guitars, drums, and unadul- radio. Problems arise in Internet pro- terated rage. The audience’s unexpected gramming when programmers do not appetite for this new music left pro- adhere to these elements. The Internet, gramming directors scrambling to try unlike radio and television, is not a tem- other previously “underground” bands poral medium in that much Internet on their stations. Playing Nirvana’s content is not broadcast in real time but “Smells Like Teen Spirit” beside a new instead waits for viewers to happen release from Michael Jackson’s 1991 upon it. It is easier, then, for Internet Dangerous album presented a consistency developers to simply put up content and problem for stations whose expectations leave it there, unchanged, until web about the future of music were surfers chance upon it. blindsided. In some cases, this strategy is appro- Other less dramatic and more gradu- priate, but it does not encourage return ated changes have occurred since 1991. visits or brand loyalty. Each marked a change program direc- Freshness tors have had to track and, in the best case, stay ahead of to keep their inno- One of the most important strategies to vative edge: the arrival of the so-called keep in mind when developing web boy bands in the mid-1990s and the content is to keep it fresh. If a radio or steady ascendancy of hip-hop in the television station simply played the same new millennium. content over and over, viewers would Usually a programmer has more free have little reason to return to it. A rein to be innovative in good economic blogger (essentially a person who keeps times than in bad. If enough money is an online diary, open for others to see) available to cover a bad guess concern- whose latest entry is 2 months stale will ing the fickleness of the public, a pro- likely lose her or his audience. Likewise, grammer is more likely to be given the an Internet store that does not seem to go-ahead to try something new. When be introducing products and services or economic times are rough, radio, like a web portfolio that does not seem to many other endeavors, tends to be con- contain new material will not beckon a servative. As Joe Garner, senior national visitor to return. affiliate relations manager of the West- The operative word here is “seem.” wood One network, said during one of An Internet site must seem, to a first- the down periods, “Radio is now the time visitor, as if it will be updated with playground for the proven rather than new content in the foreseeable future if the playground for innovation. Programs not immediately. The easiest and most do not have a chance to grow and find surefire way to give this impression to an audience; programmers go with the visitors is make it a fact—and to tout proven rather than experiment.”18 This that fact. In the early days of the Inter- should not become the standard operat- net, a craze developed wherein web ing procedure for radio. Innovation is designers inserted dynamic code that needed to keep the medium healthy— displayed the current date in a promi- and wealthy. nent place on their sites. The idea was 156 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

that visitors to the site would see the lighting the chemistry department may current date and think that the content show; the next time, a picture and text of the site was current. Visitors who, spotlighting the theatre department will based upon this assumption, returned take the chemistry department’s place. later to find that the only thing changed The site is not actually updated; it is just on the site was the date soon became randomly cycling through a finite wary of such transparent ploys. They number of choices. wanted the real thing—real change. Displaying the date new material is Targeting Content added can give visitors a sense for how often the site is updated and can, there- Another way to keep a site seemingly fore, encourage them to return. Making fresh is to target the content in it spe- promises or teasing upcoming material cifically to each visitor based upon is also a good ploy—provided the information gleaned from previous promises are fulfilled. Nothing will so experience with the visitor. In this way, quickly turn off a visitor as a flashy websites, such as Amazon.com, which promo for new content that will be feature an inventory of hundreds of added June 1 when the date is already thousands of products and services for August 17.With the millions of websites sale, can offer suggestions to browse on the Internet, most sites only get one through based on previous purchases by chance to connect—or disconnect— a specific visitor. If you bought an elec- with a visitor. tric drill last time you visited, maybe you It is possible, however, to get websites would be interested in an electric saw. to change themselves each time they are Browsing, whether in a store, with visited, using computer programming. the radio dial, or through a television Many sites, such as those that display remote control, is an important com- news headlines, automatically swap out mercial activity, resulting in the germi- old news stories, replacing them with nation of new interests for consumers the latest stories as those stories are and countless impulse buys. In grocery added to the queue. Websites for tele- stores, featured products are placed at vision and radio stations are often pro- eye level (both for adults and for little grammed to automatically adjust their ones straggling along—begging for content to match the program currently attractive products strategically slated for broadcasting on the station. Some web lower shelves). The Internet pursues developers, to give visitors different similar strategies but with distinct experiences each time they visit, simply advantages in information collection and create a section of their home page dynamic delivery. where random content can be added To carry the supermarket analog each time the site is visited. For further—if you sign up for a supermar- example, a site for a university might ket member card that gives you special have a “spotlight” section on the home member rebates when you use the card page that has space for a picture and at the check stand, you may be unknow- some text. Each time the site is visited, ingly getting more than you bargained computer programming in the home for.Without using the card, you are just page generates a random number that an anonymous buyer to the supermarket; corresponds to one of many different when you use the card, the supermarket pictures and text available. When you is able to track your purchases—how first visit the site, a picture and text spot- often you buy alcohol, frozen peas, low- 6 Elements of Successful Programming 157 carbohydrate frozen entrees, etc. If you puter on your last visit, place an adver- are a regular customer at the supermar- tisement for that artist’s latest album or ket, this information can help the store song download that might entice you to to adjust its inventory to better suit your buy. buying habits along with the rest of its Some web companies, such as Dou- card- and non-card-using customers. bleclick.com, make it their sole business Although many worry that this infor- to collect information and preferences mation collection is an invasion of of web surfers and provide that infor- privacy, it undeniably can help busi- mation to their subscribers so that those nesses to streamline their offerings and subscribers can more effectively target consumers to get what they commonly content to surfers that come to their want when and where they want it. sites. Of course, Doubleclick.com aims The Internet allows a similar but far to make a good profit at it. more advanced system of tracking and Because the Internet consists of a responding to customer habits. Imagine growing roster of millions upon millions if you walked into a supermarket, slid of sites and options, content targeting your member card through a card reader can be valuable for both the creators and at the front door, and the entire store the viewers of Internet content. Never- rearranged itself to favor your pattern of theless, it raises privacy concerns, some shopping and suggested products that, of which will be addressed in Chapter 8. based on your past shopping preferences, you might be interested in purchasing. Consistency The 2002 Tom Cruise/Steven Spiel- berg movie “Minority Report” imag- Another important strategy for success ined a future much like this—where in web content is consistency. If a radio advertising spaces recognized consumers or television station played children’s as they walked by, scanning the unique shows one afternoon and a sex advice signatures in their retinas, and delivered program the next, viewers would see the advertisements that spoke personally to station as a crapshoot and might not like them and their recorded tastes.Although their odds of tuning in to something “Minority Report” was set in the year they enjoy.An e-commerce site that sells 2054, in a way the future the movie women’s scarves one day and power envisages is already here. Unless con- tools the next will obviously have sumers set up their computers to block trouble keeping its buyers unless it is them, many websites drop identifiers, implementing targeted content strategies called cookies, into visitors’ computers as described previously. A blogger who to help the website individually adjust switches from describing the difficulties its web content to repeat customers’ on of being a teenager to obscure musings subsequent visits. In this way, if you on quantum physics, even if genuinely placed products into your shopping cart interested in these two subjects, risks on a website on a previous visit but losing the audience. Even if the audi- did not complete the transaction, the ence shares this mix of interests, when site will be able to remind you of your these interests surface may not coincide incomplete purchases on your next between the content creator and the visit. Or, if you viewed a music video consumer.Although you may like, at dif- by Christina Aguilera or Rob Zombie ferent times, romantic and horror films, on a previous visit, the site could, by imagine being in the mood for and accessing the cookie it left in your com- going to see a movie you thought was 158 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

a horror film only to find that it is a activity in a way that will engage audi- romantic comedy. ences without taxing their attention Another important issue in this area spans to the breaking point. Program- is consistency of quality. Unlike with mers who are able to successfully find a television and radio, there are not nec- balancing point between innovation and essarily the same bureaucracies and test- user friendliness may strike Internet ing strategies in place to safeguard the gold—siphoning off viewers and adver- quality of what goes online. For some, tising dollars from traditional mediums the answer to “Why did you put this on such as radio, television, and film. a website?” is “Because I can.” That Many attempts have been made to answer is fine if all that you want to do make television viewing interactive by is have a website—but if you want your adding Internet-like elements or layer- website to have an effect or to garner ing Internet content and pages onto loyal visitors, more thought has to be put television broadcasts, but any success into it.Thought has to be put into every these ventures have had has been more page and every element of the site. One in the hype leading up to their launch lousy or inconsistent page can turn off a than in actual sustained usage by pio- visitor, especially if that is the first page neering television viewers. Developers your visitor sees. But even if it is the 3rd will no doubt continue their search— or 20th, it can foul a visitor’s impression more in enterprising, good economic of the entire site. times than when belts are drawn tight.

Innovation Branding The Internet is nothing if not a fertile Once an Internet programmer has ground for innovation. New applications chanced upon a winning Internet pro- and technologies are always being devel- duct, has developed strategies to keep oped.The technology bubble of the late it fresh and consistent, and has navigated 1990s saw companies and investors alike the balance between innovation and taking great leaps of faith into “revolu- comfort, it is important to the success of tionary” Internet technologies and uses. the site to develop brand recognition. A Some of these technologies may have perfect example of branding can be been revolutionary—but any revolution found in the granddaddy of Internet sites, must, to take hold, catch ﬁre with the Amazon.com. The site began in 1995, general population and not just with the primarily as an online bookseller. Many innovators who envision it. Many con- other sites came along to sell books— sumers are drawn to the leading edge; some, like Barnesandnoble.com, with others cannot tolerate being guinea pigs tie-ins to brick-and-mortar stores that for buggy adventures along the edge of may have made them seem more reliable, the horizon. especially to a public just beginning to Because Internet sites may target wade into cyberspace. Amazon.com small niches of visitors, some more or launched an aggressive marketing cam- less tolerant of the inevitable glitches paign and, possibly because it did not that come with new technology, there is have a confusing tie-in to a known quan- no rule about how far out on the edge tity in the “real” world, captured the is too far. One thing is certain, however attention of web surfers. Thus, instead of —the main innovation that Internet going to a search engine website to seek programmers are trying to develop is a a book they may be looking for, shoppers way to make use of the Internet’s inter- started going straight to Amazon.com. 6 Elements of Successful Programming 159

The prices on Amazon.com may not have been lower than those on other sites, but brand recognition won. Later, when Amazon.com began to branch into selling other products and services, its lack of a tie-in to a known brick- and-mortar entity became a real asset. Barnesandnoble.com, a known bookseller, could not easily branch into children’s toys and small kitchen appliances, but Amazon.com could. The brand recognition that Amazon.com had developed continued to draw visitors to its ever- growing offerings, thus highlighting the usefulness of developing brand recognition, especially in the malleable and scal- able world of the Internet (Figure 6.25). Programmers labor mightily to put their shows together. Juggling the creative elements is a time-consuming and at times an exhausting task. But the job is further complicated by the need to accommodate a host of other consider- Figure 6.25 ations, enumerated in Chapters 7 and 8. Amazon.com, without a tie to a EXERCISES bricks-and-mortar entity, is able to expand its offerings 1. Select a show on television that you cessful when they aired? In your opinion, using the Internet’s feel lacks an adequate budget. What about why are people still watching them today? flexibility and its the show looks “cheap,” and how does this 7. What qualities do you think a niche brand. (Photo affect your evaluation of the show? network should have to succeed? © 2004 2. Select a program currently on the air 8. Come up with a list of potential Amazon.com.) and examine elements the show has that activities a local radio station might be able define its success or failure. If the show is to sponsor, organize, or be involved in per- a failure in your opinion, what elements is taining to an upcoming event, holiday, or it lacking? underserved local need. 3. Identify what you think will be the 9. Analyze a program by a well-known next trend on television.Why did you select radio talk show host. Examine each segment this trend? to plot the drama and conflict inherent in 4. Describe a show in which you think the segment and evaluate its effectiveness in viewer expectations have not been met. maintaining audience attention. What specifically did the show promise and 10. Examine a well-known website. not deliver? Did a particular character act How does it convey (or not) to new visi- in a way that was not true to his or her tors that its content is fresh and will be personality? updated? 5. What changes, if any, do you see in 11. Examine a well-known website. In format-dominant shows? what ways could it use its brand recogni- 6. Watch some classic television shows tion to venture into offering other goods on TV Land. Why were these shows suc- or services to its visitors? 160 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Sallie Hofmeister. “Fuzzy Picture for 10. Goldenson, p. 243. NBC’s Newest Cable Property,” Los Angeles 11. Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations, 15th Times, October 12, 2003, p. C-1. edition (Boston: Little Brown, 1980), p. 902. 2. Rick Du Brow. “The Goldenson 12. Emily Nussbaum. “The First Time Years,” Los Angeles Times Calendar, February Around, She Blew It. Or Did She?” Los 3, 1991, p. 78. Angeles Times, July 27, 2003, p. E-1. 3. Bill Carter. “TV for the ARP Set,” 13. Diane English. “NPR’s Totenberg: The New York Times, November 3, 2003, Pushed into the Limelight,” Broadcasting, p. C-10. November 4, 1991, pp. 58–60. 4. Stuart Elliott. “Advertising,” The New 14. Frank Rich. “Jon Stewart’s Perfect York Times, April 21, 2003, p. C-12. Pitch,” The New York Times, April 20, 2003, 5. Allison Romano. “Chris Albrecht’s Section 2, p.1. Goombas,” Broadcasting and Cable, September 15. Sean M. Smith. “Fan Swapping: Gay, 9, 2002, pp. 12–13. Straight, Up Late,” Newsweek, June 23, 6. Paul Brownﬁeld. “TV’s Big Noise- 2003, p. 65. maker—and Proud of It,” Los Angeles Times, 16. KIZN 92.3 FM. “Keep Kids Warm November 20, 2002, pp. E-1 and E-13. On-Air Auction,” http://www.kizn.com/ 7. John Leverence. Awards Director. keep_kids_warm.php. Accessed January 17, Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. 2004. Interview, January 14, 1992. 17. Billboard Country Monitor, Sep- 8. Ken Auletta. Three Blind Mice: How the tember 27, 2002, http://www.kathyhussey. Networks Lost Their Way (New York: com/redragtop.html. Accessed October 13, Random House, 1991), p. 114. 2004. 9. Greg Braxton. “TV Convention 18. Joe Garner. “Marketing Program- Draws Record Crowd,” Los Angeles Times, ming in the 1990s,” College Broadcaster, January 28, 1993, p. F-4. November/December, 1990, p. 5. 7 Inﬂuences on Television Programming

In this chapter you will learn about the following: • The external and internal forces that influence programming • How pressure groups operate • The role the government plays in television programming • How and why advertisers and pressure groups target specific programs • How different internal departments affect programming decisions • The various functions of internal departments and how these functions influence what audiences experience • How different departments jockey to ensure their influence will be recognized finance department; the broadcast stan- Figure 7.1 • The areas that censors monitor dards and practices department, most Influences that In this chapter, we examine both the often aligned with the legal department; affect programming. external and the internal forces that the promotion and marketing depart- exercise considerable power over televi- ments; and research departments. We sion programming. External forces are also examine the influence of top man- those entities not directly involved in agement, and, as more companies merge, the creation and production of a the influence of the parent company product. We look at outside forces that (Figure 7.1). include stations, advertisers, pressure groups, the media, academic and non- EXTERNAL INFLUENCES profit studies, and various branches of ON TELEVISION the government. Internal forces are those departments or divisions that have Commercial television, with its reliance a say about the programming content. on advertising, its obligation to maintain We look at the sales department; the broadcast licenses, and its importance

161 162 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

as a cultural phenomenon, is susceptible Station Influence to several outside influences.Also, its visibility in the entertainment landscape Although there is a close connection seemingly invites close scrutiny from between the commercial networks and many quarters. the stations that carry the networks’ pro- Cable TV programming, on the other gramming, almost as if they were part hand, is subject to much less outside of the same family, we consider stations influence. One reason for this stems as outside entities. There is clearly a from cable’s narrowcasting philosophy. symbiotic relationship between stations Pressure groups that want specific types and networks. As outside forces, stations of programming have difficulty pushing exercise control on program content. their demands on a network that is not The network may generate the trying to capture a broad audience. program, but the stations command the In addition, cable came to fruition distribution base. For example, in 2003, during the deregulatory era of the two CBS affiliates in Texas, KZTV and 1980s. When the government was KVTV, refused to carry the Hitler rescinding regulations regarding broad- miniseries,“Hitler:The Rise of Evil,” for casting, it was not about to create them fear the program might cause young for cable. Also, the FCC was reluctant to people to view Hitler in too sympa- regulate cable because the signals went thetic a light. through wires, not through the public If many stations refuse to present a airwaves. Nevertheless, the FCC made network program, the audience will be some rulings that affected cable in areas dramatically reduced and a huge finan- where cable and broadcasting over- cial payback to the advertisers will be lapped, such as the must-carry rule. required. Therefore, network program- These regulations mostly were an mers are sensitive to the program eval- attempt to protect broadcasting interests uations of station programmers and from competition that might be created managers. by cable. Making decisions in this area is a dif- In many ways, the appearance of cable ficult juggling act because of the enor- helped commercial broadcasters throw mous range of tastes across the country. off some government shackles. Regula- A program acceptable in San Francisco tion of broadcasting was based largely may be boycotted in Little Rock.When on the scarcity theory. Because the a network is developing a potentially airwaves only allowed four or five chan- controversial movie, series episode, or nels in most cities, few people could documentary, it will frequently contact own commercial stations. Therefore, the a committee of key affiliate managers to government felt obligated to protect this take a temperature reading. Many times, rare commodity and ensure it was oper- this advance notice will produce some ated in the public interest. But when script adjustments that will avoid a cable came along, just about anyone wholesale bailout and an unseemly could start a network, so scarcity was no dispute. longer a viable idea. The fractionaliza- The relationship between syndicators tion of programming and audience, with and stations is not nearly as close. Net- the philosophy of deregulation, led to a works and affiliates are joined at the hip limiting of controls on cable program- throughout the broadcast day, every day, ming and a lessening of controls on week in and week out. Because stations broadcasters. and syndicators come together just for 7 Influences on Television Programming 163 particular shows, their association is a lot advertisers pulled out of an episode of less familial. There is no mechanism set “thirtysomething,” which featured two up to notify stations about controversial guest-starring men talking in bed, material, nor are there subcommittees apparently after having sex. To avoid among the stations to monitor and further financial setbacks, the network protest content. However, if a pro- decided not to rerun the episode. In the duction company consistently supplies following season, the network said it lost programs that cause trouble in local $500,000 in another “thirtysomething” markets, the station managers are not episode that depicted the two men acci- shy about voicing their displeasure, dentally meeting for the first time since and they hold the ultimate weapon, a the one-night stand. cancellation. The dilemma of the broadcaster who In the world of cable, cable systems must attempt to reflect the realities of decide which cable channels they will contemporary society within the con- offer subscribers. Complicated financial fines of advertiser acceptability was elo- negotiations and the demands of the quently addressed by Robert Iger when public tend to determine which chan- he was president of ABC Entertainment: nels are carried. This also holds true for “The danger of having to impose some satellite television such as Direct TV, form of content standards because of where customer service representatives advertiser pressure is one of the more solicit callers regarding channels that disturbing parts of my job. I am running might be added to the service. a division that has a fiscal as well as a For public television, the influence creative and social responsibility, and to and interrelationships between public maintain a balance between them is stations and the central PBS network are sometimes very difficult.” strong. Stations pay the network for pro- Not every wish of an advertiser is grams. They are the network’s primary honored. When the sponsor’s require- customers, and stations are quick to tell ments conflict with the integrity of a PBS what they do not like or what is production, the demands are frequently not working for them. rejected. A classic example occurred with “Missiles of October,” ABC’s 1974 Advertisers 3-hour special that recreated the events of the Cuban missile crisis, which began One of the strongest influences on when the United States discovered that programming is the advertiser. Shows the Soviet Union was installing offensive unable to attract sponsors, or hold the nuclear weapons 90 miles off Florida’s ones they have, will lead short, unhappy shore. President John F. Kennedy lives. Advertisers are extremely sensitive demanded that Soviet President Nikita to program content that may alienate or Khrushchev remove the launch sites infuriate potential customers. Their goal without delay. Khrushchev refused, and is to expand gross sales, not extend artis- for 13 days the world stood poised for tic boundaries. Although some are gen- a nuclear holocaust. uinely concerned about free expression, A Japanese automaker was impressed their primary obligation is to stock- by Stanley Greenberg’s teleplay and holders, and this imposes severe limits to offered to sponsor half the program, a their programming boldness. purchase worth slightly more than $1 ABC reported that it lost more than million. However, the deal was contin- $1 million in revenue in 1990 when gent upon the deletion of two lines in 164 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

from 15 to 30 seconds to entice more underwriters to come on board. These longer spots cannot engage in direct selling, in keeping with public broadcasting’s guidelines, but many think the messages on public television are becoming more like ads on commercial television.

The Family Friendly Programming Forum Perhaps lamenting the early days of television when advertisers controlled programming, some advertisers crave direct Figure 7.2 the script. Both were references to control over programming. Not content “Gilmore Girls” is Japan’s participation in World War II, the to wait to see what will be produced one of the shows most important of which was a state- and available, these advertisers want to that has taken ment by Attorney General Robert F. be fully involved. For example, the advantage of Kennedy that the president had insisted Family Friendly Programming Forum, Family Friendly that the U.S. Air Force immediately dis- formed in 1999, consists of a group of Programming perse American bombers and fighter major national advertisers who provide Forum funding. (Globe Photos, planes. “My brother doesn’t want them the networks with seed money to Inc.) lined up wing tip to wing tip the way develop “family friendly” series. Some they were at Pearl Harbor when the of the advertisers who comprise the Japanese nearly wiped out our Air council include Procter & Gamble, Force.”1 Greenberg and producer FedEx, Ford, General Motors, and Herbert Brodkin objected to the Johnson & Johnson. change, pointing out that it was a major This is the way the forum works: concern of the president and that its The networks submit scripts they think omission would make Kennedy look support the forum’s objectives. If the naive and inattentive to the lessons of forum agrees, seed money is provided to history. The network agreed, the lines bring the projects to fruition. If the stayed in; the automaker withdrew its network puts the series into production, sponsorship. The sales department sold the networks return the seed money to the time to a scattering of clients, and the script development fund of the the network lost in excess of $500,000 forum. If the series go on air, the net- in billings. But the show, available on works are assured that the participating DVD, aired exactly the way the author advertisers will willingly buy spots in the intended. shows. Public broadcasting was designed to The WB in particular has taken be free of commercials so that adver- advantage of the opportunity provided tisers could not influence program by Family Friendly Programming content. But as government funding has Forum funding, with such shows as decreased, public broadcasting has had to “Gilmore Girls” (Figure 7.2) and rely more on corporate underwriting. In “Family Affair.” NBC’s “American 2003, the PBS board of directors voted Dreams” and ABC’s “8 Simple Rules” to increase its underwriting messages have also participated. 7 Influences on Television Programming 165

Achieving a balance between contro- wanted networks and stations to versy and comfort is difficult for adver- improve the quality of children’s pro- tisers that are, generally, an extremely gramming, which at the time consisted cautious group.Viewers, in particular the mainly of cartoons, many of them younger viewers that advertisers seek, violent. The organization, led by Peggy want a sense of excitement or contro- Charren, succeeded in convincing the versy. More viewers mean more people FCC that it should develop guidelines are exposed to an advertiser’s spots.Yet, for children’s programs that broadcasters as a rule, advertisers steadfastly avoid were to adhere to. controversy. Controversial shows there- These guidelines, issued in 1974, fore end up more often on cable, such stated, among other things, that stations as Showtime’s frank “Queer As Folk” would be expected to present a reason- and HBO’s “Sex and the City” and “Six able number of programs designed Feet Under,” all of which sport charac- specifically for children and that they ters and situations far past the line at were to use imaginative and exciting which most advertisers are comfort- methods to further children’s under- able—even if such shows have become standing of such areas as literature, fine award-night powerhouses. Nevertheless, arts, history, science, the environment, gone are the days when Ricky and human relations, reading, and math. For Lucy Arnaz had to sleep in separate several years, these strictures were twin beds and avoid the mention of observed and both stations and networks Lucy being “pregnant”—even if Little developed programs such as after-school Ricky did eventually appear, surrepti- dramas, science shows, and news pro- tiously, in one of the most-watched grams for young people. episodes in television history. Shows Although these efforts were meritori- such as “Will & Grace” and even ous, they attracted smaller audiences “Friends” have featured ample racy sit- than traditional cartoon fare and the uations but continued to garner top broadcasters’ bottom line was adversely dollars from advertisers. affected. When deregulation came into vogue in the 1980s, the FCC stopped Pressure Groups enforcing the 1974 regulations and fast- paced adventure cartoons returned to Several organizations have been set up dominate the schedule.ACT sprang into specifically to monitor television pro- action again. Through its lobbying gramming. Their mission is to encour- efforts, it succeeded in convincing Con- age programming that conforms to their gress to pass the Children’s Television standards of taste, political correctness, Act in 1990, which increased the and morality and to eliminate program- amount of educational and informa- ming they find offensive. Pressure tional programming to serve the needs groups run the gamut from very con- of children. After this success, Charren servative to very liberal. Although they declared her mission achieved and dis- are frequently maligned by producers banded the organization, although she and broadcasters, they serve a valu- remains active as a spokesperson for able function, providing a variety of quality television. perspectives. Another pressure group is Media ACT was one of the most durable of Research Center, whose principal such groups. It was formed in Boston in concern is the invasion of leftist the 1960s by a group of parents who doctrine in TV programs. Headed by 166 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

10 Best Shows Probably the most prominent conservative activist is the Reverend Donald 1. “Touched by an Angel” Wildmon, founder of the American 2. “Doc” Family Association in 1977.A Methodist 3. “Sue Thomas F.B. Eye” minister from Tupelo, Mississippi, 4. “7th Heaven” Wildmon has attempted to influence 5. “Life with Bonnie” 6. “Smallville” program decisions primarily through 7. “Reba” pressure on advertisers. He blames the 8. “Star Search” entertainment industry for abandoning Figure 7.3 9. “George Lopez” traditional values; for example, objecting The Parents 10. “8 Simple Rules for Dating My Teenage strongly to what he calls the “normal- Television Council’s Daughter” ization” of premarital sex. Top 10 best and Over the years,Wildmon has targeted worst shows for 10 Worst Shows families in the such shows as “LA Law” (“perverse and 1. “CSI: Crime Scene Investigation” 2002–2003 illicit sex”),“Growing Pains” (“perverted 2. “Kingpin” season. (Parents family entertainment”), “48 Hours” 3. “Fastlane” Television (“subtle swipes at Christianity”), 4. “NYPD Blue” Council, a and “thirtysomething” (“homosexual 5. “Fear Factor” nonsectarian scene”). He numbers among his boycott 6. “Angel” watchdog group 7. “Girlfriends” successes NBC’s “Roe vs. Wade,” an that advocates 8. “Will & Grace” Emmy Award-winning 1989 TV movie family-friendly 9. “Friends” from which advertisers withdrew more TV 10. “Big Brother” than $1 million in advertising when it programming.) did not support his views against abortion. He also persuaded Pepsi Cola to abandon a $5 million advertising cam- L. Brent Bozell, the center reports paign featuring Madonna because of the on the left-wing bias it observes on entertainer’s alleged “anti-Christian television. symbolism in her songs and videos.”3 He The Parents Television Council, also includes among his victories the cancel- headed by Bozell, analyzes the appro- lation of “Ellen” in 1998, the show that priateness of programs for family starred Ellen DeGeneres as an openly viewing. Every year it publishes its list gay character. of the 10 best and 10 worst shows on Wildmon does not support the V- the seven broadcast networks (Figure chip, a device parents can use to block 7.3). The list includes “a quantitative programs they think are not suitable for analysis of the frequency of foul lan- their children and one of the provisions guage, sexual content, and violence on of the 1996 Telecommunications Act. each series, as well as the time slot, target He thinks the V-chip absolves the enter- audience, themes, and plotlines of the tainment industry of its responsibilities. programs.”2 The Parents Television Instead, he supports a device called Council proudly announces successes it TVGuardian, a foul-language filter has in getting advertisers to pull their that automatically filters out offensive ads from shows, as was the case when language for television, videos, and “Nip/Tuck,” FX’s controversial series, DVDs. lost some of its advertisers over contro- Resisting the efforts of conservative versial content about suicide. organizations is People for the American 7 Influences on Television Programming 167

Way, a liberal group that encourages Mills, for many years CBS’s vice presi- the media’s freedom of expression. dent of movies made for television. Founded by TV producer Norman Lear, “Every program will step on somebody’s the group carries on a relentless strug- toes. All you can do is make it honest, gle against the “religious right” in make it fair, and make it good. And courts, Washington, and the nation’s when the heat comes, tell the com- press. plainers why you think it’s a picture that Added to all these formal organiza- should be seen and hold firm to your tions are ad hoc groups or individuals convictions.” who protest only when a program offends their particular interest. For The Religious Right example, Terry Rakolta, a Michigan homemaker, did not like a “Married . . . The religious right has a large follow- With Children” episode in which Peg ing, one vocal about its displeasure with Bundy shopped for a bra. She tried to programming that presents conflicting incite a boycott of the sponsor’s prod- values. Many such people complained ucts. The movement backfired when about the inadequate supply of family- many new viewers tuned in to see what friendly programming. Their complaints all the hollering was about. Undeterred, did not go unnoticed, particularly when Rakolta formed Americans for Respon- it became clear that there were dollars sible Television, a group dedicated to the to be made by providing entertainment restoration of family values in television the religious right would find appealing, programs. possibly starting with the premiere of Despite periodic attacks on the “Touched by an Angel” on CBS in 1994 “liberal slant” of public broadcasting, or the successful theatrical release of The pressure groups generally tend to pay Omega Code in 1999, followed by the less attention to cable and public televi- phenomenal success of The Passion of the sion, partly because their audiences tend Christ in 2004. to be smaller and more fragmented than Publications such as Christianity Today those for commercial television. Com- and numerous websites direct the public mercial television, which does not to fare that contains positive, wholesome require viewers to pay a fee (ostensibly values. Cleanflicks edits videos to to get what they are paying for), remains remove objectionable elements from the main focus of most pressure groups. violent, sexually explicit films. Sensitive Grumbles about cable pushing the enve- to this trend, Jonathan Bock formed a lope may result in a lot more attention company called Grace Hill Media in for cable. 2000. This company markets entertain- Shows that touch on sensitive themes ment product to religious groups, remain likely to draw fire. One day it groups that Hollywood tended to may be the National Association for ignore. He consults on films and televi- Advancement of Colored People; the sion programs alike. next day it might be the Veterans of For Bock, “On any given weekend, Foreign Wars followed by the National the number of people who attend reli- Organization of Women, the Anti- gious services—roughly 122 million—is Defamation League, or the Knights of vastly greater than the number who go Columbus. What is a poor programmer to the movies—and that kind of ticket- to do? “Show some courage,” said Steve purchasing power can be tapped.”4 168 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

If Bock or others cannot convince Drug companies are the nation’s fifth religious groups that a particular work largest advertisers.6 Even though “Who contains a strong moral message, then Killed Sue Snow?” had been carefully fundamental religious groups are quick reviewed by USA’s legal department to call for bans, advertiser boycotts, FCC before it received a green light, the fines, or legislative action. threat of an ad boycott for the entire network for a single film was not worth Timing the risk for USA, regardless of how responsibly the script handled the topic A group or advertiser’s timing in apply- of drug tampering. ing pressure can vary. An advertiser, The last-minute pressure exercised on for example, may decide to embrace or “Who Killed Sue Snow?” was unusual. avoid a program at the conceptual stage. Most often, ad buyers will decide where Although most programmers advocate they want to place their ad dollars at the making shows without the advertisers “up fronts” in May, when the schedules in mind, some cautious executives will are announced. Buyers will purchase avoid developing shows they do not “blocks” of advertising times at the start think the ad buyers will want. Before of the season, although they may select venturing into development, some may to buy time in individual shows during even check with the sales force that may, the year, known as “scatter buys.” in turn, “pass the idea by” a major Advertisers have the opportunity to advertiser. screen advance copies of shows to see Sometimes an advertiser will protest whether they want to keep the spots the making of a show, blocking it from they have purchased or to pull out. For getting made. For example, in 2000, pro- example, if an automobile manufacturer ducer Ilene Amy Berg got a green light has bought blocks of time in a series and from the USA cable network to make a one of the episodes deals with SUVs’ telefilm called “Who Killed Sue Snow?” poor safety performance, that advertiser It was the story of a woman, Stella will have the opportunity to withdraw Nickell, who in 1986 in Seattle killed the spot.The salesperson at the network her husband by lacing Excedrin capsules will try to convince the ad buyer to stay with cyanide. To draw suspicion from in, perhaps stressing that the driver of herself and to make it look like a the SUV in the show was shown to be copycat killing, Nickell put cyanide in negligent, but the advertiser still has the other containers of Excedrin. opportunity to withdraw. Five days before the start of shooting, Many times, salespeople will contact USA pulled the plug on the movie the programming executive to get the under pressure from Johnson & Johnson, right spin to describe a show, one that the maker of Tylenol. Johnson & can be used to assuage an anxious buyer. Johnson does not make Excedrin, but it (“Yes, the show does portray life on objected to any portrayal of drug tam- the streets as dirty and depressing, but pering. It figured that a movie that drew the show’s message is really about the attention to drug tampering would be redemptive power of forgiveness.”) harmful to the company. Johnson & If you are watching a prime-time Johnson threatened to pull all its adver- show that contains numerous public tising from USA, revealing “the growing service announcements, a lot of local clout of major advertisers in the com- ads, and few national ads, chances are petitive television market.”5 good that an advertiser pulled out, 7 Influences on Television Programming 169 maybe even at the last minute, feeling right, getting a finished film pulled after the particular program was not an it had already been announced in the appropriate venue for its product. press? Was pulling it at the last minute a In 2003, a major controversy took valid moral decision by a man who place when CBS opted to cancel its found the film unbalanced? Was it $10 million miniseries “The Reagans” further evidence of the cowardly nature 2 weeks before it was scheduled to air of the networks? These and many other during the November sweeps.The pres- points of view were expressed about this sure was applied after the film was made, hot-button telefilm.As Meg James, Greg after an airdate had been assigned, and Braxton, and Bob Baker noted in the after the publicity had begun. In Los Angeles Times, “Never before had announcing his decision to pull the a network pulled a major, completed plug, CBS President Les Moonves said production off the air amid such the film was not the one he had pressure.”11 ordered, that it was advocacy instead of 7 entertainment, and that he was making The Media a moral decision not to air it,8 offering it instead to Showtime, owned by Television reporting is news—big news. Viacom, CBS’s parent company. “Entertainment Tonight,” “Access At play in the timing of the decision Hollywood,” “Entertainment Weekly,” about “The Reagans” was a strong and countless other outlets keep an eager objection from conservative groups to audience informed about what is going the project as a hatchet job, unfair to on in the television industry. Television Nancy Reagan and to former President shows are reviewed and dissected daily. Ronald Reagan, whose Alzheimer’s Cast changes, cancellations, station condition prevented him from defend- defections, and ratings are breathlessly ing himself. Conservatives (who had reported to a seemingly insatiable not seen the finished film) labeled it public.The buzz about television can be unfair and inaccurate, urging CBS not deafening, but what effect does the to air it. media attention have on programming? A groundswell of conservative When TV Guide publishes an article protests ensued. The Media Research about good shows that viewers are not Center sent a letter to 100 television watching, do ratings improve? Most sponsors encouraging them not to often, no. Does a coveted TV Guide advertise their products on the show.9 cover guarantee ratings? No. If media Former Republican congressional staff observer Mark Andrejevic notes that member Michael Paranzino started a reality shows “glamorize surveillance” website called BoycottCBS.com.10 and that living under “Big Brother” on Was the cancellation of “The reality shows is now cool, because twice Reagans” a victory for the conservative as many people apply to be on MTV’s 170 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

“The Real World” (Figure 7.4) than to attend Harvard University,12 will these insights alter people’s viewing habits? Again, probably not. John McMahon and Karen Moore produced many telefilms for USA under the Wilshire Court banner.They used to joke that they wanted bad reviews for their movies, bad reviews that suggested the movies might be fun to watch— “guilty pleasures,” in other words. For them, a review that said a program was good for you, one that elevated the Figure 7.4 genre, or one that would teach viewers “The Real World” has connected with teen viewers for more than 10 a meaningful lesson was a ratings kiss of years. (Globe Photos, Inc.) death. It might be necessary to take medicine if you are ill, but there is no appeal in a television program designed to make you feel better. Many programmers similarly dismiss poor reviews, insisting that when it comes to commercial television, good reviews do not mean ratings.These programmers think that many media critics are too lofty in their expectations and that they do not understand the business. A programming executive might thus use ABC’s “According to Jim,” starring Jim Belushi (Figure 7.5), as an example of a show that would never make any critic’s Top 10 list even though it is a show that viewers have embraced, to highlight how critics have no insight into viewer tastes. However, most programming executives do not like to see their shows constantly pilloried in the press. A string of negative reviews could make them more receptive to a quality submission just to relieve the heat. Good reviews have a more significant effect on cable and a much more significant effect on public television. There are so many options on cable that Figure 7.5 a show singled out for praise can break “According to Jim” has found an appreciative audience despite from the pack.“The Sopranos” on HBO lukewarm reviews. (Photo © ABC Photography Archives.) more than likely owes its phenomenal 7 Influences on Television Programming 171 success to the reviews that praised the explore the effects of violence on quality of the writing. children.13 These studies, supervised by 12 Although public television does not prestigious researchers, concluded that a rely on advertisers and is not driven by modest relationship exists between vio- ratings, it wants to program quality- lence viewed on TV and aggressive ten- driven shows. Public television also wants dencies in children. These studies were its shows to receive attention, partly to undertaken while ACT was promoting keep underwriters committed to spon- reforms in children’s television. The sorship. Good reviews are thus important reforms that came were the result of for public television stations. Over the various factors; these research studies years, the press has been generally were among them. responsive to public television offerings, In 2002 and 2003, commentary about giving public TV programs positive the state of television frequently reviews and covers of Sunday television- included observations by Robert J. magazine supplements—to the great Thompson, professor and director of the frustration of commercial and cable pro- Center for the Study of Popular Televi- grammers that would like the exposure. sion at Syracuse University. The author But again, it is uncertain whether the of several studies, including Television’s supplement covers significantly affect Second Golden Age (1996) and Prime what the average viewer watches. Time, Prime Movers (1992), Thompson presents a unique approach to the Academic and Nonprofit Studies medium by refusing to undermine “popular” television and refusing to Universities and foundations frequently adopt the loftier-than-thou approach examine aspects of television and many commentators cling to. By taking publish their findings. Although pro- a friendlier approach to television, grammers rarely make decisions based Thompson has brought a refreshing per- on these reports, the studies can create spective to academic studies. an environment that will eventually influence program content. The The Government National Coalition of Television Vio- lence, a nonprofit organization of mental Commercial television transmits its health specialists and media researchers, product using signals that pass through periodically reviews the nation of trends the nation’s airwaves. These airwaves in television violence. For several belong to the public and are, therefore, decades, Dr. George Gerbner of the subject to the supervision of govern- University of Pennsylvania has had a ment. In 1934, Congress passed the staff counting incidents of violence on Communications Act that delineated the television programs and conducting rights and limitations of broadcasters various research studies about violence. and established the FCC to carry out His studies have helped to create an the regulations prescribed in the act.The awareness of the daily mayhem, but FCC is still the broadcasters’ main inter- whether these studies have caused any face with government. reduction is questionable. One group of studies that probably The Federal Communications Commis- affected programming was solicited in sion. The FCC is an independent 1969 by the U.S. Surgeon General to executive agency comprising five com- 172 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

missioners, no more than three of whom but it has happened. For example, in may be members of the same political 1990, a Chicago station was denied party, appointed by the president with license renewal partly because the the consent of the Senate for 5-year station at one time aired pornographic terms. Among its powers are the ability movies. In 1964, the FCC issued a to grant, renew, revoke, or modify short-term license to WLBT in Jackson, broadcast station licenses. Mississippi, because of the manner in Although networks are not licensed, which it presented racial issues. This all stations are. Because all of the net- station’s license was later revoked works own and operate several stations, because of a court ruling. the government can influence their per- If the FCC thinks a station is doing formance by threatening them with the something improper, at license renewal loss of one or more of their owned and time or at some other time, it can take operated stations. In addition, networks actions other than revoking a license. It do not want to cause problems for their can fine a station, or it can issue a cease affiliated stations by sending them and desist order that notifies the station programming that might give them dif- that it is to stop a certain action or it ficulties at license renewal time. Syn- may receive further punishment. dicators, too, are aware that the stations Many think that the fines levied would not be happy with syndicated are simply gentle rebukes because the material that placed their licenses in fine amounts are too low to cause the jeopardy. broadcasting stations real discomfort. License renewal depends on many In 2003, the maximum single fine was factors, such as fulfilling equal employ- $27,500; the amount has since increased ment obligations and broadcasting on significantly, as there is a concerted the right frequency with the right effort in Washington to increase fines power. The quality of a station’s pro- and levy more of them. This is evi- gramming is also a factor in licensing denced by the 2004 fines stations owned decisions. The FCC does not proscribe and operated by CBS received for the any programming ahead of time—a Janet Jackson “wardrobe malfunction” clause in the 1934 Communications Act and the fines Fox stations received for prevents such prior censorship. But “Married by America.” For example, another clause in the Communications the repeated fines levied on “The Act states that “The Commission, if Howard Stern Show” over the years are public convenience, interest, or necessity easily offset by the show’s considerable will be served thereby, subject to the profits. limitations of this Act, shall grant to any Many also think that the FCC is too applicant therefore a station license pro- lenient. For example, in 2003, when vided for by this Act.”14 This “public Bono used f—during the broadcast of convenience, interest, or necessity” “The Golden Globes” on NBC, the clause has become the keystone for FCC responded to complaints by deter- license renewal. Its definition is suffi- mining that Bono’s use of the term was ciently broad for any administration not obscene because it was not used in to make life uncomfortable for any a sexual context. This ruling, which the station that, in the FCC’s judgment, is FCC subsequently reversed, infuriated misbehaving. many who want to FCC to be Few TV stations have lost their tougher—possibly the same people who licenses because of their programming, were surprised earlier when the FCC 7 Influences on Television Programming 173 ruled that a broadcast of a “Victoria’s answer was a stammered, “no.” Shortly Secret Special” with women in sexy lin- thereafter, “Bus Stop” was canceled and gerie did not constitute indecency. so was Treyz. Although the FCC is the main gov- In 1993, intense congressional heat ernment body that broadcasters deal was once again being applied to the with, various facets of the executive, leg- industry, this time by Senator Paul islative, and judicial branches of govern- Simon, author of the 1990 Television ment can affect programming policies. Violence Act. The agreement by the For example, after the FCC allowed four networks earlier in the year to affix companies to own TV stations that col- viewer advisories to self-evaluated lectively reach 45% of the nation’s violent programs apparently was not sat- viewers, Congress voted to set the cap isfactory to the legislator. Broadcasters at 39%. insisted that government interference was not needed, and Simon insisted that Congress. Congress, as already men- the broadcasters were not doing enough tioned, approves FCC commissioners to curb violence on television. and passes laws that govern or affect After the exposure of Janet Jackson’s broadcasting. In addition, various con- breast at the Super Bowl half-time show gressional committees occasionally inves- in 2004, a storm of protests gathered. tigate aspects of broadcast programming. That children were in the audience One subject investigated at least once fueled the outcry, although no one a decade is violence on TV.As far back seemed to object that these children as 1950, Senator Estes Kefauver mused saw many ads for erectile dysfunction on the Senate floor that perhaps there products during the game. Shortly was too much violence on TV.An inves- after the Super Bowl, Viacom President tigation into violence that occurred in and Chief Operating Officer Mel the 1961–1962 season was mainly the Karmazin, representing CBS, which result of ABC’s attempt to reach its broadcast the Super Bowl, and National target audience of 18 to 34 year olds by Football League Commissioner Paul cranking up sex and violence in Tagliabue were urgently summoned to action–adventure shows, which became testify before the Senate Commerce known as “jiggle television.” As the Committee and a subcommittee of the mayhem and heavy breathing increased, House Committee on Energy and so did the audience. Commerce. In response, the other networks went Congressional hearings have covered up a few decibels and the nightly din many other programming-related sub- was deafening. Viewers contacted their jects. During a 1950s House subcom- Congress members, and network leaders mittee hearing, Charles Van Doren, the were summoned to Washington to be most famous of the “Twenty-One” quiz grilled before Senator Thomas J. Dodd show winners, confessed that he had and his committee members. The ABC been helped with answers to defeat president, Oliver Treyz, was a target. His contestants who were less appealing to series, “Bus Stop,” had presented an the public. At the time, there was no episode in which rock singer Fabian law that prohibited this practice, but portrayed a psychopath who lived to kill it was unfair to other contestants and torture. When a senator asked the and unfair to the audience that believed beleaguered executive if he allowed his the competitions were genuine. As own children to see such a show, the a result of its hearings, Congress 174 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

amended the Communications Act, President Nixon vetoed public broad- making it unlawful to give such help to casting’s 1972–1974 budget. a contestant. More recently, in 2001, Karl Rove, President George W. Bush’s senior The President. The president and other adviser, met with some 47 top Holly- members of the executive branch do not wood executives to encourage them to have as much formal power to influence make more patriotic, antiterrorist enter- programming as Congress. Presidents tainment in the wake of the attacks on can veto bills related to broadcasting, just the World Trade Center on September as they can any other bills, and they 11, 2001. Although Rove and his appoint the members of the FCC. colleagues said they were not asking However, the power wielded over pro- Hollywood to make propaganda films, it gramming by the executive branch tends was nevertheless clear that they were to be informal. For example, in the late interested in having traditionally liberal 1960s and early 1970s when anti- Hollywood embrace the President’s Vietnam War and civil rights demon- policies. strations dominated the evening news, the Richard Nixon administration The Military. The military can similarly applied considerable pressure to the net- exercise significant influence over pro- works and stations to present “a more gramming—especially any programming balanced” perspective of the national that may wish to use images or assets mood. In the administration’s judgment, from the military in production. By the “silent majority” of Americans cooperating or not cooperating with a supported the president’s policies, but particular production, the military can the dissidents were receiving a dispro- substantially decrease or increase pro- portionate amount of attention because duction costs. Although these costs their demonstrations supplied the media primarily affect theatrical films, the with interesting pictures. Although military’s stamp of approval of a partic- the government never initiated any ular television program not only can formal action against the networks, lower costs but also can provide much- the capacity (some said “implied threat”) valued realism. to do so caused industry executives In this regard, George Washington to monitor carefully all footage with University law professor Jonathan Turley political implications to avoid accusa- noted, “Most Americans are unaware tions of bias. that the U.S. military routinely reviews Theoretically, the CPB was set up to scripts that might require Defense insulate public broadcasting from the Department cooperation and that the government. The money allocated by Pentagon compels changes for television Congress is forwarded to the CPB, and movies to convey the government’s which then distributes it to stations and message.”15 He added that a team of networks. The CPB’s role is to make military advisers embedded in Holly- sure that the government does not pass wood worked on a “JAG” script “to along its politics as it passes along its present its controversial military tri- money. This has not always been the bunals as something of an ACLU case; less money can be allocated if the [American Civil Liberties Union] administration is not pleased with what lawyer’s dream.”16 If the military does is being broadcast. This occurred when not like a particular portrayal, access to 7 Influences on Television Programming 175 military equipment, locations, and stock to run political ads, all other candidates footage is readily denied. must have the opportunity to buy an equivalent amount of time at the same The Courts. The judicial system ad rate. A station cannot charge one becomes involved with broadcasting candidate more money to place an ad when cases are brought to it.These cases than it has charged another. can be brought by individuals or compa- The equal time provision comes from nies that think they have been wronged Section 315 of the 1934 Communica- by some aspect of commercial broadcast- tions Act. Section 315 states that broad- ing, or they can be brought by one media casters “shall afford equal opportunities organization against another. In addition, to all other such candidates for that if a broadcaster does not like an FCC office,”17 but over the years this section decision, that broadcaster can appeal has been commonly referred to as the through the U.S. Court of Appeals. equal time provision. When cases related to programming Now that several actors have made are tried in court, they are handled by their way into politics, a similar problem lawyers rather than programmers. But arises with entertainment programming. programmers are sometimes called as When Reagan ran for president, stations witnesses or are asked to give back- were legally obligated to give equal time ground information to the lawyers. to opponent Jimmy Carter anytime they Often, the various branches of gov- ran an old movie with Reagan in it. ernment interrelate. Congress may pass Most stations avoided the problem by a general law interpreted by the FCC in making sure they did not run Reagan a manner unfavorable to broadcasters. movies for the duration of the cam- The broadcasters can take the FCC paign, but Carter also made light ruling through the courts and, if the of the situation, joking that Reagan ruling is still unfavorable, they can go would probably lose votes if his old back to Congress to attempt to have the movies were shown. A similar situation basic law changed.The interrelationship, occurred in 2003 when actor Arnold involvement, and influence of the Schwarzenegger ran successfully for the various branches of government can be governorship of California not long seen by taking a close look at equal after his movie “Terminator 3” hit time provisions. theaters with its accompanying broadcast media marketing blitz, which featured Equal Time. During political cam- Schwarzenegger prominently and often. paigns, broadcasters are required to make Programmers who had previously time available in their programming scheduled movies featuring Schwar- schedules to all candidates running for zenegger to air on their stations had to federal office. They are also strongly shuffle their offerings. encouraged to allow time for state and But not all broadcast programming is local candidates. When time is made subject to equal time provisions. News available to one candidate for a particu- programs are exempted.The FCC deter- lar office, equal time must be allowed for mines which programs are classified as all other candidates running for the news. For example, the FCC classified same office. This applies to political Howard Stern’s program as a news show, commercials and to programs. If one so his program was not required to have candidate buys $100,000 worth of time all the presidential candidates if he had 176 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

one or two of them as guests. As less opted to make offers to the other reporter Sharon Waxman notes, the candidates to appear en masse on his FCC considers interviews on shows show, although he was not required to such as “The Tonight Show with Jay do so. Leno” news, similarly not subject to Now that the fairness doctrine is equal time requirements.18 So when no longer in effect, programmers clearly Arnold Schwarzenegger used “The should be well versed in the provisions, Tonight Show” to announce his candi- exclusions, and aberrations of the “equal dacy for the governorship in 2003, Leno time provision,” and they should keep was not obligated to allow all 135 other legal counsel handy during election candidates do the same. Leno neverthe- times.

THE ISSUE OF “STOP THE CHURCH”

“P.O.V.” (“Point of View”) is one of us,” presumably because of the PBS’s long-running series. Each Church’s objection to the promotion episode consists of a short film on a and distribution of condoms. matter of social or political conse- David Davis, president of P.O.V., quence. The shows are designed to acknowledged the earlier disturbance raise consciousness on subjects the over “Tongues Untied” and explained producers think are underexposed, that he was pulling “Stop the Church” misunderstood, or both. because “I felt another controversy at In July 1991, one of the productions this time would break (stations) backs ran into a firestorm of criticism. The and undermine their confidence in show, “Tongues Untied,” dealt with ‘P.O.V.’”19 But PBS spokesperson black male homosexuality and Mary Jane McKinven denied the included frank language and some linkage with the earlier show. She nudity. Hundreds of PBS stations stated that the “Stop the Church” refused to air the program, and others program, on its own merits, had “a per- ran it at off hours to minimize its vasive tone of ridicule which rather audience. overwhelms its critique of church On August 12, PBS announced the policy.”20 Her comment was supported cancellation of the next scheduled by John Grant, PBS’s vice president for “P.O.V.” episode, “Stop the Church.” scheduling: “Our decision has nothing Produced by the AIDS Coalition to to do with the attack on the church ..., Unleash Power (ACT UP), a gay it has nothing to do with the fact that it activist organization, the film depicted was made by an AIDS activist group. It the preparation for and execution of a was the tone and the ridicule that we 1989 demonstration at St. Patrick’s found inappropriate for broadcast.”21 Cathedral in New York City against the Although PBS officially removed the Catholic Church’s stance on AIDS. The program from its schedule, individual satirical song, “The Vatican Rag,” was stations were still free to obtain a print played as background music to scenes and play it. Three chose to do so: of Catholic worship, and ACT UP KCET in Los Angeles, WGBH in members were shown disrupting a Boston, and KQED in San Francisco. mass conducted by Cardinal John KCET’s decision to run the program O’Connor. During the services, caused a brouhaha in Los Angeles. activists were heard yelling at Cardinal Roger M. Mahony accused O’Connor, “Stop killing us, stop killing the station of surrendering to “black- 7 Influences on Television Programming 177 mail” by gay activists and called on KCET estimated it lost $55,000, most Southern Californians to consider with- of it because one local businessman holding contributions from KCET. pulled back a large pledge. Com- According to Mahony, gays and AIDS pounding the problem, the controversy activists had pressured the Los came during a recession, when contri- Angeles station to run the controversial butions were hard to come by. But the program by threatening to withdraw station claimed this experience would their financial support of the station not change its programming philoso- and to jam the switchboard during the phy. Barbara Goen, KCET’s vice station’s August pledge drive to make president for public information, said, it impossible for other donors to regis- “Any attempt at curtailing our income ter their contributions. source, or threatening it, is very At his press conference September serious. It probably has greater signif- 5, two days before the scheduled icance in hard times than in flush broadcast, the Cardinal said, “This times. But does it mean we change the absence of responsible leadership way we make program decisions? No, at KCET leads me to believe that it doesn’t.”24 Despite the idealistic tone, we should hold the station morally, it is also possible the station was and possible legally, responsible for bowing to pressure from the activists, every future act of terrorism against who could have caused the station to churches, temples, and synagogues lose much more income had the because KCET has told potential per- station not aired the program. petrators of such hate crimes that not It is interesting to speculate what only is such activity acceptable, it is advice a TV program consultant, had worthy of televised documentaries one been retained, might have offered celebrating and glorifying it.”22 the cardinal. “Stop the Church” regis- Despite this blistering attack, KCET tered a 4.5 rating and a 9.0 share. For held to its decision to air the show. At the five preceding weeks, the time his own news conference held later the period averaged a 1.7 rating and a 3.5 same day, then KCET President share; for the five weeks following, the William Kobin said that he was figures were 1.2 and 2.3. In short, the “distressed by Mahony’s actions. heated controversy over the show KCET believes strongly that its viewers generated an audience approximately deserve the same opportunity as Car- three times greater than normal. dinal Mahony to view this film and Perhaps the cardinal felt that no matter make up their own mind regarding this what the audience results were, he controversy.”23 could hardly let the broadcast take A surface solution would be to honor place without protest. But on a purely the judgment of the network officials statistical basis, an airing without any and withhold the program. However, controversy would surely have resulted activist organizations are well aware in a smaller audience, an outcome he that individual PBS stations operate would have preferred. with considerable autonomy and are Again, the question of whether con- capable of broadcasting shows dis- troversy helps or hurts ratings comes approved of, or discouraged, by the into play. In this instance from televi- network. What to do? Either way the sion’s past, controversy raised aware- station would alienate a broad con- ness and ratings. Whether ratings are stituency and run the risk of revenue helped or hurt by controversy and the loss. KCET chose to schedule the actions of pressure groups remains a program and attempted to moderate constant. Many external corporations, Catholic fury by scheduling an after- groups, and individuals work hard to show panel session in which church promote programs that support their advocates had an opportunity to rebut points of view and concerns and work the charges. equally hard against programs that Airing the program did have direct cross or question their values. adverse financial consequences. 178 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

INTERNAL INFLUENCES for this. Simply put, salespeople under- ON TELEVISION stand what sells. Although students may feel that the sales division is less glam- Internal influences also play a significant orous than development or production, role. Different departments or divisions sales executives have a real pulse on offer input that determines what types what the all-important advertisers are of programming viewers experience. going to respond to. They also know Every department in an organization from experience what the viewing engaged in making or distributing pro- public will want to see. gramming wants to ensure that its influ- Because of their antennas, salespeople ence is duly appreciated.All divisions are are often consulted before final pro- eager to make sure that they are not left gramming decisions are made. If the out of success, and they are quick to lay salespeople screening pilots at a com- blame elsewhere in failure. mercial or cable television network feel The programming departments may strongly that a particular program will be more visible than other television not appeal to advertisers or to the public, divisions, but they do not function in that is important information for the isolation. No programming department network to factor into the mix. Pro- stands alone. Occasionally an adventur- grammers may publicly claim that the ous programming executive will want to concerns of sales do not figure in pro- make a decision on his or her own, gramming decisions, but this is not choosing not to consult anyone, but always the case—nor should it be. It such rash decisions often backfire. Pro- would be foolish to forge ahead with a ducers often try to force executives to program that sales cannot sell, as was the make instant decisions in their favor, but case in 2000 when ABC put on “Won- even high-level programming executives derland,” a gritty series about life at a are better off not committing to any New York psychiatric hospital.In the first final actions without “consulting” with episode, a pregnant woman was jabbed in other departments. the stomach with a dirty drug needle, In support of this view, programmers causing viewers to flee. “Wonderland” like to tell the story of a young develop- premiered March 30 and had its last ment executive, a so-called baby mogul, airing a week later on April 6, proving who was so sure everybody would love that the salespeople had been right. a particular project that he, on his own, Salespeople also have knowledge committed to a production order.To his about what will sell abroad. For surprise, the network did not agree. Not example, suppose that a telefilm needs one department agreed with his choice, $700,000 from the foreign market to be and he had to “eat crow,”taking back his financially viable and the sales team says commitment. Had he said he needed to that the most that can be counted on is check with his and other departments, he $200,000. That is a $500,000 deficit, no would have looked more like his own small matter. If the production of the man than he did making promises he was film goes ahead and the salespeople unable to keep. were correct about their predictions, they will make sure everyone knows, The Sales Department both to bolster their division and to prevent similar mistakes. Many industry professionals have a sales In previous chapters, we mentioned background, and there is a good reason the adage that “sex sells.”There is ample 7 Influences on Television Programming 179 evidence that sexual content is prolific in many programs, but many savvy sales executives know that sex does not always sell (Figure 7.6).A 2003 study at the Uni- versity of Michigan supports this position, finding that viewers remember ads in programs that do not include sexual content.25 Thus salespeople might speak for programming that favors advertisers by avoiding overt sexual content to keep advertisers happy and rates high. In syndication, two sales voices must be heard: the one in charge of clearances and the one in charge of barter. If either states that the program is unsal- able, the project likely will be aban- needs to be negotiated by the financial Figure 7.6 doned. But the ultimate decision maker, department. The amount of the license Sex does not presumably the president of the produc- fee will, to a great extent, determine always sell, as the tion company (or distributor), must be how a project turns out: Cheap? Well failure of NBC’s alert. Many salespeople tend to evaluate produced? Somewhere between these “Coupling” programs on the anticipated degree of extremes? demonstrated in 2003. (Globe difficulty in selling the show.A program Most programmers are respectful of Photos, Inc.) that will sell easily will be supported the influence of the finance department, enthusiastically; one that looms as a careful to maintain a cordial relation- tough sell will be received coolly. None ship; however, friction can develop of this may relate to the inherent when it appears that the finance depart- strength of the show. ment, always seeking to contain costs, is standing in the way of the programming The Finance Department department’s agenda. For example, when Susan Lyne was head of TV movies at No projects see the light of day without ABC in 2000, she was upset that a low the finance department, sometimes offer had been made to an established called business affairs. As noted in star. The star flatly rejected the offer. Chapter 4, no project goes into devel- Lyne felt that a higher offer would have opment until the finance department secured the star’s services, giving the has closed a deal. Many programs are telefilm what all television executives never made because money matters want—a star who never does television. cannot be resolved. Showtime, for Generally, programming and finance example, under Jerry Offsay’s leadership, work well together, but when costs are would not put a project into develop- cut arbitrarily and quality begins to ment if the finance department was not suffer, programmers should challenge convinced it was financially feasible. financial dictates. Low-quality programs Thus, programming executives had to lead to lower audiences, which lead to get internal approval that the project reduced sales that lead to a devastating being proposed could be produced bottom line.There is no such thing as a within Showtime’s financial guidelines. cheap disaster. In general, when a given project is Martin Carlson, vice president of selected for production, a license fee business affairs at the Fox network, is a 180 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

tices department to catch an offensive word or scene before it causes trouble (Figure 7.7). Networks cannot air entertainment programming unless it has been cleared by the broadcast standards and practices department (this department does not cover news or sports, though that may change post–Janet Jackson and the Super Bowl), which gives these “censors,” as they are frequently called, a great deal of influence. This creates many heated discussions when the programming department wants something included in a program and the censors do not agree, particularly if the broadcast standards and practices executives feel a need to inflate their importance. For example, Alfred Schneider, whose book The Gatekeeper describes his 30 years as a network censor, would ask his staff, “Why are we making this?” as if the broadcast standards and practices department, not the programming department, was deciding what to put on the air. Broadcast standards and practices editors need to be adept at the art of Figure 7.7 full-service finance executive who negotiation to guide producers and pro- “NYPD Blue,” defines his role as a facilitator, bringing gramming executives to accept their starring Dennis parties together to make television. He rulings without appearing to be dictato- Franz and Mark- negotiates a variety of contracts (for rial. Often, waiting for all of the partic- Paul Gosselaar, actors, producers, directors, etc.) and is ipants to speak before requesting carries advisories intimately involved in all aspects of pro- changes can assist a censor in achieving for language and duction.What viewers see on Fox would the desired goal. partial nudity. (Photo © ABC not make it to air without executives Although many people believe that Photography who take charge of the finances. broadcast standards and practices depart- Archives.) ments have official lists of acceptable and The Broadcast Standards and unacceptable content, there are no fixed Practices Department rules. Being a network censor involves making informed judgment calls, not To operate profitably, a network must following set rules. avoid offending any of its many con- Because judgments about program stituencies: government, advertisers, affil- substance are largely subjective, pro- iated stations, and the scores of groups grammers and producers frequently that make up the general public. The view broadcast standards and practices wrath of any one of these can inflict representatives as the enemy and accuse heavy losses on the broadcaster. It is the them of being arbitrary and destructive. job of the broadcast standards and prac- “Not so,” says Ted Cordes, former head 7 Influences on Television Programming 181 censor at NBC, whose career spanned 4 also found that many times producers decades. “We always try to work with and programmers told him that the the program people to find another way requested edits improved scenes. After to make the scene effective.” Brett all, how creative is it to simply repeat White, former head censor at ABC, swear words?

A SAMPLE STANDARDS REPORT

The following representative standards ¥ Do not use blood squids in the fight report for a fictional program on com- sequence. The scripted throat slash- mercial television reveals the kinds of ing should take place off-camera, areas the broadcast standards and and no slashing sound effects should practices department addresses. This be included. is the type of report that would be sent ¥ Regarding the scripted discussion of to a producer before filming. the controversial topic of abortion, please ensure that different points of ¥ Reduce the number of “hells” and view are presented; we want to avoid “damns.” advocacy programming. The abor- ¥ Substitute another word for tion discussion is not approved until “goddamn.” we have seen revised pages. ¥ Please make an effort to hire minori- ¥ Please secure appropriate clear- ties in leading and supporting roles. ances for the use of the sports ¥ Please avoid racial stereotypes. The photographs in the office of the PR dialogue “Muslims are all terrorists” agency. must be deleted. ¥ Avoid characters smoking. ¥ Significantly reduce the number of ¥ In the bedroom scene, please make hits during the fight sequence. sure there is no nudity. Head move- ¥ Do not point guns directly at the ment cannot suggest that oral sex is camera. taking place. There can be no grind- ¥ Please ensure that all medical infor- ing activity. Be sure to provide ample mation presented is accurate and coverage for this scene to avoid provide us with the supporting problems with the rough cut. Use dis- documentation. cretion in staging this scene to avoid ¥ Please have the driver and passen- having the program carry an advi- ger fasten their seat belts when they sory. are driving. ¥ Use generic labels for the sodas in ¥ One use of “bastard” is approved. the kitchen. Lose the other instances. ¥ Substitute other words for the dia- ¥ Men in the locker room should be logue that all teenage boys have wearing boxer shorts, not briefs. No tried pot by the age of 14; this type nudity is allowed. of generalization is misleading to ¥ Avoid thong bikinis for the women in viewers. the sequence at the beach.

In the late 1980s, there was a move- The theory was that the executives of ment at the networks to reduce the size the programming department, working of broadcast standards and practices cooperatively with the producer, would departments. For example, in 1988, the exercise the required taste and judgment new management at NBC decided that to air suitable material. It was an egre- an extensive broadcast standards and gious miscalculation. It ignored that practices department was unnecessary, both the programmer and the producer and the unit was drastically downsized. were primarily rewarded for attracting 182 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

large audiences. Whenever they had to practices departments, which most often choose between a juicy scene with a function with the legal departments, high rating potential and a softer scene again became powerful members of with the probability of lower ratings, internal teams. they tilted toward the former. During Most censors are aware of their role as the first 12 months of this new joint part of the system and aware of their “supervision,”the network was forced to responsibility to protect the interests of the forfeit $12 million in lost revenue networks. In so doing, they significantly because of defections by sponsors, affil- affect what audiences see on television. iates, or both. The broadcast standards Olivia Cohen-Cutler, senior vice and practices departments at NBC and president of broadcast standards and other networks were substantially practices at ABC, sums up her role as the increased the following year. head censor as ensuring that viewers are Following the failed downsizing not surprised or caught off guard when experiment, broadcast standards and they turn to her network.

WHAT CENSORS DO

According to ABC’s Olivia Cohen- mas (fact-based stories) have Cutler, censors review all entertainment enough of a factual basis to be programming for acceptability; their broadcast as “based on a true story” responsibilities include the following: and are legally free of problems ¥ Avoiding racial or sexual stereotypes ¥ Monitoring violence, sexual content, ¥ Clearing all the promotional spots and language that air on the network and deter- ¥ Ensuring that children’s program- mining whether any spots need to be ming meets governmental guidelines restricted to certain times (e.g., ¥ Editing theatrical films for broadcast determining that some spots should on television. (Interestingly, in 2001 only air after 9:00 P.M.) and 2002 ABC aired the theatrical ¥ Clearing all commercials and making film Saving Private Ryan without certain that all claims on commer- edits. This included 32 usages of f—. cials can be verified Cohen-Cutler determined that the ¥ Making sure that any medical infor- audience would accept the honored mation in shows is correct, for film about WWII without edits. The example, modifying a line containing decision proved to be the right one; faulty information that would alarm the FCC received only one com- individuals suffering from cancer plaint, a complaint it dismissed. In ¥ Monitoring to see whether current 2004, however, a large number of events (such as 9/11) require stations refused to carry the unedited changes in programming content film for fear of FCC reprisals follow- ¥ Answering viewer questions and ing the Janet Jackson Super Bowl complaints wardrobe malfunction.) ¥ Establishing rules for reality pro- ¥ Deciding which programs require grams and making sure that the rules advisories are adhered to ¥ Informing viewers about controver- ¥ Monitoring live programs to deter- sial content mine whether edits are needed for ¥ In association with the legal depart- the broadcasts in different time zones ment, determining whether docudra-

Broadcast standards and practices and sometimes with other key execu- executives must also testify before Con- tives. They need to prepare reports gress and the FCC, often on their own describing how the network has dealt 7 Influences on Television Programming 183 with issues that concern the people in Working with the legal department, Washington, DC. Because the networks the broadcast standards and practices do not want to risk censure, broadcast department also deals with matters of standards and practices executives tend libel and invasion of privacy. Libel to carefully monitor content for involves defaming someone’s character obscenity and indecency. in a way that affects that person’s repu- The present definition of obscenity tation or livelihood. Generally, the stems from a 1973 court case, Miller v. people who believe they have been California. According to this decision, for libeled take the broadcaster to court. a program to be obscene it must contain One of the idiosyncrasies of libel is that the depiction of sexual acts in an offen- people who are considered public sive manner; must appeal to prurient figures have to prove that the disparager interests of the average person; and must was malicious. In other words, famous lack serious literary, artistic, political, or people have to prove that the broad- scientific value (known as the SLAPS caster was out to get them and pur- test). The difficulty is that material is posely broadcast false information. perceived differently by various individ- Invasion of privacy is related to libel in uals. One person’s art is another’s that it often leads to information that is obscenity. Perceptions also change over damaging to a person. But the thrust here time. What was offensive in one decade is on how the information is gathered. may be acceptable in the next. Invasion of privacy laws are the province Another problem is that obscenity of individual states. In most states, inva- and indecency are often confused. sion of privacy means that a person has Obscenity is never allowed; indecency is a right to be left alone. In terms of enter- allowed at certain times, specifically tainment programming, libel and invasion from 10:00 P.M. to 6:00 A.M. This is of privacy are serious concerns, primar- known as the safe harbor for adult ily in connection with docudramas and programming, the assumption being that other fact-based programming. this is not a time when children are Broadcast standards and practices likely to be watching. The family hour departments and legal departments also no longer exists, but the safe harbor work together to protect the network in remains. Indecency is not as serious as matters involving copyright, that is, obscenity and is generally considered to who controls the rights to a certain occur when something is broadcast that property. If the rights are unclear, is offensive in relation to the standards chances are that property will not be of a particular community. found on television screens across the Thus it is important for censors to country. As Mark Twain noted many review all programming to evaluate years ago, copyright is so complicated what is and is not acceptable, sometimes that even God cannot figure it out—so preempting a show for another program many hours are spent determining the that will be more in line with commu- rights situation. For example, in 2003, nity standards. Local stations sometimes Disney expended considerable effort even check in with the network trying, unsuccessfully, to claim it had the (national) broadcast standards and prac- rights to the lucrative Winnie-the-Pooh tices departments for guidance when merchandizing empire, trying to bar the they are concerned about the accept- heirs of the writer and creator of ability of a show in their particular area. Winnie-the-Pooh, A.A. Milne, from Clearly, no one wants to incur the wrath producing and selling their own Pooh of the FCC. merchandise. 184 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

In premium and basic cable and in owner will dictate what syndicated pro- public broadcasting, broadcast standards gramming a station must play because it and practices departments, if they exist, has purchased the programs, at a dis- do not function in the same way as in counted rate, for all its stations. commercial television. Basic cable has Influence from top management is advertisers to worry about, but premium not necessarily bad. Programmers can cable does not; it just has subscribers. get so bogged down in stress and minu- Premium cable proudly proclaims that it tiae that they lose perspective. A good has no restrictions regarding sex and top manager can point out new direc- violence. It has, as Showtime, declares, tions or keep the programmer’s eye on “No limits.” However, premium cable the target. But if everyone under the top has extensive legal and research divisions manager is afraid to speak up for fear of to ensure that fact-based programming losing a job, then the head person’s use- in particular is free of factual inaccura- fulness in terms of making the right cies and legal problems. Specifically, programming decisions may be severely HBO would not want its fact-based compromised.“Whatever you say, chief,” movies to be the subject of attacks by does not lead to first-rate programming. the press for factual errors. Such criti- But members of top manage- cism would clash with HBO’s brand. ment who micromanage the program- Similarly, public television wants to ming department or constantly play maintain viewer, government, and “Monday-morning quarterback” against underwriter support and to avoid the head of programming can also be censure in the press. Thus, its overseers destructive, as can top managers who are will voice concerns about projects, timid and unwilling to take risks with requesting any changes they think are new programming concepts. needed. Factual accuracy, equated with The main external influence on cable responsible broadcasting, helps to keep programming comes from within the public television’s brand positive. cable structure—the MSOs. Cable TV has a great deal of vertical integration The Top Management wherein large companies have ownership roles in organizations that produce Programmers have bosses. They usually programs, networks that distribute pro- report to station managers, general man- grams to systems, and systems that agers, presidents, or chief executive offi- exhibit networks to the consumer. For cers. Often the person the programming example, Time Warner is a producer of head reports to has to go further up programs, a distributor of programs, and the organization chart. For example, the an owner of cable systems. network president may report to the MSOs frequently have a great deal of chief operating officer of a parent say as to which cable networks their company (NBC to General Electric, cable systems carry.They naturally want ABC to Disney). their cable systems to offer all those net- At the station level, the general works in which they have a financial manager may be responsible to someone interest. Doing so fills the MSO’s at the group owner (Cox, Hearst, coffers. Therefore, some cable networks Gannett, or Tribune). These top execu- seek financial ownership by an MSO; in tives can overrule the decisions made by that way, they can be included in the the programming department. Some- “family” of channels chosen by the times they do. Occasionally, a group MSO. The downside is that “he who 7 Influences on Television Programming 185 pays the piper calls the tune.” These 30 seconds in length). Once a promo has MSOs will want some say in program- been slotted, it is up to someone such ming philosophy. as Doreen Hughes at ABC to integrate Some MSOs like to select virtually all the promo into the schedule. Hughes the network services their systems reports that there is a lot of jockeying should carry—even ones they do not for slots and that there are many last- own. The degree of MSO control minute changes as different voices seek depends primarily on the philosophy of particular placement. If a show is given top management. few spots or if the spots are not placed Arguments can be made for both where they will be seen by the targeted approaches. Centralization produces viewers, a show is likely to suffer, leading economies of scale. If the MSO is to programming changes. Thus, the buying for all its systems, it can some- battle for slots is often intense. times negotiate better deals from the Similarly, if the marketing department networks than individual systems can. does not position a program correctly, This centralized approach also cuts that program will suffer. For example, if down on the need for local system pro- the marketing brochures take the wrong grammers, a plus on the balance sheet tactic, the program will not connect (but not for those who want jobs in with the intended audience, possibly programming). On the other hand, such losing a place on the schedule. Not all a policy is not likely to be responsive to television marketing chiefs are as savvy local needs. Not all communities are as the film industry’s Harvey and Bob demographically similar. Some skew Weinstein at Miramax, who have the older or more rural than others. Because skill and the financial resources to so many cable channels narrowcast, the enable such arguably mediocre films as services desired by the citizens of one Chicago and Gangs of New York to community might be different from become commercial and critical suc- those of another. It would be a disser- cesses, but their television counterparts vice to the subscribers if a system loaded have to do their best to market their up on all the children’s services available slate of programs. in a community consisting almost totally The conventional wisdom, as ex- of senior citizens. pressed by Howard Schneider, former With satellite television, the top man- head of on-air promos at Fox, is that agement similarly will exercise a great good, well-placed promos can launch a deal of control. Rupert Murdoch, head show by creating awareness and a desire of Direct TV,is not a man afraid to take by viewers to sample a show, but that a position. The voice of top manage- promos alone cannot keep a show on ment will clearly be heard. the air if the audience loses interest. Noting the complex dynamics that exist The Promotion, Marketing, among different departments, Stu and Research Divisions Brower, long-time promo head at ABC, observed, “If a show fails, the failure is The promotion and marketing depart- blamed on the promo department; if a ments significantly affect programming. show succeeds, all the other departments For example, promotion departments take the credit.” make up weekly schedules indicating If a show cannot be promoted on air where they have slotted on-air promo- or if extensive media coverage cannot be tional spots for shows (5, 10, 15, or secured, shows will find it harder to 186 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

succeed, often being replaced by other In terms of the research department, programming that executives think if the research findings on a potential might better succeed. If the promotion new program prove weak and there is and publicity machine fails, the pro- no strong advocate in favor of the gramming department quickly moves program to counter the research find- on to the next option. ings, that program likely will not go Press coverage can easily get out of farther. If research does not support the control. Writer–producer Michael next step, viewers are often not given O’Hara refers to blowbacks, which the chance to tune it in.This holds true happen when a network or individual across the board—in commercial, cable, takes an approach that produces a totally and public television. different result. A blowback may have occurred, for example, when someone External and internal influences have slipped a script of the CBS miniseries their downsides for those charged with “The Reagans” to the press in 2003, developing programming. Rules, regula- hoping to start a groundswell of support tions, and opinions often obscure what for the show. Instead, the controversy appears to be logical programming and resulted in the shunting of the program scheduling. But there are many positive from CBS to Showtime. Clearly, the points to be made for the existence of Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake these inside and outside forces. Pro- stunt resulting in the exposure of one of grammers with the power to influence Jackson’s breasts during the 2004 Super the minds of millions of listeners and Bowl backfired on them, getting the viewers should not work unchecked. attention but not the response they “Power corrupts, and absolute power wanted. The stunt prompted a backlash corrupts absolutely.” The necessity of that caused the FCC and others to reex- thinking how others may react often amine what is and is not acceptable for leads to more responsible actions. television. The stunt also instigated a In Chapter 8, we examine the forces serious discussion about fining performers that influence radio and the Internet. as well as stations for indecency violations.

EXERCISES

1. Explore why the miniseries “The 3. Determine which shows have had Reagans” did not generate as much con- last-minute advertiser dropouts. What troversy when it aired on the Showtime makes you think the advertiser dropped cable network as it did when it was sched- out? uled to air on CBS during the November 4. Agree or disagree with the former sweeps in 2003. head of television movies at CBS, Steve 2. Count the number of pharmaceutical Mills, who said programmers should make ads during a news show. Then watch an the programs they think are good, and if entertainment program and count the someone complains, the programmer number of pharmaceutical ads in that show. should stand fast in his or her convictions. What are the differences? Analyze why What else might be at stake? pharmaceutical ads tend to be more preva- 5. Go to the FCC website (http://www lent in news programming. .fcc.gov/cgb) and look at some of the FCC’s 7 Influences on Television Programming 187 recent decisions. In your opinion, did the current trends in society. Do you agree or FCC make the right rulings? Were they disagree with this way of determining what perhaps too lax or too strict? is acceptable on television? 6. Describe any show you think adver- 10. Identify some edits in television pro- tisers should not sponsor. What about the gramming that you think were requested by show makes you think this? the broadcast standards and practices or sales 7. When you are watching a show, ask departments.Why do you think the edits or yourself what made you watch that changes were made? program. Was it because the program was 11. Examine several key on-air promo- controversial? What is a “good” review? tional spots on television. Do the spots sell 8. Research docudramas criticized for the shows correctly? Are the spots placed in commingling fact with fiction.Why do you the right shows? think a mixture of fact and fiction presents 12. Analyze why a show that started out a problem for a network? For the press? For well in the ratings failed to maintain its viewers? viewership. What happened to the show’s 9. Some people think that television momentum? reflects society and that it is the responsi- 13. Analyze a successful or unsuccessful bility of the broadcast standards and prac- television marketing campaign. What was tices department to make edits that reflect right or wrong?

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Stanley R. Greenberg. “Missiles of 10. Ibid. October” script, ABC Television Network, 11. Meg James, Greg Braxton, and January, 1974. Bob Baker. “The Vetoing of ‘Reagans,’” Los 2. Parents Television Council.“The PTC Angeles Times, November 10, 2003, p. E-12. Presents the 2002–2003 Top 10 Best and 12. Emily Eakin. “Greeting Big Brother Worst Shows on Primetime Broadcast TV,” with Open Arms,” The New York Times, http://www.parentstv.org/PTC/publica January 17, 2004, p. E-12. tions/reports/top10bestandworst/2003/ 13. George Comstock et al. Television main.asp. Accessed January 16, 2004. and Social Behavior: A Technical Report to the 3. “Viewpoint: Censorship Today,” Surgeon General’s Scientific Advisory Com- Forum, Spring/Summer, 1991, p. 2. mittee on Television and Social Behavior 4. William Lobdell. “A Shepherd of (Washington, DC: Government Printing Movies into the Religious Flock,” Los Office, 1972). Angeles Times, November 24, 2001, p. F-10. 14. 73rd Congress. Public Law No. 416, 5. Claudia Eller and Sallie Hofmeister. June 19, 1934 (Washington, DC: Govern- “USA Network Cancels Film After Adver- ment Printing Office, 1934), Section 307 (a). tiser Protest,” Los Angeles Times, December 15. Johnathan Turley. “Hollywood Isn’t 6, 2000, p. A-1, A-32, A-33. Holding Its Lines Against the Pentagon,” 6. Ibid., p. A-33. Los Angeles Times, August 19, 2003, p. B-13. 7. J. Max Robins. “Why CBS Blinked,” 16. Ibid. TV Guide, November 15, 2003, p. 63. 17. 73rd Congress. Public Law No. 416, 8. Bill Carter with Jim Rutenberg and June 19, 1934 (Washington, DC: Govern- Bernard Weintraub. “Shifting ‘Reagans’ To ment Printing Office, 1934), Section 315. Cable Has CBS Facing New Critics,” The 18. Sharon Waxman. “The Recall Show New York Times, November 5, 2003, p. C-1. with Jay Leno,” The Washington Post, 9. Ibid., p. C-2. October 9, 2003, p. C-1. 188 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

19. Sharon Bernstein. “PBS Network 23. Ibid. Hit by Charges of Censorship,” Los Angeles 24. Sharon Bernstein.“KCET Pays Price Times, August 14, 1991, p. F-1. in Flap with Church,” Los Angeles Times, 20. Ibid. October 10, 1991, p. F-1. 21. Ibid. 25. Kevin Downey. “Want Ad Recall? 22. Sharon Bernstein. “KCET Unwor- Avoid Sex and Violence,” http://www thy of Public Support, Mahony Declares,” .medialifemagazine.com/news2003/aug03/ Los Angeles Times, September 6, 1991, p. aug11/1_mon/news3monday.html. F-1. Accessed August 13, 2003. 8 Inﬂuences on Radio and Internet Programming

In this chapter you will learn about the INFLUENCES ON RADIO following: PROGRAMMING

• The limited scope of internal pressures The influences on radio are more simi- on local radio station programming lar in form and intensity than those of • How pressure groups and advertisers cable TV are to commercial television. can flex economic muscle to affect But they are not as intense as those radio programming exerted against TV,mainly because radio • Government’s considerations and is more fragmented and less visible (no problems with controlling obscenity pun intended) than TV. and indecency on radio as it pertains Internal Influences on Radio to both show hosts and music lyrics • Government regulations to control Stations, networks, and syndicators have payola in radio to work together, but they do not influ- • Issues that corporate and personal ence each other a great deal. Local sta- website developers should consider tions do not live or die by their network before putting content on the web or syndicated programming. Networks • Government’s trouble regulating con- affiliate with so many stations that the tent within the unique global and on- ties to any one station are not that demand qualities of the Internet strong. The situation is similar for • How pressure groups may succeed in syndicators. In some instances, this loose influencing web content where gov- relationship has tightened after the ernment cannot consolidation of ownership that resulted • The dream and reality of a democrat- from the 1996 Telecommunications Act. ic, noncommercial Internet commons Megastation owners, such as Clear Chan- • Privacy concerns related to collecting nel, have stepped up efforts to create information about web surfers national brands, such as Clear Channel’s • Entertainment-industry attempts to KISS stations that dot the nation. With control illegal file-sharing online voice tracking of star deejays, these sta- • How easy user access to international tions rely more on network-arranged websites creates new competition programming, even if that programming for local programmers and thus influ- is cleverly customized to make it seem ences programming as if it originates locally.

189 190 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Also, with the merger of radio own- were “banned” from playing any of the ership, directives and “suggestions” for songs. A program director at Clear programming choices have the opportu- Channel explained that “after and nity to come from corporate entities to during what was happening in New many stations at once. After the 9/11 York and Washington and outside of terrorist attacks in 2001, for example, Pittsburgh, some of our program direc- Clear Channel released a list to all of tors began emailing each other about its stations of more than 150 songs it songs and questionable song titles ...A deemed to have questionable or difficult Clear Channel program director took it lyrics in light of the terrorist event upon himself to identify several songs (Figure 8.1). It did not, however, require that certain markets or individuals may any of its stations to remove these songs find insensitive today. This was not a from their playlists. mandate, nor was the list generated out The circulation of this list received of the corporate radio offices. It was a much attention in the media, and grassroots effort that was apparently cir- rumors flew that individual stations culated among program directors.”

Artist Song

3 Doors Down “Duck and Run” 311 “Down” AC/DC “Dirty Deeds,” “Hell’s Bells,” “Highway to Hell,” “Safe in New York City,” “Shoot to Thrill,” “Shot Down in Flames,” “TNT” Ad Libs “The Boy from New York City” Alanis Morissette “Ironic” Alice in Chains “Down in a Hole,” “Rooster,” “Sea of Sorrow,” “Them Bone” Alien Ant Farm “Smooth Criminal” Animals “We Gotta Get Out of This Place” Arthur Brown “Fire” Bangles “Walk Like an Egyptian” Barenaked Ladies “Falling for the First Time” Barry McGuire “Eve of Destruction” Beastie Boys “Sabotage,” “Sure Shot” Billy Joel “Only the Good Die Young” Black Sabbath “Sabbath Bloody Sabbath,” “Suicide Solution,” “War Pigs” Blood, Sweat & Tears “And When I Die” Blue Oyster Cult “Burnin’ For You” Bob Dylan/Guns N Roses “Knockin’ on Heaven’s Door” Bobby Darin “Mack the Knife” Figure 8.1 Boston “Smokin’” Some of the songs Brooklyn Bridge “Worst That Could Happen” Bruce Springsteen “Goin’ Down,” “I’m On Fire” Clear Channel Buddy Holly and the Crickets “That’ll Be the Day” placed on its Bush “Speed Kills” questionable lyrics Carole King “I Feel the Earth Move” list. Cat Stevens “Morning Has Broken,” “Peace Train” (http://ericnu Chi-Lites “Have You Seen Her” Creedence Clearwater Revival “Travelin’ Band” zum.com/banned/ Dave Clark Five “Bits and Pieces” incidents/2001_ Dave Matthews Band “Crash Into Me” clearchannel.html, Dio “Holy Diver” accessed February Don McLean “American Pie” 24, 2004.) Drifters “On Broadway” 8 Inﬂuences on Radio and Internet Programming 191

Artist Song Drowning Pool “Bodies” Edwin Starr/Bruce Springsteen “War” Elton John “Bennie and The Jets,” “Daniel,” “Rocket Man” Elvis Presley “(You’re the) Devil in Disguise” Everclear “Santa Monica” Filter “Hey Man, Nice Shot” Fontella Bass “Rescue Me” Foo Fighters “Learn to Fly” Frank Sinatra “New York, New York” Fuel “Bad Day” Godsmack “Bad Religion” Green Day “Brain Stew” Happenings “See You in September” Hollies “He Ain’t Heavy, He’s My Brother” J. Frank Wilson “Last Kiss” Jackson Brown “Doctor My Eyes” James Taylor “Fire and Rain” Jan and Dean “Dead Man’s Curve” Jerry Lee Lewis “Great Balls of Fire” Jimi Hendrix “Hey Joe” John Lennon “Imagine” John Cougar Mellencamp “Crumbling Down,” “I’m On Fire” John Parr “St. Elmo’s Fire” Judas Priest “Some Heads Are Gonna Roll” Kansas “Dust in the Wind” Korn “Falling Away From Me” Led Zeppelin “Stairway to Heaven” Lenny Kravitz “Fly Away” Limp Bizkit “Break Stuff” Local H “Bound for the Floor” Los Bravos “Black is Black” Louis Armstrong “What A Wonderful World” Lynyrd Skynyrd “Tuesday’s Gone” Martha & the Vandellas “Nowhere to Run” Martha & the Vandellas/Van Halen “Dancing in the Streets” Megadeth “Dread and the Fugitive,” “Sweating Bullets” Metallica “Enter Sandman,” “Fade to Black,” “Harvester of Sorrow,” “Seek and Destroy” Mitch Ryder and the Detroit Wheels “Devil with the Blue Dress” Mudvayne “Death Blooms” Neil Diamond “America” Nena “99 Luftballons,” “99 Red Balloons” Nine Inch Nails “Head Like a Hole” Norman Greenbaum “Spirit in the Sky” Oingo Boingo “Dead Man’s Party” P.O.D. “Boom” Paper Lace “The Night Chicago Died” Pat Benatar “Hit Me with Your Best Shot,” “Love is a Battlefield” Paul McCartney and Wings “Live and Let Die” Peter and Gordon “A World Without Love,” “I Go To Pieces” Peter Gabriel “When You’re Falling” Peter, Paul and Mary “Blowin’ in the Wind,” “Leavin’ on a Jet Plane” Petula Clark “A Sign of the Times” Phil Collins “In the Air Tonight” Pink Floyd “Mother,” “Run Like Hell” Pretenders “My City Was Gone” Queen “Another One Bites the Dust,” “Killer Queen” Rage Against The Machine All songs Figure 8.1 Red Hot Chili Peppers “Aeroplane,” “Under the Bridge” Continued 192 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Artist Song

REM “It’s the End of the World as We Know It” Ricky Nelson “Travelin’ Man” Rolling Stones “Ruby Tuesday” Saliva “Click Click Boom” Sam Cooke/Herman Hermits “Wonder World” Santana “Evil Ways” Savage Garden “Crash and Burn” Shelly Fabares “Johnny Angel” Simon and Garfunkel “Bridge Over Troubled Water” Skeeter Davis “End of the World” Slipknot “Left Behind,” “Wait and Bleed” Smashing Pumpkins “Bullet With Butterfly Wings” Soundgarden “Black Hole Sun,” “Blow Up the Outside World,” “Fell on Black Days” Steam “Na Na Na Na Hey Hey” Steve Miller “Jet Airliner” Stone Temple Pilots “Big Bang Baby,” “Dead and Bloated” Sugar Ray “Fly” Surfaris “Wipeout” System of a Down “Chop Suey!” Talking Heads “Burning Down the House” Temple of the Dog “Say Hello to Heaven” The Beatles “A Day in the Life,” “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds,” “Obla Di, Obla Da,” “Ticket to Ride” The Clash “Rock the Casbah” The Cult “Fire Woman” The Doors “The End” The Gap Band “You Dropped a Bomb On Me” Third Eye Blind “Jumper” Three Degrees “When Will I See You Again” Tom Petty “Free Fallin’” Tool “Intolerance” Trammps “Disco Inferno” U2 “Sunday Bloody Sunday” Van Halen “Jump” Yager and Evans “In the Year 2525” Figure 8.1 Youngbloods “Get Together” Continued Zombies “She’s Not There”

The New York Times reported the “Imagine” and others) happened to be following: among the most-played songs on his station. In the meantime, the station decided not to Compliance with the list varied from station broadcast some songs even though they did to station. Angela Perelli, the vice president not make the list, such as “When You’re for operations at KYSR 98.7 FM in Los Falling,” a collaboration between Peter Angeles, said the station was not playing any Gabriel and Afro-Celt Sound System that of the listed songs and had previously pulled had fictional lyrics too eerily similar to the a couple of the cited songs, “Jumper” by truth.1 Third Eye Blind and “Fly” by Sugar Ray, on its own accord. On the other hand, Bob Buchmann, the program director and an When a radio station is selecting on-air personality at WAXQ 104.3 FM in or changing a format, it is influenced Manhattan, said that some songs on the by owners, station representatives, the list (“American Pie” by Don McLean, sales department, and others who have 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 193 something to gain (or lose) from the research studies involving radio; it has station’s overall prosperity. few takers. But salespeople, accountants, group owners, and the like rarely express Pressure Groups and Advertisers. Many opinions about individual aspects of radio talk shows are simply a forum for programming. If a controversial disc public opinion—they do not espouse or jockey is making it hard for the sales- promote controversial opinions, although people to sell time, they might com- they allow callers or community mem- plain, but so much of radio involves bers to voice their own opinions.There- selling spots that appear within numer- fore, they are rarely the target of pressure ous time segments that advertisers do groups, who, instead of trying to shut not usually react to having their ads near down discussion that runs contrary to certain musical selections—which come their beliefs, can simply contest it on air. and go quickly. Unless pressure groups become bother- No broadcast standards department some by tying up the lines, they are breathes down the neck of radio pro- welcomed. grammers, but the program directors are Other talk shows, however, feature expected to police what is aired and hosts who, instead of simply mediating keep it in line with community stan- listener opinions, express their own. dards. Songs are reviewed by critics, but Many of these shows rank at the top of radio programming is not subjected to the ratings because of their inherent much critical review. drama. They can become the target of activist groups or individuals who have External Influences on Radio an ax to grind about the topics discussed. Many such cases have led to External influences on radio are, again, firings of controversial hosts who, on similar to those of television, but the principal, have refused to back down. low visibility of radio makes it less When this happens, both sides cry foul. susceptible to the overwhelming out- Hosts protest that they are being cen- cries that television can experience sored and that the fundamental Ameri- when it oversteps a community’s moral can principal of free speech is being boundaries. violated. Managers say flatly that any Although there are academic studies decision they make takes no ideological on the effects of radio programming, stance; it is a simple case of economic they are not as profuse as those related to fundamentals—if advertisers pull out, TV.The National Association of Broad- there will be no station on which to casters has a grant program designed express any opinions, controversial or to encourage people to undertake not. (See sidebar.)

CENSORSHIP OR ECONOMIC REALITY? IRA HANSON AND U.S.-ISRAELI POLICIES

The rhetoric and conspiracy theories talk show host Ira Hansen at KKOH can become thick in the debates over 780 AM in Reno, Nevada, was ﬁred, why a controversial talk show host was according to Hansen, when powerful ﬁred, even if there is little possibility of pro-Israel supporters forced the owners verifying many of the charges tossed of his radio station to eject him over his about. As an example, in 2002, radio criticism of U.S. policy toward Israel.

continued 194 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

In 2000, after a new round of office. “I was sitting there in my boss’s IsraeliÐPalestinian hostilities began, office,” Hansen said, “when [the owner Hansen says he did some research on of a major gambling casino in Reno, the conflict’s origins and, based upon the Atlantis Casino, John] Farahi called this research, said on air, “Look, the and my boss was actually holding the majority of these problems, if not all phone six inches from his ear, because of it, can be blamed on Israel and Farahi was screaming at him. Farahi its behavior toward the Palestinian demanded a right to defend Israel and people.” Almost immediately, Hansen said how he was pulling off all of his said, “I was attacked as ‘anti-Semitic’ advertising.” Hansen was fired. and called names. They started calling Though Hansen was off the air, he my boss at the radio station, behind my still had his job as a columnist for a back, and threatening to boycott the local paper, where he continued to station. By ‘they’ I mean some local press the issue and question the Jewish people.” motives behind his firing from the radio According to Hansen, his boss station. “It’s kind of ironic,” Hansen called him in and told him, “We’re said, “because I told [Farahi] through a getting all kinds of heat from people newspaper column that I would have over this. Knock off talking about gladly had him as a guest on my radio Israel.” show and we could have discussed the “Well,” said Hansen, “because it was issue. But instead he got me kicked off pretty much the sword hanging over the air ...I have had zero response my head there, I stopped talking about from the local Jewish people who are Israel.” But world events, specifically willing to go behind my back and the terrorist attacks of 9/11, brought the boycott my radio station but don’t have issue of Israel back into Hansen’s con- the guts to debate me in public.” sciousness. He heard most media Hansen goes even further, implicat- outlets in the United States scratching ing the entire radio industry: “I found, their heads over the hostility that large after studying this and looking at portions of Muslim and Arab society who owns what—even Citadel Com- seemed to have for the United States. munications, which owns my former To him, there was no mystery, and he station, was recently purchased (after started saying so on air. “[The hostility] I got fired) by billionaire investor Ted is not,” Hansen asserted, “necessarily Forstmann, a Jewish-American who is even about ‘anti-Westernism,’ however a strong supporter of Israel. So there’s you define it. It is about the absolute a definite dominance there. Critics say blind allegiance of the United States to that pointing this out is ‘bigotry,’ but it’s Israel and how we give Israel carte an absolute fact. If you look at who blanche treatment. That is the root owns all the national media outlets, it’s cause of the entire hatred of the no surprise that the media is totally in Muslim world toward the United favor of Israel and totally biased States.” against the Arabs.”2 Hansen’s return to the sore subject of Israel landed him again in his boss’s

Whether the claims of bias are true have no room for that programming in or not, managers have an indisputable their lineup. Even if media companies point when they argue in favor of the have been purchased by owners with purse strings. They do not have to specific political agendas, with the flour- discuss the political implications of their ishing of the Internet, owners can point hiring and firing choices, only the eco- out that they have neither the capacity nomic ones. If they cannot make adver- nor the desire to silence dissident voices. tising money from programming, they Anyone with an Internet connection 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 195 can start a blog and share opinions and In 1946, the FCC issued an 80-page points of view democratically with whom- document detailing what stations should ever will listen. Why should a business do to have their licenses renewed. This venture be burdened with broadcasting included numerous details about airing unpopular or controversial opinions that local public affairs programs, keeping might be bad for the bottom line—to commercials limited, and maintaining a say nothing of being bad for an owner’s well-balanced programming schedule. political aims? Radio broadcasters immediately dubbed Because the frequencies on which this document the “Blue Book,” partly radio broadcasts are owned by the because of its blue cover but mostly federal government and only licensed to because blue penciling is associated with broadcasters, a case can be made that censorship. The reaction to the Blue broadcasts should serve the greater good Book was so negative that the FCC of the community, not just the greater never really implemented its provisions. good of the station owner’s pocket- In the 1960s and 1970s, radio stations, book. But “greater good” is difficult, if and their TV counterparts, underwent not impossible, to define objectively. elaborate license renewal that involved a Nonetheless, the government intervenes process called ascertainment. Station in some instances. personnel had to interview community leaders about problems in the commu- The Federal Communications Commis- nity and then propose program ideas to sion. During the early years of radio deal with these problems. They would when the Federal Radio Commission make promises concerning airing these (FRC, the forerunner of the FCC) programs in documents submitted to oversaw radio, several licenses were the FCC for their license renewal. revoked because of improper program- When their next renewal came up (at ming. One of these was for a station run that time, station licenses were up for by Dr. J.R. Brinkley, who prescribed renewal every 3 years), they had to prove medical treatments over the radio. that they had aired the programs on Usually his listeners’ health problems community problems as promised in could be cured only by special prescrip- their last renewal.This process was called tions obtainable from druggists who promise vs. performance. Pressure belonged to a pharmaceutical associa- groups of local citizens were also tion that Brinkley owned. One of his involved in license renewal during this most creative cures involved goat gland period. They would demand that sta- treatments to improve male virility.The tions air certain types of programs (more FRC took a jaundiced view of most of children’s programs, more Chicano pro- these medical treatments, but Brinkley grams, more programs about commu- was crafty, so it took some fancy legal nity organizations, etc.). If the stations maneuvers to remove him from the did not respond to their liking, they airwaves. would write nasty letters to be included A few other early stations had licenses in the stations’ file at the FCC, submit revoked for programming policies, formal petitions to deny the station its mainly those of engaging in bitter license renewal, or even ask to take over attacks against individuals or groups— the station. politicians, Jews, prostitutes, or judges. In general, license renewal during But overall, the number of station revo- this period was a complicated, paper- cations was small. intensive process. Stations usually sent 196 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

large boxes of documents to Washing- Then came deregulation. Today, radio ton, where they were supposedly read station licenses only are looked at every by FCC staffers. The license renewal 8 years. Ascertainment is gone, as is process placed great burdens on the promise vs. performance. Radio stations programming departments in terms of do not even have to program news or interviewing community leaders about public affairs.And license renewal can be problems, dealing with pressure groups, obtained by ﬁlling out a perfunctory 4- and preparing much of the mass of page application (Figure 8.2). The pro- paper that was submitted. gramming department is hardly involved.

Figure 8.2 Application for renewal of radio station license. 8 Inﬂuences on Radio and Internet Programming 197

Figure 8.2 Continued 198 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 8.2 Continued 8 Inﬂuences on Radio and Internet Programming 199

Figure 8.2 Continued

Obscenity and Indecency Laws. The 1. The average person, applying con- U.S. Supreme Court has carefully, if temporary community standards, would vaguely, defined obscenity and inde- find that the work, taken as a whole, cency in several cases over its history. appeals to the prurient interest As described earlier, obscene material 2. The work depicts or describes in a may never be legally broadcast on radio patently offensive way, as measured by and elsewhere. The standards for de- contemporary community standards, fining obscenity, laid out in Miller v. sexual conduct specifically defined by California, are as follows: the applicable law 200 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

3. A reasonable person would find that fine per incident has stayed a steady the work, taken as a whole, lacks $27,500, but in recent years there has serious literary, artistic, political, and been a drive to increase the fine. With scientific value the large amounts of revenue possible with syndication and megamergers, Indecent material is defined by the many, including FCC Chairman Michael FCC as “language or material that, in Powell, have argued that a $27,500 fine context, depicts or describes, in terms is “peanuts” to big media companies. patently offensive as measured by con- Rather than adjusting their broadcast temporary community standards in the practices to avoid fines, many believe that broadcast medium, sexual or excretory media companies have simply factored activities or organs.” Indecent material in fines as part of their “cost of doing may not be broadcast if the conditions business.”4 of its broadcast are such that the fol- Several high-profile indecency charges lowing are true: were filed against shock jock Howard 1. It has a pervasive presence in the lives Stern in the 1980s and 1990s. Infinity of “all Americans,” and indecent Broadcasting, which airs Stern’s show, material confronts citizens not only in fought the charges in courts for several public but also in the privacy of the years then finally agreed to settle for a home, “where the individual’s right lump $1.7 million payment in 1995. to be left alone plainly outweighs The fine Infinity paid for Stern was the First Amendment rights of an for a series of indecency infractions, intruder” but fines have been growing, despite the 2. The “broadcasting [of the material] is $27,500 cap. In 2001 WXTB/Tampa uniquely accessible to children, even morning host “Bubba the Love Sponge” those too young to read”3 aired the live castration and mutilation of a wild boar in the station’s parking Reining in Radio Hosts. Obscenity and lot.The host of the show was suspended indecency charges arise most often for several weeks and the state attorney, about talk show topics and music lyrics. Mark Ober, filed animal-cruelty charges During the 1980s, a phenomenon against the host, the show’s producer, known as topless radio spread around and two listeners who carried out the the country. People would call in and on-air slaughter. Although all were recount to a talk show host (and the found not guilty by a Tampa jury, in listening audience) their explicit sexual 2004, the FCC levied a belated fine of experiences. After the FCC fined one $755,000 against WXTB owner Clear station for this and the fine was upheld Channel. To get around the cap, the in the courts, topless radio stopped. FCC apparently lumped various other People still call radio talk shows and technical infractions with the indecency talk about sexual experiences, but not as charge; nevertheless, the fines will explicitly as they were encouraged to do undoubtedly have to wind their way for the brief era of topless radio. Call through the courts.5 screeners, station employees who talk The U.S. Congress, however, has to callers before they are allowed on the made some steps toward codifying air, have been instructed to screen out higher fines into law. As of July 2004, anyone who might talk too explicitly. there was pending legislation to boost Stations may be fined by the FCC for the penalties for indecency almost airing indecent material. The maximum tenfold, from $27,500 to $275,000, and 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 201 to as much as $3 million a day for repeat station should or should not air. Some- violations. times radio station program directors make decisions about whether to play a Dealing with Music Lyrics. Problems song based on how understandable the arise with music lyrics when they lyrics are. A rock station deejay noted contain words used to describe sexual or about one such track: “Unless you read excretory acts. Again, this is a gray area the lyric sheet or are an incredibly huge in terms of what is appropriate from one fan of the band, it’s hard to discern what time to another and from one commu- they’re saying.”6 Then, too, if music nity to another. groups fear their music might not be The practice of banning “objection- played because of certain offensive able” songs from radio play goes back words, they will change, bleep, or muffle nearly as far as music radio. In 1956, the words on a recording sent to radio for example, ABC radio banned the stations but leave the original words on Cole Porter-penned Billie Holiday song CDs sold in stores. “Love For Sale” from all of its stations Muffled offensive lyrics, however, are because of its seemingly overt references not a guarantee against censorship and to prostitution. ABC also arranged a fines. In 2001, the FCC fined two radio lyric change for Porter’s “I Get a Kick stations for playing Eminem’s “The Real out of You”—from “I get no kick from Slim Shady.” Wisconsin’s WZEE was cocaine” to “I get perfume from Spain.” fined for airing the original (unedited) Also in 1956, all three of the major radio version, but KKMG in Colorado was networks banned the novelty hit by fined for playing a profanity-free radio Dot and Diamond called “Transfusion” edit that other stations across the nation because, according to an NBC execu- had played without incident. Although tive, “there’s nothing funny about a the fine was reversed in 2002, it still blood transfusion.” illustrates that perceived local norms In the 1960s, some stations banned form the basis for government interces- artists simply because some of their sion in radio indecency cases.7 lyrics might be offensive. An El Paso, Texas, station, for example, banned all Other Laws and Regulations. Govern- songs performed by Bob Dylan because ment regulations other than those many of the lyrics were garbled in related to license renewal and obscenity Dylan’s delivery. The station’s ban did affect radio programmers. In the 1950s, not include songs written by Dylan and Congress held hearings on payola performed by other artists who deliv- (accepting gifts in exchange for playing ered the lyrics with better diction. a record on the air) and amended the During the 1980s, a group of wives 1934 Communications Act to prevent of congressmen made a strong case this practice. Payola still occurs, but it is against sexually oriented lyrics, suggest- patently illegal. Plugola (promoting a ing that records with such lyrics should certain restaurant, concert, music store, be labeled and that such material should etc., in exchange for favors) is also a be kept off radio. About all they suc- station no-no. ceeded in doing, as far as radio was con- The U.S. Criminal Code says radio cerned, was taming things down for a and TV stations cannot hold lotteries. while. A contest is deemed a lottery if people Station programmers mostly make have to pay to enter, if chance is individual decisions about what their involved, and if a prize is given. Radio 202 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

stations usually avoid lotteries by ensur- and radio become exceedingly slippery ing that people do not have to pay to in the timeless, formless, locationless, enter their contests. ever-hyperlinking environment of Radio stations, like TV stations, are cyberspace. subject to equal time, libel, invasion of privacy, and other government laws and Internal Influences on regulations. Issues related to these are Internet Content more likely to come up for networks than for stations because decisions are Websites can be developed and placed likely to involve news. Except for all- on the Internet by anyone—from indi- news stations, radio stations do not viduals to multinational corporations concentrate on gathering news—they to educational institutions and govern- obtain it from networks. ments. Thus the internal influences vary greatly—from one person’s conscience INFLUENCES ON INTERNET to multiple departments in a sprawling PROGRAMMING bureaucracy. Oversight, where there is oversight, of Internet content mostly Internet content must, in theory, adhere falls to entities similar to those men- to the same codes and laws as radio and tioned in Chapter 7. Issues that go into television. It is, also in theory, suscepti- and influence the development of ble to the same internal and external Internet content can involve financing, influences as its broadcast cousins. But advertisements, and standards and prac- the sheer volume of content available on tices (censorship). Sometimes the web the Internet makes policing it difficult. hosting service on which a site is stored Sites can go up and come down in an will also have rules for content that must instant, the identities of those who put be adhered to or the site will risk being up content can be erroneous or difficult taken down (see the sidebar on Yahoo to ascertain, and standard conventions GeoCities membership). easy to define and apply to television

PART OF THE YAHOO GEOCITIES MEMBERSHIP AGREEMENT FOR HOSTING SITES ON YAHOO’S SERVERS

MEMBER CONDUCT integrity or quality of such Content. You understand that by using the Service, You understand that all information, you may be exposed to Content that is data, text, software, music, sound, offensive, indecent or objectionable. photographs, graphics, video, mes- You agree to not use the Service to: sages or other materials (“Content”), (a) upload, post or otherwise trans- whether publicly posted or privately mit any Content that is unlawful, harm- transmitted, are the sole responsibility ful, threatening, abusive, harassing, of the person from which such Content tortious, defamatory, vulgar, obscene, originated. This means that you, and libelous, invasive of another’s pri- not Yahoo, are entirely responsible for vacy, hateful, or racially, ethnically or all Content that you upload, post or otherwise objectionable; otherwise transmit via the Service. (b) harm minors in any way; Yahoo does not control the Content (c) impersonate any person or entity, posted via the Service and, as such, including, but not limited to, a Yahoo does not guarantee the accuracy, official, forum leader, guide or host, or 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 203 falsely state or otherwise misrepresent but not limited to, regulations pro- your affiliation with a person or entity; mulgated by the U.S. Securities (d) forge headers or otherwise and Exchange Commission, any rules manipulate identifiers in order to dis- of any national or other securities guise the origin of any Content trans- exchange, including, without limitation, mitted through the Service or develop the New York Stock Exchange, the restricted or password-only access American Stock Exchange or the pages, or hidden pages or images NASDAQ, and any regulations having (those not linked to from another the force of law; accessible page); (l) “stalk” or otherwise harass (e) upload, post or otherwise trans- another; mit any Content that you do not have (m) collect or store personal data a right to transmit under any law or about other users; under contractual or fiduciary relation- (n) promote or provide instructional ships (such as inside information, pro- information about illegal activities, prietary and confidential information promote physical harm or injury learned or disclosed as part of employ- against any group or individual, or ment relationships or under nondisclo- promote any act of cruelty to animals. sure agreements); This may include, but is not limited to, (f) upload, post or otherwise transmit providing instructions on how to any Content that infringes any patent, assemble bombs, grenades and other trademark, trade secret, copyright or weapons, and creating “Crush” sites; other proprietary rights of any party; (o) use your home page (or direc- (g) upload, post or otherwise trans- tory) as storage for remote loading or mit any unsolicited or unauthorized as a door or signpost to another home advertising, promotional materials, page, whether inside or beyond Yahoo “junk mail,” “spam,” “chain letters,” GeoCities; “pyramid schemes,” or any other form (p) have multiple Yahoo GeoCities of solicitation, except in those areas of addresses that are within the same the Service that are designated for Yahoo GeoCities neighborhood or that such purpose; have the same theme; or (h) upload, post or otherwise trans- (q) engage in commercial activities mit any material that contains software without enrolling in Yahoo-approved viruses or any other computer code, affiliate programs. This includes, but is files or programs designed to interrupt, not limited to, the following activities: destroy or limit the functionality of any ¥ offering for sale any products or computer software or hardware or services; telecommunications equipment; ¥ soliciting for advertisers or sponsors; (i) disrupt the normal flow of dia- ¥ conducting raffles or contests that logue, cause a screen to “scroll” faster require any type of entry fee; than other users of the Service are ¥ displaying a sponsorship banner of able to type, or otherwise act in a any kind, including those that are manner that negatively affects other generated by banner or link users’ ability to engage in real time exchange services, with the sole exchanges; exceptions of the GeoGuide Banner (j) interfere with or disrupt the Exchange program and the Internet Service or servers or networks con- Link Exchange; and nected to the Service, or disobey any ¥ displaying banners for services that requirements, procedures, policies or provide cash or cash-equivalent regulations of networks connected to prizes to users in exchange for the Service; hyperlinks to their websites. (k) intentionally or unintentionally violate any applicable local, state, (http://docs.yahoo.com/info/terms. national or international law, including, Accessed July 20, 2004.) 204 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Issues for Major Public Sites. Obviously cial that showed children working in brick-and-mortar and highly public factories and other blue-collar jobs, then entities will want to carefully control asked the question,“Guess who is going the content of their websites because to pay off President Bush’s $1 trillion anything put on the site will reflect deficit?” was later rejected by CBS upon their company or organization and as unsuitable to air during the Super could become fodder for public or legal Bowl, although there is considerable action. In 2004, for example, the well- controversy over how CBS defined known liberal political activist website “unsuitable.” MoveOn.org landed in hot water when it sponsored a competition, “Bush in Issues for Personal Sites. Although mil- 30 Seconds.” The competition publicly lions of websites get little or no traffic, solicited 30-second television com- the more traffic a site gets, the more it mercials critical of President George W. will become susceptible to influence. In Bush’s administration, which it then put many cases, web developers, especially on its website for visitors to view and individuals, have no desire for mass comment on. The winning entry was traffic to their sites. A person who puts slated to be aired during the Super up a website with a photo album of a Bowl. The controversy occurred when summer trip to Mexico so that friends two of the entries that MoveOn.org and family can see it usually intends the posted on their website compared site to be seen only by a select few. George W. Bush to Nazi leader Adolph Nonetheless, if that person wants the site Hitler. One entry even showed the face to be effective, he or she has to take into of Hitler morphing into Bush’s face. account the audience. If grandpa is a A great outcry came from the pub- web neophyte, a straightforward design lic, especially Jewish and Republican might be in order. If Aunt Mabel is leaders. Jack Rosen, president of the using a dial-up connection with a slow American Jewish Congress, writing in modem, small picture files will help her. the Wall Street Journal, said the compar- But just because a web developer may ison is “not only historically specious, not want outsiders to view a site, this it is morally outrageous.” The ads were does not mean others will not chance quickly removed from Moveon.org’s upon it. website, but the maelstrom lingered for Developers should keep in mind weeks in the press. The Republican that this technology that allows them to National Committee made copies of the so effortlessly exchange information controversial ads available on its website, with friends and family also makes it allowing its visitors to view the “outra- easily available to interlopers. This fact geous” ads for themselves, adding fuel does, and should, influence developers’ to the flames. Wes Boyd, president of choices about what to put on the web. MoveOn.org Voter Fund, said in a state- Chris Bryant, a member of the British ment, “None of these was our ad, nor Parliament with aspirations to become a did their appearance constitute endorse- leader of the Labor Party, learned this ment or sponsorship by MoveOn.org lesson the hard way when a photo of Voter Fund.”8 him scantily clad was discovered by a Despite Boyd’s denial, the organiza- journalist on an Internet chat site and tion had to shoulder all the blame and was subsequently published in a British a public relations nightmare.The winner daily paper in 2003. Although Bryant’s of the contest, a more benign commer- status as a public figure made the 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 205 publishing of his picture legal—if ethi- with sites on the Internet, which can cally suspect—a heavy toll can be paid originate from and be distributed to any for a moment’s indiscretion.9 location worldwide. Although the United States arguably External Influences on has the strongest free speech and expres- Internet Content sion protections in the world, some forms of expression outlawed in the The Internet is not a one-way medium United States (such as child pornogra- like radio and television. So, there are phy) are not outlawed or are defined more issues to deal with, champion, differently in other countries. Likewise, condemn, and regulate—or at least try certain kinds of speech allowed in the to. Many different activities occur on the United States are illegal in other coun- Internet, including the following: tries (such as hate speech associated with racism or neo-Nazism, which is illegal • Websites deliver content. in Germany). Can the United States • Websites collect information about prosecute foreign distributors of materi- those that visit them. als illegal in the United States but not • Users communicate and exchange in their home countries? Questions such information and data directly in as these will take years to iron out in peer-to-peer networks or using courts around the world. email. Another similar concern takes place in the United States, where definitions All activities that take place on the of indecency and obscenity, at least Internet have and will doubtlessly con- partly, depend on the social boundaries tinue to inspire great controversy—in of local communities. What is consid- the halls of government, in courtrooms, ered indecent in one locality may be and in the court of public opinion. viewed differently in another locality. Because access to sites on the Internet The Delivery of Content. As mentioned is not limited by locality, whose social previously, content delivered using the boundaries should be applied to make a Internet is, in theory, susceptible to the determination of indecency? Again, this same influences and regulations as all issue is still being tackled by local, state, other broadcast material. However, many and federal governments across the unique attributes of the Internet have United States and around the world. In altered or confounded the application of addition, indecent material is often legal these influences and regulations. to broadcast at night because the law assumes that children will not be awake The Government. The greatest differ- to experience it. But the delivery time ence between the radio and television of much content on the Internet is and the Internet is that the radio and determined not by the deliverer but by television are localized and, in the case the consumer, who can click on content of aerial broadcasts, the frequencies for to view it anytime. Even if on-demand broadcasting are “owned” by the federal indecent content were disabled during government and licensed to broadcast- daylight hours, the question would then ers. This fact alone gives the federal become, during whose daylight hours? government significant leverage over The United States and its territories broadcasters that violate indecency and alone stretch across 11 of the 24 world obscenity standards. This is not the case time zones. 206 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Because of concern that indecent access the Internet. Opponents of the material on the Internet would be too act argued that Internet filters would accessible to children, the 1996 Tele- unduly restrict library patrons’ rights communications Act included a section to access free speech. They suggested, called the Communications Decency for example, that filtering software Act. Although all obscene material is might block Internet resources for breast illegal according to U.S. law already, cancer because the word “breast” might the Communications Decency Act be flagged by the filtering software as sought to criminalize all indecent mate- potentially indecent. Nonetheless, in a rial as well. But in June 1997 the U.S. 6–3 ruling, the Supreme Court upheld Supreme Court ruled that most of the the constitutionality of the law.10 act was unconstitutional, protecting, at One problem that some web devel- least for now, indecent content on the opers have encountered as a result of all Internet. of these ill-defined legal concerns is that With all of the pitfalls in regulating nearly anyone who places content on indecency on the Internet, prosecutors the Internet that could be construed as have tried to play the obscenity card indecent or obscene in any locality runs instead, charging that objectionable the risk of being prosecuted and, some material “lacks serious literary, artistic, might say, harassed or intimidated by political, and scientific value” and is government authorities. Many devel- therefore not protected by the First opers of web content are individuals Amendment. But here another wrinkle or small entities that do not have the unique to the Internet is encountered. resources to fight off the dizzying The full wording of the third definition onslaught of charges that can be foisted of obscenity set by the U.S. Supreme upon them by an eager prosecutor. Court in Miller v. California is as follows: Rather than fighting, they often choose “That a reasonable person would find to close shop under the pressure. Those that the work, taken as a whole, lacks that do fight charges on the basis of First serious literary, artistic, political, and sci- Amendment rights often find that civil entific value.” What, on the Internet, is liberties legal watchdog groups are sym- the whole work? A court cannot rule that pathetic to their plight and the wider one page of a printed book is obscene— implications of the outcome of their it must make its determination based case. The ACLU has stepped up to bat upon the book as a whole. If an Internet in many instances, but this support does page has links on it to other pages, are not keep defendants’ names and reputa- those pages considered part of the whole tions from being dragged through the of the work? Those subsequent pages media in a way that they might not like may link to still other pages—are those to have advertised. part of the work in question as well? At In most cases in which defendants this writing, the courts are still tackling do not immediately fold, charges have this issue. eventually been dismissed. Prosecutors One provision of Internet regulation are wary to let courts have the cases, has seen success in the U.S. Supreme many argue, because they are afraid Court. In 2000, the Children’s Internet that judges might find against them, Protection Act was signed into law.The which would make them less able to law denies federal funding to libraries bring the same charges (scaring many that do not install content filters on into desisting without a fight) in similar computers that allow library patrons to cases. 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 207

Pressure Groups. Although the hands of restaurants with their signs stating, “We the government may be legally bound, reserve the right to refuse service to for better or worse, when it comes anyone,” have no legal obligation to to influencing web content through continue to host a site that they find legal channels, pressure groups and pub- objectionable, just as any other business lic outcry has seen some success. In can refuse to take a job or provide a 2003, during the war in Iraq, Arabic service that someone asks of them. A news organization Al-Jazeera broadcast web developer is free to look elsewhere graphic videos of American prisoners of for a hosting service that will agree to war and war casualties. Although all host a site turned down by another major U.S. news outlets decided not to hosting service. Anyone with an Inter- rebroadcast the videos, an Internet news net connection and the right hardware site, YellowTimes.org, captured stills of and software can become a hosting dead American soldiers from the broad- service—but they may receive public cast and placed them on their site. complaints if they host controversial Vortech Hosting, YellowTimes’ host- material, even if that material is pro- ing service, began receiving complaints tected by the free speech clause of the about the photos and suspended the First Amendment. YellowTimes account for “inappro- In 2002, complaints and news reports priate graphic content.”Later, photos that surfaced about a website glorifying included images of dead American sol- the Palestinian group Hamas’s “martyr diers were posted on the conservative- brigade” of suicide bombers. U.S. leaning website DrudgeReport.com, but Department of Justice spokeswoman Jill that site was not shut down. Stillman indicated that the department YellowTimes’ Editor Erich Marquardt was aware of the site but that it would sees a troubling contradiction because do nothing about the site, even amid the his site was shut down and the Drudge U.S. government’s “war on terrorism.” Report was not, even though the com- Hamas was classified as a terrorist plaints cited by the hosting company organization by federal officials and was when it shut down YellowTimes could therefore subject to stricter controls. be made about the Drudge Report But, Stillman said, because the site did images: “No mother, brother, sister, wife not solicit funds for Hamas, the site’s or child should see their love (sic) one support, in speech only,was protected by plastered all over the Net wounded U.S. law. or dead.” Marquardt contends that the It was, however, found that the site was photos on the Drudge Report site, hosted by a U.S. hosting company, and which included a grinning Iraqi stand- the name of the company, Connecticut- ing over dead American soldiers, were based OLM, was publicized in the media. chosen to enflame Americans into sup- The site, without explanation, was soon porting the war, whereas Marquardt out of commission.12 says his site posted casualties on both sides of the war in a nonsensationalistic The Move for an Internet Commons. manner.11 When the Internet was first envisioned The remedy that most pressure as a worldwide tool for the dissemina- groups have for their displeasure with tion of information and communica- web content is to contact the hosting tion, there was great excitement about service to complain, as was done in the its potential to allow a democratic, YellowTimes case. Hosting services, like balanced environment where everyone’s 208 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

sites that feature differing and opposing opinions. Sunstein suggests that govern- Figure 8.3 ment could even regulate this kind of After his home was open and multifaceted Internet debate raided, his by enforcing compliance upon websites computer equipment guilty of “failure to attend to public was confiscated, issues.” Sunstein therefore suggests that and Sherman the definition of free speech on the Austin was sent to Internet should be broadened from the jail, his website, standard definition of people being able Raisethefist.com, was taken down. to say what they want to providing a platform for this free speech, where what people say can be given a good views and experiences could be chance of being heard.13 expressed and weighted equally. Web A consortium called the Digital “surfing,” it was imagined, would be an Opportunity Investment Trust (DO IT) experience of organized anarchy, like a has been formed to encourage this public sidewalk in a metropolitan city public sidewalk aspect of the Internet, bustling with diverse pedestrian traffic. which has been dubbed the commons With the Internet’s easy ability to because in it each opinion, idea, and hyperlink, users of the Internet would expression is ideally given common have unanticipated encounters with the weight and attention. DO IT has thoughts, ideas, opinions, and experi- received many grants from private foun- ences of others. dations and has received some appropri- Although the mechanical structure of ations from the federal government, but the Internet allows the promiscuous many argue that the “chance encoun- panoply of information of which Inter- ters” that DO IT hopes to encourage net pioneers dreamed, many have been are already a staple of the Internet expe- dismayed at the way commercial entities rience. The search engine Google.com, have co-opted, twisted, and reined in the for example, gets more traffic than any Internet’s democratic potential. Cultural other site on the Internet, connecting critics had plenty of complaints about users to an exhaustive listing of Inter- America Online’s dominance as an net content from all corners of the Internet service provider in the late globe. But proponents of the Internet 1990s and early 2000s—not just because commons, like DO IT, complain that it drove up the cost of Internet access Google.com and other search engines, but also because it, to an extent, priva- because they are for-profit businesses, tized the promise of the Internet by “feature” websites that pay a fee and offering “premium” services and content favor “popular” sites over obscure ones, only to its subscribers. thus making their results less than the Proponents of true Internet democ- ideal democracy that DO IT proposes. racy, such as University of Chicago law To some extent, legal culpability professor Cass Sunstein, would like to concerns and pressure group protests see websites “designed to ensure more limit democratic hyperlinking “designed exposure to substantive questions.” to ensure more exposure to substantive Websites containing commentary or opi- questions.” Web developers, such as nion about controversial issues, Sunstein self-described “nonviolent anarchist” thinks, should have hyperlinks to web- and RaiseTheFist.com (Figure 8.3) 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 209

Webmaster Sherman Austin, have seen freely collect information from users by first hand how indiscriminate hyper- scanning their email. These portals offer linking can lead not just to trouble but users of their email services generous also to jail. In 2002, at the age of 18, storage space on their servers of a giga- Austin’s Los Angeles home, where he byte and more.What many users do not lived with his mother, was raided by know (and many probably do not care approximately 25 heavily armed FBI about) is that electronic information, and Secret Service agents in one of the unlike the information contained in government’s first attempts to exercise U.S. mail or other printed text, does not the new U.S. Patriot Act.Austin said that have the same legal privacy protections. he was “interrogated for several hours Any information that anyone stores on while they ransacked my room and someone else’s computer, or even just they seized a network of computers passes through someone else’s computer which I used to run my website on its way to its final destination, is fair RaiseTheFist.com. They also seized game for the owner of that computer to protest signs, and political literature. rifle through. In other words, it would Their excuse was a protest guide (which be as if, when you hand a bill payment I didn’t author) that was posted to my to a postage worker, that postage worker site which a small portion contained and any other that comes in contact information on explosives . . . [This with the letter on its way to its destina- information] doesn’t compare to what tion could open it up, see what you you can find on many other web- are paying for, and then use that sites such as HowThingsWork.com, information to target you for similar Loompanics.com, BombShock.com, products. Totse.com, Amazon.com, or the many Some citizens and legislators have said neo-Nazi websites.” When Austin is this is an invasion of privacy. Informa- released from jail he will be banned, tion about an individual’s buying habits, by court order, from associating with interests, and proclivities, as evidenced anyone who wants to “change the gov- by where they go and what they do on ernment in any way.”14 the Internet, should not be collected or distributed, they say, because it could be Controversy over the Collection of Infor- abused. Internet marketers counter that mation. With the controversy and pres- they are only providing a service for sure about what the Internet delivers to consumers and businesses—helping web surfers are concerns about what to bring them together. Rather than websites and developers gather from bombarding and annoying consumers web surfers. As explained in chapter 6, with random advertisements, why not through the use of cookies websites are eliminate the guessing game that televi- able to gather, save, and access informa- sion and radio are victim to because tion about their visitors. Not only do of their nondynamic, one-size-fits-all sites use this information for their own medium? Certain television advertisers purposes, but there is nothing to stop choose to air their ads on the reality them from selling it to others—and show “The Bachelor” and not on many do. “World News Tonight” for a reason, and Web portals, such as Yahoo and some businesses would rather advertise Google, instead of buying information on alternative rock radio stations than about web surfers from third parties, talk radio because they assume that the have set up services that allow them to rock audience will be more interested 210 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

in their products. But these are only Contending with Peer-to-Peer Net- assumptions that will not apply to all works. Perhaps one of the most con- listeners of the station. Maybe there troversial and dynamic developments are alternative rock aficionados who, brought about by the proliferation of contrary to marketing stereotypes, are the Internet is the facility that the In- interested in facial care products. Would ternet gives to individuals to exchange not the consumer, the radio station, and information and data one on one, or the advertiser be better served if, in peer to peer. Although the Internet has place of a commercial for beer, a com- allowed, in this respect, individuals to mercial for medicated facial scrub with share their creations freely and widely to apricot seed extract could be played a practically unlimited audience—often, specifically for the rock consumer con- instead of sharing their own creations cerned about the size and cleanliness of freely, they have used the Internet to his or her pores? share copyrighted materials created by Though considerable pomp and cir- others without the copyright holder’s cumstance goes into complaints about permission or remuneration. the loss of privacy on the Internet, For many, this rampant phenomenon many, including Michael Lewis, author has called into question the idea of of the Internet culture-skewering book copyright law. These people think that Next: The Future Just Happened, think copyright law has far exceeded its that consumers are “willing to feign original purpose, as outlined in Article outrage on command, until they see the 1, Section 8, of the Constitution: benefits of relinquishing their privacy.” “to promote the progress of science and Lewis says that if businesses are able to useful arts, by securing for limited times, more efficiently target their advertising, to authors and inventors, the exclusive getting more sales out of fewer ads, right to their respective writings and the savings in marketing costs can be discoveries.” Copyright law has changed passed on to the consumer in lower throughout the years, but protections prices.15 were broadly expanded in 1998, to the Nonetheless, legislation continues to dismay of many, when Disney fought to be proposed to rein in the collection keep its copyrights for Mickey Mouse and distribution of information on the and other central Disney characters. Internet. Some have proposed “opt out” The characters were poised to enter the legislation, which would allow web public domain in 2003 and thus be free surfers the option to disallow collection game for anyone to profit from or of data about them, much like the tele- reproduce for no profit—75 years after marketing “do not call” list enacted by their debut in 1928. Disney, a $6.3 Congress in 2003 bars most telemar- million contributor to political cam- keters from making cold calls to those paigns in 1997–1998, got a 20-year who register their phone numbers with extension from Congress and President the national registry. Others have pro- Clinton, and, in the process, gave similar posed more stringent “opt in” legisla- copyright extensions to tens of thou- tion, where websites would be barred sands of other works about to enter the from collecting information about web public domain. Some wondered if, in surfers unless the surfers specifically 2023, when the extension is to expire, request that the website collect infor- Disney might decide to make Washing- mation about them. ton the “Happiest Place on Earth” again 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 211 with political contributions and get owners have decided to fight fire with another extension of ownership for its fire, putting up fake or corrupted files mascots.16 Copyright law, many argued, on peer-to-peer networks that only is a joke. reveal themselves to be fakes after they But, joke or not, it is the law—a fact have been fully downloaded. The hope driven home when Napster, a peer- is that these hoaxes will discourage to-peer networking program that would-be pirates when they tie up their allowed untold hundreds of thousands computers for hours downloading what of copyrighted songs to exchange hands they thought would be a full-length in the late 1990s, was shut down in motion picture only to find a “gotcha” 2000. But Napster’s demise did not message. spell the end for a copyright-flouting public whose appetite for getting for Giving Them What They Want. Proba- free what they used to have to pay for bly the biggest influence on Internet was only whetted by flash-in-the-pan programming, however, is users. More Napster. As high-speed Internet access people are turning to the Internet became more common, with the staple for news, information, commerce, and of song swapping, complete first-run entertainment. Start-up companies and movies and television shows started individuals want to make their mark streaming over the web using software and claim their space in a medium only and services provided by a host of bound to grow, even if in fits and starts. Napster copycats. Established media companies that want In 2003, the Recording Industry to keep their brands alive see that they Association of America (RIAA) opened must make inroads into the Internet or a new salvo in the fight against Internet be left in the dust. The on-demand piracy when it brought lawsuits against quality of the Internet holds the promise individual Internet users who had that anyone could request and receive shared large numbers of copyrighted anything they want whenever they want songs and promised to bring more suits it, rather than, as with traditional radio against individuals, which it did in 2004. and television, having to tune in at a The RIAA also infamously offered an specific time or program a recorder to amnesty program (which many dubbed capture it as it is broadcast. This unique a “shamnesty”) wherein those who had quality of the Internet has drawn in illegally downloaded copyrighted mate- many viewers—and drawn them from rial could admit to it, remove all the other mediums. ill-begotten files from their possession, The Internet’s global reach is also and escape prosecution from the RIAA. affecting local television and radio There were not many takers, however, programming and producers of Internet as legal experts quickly pointed out that content who want to capture a local although the RIAA could promise it audience. The lesson is this: If your would not bring suit, those who admit- audience has interests that you are ted to violating copyrights could still be not satisfying, it can and will go else- sued by individual artists and record where. At the start of the war in Iraq in companies that owned the copyrights to March 2003, according to web intelli- the pilfered works. gence company Hitwise, “BBC Online Given the limited success of prosecu- received more U.S. visitors...than tion in copyright cases, many copyright either of the top U.S. news sites Fox 212 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

U.S. networks wrapped themselves in the ﬂag and swapped impartiality for gung-ho patriotism,” he said, suggesting that the mix of journalism and patriotism had turned off U.S. audiences looking for more objective reporting.17 Perhaps U.S. viewers were not turned off by local coverage but were instead just curious to directly hear what other countries were saying about the events of the day. Either way, viewers turned elsewhere. And for media companies who rely on audiences for revenue or, more benevolently, who want to give audiences what they want, carefully analyzing international web use patterns can, and should, inﬂuence the content they offer on local sites and broadcasts.

So far, we have explained where program ideas come from, how they get developed and tested, what the essential Figure 8.4 News and The Washington Post” (Figure ingredients are, and who, besides the BBC.co.uk received 8.4). program department, inﬂuences content. a spike in U.S. BBC Director-General Greg Dyke, However, all too frequently program- visitors at the speaking at a journalism symposium mers who have been mindful of all the beginning of the later in 2003, attributed the jump in foregoing destroy their efforts by paying war in Iraq in U.S. visitors to BBC’s site to U.S. news too little attention to where, when, and 2003, outpacing its organizations misjudgment of their how the show is scheduled.We move on U.S. competitors. (Image courtesy audience. “Since 11th September, many to this vital process. of www.BBC.co.uk.)

EXERCISES

1. Using the definitions of obscenity and 3. Determine if there is more than one indecency earlier in this chapter, examine station in your local radio market owned by what you think the local definitions of the same company. Compare and contrast obscenity and indecency would be for your the stations to each other, then compare community. Compare your impression of them to stations owned by other compa- local definitions with other locales with nies. Examine any correlations between which you are familiar. programming on stations owned by the 2. Determine several topics that, same company that might be indicative of although not indecent, you think would corporate, rather than local, influence. be on the cusp of raising public protest 4. Listen to a controversial radio talk or advertiser revolt, if discussion of them show host or deejay. Count how many was broadcast over the radio in your times the host refers to her or his relation- community. ship to management of the station. Do you 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 213 think the characterization of the relation- be compelled by law to feature links ship between host and management is to opposing opinions? Should these laws accurate or just posturing? be applied to all sites or just to some? If 5. Do you think that, in the age of the some, to which sites should they be Internet, definitions of obscenity and inde- applied? cency should continue to be locally 7. Do you think that websites should be derived? If so, how could such standards be held responsible for objectionable content enforced? If not, by whom should defini- on sites to which they link? tions of obscenity and indecency be deter- 8. With the Internet’s easy ability to link mined? Should they be applied only to the from site to site, how would you define a Internet or to all media? work “as a whole” on the Internet? 6. Do you agree with DO IT, that sites expressing one opinion on a subject should

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Snopes.com. “Radio, Radio,” http:// 8. Stephen Dinan. “Ads Compare Bush www.snopes2.com/rumors/radio.htm. to Hitler,” http://www.washtimes.com/ Accessed February 23, 2004. national/20040105-114507-1007r.htm. 2. Tom Valentine and Ira Hansen.“Talk- Accessed February 16, 2004. Show Host Learns Tough Lesson About 9. 365Gay.com. “Gay Politician Caught Mainstream Censorship, Free Speech and with Pants Down,” http://www.365gay Israel,” http://www.americanfreepress.net/ .com/newscontent/120103ukPolit.htm. Mideast/Talk-Show_Host_Learns_Tough_ Accessed February 16, 2004. Le/talk-show_host_learns_tough_le.html. 10. Bill Mears. “Supreme Court Afﬁrms Accessed January 30, 2004. Use of Computer Filters in Public 3. “Deﬁnitions of Pornography, Obscen- Libraries,” http://www.cnn.com/2003/ ity, and Indecency,” http://www.moralityin LAW/06/24/scotus.internetporn.library. media.org/index.htm?obscenityEnforce Accessed February 17, 2004. ment/obscporn.htm. Accessed February 4, 11. Sherrie Gossett. “Newssite Shut 2004. Down over War Photos,” http://www 4. NewsMax.com. “FCC’s Powell Wants .worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTI Bigger Fines for Indecency,” http://www CLE_ID=31709. Accessed February 18, .newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/1/ 2004. 15/03712.shtml. Accessed February 4, 12. Jay Lyman. “Investigative Report: 2004. Terrorist Web Site Hosted by U.S. Firm,” 5. “FCC Fine Against Clear Channel for http://www.newsfactor.com/perl/story/17 2001 Broadcasts,” http://www.radioand 079.html. Accessed February 19, 2004. records.com/Subscribers/TodaysNews/arch 13. Clyde Wayne Crews, Jr., and Adam ive/arch012804.htm#FCC%20Fine%20 Thierer. “Whatever Happened to Leaving Against%20Clear%20Channel%20For%202 the Internet Unregulated?” http://www 001%20Broadcasts. Accessed February 4, .cato.org/cgi-bin/scripts/printtech.cgi/ 2004 (Subscription-only access). dailys/12-22-02.html. Accessed February 6. “Radio ‘X,’” Los Angeles Times, 19, 2004. October 17, 1991, p. F-3. 14. NotInOurName.net. “Support 7. Eric Nuzum. “Censorship Incidents,” Sherman Austin,” http://www.notinour http://ericnuzum.com/banned/incidents/ name.net/restrictions/sherman-austin.htm. 00s.html. Accessed February 24, 2004. Accessed February 20, 2004. 214 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

15. Crews and Thierer. 17. Jemima Kiss.“BBC Online Beats US 16. Chris Sprigman. “The Mouse That News on Its Own Turf,” http://www Ate the Public Domain,” http://writ.news .journalism.co.uk/news/story637.html. .ﬁndlaw.com/commentary/20020305_sprig Accessed February 23, 2004. man.html. Accessed February 19, 2004. 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television

In this chapter you will learn about the ence are all factors to be assessed before following: the show is committed to the schedule. • The importance of scheduling decisions TELEVISION SCHEDULING • The scheduling strategies of commer- Many of the strategies used in schedul- cial and cable networks ing commercial television can be found • How the urge to compete molds in cable.There are differences, but more schedules similarities exist. Clearly, both share a • How sweeps affect schedules desire to program to the available audi- • How changing a show’s time slot on ence and a desire to employ scheduling the schedule can improve a show’s techniques that will work the best for performance them. Commercial stations, cable sys- • How patience or the lack of it can tems, and satellite providers all want to affect a program’s success protect their programming with the best To construct a successful programming possible schedules. lineup, programmers must do more than It is different with syndication. Syn- just fill the time periods. Many TV dicators sell to stations and rarely, at least shows that, at first blush, seemed to initially, are able to dictate time periods. contain all the right ingredients for a After a syndicated show has been on the long and profitable life have had short air awhile and has developed a large fol- and painful demises for reasons apart lowing, the distributor may be strong from their inherent merit. Programs not enough to demand a specific position only have to be developed but also have on the schedule. One suspects, for to be nurtured. Too many productions example, that when Oprah Winfrey’s have simply been tossed on the air with company, Harpo, launched “Dr. Phil,” no plan, no promotion, no lead-in, and she was able to require that “Dr. Phil” therefore, no chance. not compete directly with her and that Once programmers have produced a it be given a good time slot. (In Los promising show, they must be equally Angeles, Oprah airs at 3:00 P.M. on adept at placing and treating it on the ABC and “Dr. Phil” airs at 4:00 P.M.on schedule. The time period, the compe- NBC.) Certain shows are designed for a tition, and the receptivity of the audi- particular daypart and cannot be sched-

215 216 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

uled effectively anywhere else. But the a show with a predominant teen appeal syndicators mostly sell the shows, and on a Saturday night. That audience is the stations place them whenever they not home. They are at movie theaters, wish. basketball games, or anywhere other Ideally, programmers seek a large than in front of the set with mom and audience with the leadoff show and dad. structure the programs that follow so ABC relearned this lesson in the that the audience will watch continu- 1990–1991 season.The network bucked ously throughout the schedule. This is the conventional wisdom and scheduled not always possible. Sometimes a com- a nightlong lineup for the 18 to 34 year petitor’s opening program will be an olds:“The Young Riders,”“Twin Peaks,” established blockbuster that makes it and “China Beach” (replaced midseason impossible for others to start effectively. by “Under Cover”). ABC hoped that if Other times the competitor’s strength it built the franchise, the young viewers may be in the middle of the schedule. would come. They did not. In the last Then, the only strategy is to ride out the week of their Saturday telecasts, “Twin “bad” period and attempt to rebuild Peaks” and “Under Cover” were tied for when the power block is over and the 85th place among 89 programs rated by audience is released. Nielsen. But late Saturday night? That When putting together a schedule, is something different. Many young programmers should consider the ele- viewers have returned home by then ments described in the sections that and are eager for entertainment, as “Sat- follow. urday Night Live” has impressively proved for more than 4 decades. Fitting the Show to the When buying syndicated shows, Available Audience station programmers look for series appropriate to the time period. When- As we explained earlier, most programs ever possible, a network affiliate will try have a primary appeal to a particular to buy a syndicated show that coordi- audience. For example, action–adventure nates with a network lead-in (assuming appeals principally to men, sitcoms to the lead-in is strong) to continue the women, contemporary music to teens, audience flow. serials to younger women, and talk Before locking in a program, pro- shows and game shows to older women. grammers must study the time period’s Occasionally, a particular show will demographic history. If the target audi- attract an almost universal audience, as ence is underrepresented, a more favor- when more than 90% of all the homes able position should be sought. No in the country watched at least one matter how strong the show, if the key episode of “Roots” when it was initially viewers are not available, the project aired in 1977. Often something of a will fail. current nature, such as the coverage of a war or disaster, will also have wide Dayparting appeal. But generally the primary appeal of a show is to a specific demographic Closely related to the principle of fitting group. the show to the available audience is the Therefore, a program must be placed concept of dayparting. People’s needs, at a time in which its core viewers are activities, and moods change throughout available. It makes no sense to schedule the day, and dayparting takes this into 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 217 account by changing what is presented overstimulated, and viewers turn in for and how it is presented. the night at varying times. Segmented In the morning, when people first shows permit people to switch off the wake up, they often want information to set after an interview has been com- help them plan the day—weather, traffic pleted. In this way, a programmer is able reports, and important news. Because to attract a large number of viewers for most people must go to work, they do at least part of a show. If a 2-hour movie not have a great deal of time to spend was scheduled, the viewer might be with media. That is why many of the tempted to say, “I can’t watch all of it; morning shows are divided into short therefore, I won’t watch any of it.” segments. Early morning is also a time Stations that stay on through the early when young children watch television, morning hours, as a service to insom- often as their parents are getting ready niacs or night workers who do not want for work. The children’s cable channel, to retire as soon as they come home, Noggin, for example, offers a pre-school usually fill the time with inexpensive block in the mornings. movies or, on cable, paid programming As the morning wears on, people in the form of infomercials.This is more who spend time with television are able for economic reasons than daypart strat- to do so in a more leisurely fashion. As egy. Lately, networks have been supply- a result, game shows, soap operas, and ing news to their affiliates during the talk shows dominate daytime TV. wee hours, and a small but devoted In the midafternoon, students return audience of news junkies have tuned in. home from school. Many television sta- On the weekend, programming tions change programming fare to appeal changes dramatically to accommodate to these children. In the afternoon, the lifestyle of the audience. The Noggin offers “Bob the Builder,”“Dora daytime lineups are studded with sport- the Explorer,” and “Oswald.” After 6:00 ing events to reach the male viewers P.M., Noggin appeals to older children, available in abundance. Saturday filling out its dayparting schedule for morning is often devoted to children’s children from the youngest in the morn- programming to accommodate early- ings to the oldest in the early evening. rising children and their late-rising As people begin arriving home from parents. Saturday evening schedules are work, many TV stations switch from canted toward the older audience in programming oriented toward children recognition of the absence of teens and and homemakers to news. This allows young adults. Sunday morning on the adults to catch up on the day’s events. networks is wall-to-wall news and The evening is the time for the most public affairs programming.This is partly leisurely TV viewing of all—the time to take advantage of the availability of when all categories of viewers are, in adults who have the time to digest the theory at least, able to spend several news in deeper more thoughtful quan- hours with one or more programs. tities, but it is also a way to pay off Comedy, drama, and reality are the public service obligations in a commer- primary fare during these hours. cially insensitive time period. Networks From 11:30 P.M. until 12:30 or 1:00 and stations can point with pride to A.M., the talk/variety form presented in these estimable service shows whenever segments has been most popular for two their community consciousness is called basic reasons: people who are preparing into question without sacrificing large for sleep generally do not want to be profits in the process. 218 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

is not the case with PBS, although in Eastern Standard Time Program recent years informal pressure has been 6:00 A.M. “Sesame Street” placed on the major PBS afﬁliates to run 7:06 A.M. “Arthur” most of the programs at set times. The reason behind this change is that PBS 7:43 A.M. “Clifford the Big Red Dog” wants to develop national promotional 8:20 A.M. “Dragon Tales” campaigns that tell all viewers exactly when they can expect to see a partic- 8:57 A.M. “Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood” ular program on their local PBS sta- 9:34 A.M. “Barney & Friends” tion. But stations often have minds of their own regarding what time of day 10:11 A.M. “Teletubbies” certain programs should air in their 10:47 A.M. “Sesame Street” communities.

11:53 A.M. “Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood” Although procedures differ from station to station, most public TV sta- 12:30 P.M. “On Q” tions daypart, often with shows for chil- 1:00 P.M. “Hot and Spicy” dren in the mornings and afternoons; programs for women during midday 2:00 P.M. “Hot and Spicy” when children are likely to be napping; 3:00 P.M. “Between the Lions” and news, interviews, and self-help shows throughout the evening into late 3:36 P.M. “Arthur” night (Figure 9.1). 4:12 P.M. “Liberty’s Kids”

4:48 P.M. “Clifford the Big Red Dog” Launching the Show: The First Strategy 5:24 P.M. “Cyberchase”

6:00 P.M. “The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer” For a program to be a success, it must ﬁrst be sampled. If viewers are unaware 7:00 P.M. “Nightly Business Report” of a show, the early ratings will be weak 7:30 P.M. “On Q” and the series likely will languish quickly. In a soft economic environ- 8:00 P.M. “Dr. Wayne Dyer: The Power of Intention” ment, buyers are disinclined to stay with Midnight “On Q” programs that do not instantly indicate promise. Programmers have devised two 12:30 A.M. “Charlie Rose” strategies to hasten the sampling process: 1:30 A.M. “Dr. Wayne Dyer: The Power of Intention” introduce the show in a quiet time, and place the premiere when a large audi- 5:30 A.M. “America’s Home Cooking: Casseroles and Covered Dishes” ence is virtually guaranteed.

Introducing the Show in a Quiet Time. Figure 9.1 Public television stations determine For many years, the television season This schedule for their own dayparting to a much greater was clearly set: it started in the fall and March 8, 2004, degree than the commercial stations ended in the spring. One reason for this for WQED in affiliated with NBC, CBS, ABC, and was that business affairs executives Pittsburgh is a Fox. The contract signed between com- insisted that the networks could not typical PBS mercial networks and affiliates penalizes afford to air original programs in the schedule. a station if it does not run a program summer, ad rates being lower in the when the network wants it to run. Such summer when viewership is down. To 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 219 make the shows financially feasible, they series “The O.C.,” about the lives and argued, it was essential to schedule loves of teenagers in Orange County, reruns in the summer. California. Competition, the proliferation of USA network, for example, launches viewer options, the marketplace, and the its original programming outside of proliferation of reality shows that do not sweeps to get sampling and awareness in repeat well have helped create a season a quiet time. that runs virtually all year. This has enabled programmers to avoid putting Placing the Show in a Hit Time Period. their shows up against heavy compe- A favorite launching strategy is to tition in the fall or even at the start schedule a newcomer after a monster of the so-called second season in the event, the Super Bowl being the ideal spring. It is thus a little easier to find a choice. Hardly a year goes by that the quiet time to introduce a show, avoid- network carrying the game does not ing the cluttered “premiere week” of old introduce a new show behind it in the when only a few shows could survive. hope that the largest audience of the There is still a lot of talk and specula- year will like what it sees and an instant tion about the shows that will launch a hit will be born. Sometimes it works fall season, but this hype belies that a and sometimes it does not.Although the “season” is now essentially year round. results vary, the strategy is fundamentally Fox is generally credited with having sound. There is no better way to get a led the trend toward the expansion to program sampled than to place it imme- the year-round “season.” In the summer diately following a blockbuster event. of 1991, Peter Chernin, president of A variation of this strategy is to time Fox Entertainment, declared that his slot a newcomer in a time period that company had fallen into the same “self- follows a powerhouse series, such as destructive” practice of launching all “Frasier,” as NBC did with “Scrubs,” or new shows in the fall. He noted that the “Everybody Loves Raymond,” as CBS previous season the four networks had did with “Two and a Half Men.” “introduced 34 new series as if it was a Many industry observers would agree massacre. Seventy-five percent failed. No with Alan Wurtzel, NBC’s president of other business debuts its product like research and media development, that that. No longer at Fox. We will roll out 50% of all households that will ever new series in every month of the year.”1 watch a program will get hooked by one His new plan went into effect in July of the first two episodes. Obviously, the 1991 with the premiere of “Beverly sooner they sample these shows, the Hills, 90210.” “In the first week,” better. This is why broadcasters strive so Chernin claimed, “it showed an 84% tirelessly to develop new techniques to improvement over its ’90–’91 average.”2 bring viewers into the tent from the By mid-fall it was second in its time beginning. period, topped only by the formidable HBO has found an effective way to veteran, “Cheers.” capitalize on its own version of a hit Not every show that premieres in an time period. Because of the success of off time becomes a hit, but Fox again “Sex and the City” and “The Sopranos,” showed prodigious off-season results in HBO found that by alternating these the summer of 2002 with the reality two shows in the same time period, it show “American Idol” and in the could command the Sunday 9:00 P.M. summer of 2003 when it introduced its period. HBO may launch most of its 220 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 9.2 “The Sopranos” (a and b) and “Sex and the City” (c) established a stronghold for HBO on Sunday nights at 9:00. (Photo of Edie Falco and James Gandolfini from “The Sopranos” courtesy the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences; photo of “Sex and the City” from (b) Globe Photos, Even though a new show may achieve Inc.) (a) a higher share of audience in July than in September, the pie is so much smaller that the total audience may still fall short of a conventional launch. Second, January premieres run into station clearance difficulties. Station managers who commit to programs in the fall are frequently locked into pay-or- play contracts for at least 26 weeks. For purely economic reasons, they may wish to stay with a failing show until the full commitment is satisfied, particularly during a recessionary period. Programs launched in January may have to struggle for months with subpar lineups until (c) additional time periods break open. To repeat, the first objective of a original movies Saturday nights, but it launch is to get the program sampled. has also managed to carve out this Any technique of timing that enables Sunday night stronghold (Figure 9.2). the program to be introduced when it will confront the least competition is Launching Syndicated Series. There are desirable. However, this advantage must two major factors militating against any be weighed against the less attractive sort of wholesale departure from fall factors of starting in a period of low set premieres for syndicated shows. First, usage, being forced to schedule reruns summer households using television in high HUT months when opponents (HUT) and persons using television will be running original episodes, and (PUT) levels are considerably lower offering a show for sale when many than those in the fall–spring period. buyers cannot accommodate it. 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 221

Tentpoling were fewer and the remote control unit had not yet been invented. The long You have just seen that one of the best walk from the couch to the set was ways to gain sampling for a show is to more exercise than most viewers cared introduce it behind a big hit. The same for, and given a reasonable excuse to stay principle can be applied to programs put, they would. Today they can whiz struggling elsewhere on the schedule. By through 30 channels before the next moving these next to hits, they can often show’s opening credits have rolled, and be revived and enjoy healthy,lengthy runs. the pass-along strategy is less assured. Sometimes a powerhouse show is Nevertheless, it continues its useful- strong enough to hold up programs ness. “A Different World,” a comedy both before and after it. If a new show spin-off of the “The Cosby Show” was is scheduled right before a popular introduced in September 1987 immedi- program, people tuning in early in ately following the parent program, anticipation of the hit will sample the which, at that time, was the No. 1 show end of the new entry. Hopefully, they on television. The derivative production will be intrigued and tune in the next was an instant success and remained in week for the entire show. Placing an the Top 10 for 4 years, although the established show before a hit is not as show was often dismissed as simply strong a programming strategy as placing riding on the “Cosby” coattails.This dis- it after, but the method can work. missal was unfair, as revealed by the This concept of scheduling weak or number of seemingly compatible shows new programs around a strong show is that have failed following “Friends,” one referred to as tentpoling—the pole in of the most successful shows in televi- the middle holds up the two weaker sion history. Four years as a Top 10 show shows, especially the one that follows. does not just happen as a result of for- The Fox network made excellent use tuitous placement on a schedule. of tentpoles when it expanded the Station managers use this same tent- number of evenings it broadcast. It had poling strategy with blockbuster syn- developed a strong Sunday lineup that dication series. When “Jeopardy” was included “The Simpsons,” “America’s launched in its third incarnation in Most Wanted,” and “Married ...With 1984, it was placed behind the tri- Children.” When it expanded to more umphant “Wheel of Fortune” in many nights of programming in 1990, it used markets. It quickly became an enormous these popular programs as anchors for success and helped form an invulnerable the other nights—“The Simpsons” on hour of dominance. Although PBS does Thursday, “America’s Most Wanted” on not carry out scheduling strategies with Friday, and “Married ...With Chil- the same fanaticism as the commercial dren” on Sunday. Fox has used this strat- and cable networks, it also has its tent- egy several times over the years. For pole shows, programs such as “American example, after “Malcolm in the Middle” Masters,” “Great Performances,” established itself by following “The “Mystery,” and “The NewsHour with Simpsons,” Fox moved it to Sundays at Jim Lehrer.” 9:00 P.M. in the 2002–2003 season, where it became another tentpole for Hammocking the network. Tentpoling was far more effective in Probably the surest way to generate an the precable era, when program choices audience for a new program is to slot it 222 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

between two established shows, called 8:00 to 9:00 P.M.,ABC scheduled two the hammock principle.With power in situation comedies, the second of which, front and power behind, the new “Home Improvement” was a promising program benefits from both the pass- newcomer comfortably placed between along viewing from the preceding show the well-established “Full House” and and the anticipated entertainment from the No. 1-rated series,“Roseanne.” CBS the following program. Hammocking countered with “Rescue 911,” a fast- is a frequently employed strategy. For paced “actuality” adventure, and NBC example, it is often seen in children’s introduced “I’ll Fly Away,” a soft, family- cartoon blocks in which a newcomer is value-focused, dramatic series. In the sandwiched between two established 9:00 to 10:00 P.M. hour, ABC contin- series. ued its comedy skein with the afore- Expectations are higher with ham- mentioned “Roseanne” and “Coach,” a mocked shows, such as NBC’s “Jesse” or show that had blossomed into a hit in “Cursed.” Placed between “Friends” and its enviable time period. Again, the two “Will & Grace,” these shows were competitors had to seek an alternative simply unable to take advantage of being audience. CBS elected to present feature in prime television real estate in 1999 films, and NBC offered “In the Heat of and 2000, respectively, and were quickly the Night,”a law enforcement adventure canceled. series. To close out the night, ABC A story (possibly apocryphal) is decided to try a new family drama, told about ABC President Leonard “Homefront,” in the belief that the Goldenson in the early days of the lineup’s tremendous momentum would network, when a running joke was pass along a large audience to the new- “They ought to put the Vietnam War on comer and give it a good chance of ABC—it would be canceled in 13 success. CBS played the second half of weeks.” Goldenson observed that his its movie, and NBC followed “In the competitors were separating two hits Heat of the Night” with another crime- and sliding a new show in between. and-punishment series, “Law & Order.” Impressed by this strategy, he supposedly This nightlong effort on the part of each asked his programming chief, “Why broadcaster to carve away an audience don’t we do that?” “Because, Leonard,” on which the others are not concen- came the response, “we don’t have two trating is classic counterprogramming hits.” strategy. Going to Tuesday nights for the 2002 Counterprogramming season, six networks were competing against each other instead of three. ABC No program, no matter how popular, submitted a comedy block from 8:00 to can satisfy all viewers. The neglected or 10:00 P.M., leading into the steady dissatisfied audience becomes a good “NYPD Blue,” even though it had no target for competing shows. The tactic hit show to use as a tentpole and did of filling a time period with a program not have two hits shows to use for a whose appeal is dissimilar to an oppo- hammock. NBC also went with comedy nent’s is called counterprogramming. from 8:00 to 10:00 P.M.Although it had The 1991 three-network prime-time a strong show in “Frasier” to use as a lineup Tuesday nights (Fox did not tentpole, “Hidden Hills” proved a provide programming Tuesday nights in failure. NBC went with a news show at 1991) provides a good example of this 10:00 P.M. to compete with the dramas device from television history. From on CBS and ABC. CBS went with 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 223 older-skewing dramas for the entire This “ER”–“Chicago Hope” scenario night. Fox countered with a hipper raises the question, “What do you do drama,“24,” at 9:00 P.M.and used its hit against a monster hit?” Network execu- show,“That ’70s Show,” to jumpstart its tives have wrestled with this problem night against the competing comedies. from “I Love Lucy” in the 1950s “Gilmore Girls” on the WB and “Buffy through the “The Cosby Show” in the the Vampire Slayer” on UPN went head 1980s and “ER” in the 1990s to “CSI” to head, targeting the younger demo- starting in 2000. The temptation is to graphics at 8:00 P.M., followed at 9:00 throw up a test pattern, abandon the P.M. by “Smallville” on the WB and time period, and hope no one will “Haunted” on UPN; “Smallville” won notice. A pleasant fantasy, but unrealistic. that battle. Six competitors from 8:00 to At times programmers have decided to 10:00 P.M. (and back to three at 10:00 cut their losses and fill the period with P.M.) makes counterprogramming more the most inexpensive programming complex because the shares of the pie available. A strong case can be made for are bound to be a lot smaller, particu- fiscal prudence, but there is a big risk to larly with the influx of cable. simply not showing up. When an opponent has tried to stake For one thing, stations have to sell a claim on a particular audience but has commercials around the period, and the done so with a relatively weak entry, the spots will be worthless if the program best strategy may be to go after that does not register. Also, such a lack of audience with a stronger version of the effort says all the wrong things to the same genre. If the move is successful, the company’s many constituents (adver- challenger will capture the viewers and tisers, investors, etc.). Most executives feel seriously erode the opponent’s audience it is best to try something experimental. base not only for that time period but There is not much to lose, and, who possibly for the ensuing ones. knows, they might just get lucky. Even It seems strange that two medical if it does not work, critics and com- dramas would be scheduled against each mentators will applaud the innovative other, particularly when schedules are so effort and this will help ease the pain of carefully put together with counterpro- a stricken time period. gramming in mind. This, however, was Sylvester L. “Pat”Weaver, president of the case in September 1994 when CBS NBC-TV in the early 1950s, recalled, scheduled “Chicago Hope” at 10:00 P.M. “Whenever the other guys came up on Thursdays and NBC scheduled “ER” with a big winner, I knew it was time at the same time. It was immediately to call in my zanies, the guys with the clear that “ER” had megahit written all off-the-wall ideas. I knew no conven- over it and that if “Chicago Hope” had tional show could make it, but maybe any chance of survival, it needed to something really unusual might click.” be moved, quickly. In October 1994, ABC scored strongly with this strat- “Chicago Hope” was moved an hour egy in 1990. CBS’s “Murder, She earlier on Thursdays, and in December Wrote,” preceded by the powerhouse 1994, it was moved to Monday nights “60 Minutes,” had been delivering at 10:00 when, under David E. Kelley’s hammer blows to the opposition since masterful hand, it established itself as a 1984. ABC decided to take a flyer on a solid hit for CBS. Had the network not program that featured home videotapes acted to protect the show, “Chicago shot by ordinary citizens. The novel Hope” might not have been able to concept caught on and “America’s Fun- survive the “ER” juggernaut. niest Home Videos” became a perennial 224 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 9.3 “The Bachelor” (a) was successfully scheduled against “The West Wing.” It made the rose ceremony into a nationwide watercooler phenomenon. Its success led to the spin-off “The Bachelorette” (b). (Photos © ABC Photography Archives.) (a)

deliver solid, if unspectacular, ratings at an affordable cost to the network. There are times when it is an excellent strategy to take on a blockbuster hit. The timing must be right, but if it is, the colossus can be toppled.Two conditions are required: the incumbent hit must be in a waning state and the challenger must be a promising show in the early stages of its ascent. These are two critical and delicate judgments for the programmer, and if either is wrong the venture will fail. When ABC’s head scheduler, Jeff Bader, sensed that NBC’s prestige drama,“The West Wing,” was vulnerable in the fall of 2002, he felt the timing was right to pit an unscripted series, “The Bachelor,” against it (Figure 9.3). (b) He was dead on, and the strong, younger demographics that “The Bachelor” and its companion piece, “The Bache- “safety valve” used by ABC as a quick lorette,” garnered made the victory even ﬁx when other scheduling was not sweeter. working. Its ratings never achieved the Similarly, CBS’s Les Moonves was heights that they did at the start, but the able to take on NBC’s seemingly show could always be counted on to impenetrable Thursday night “Must See 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 225

TV” by moving “Survivor” (Figure 9.4) and “CSI” to Thursday nights in 2001, adding “Without a Trace” to the mix to create a powerful assault on NBC’s former stronghold. For independent stations, counterprogramming remains simply a way of life. They must always examine the schedules of their network-afﬁliated opponents and go after the audience left unattended.

Bridging and Supersizing The less opportunity the audience has to sample your adversary’s program, the ruptions became popular at the start of Figure 9.4 better chance you have for success. If the new century as a means of bridging “Survivor” host Jeff you have something compelling unfold- two shows.This continuous action seeks Probst is flanked ing when the competition is about to to hook viewers before they have a by executive start, you distract the viewer from the chance to go elsewhere. And some producers Mark temptation to stray. shows start a few seconds before the Burnett and Charlie Parsons as The most effective use of this strategy hour or half hour, refusing to allow they celebrate the is to have a program under way well in viewers to jump ship. success of their advance of the competitor’s start time. Supersizing, adding 10 minutes to a show. (Courtesy Networks and stations have often sched- half-hour show such as “Friends” or an the Academy of uled shows to begin before the start of extra half hour to an hour-long reality Television Arts & a powerful opposing show.Viewers who phenomenon such as “Fear Factor,” also Sciences.) have invested a full hour in a program became popular as a bridging strategy are unlikely to break away for something in the early 21st century, pioneered else. Bridging takes place at different by NBC Entertainment President Jeff times during the day. For example, the Zucker. The theory behind supersizing highly rated, long-lasting (it began in is that viewers enjoying extra time with 1971) CBS soap, “The Young and the one of their favorite shows will not turn Restless” starts a half hour earlier than the dial to another show already in the other soaps. progress. Supersizing is clearly fun and it A variation on the bridging strategy has been working, although program- is to edit a longform program so that mers should be wary of overusing it; the the competitor’s start time is spanned by novelty can wear off. entertainment. Take, for example, a 9:00 As with many other programming to 10:00 P.M. program opposed by 2 strategies, bridging has been affected by half hours. If the producer of the hour- the invention of the remote tuner. long program schedules a 2-minute During commercial breaks, hyperactive commercial from 9:25 to 9:27 P.M., a TV viewers may zip to five or six chan- strong piece of action can be unfolding nels to find other fare or just to satisfy at 9:30 P.M. when the second of the 2 their curiosity as to what else is playing. half hours is about to begin. If the program they have been watching Going seamlessly from one show to has been intriguing enough, they will the next without any commercial inter- return. But if something else catches 226 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

the special or movie should bridge the newcomer’s start time. If there is sufficient lead time and program inventory permits, a series of extraordinary events and programming can be placed in the time period for weeks leading up to the competition’s premiere. The idea is to build a viewing habit so binding that a Figure 9.5 viewer will not be tempted to seek pro- Legendary gramming elsewhere. programmer Fred Blunting requires vigilance and im- Silverman is agination. No programmer should recognized as the supinely “cave” against the premiere of founder of blunting. an opponent’s show, especially one that (Courtesy the occupies a key position in the schedule. Academy of Obviously, no company has the Television Arts & resources to attempt to blunt every Sciences.) competitive move. But if there is a lot riding on the outcome of the new their fancy,even though it may be almost show’s launch, every effort should be over, they may become a lost viewer. made to capture the viewer with greater attractions. Blunting The recognized founder of the blunting technique in network television is A cousin to bridging is blunting. The Fred Silverman (Figure 9.5). When he goal is the same: minimize the com- became program chief of CBS in 1970, petitor’s opportunity to be sampled. he instituted a policy of yearlong vigi- Except under the direst emergencies, the lance. Large sheets of paper were premieres of all programs are announced designed in which space was provided many weeks in advance. The need for for the programs of the three networks, notification to advertisers and affiliated half hour by half hour, for all seven stations, plus the time to rev up a pro- nights of the week. A sheet was main- motion campaign, makes last-minute tained for every week. Each week, key introductions impractical. In a world CBS network strategists met to where competition is king and domi- exchange information and update the nating your opponent often takes prece- charts. As soon as one of the other net- dence over thoughtful programming works made a program announcement, decisions, the long lead period enables the plotting began. Rarely was an ABC rivals to fashion competitive strategies. or NBC program launched that was So how do you keep your competi- not harassed by CBS diversions and tive edge by blunting the opposition? enticements. Strong, explosive episodes with marquee The system contributed significantly guest stars can be used. So can a special to CBS’s No. 1 status for all 5 years of program that combines celebrities with Silverman’s program leadership. He then other high-appeal elements. A major moved to ABC, where he used the tech- motion picture featuring a recently nique to score more winning years. announced Academy Award nominee However, by the time he arrived at can receive a “world TV premiere” on NBC, both his competitors were the competitor’s premiere night. Either schooled in the process and the origi- 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 227 nator’s advantage had vanished. After his Gone are the days when the com- stint at NBC ended, Silverman surveyed mercial networks could ignore any the programming landscape and was blunting attempts by cable when making able to carve out an area all to himself scheduling decisions. In 2004, with cable with older-skewing shows such as in more than 60% of homes and HBO, “Matlock,”“Diagnosis Murder,” and the in particular, in 30% of homes, cable can Perry Mason television movie franchise. significantly affect commercial televi- Late-night television is an extremely sion. For example, when HBO power- valuable resource for the networks. As house series “The Sopranos” and “Sex author Ken Auletta observed, in the late and the City” aired at 9:00 Sunday 1980s NBC was getting 25% of its nights, the commercial networks were profits from late-night programming, clearly affected by the HBO–cable making “Here’s Johnny” (Carson) a factor. When the final episode of “Sex welcome announcement.3 Over the and the City” aired February 22, 2004, years, late-night shows have remained a it drew some 10.6 million viewers, primary source of a network’s income. making it the second-most-watched In 1996, HBO produced a television show in its time slot, beaten only by movie, “The Late Shift,” based on the ABC, which had 17.5 millions viewers book by New York Times media analyst for the premier of the new and Bill Carter, which dramatized how con- improved “Super Millionaire” with tentious the wars for late-night domi- Regis Philbin again hosting. Indeed, nance can be. The failed attempt of ABC won the households race, but ABC’s Robert Iger to steal David HBO narrowly beat ABC in the key 18- Letterman from CBS in 2002 further to 49-year-old demographic. All this illustrates how tough (and embarrassing) with HBO in only 30% of U.S. homes.5 the public late-night blunting wars can Cable and commercial networks fre- be. In 2004, NBC sought to maintain quently clash over blunting. For the late-night dominance by securing example, in 2002, NBC scheduled its the services of Jay Leno for five addi- movie about Matthew Shepard, the gay tional years and by naming his succes- college student who was beaten and left sor, Conan O’Brien, thus avoiding to die by two young men high on another possible contentious battle over crystal methamphetamine in Laramie, the late shift. Wyoming, in 1998. The same night, Blunting strategies can sometimes end HBO was premiering its movie about up hurting both parties, as happened Shepard, “The Laramie Project,” based during the 2001–2002 season when on the play by Moises Kaufman. In CBS and NBC tried to blunt each response, HBO moved up the airing of other’s reality programming. CBS its movie by a week, with both sides brought out a special edition of “Big accusing each other of foul play and Brother 2” against the launch of NBC’s each proclaiming innocence about the “Lost.” NBC countered by using a scheduling plans of the other. special edition of “Fear Factor” to hurt Interestingly, when MTV aired its the premier of CBS’s “The Amazing version of the Matthew Shepard story a Race.” This showdown ended in a year before the HBO–NBC showdown, ratings draw, all performing adequately. an NBC executive reportedly told his But, as media analyst Stacey Lynn staff that the ratings effect of an MTV Korner notes, competitive egos got in cable movie were inconsequential to the way, hurting the networks and NBC and could not be considered viewers alike.4 serious competition. But with commer- 228 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Stacking

Programmers attempt to develop an audience flow by assembling programs of similar appeal to sweep the viewer from one time period to the next, as PBS does by stacking three contiguous cooking shows on Saturday afternoons. A classic example of the stacking strategy was CBS’s 1991 Monday night schedule of four sitcoms capped by a humorous, easy-to-take hour.The lineup dominated through the year and on several occasions was victorious in every half hour. In 2003, CBS similarly attempted to stack its programs with four sitcoms and an edgier 10:00 P.M. show, a spin off of its No. 1 hit, “CSI” (Figure 9.7). Before embarking on such a stacking Figure 9.6 cial television on the decline and cable strategy, a programmer should carefully Steven Spielberg’s programming on the rise, it is no longer evaluate two considerations: Is there a Emmy-winning, possible for the commercial networks to powerful show to begin the schedule, highly rated limited ignore the blunting possibilities of the and is there a weak link in the chain? series, “Taken,” cable channels, particularly when cable Without a strong leadoff program, the starring Dakota airs viewer-friendly limited series Fanning, lineup will be unable to develop the (Figure 9.6). demonstrated cable’s momentum necessary to start the audi- growing stronghold ence flow. This flow is essential for on longform CBS 1991 Monday Night Schedule stacking to work as a scheduling strat- programming. Time Program egy. If a competitor takes a command- (Courtesy the ing lead at the beginning of the race, it Academy of 8:00–8:30 P.M. “Evening Shade” will be difficult for the “stacked” lineup Television Arts & to gain pass-along benefits. Similarly, if Sciences.) 8:30–9:00 P.M. “Major Dad” there is an especially weak program in 9:00–9:30 P.M. “Murphy Brown” the string, viewers will drift to other 9:30–10:00 P.M. “Designing Women” offerings and the flow will be inter- rupted. If there is some doubt about the 10:00–11:00 P.M. “Northern Exposure” appeal of one of the shows, programmers would be well advised to place it CBS 2003 Monday Night Schedule at the end of the lineup. Time Program Stacking to maintain audience flow is a standard procedure in virtually every 8:00–8:30 P.M. “Yes, Dear” daypart. In weekly daytime program- Figure 9.7 The CBS 1991 8:30–9:00 P.M. “Still Standing” ming, the traditional strategy is to schedule games or other nonserial forms in the and 2003 Monday 9:00–9:30 P.M. “Everybody Loves Raymond” night schedule morning and serials in the afternoon. For shows how 9:30–10:00 P.M. “Two and a Half Men” decades, the networks have presented an programs can be 10:00–11:00 P.M. “CSI: Miami” uninterrupted string of animated shows stacked. on Saturday mornings to reach the 1- to 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 229

12-year-old audience. Research indicates there could be a ratings disaster paving that the youngest children watch the ear- the way to the conclusion, as was the liest shows, and, as the morning moves case in 2004 at ABC with Stephen along, the audience tends to get older. In King’s multiparter, “Kingdom Hospital,” theory, programmers select the order which began with respectable numbers of the cartoons to reflect this develop- but dropped 45% in its second airing. ment, although how they determine an In soaps and in prime time, weddings advancing intellectual content in these are often the stunt of choice. Conven- programs remains a mystery. tional programming wisdom maintains a wedding episode can significantly boost Stunting the ratings of a show—thus the heavily promoted wedding of Phoebe in the Sometimes programs must take extra- final season of “Friends.” ordinary measures to maintain their In the closing minutes of the last audience levels. The competition might original episode of “Dallas” during the be picking up momentum, a series of 1979–1980 season, J.R. Ewing, the preemptions might have caused a loss power-mad, unscrupulous oil magnate, of viewing habit, or a big sweeps week was shot by an unknown assailant and performance might be required to rushed to the hospital.This shooting was obtain a contract renewal. Whatever the one of the biggest television stunts ever. reason, there are occasions when a show Throughout the summer and into the needs a major injection of audience first 2 months of the following season, appeal. As a short-term solution, pro- viewers around the world speculated grammers frequently resort to stunting, about “Who shot J.R.?” On November the insertion of entertainment elements 21, 1980, the identity of the mysterious not normally associated with the series attacker was revealed to an estimated to obtain a ratings spike. worldwide audience of more than 300 One of the most popular ploys is to million. In the United States, more construct an episode around a movie people viewed “Dallas” that evening personality, athlete, or a celebrity whose than voted in the presidential election a recent activities commanded national few weeks earlier. It is still TV’s second- attention, such as having Elizabeth Taylor most-watched episode, topped only by visit “General Hospital” in 1981. The the 1983 finale of “M*A*S*H.” appearance of these “names” provides Reality shows promise twists and powerful promotional opportunities and surprises (Fox’s “Joe Millionaire,” for allows the program to exploit the public’s example, was not really a millionaire), curiosity about prominent figures. but it should be remembered that stunts Another traditional device is the cannot be overused (the next edition of development of a multiparter filled “Joe Millionaire,” the international with cliffhangers. Story lines usually version, essentially duplicated the origi- completed in one showing are extended nal and failed). Stunts cannot make up to two or more episodes because for weak programming. No audience “they’re just too big, too important to can be hyped indefinitely, and stunts can be told in their usual length.” Presum- be costly. Although programmers often ably viewers will be so gripped by the clamor for stunt casting and stunt plot start of the story that they wouldn’t dare twists to boost ratings during sweeps, it miss the remaining episodes. Needless to must be remembered that stunting say, the beginning must be strong or cannot do it all. To be most effective, 230 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 9.8 Crossing “Buffy the Vampire Slayer” (a) into “Angel” (b) was designed to boost the ratings for “Angel.” (Globe Photos, Inc.) (a) (b) stunting should be seen as a short-term trying to raise money from viewers device. during pledge weeks. One downside of stunting should be cited. To accommodate the stunt, pro- Crossprogramming ducers frequently have to modify the basic idea of the show. A story line that Crossprogramming is the intercon- plays up the special appeals of a celebrity nection of two shows for mutual guest must necessarily shift the focus benefit. In its most sophisticated form, a from the core ensemble, which is why story is started on one program and is some producers, such as Dick Wolf, completed on another. It can be highly creator of the “Law & Order” franchise, productive, but it requires an unusual do not engage in stunt casting. combination of circumstances. When Pat Mitchell became PBS pres- Upon her return to “ER” after her ident and CEO in 2000, she saw the 5-year hiatus from the show, Sherry need for PBS to compete more aggres- Stringfield crossed from “ER” to “Third sively.This was necessitated partly by the Watch,” another John Wells production. constant pressure PBS faces that its Similarly, David E. Kelley introduced a financial base will be severed. Although story line in “Ally McBeal” that concluded many individuals, such as Brian Lowry on “The Practice,” with cast members of Daily Variety and Chellie Pingree, crossing from one Kelley show to the next. president of Common Cause, a citizens’ Other examples of crossprogramming organization of more than 250,000 occurred when a heart transplant started people who support responsible broad- out on “Homicide” and ended up on casting, favor keeping PBS healthy and “Chicago Hope” and when “Buffy the solvent, the financial pressures are real. Vampire Slayer” crossed over to boost To stay vibrant, PBS stations create their the ratings of debuting companion show own stunts, particularly when they are “Angel” (Figure 9.8). 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 231

Elaborate crossovers require substan- quently occurs in commercial television tial advance planning, compatible and cable. formats, the good will of all, and, most For example, in 2004, ABC made a often, a common production company. concerted effort to have Oscar-related Such combinations are rare, which programming before the Oscar telecast accounts for the infrequent use of elab- on February 29. As Judith Tukich, ABC orate crossprogramming. But when it director of synergy and special projects, can be used, it is a powerful program- observed, “Oscar plotlines are featured ming tool. in ABC’s comedy lineup.”6 Less ambitious versions, which pro- “I’m With Her” had a five-episode duce more modest results, can also be story line with Teri Polo, the star of developed. Appearances by stars on the show, an actress whose boyfriend each other’s programs and references on is a schoolteacher, nominated for an one program to events on another are Academy Award. Polo worried about two of the more familiar usages. This what to wear to the Oscars, how to harkens back to the early days of radio avoid the wrath of Joan Rivers on the when Gracie Allen, the comedienne of red carpet, and how to deal with her “Burns and Allen,” visited numerous pushy mother, played by Cybil Shepard, other radio shows looking for her who arrived unpredictably, expecting to brother. be given a ticket to the awards cere- Crossprogramming works because the mony. ABC soaps featured Oscar story avid viewers of the first show can be lines; “Good Morning America” and added to the core audience of the “The View” focused on the Oscars. second, thereby producing incremental Cable has clearly embraced the ratings, primarily for the latter. Obvi- advantages of theming. ESPN, part of ously, the opening episode should be the Disney family like ABC, discussed scheduled on the more popular of the the Oscar nominations on its morning two shows. It is easy to see how this show,“Cold Pizza.”The Disney Channel maneuvering can cause resentment also sponsored Oscar-related events, as among the staff and cast of the higher- did A&E and Lifetime.7 rated program. “The production The Outdoor Channel, which in company is just using us to beef up the 2004 programmed to a niche audience numbers of the other program,” is an of some 26 million outdoor enthusiasts opinion a programmer should be braced (“real outdoors for real people with to hear. It calls for some nimble diplo- nothing too extreme, too expensive or macy, but the results can make it unsafe”), had three theme nights on its worthwhile. schedule: On Monday nights, a 4-hour block of half-hour shows on fishing; on Theming Tuesday nights, a 4-hour block of half- hour shows on hunting; and on Wednes- Grouping programs with similar themes day nights, a 4-hour block of half-hour is big in syndication, where movies are shows relating to horsepower. According often combined into theme weeks to Wade Sherman, the senior vice pres- (“Elvis Week,” “Monster Week,” or ident of programming at the Outdoor “Romance in the Afternoon Week”), Channel, this scheduling strategy greatly but this scheduling strategy also fre- increased audience flow, enabling the 232 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

within which the agreed-upon number of showings must be run. Usually, the only way to meet this requirement is to schedule the series every day, Monday through Friday. Placing a show in a predictable time and place enables viewers who are fans of the program to know exactly where and when they can find it. Nothing irri- tates and frustrates a viewer more that a lengthy search to locate the air time of a favorite series. Even if it were possible for a station to meet its pay-or-play obligations on several series by alternating them night after night, it would not Figure 9.9 Outdoor Channel to increase its sub- be sensible scheduling. Fans of one show The Outdoor scription base (Figure 9.9). might not like the other, and they could Channel uses quickly get out of the habit of watch- theming to build ing at that time. upon its audience Stripping base. (Courtesy Another strategy used by local stations Changing a Show’s Time Slot the Outdoor involves stripping—placing the same Channel.) show in the same time period every Some shows, such as “Chicago Hope” Figure 9.10 weekday and sometimes even on Satur- described previously, need a time change, PBS’s perennial day and Sunday. It is done partly for and some shows, such as “Everybody “Sesame Street” economic prudence and partly because Loves Raymond,” can survive being makes up a portion it is a sound audience strategy. For bumped around the dial until they land of its children’s in the perfect spot. Not all shows, television example, PBS uses stripping effectively with children’s programs that almost however, benefit from a schedule programming stack. change. (Courtesy always appear at the same time every day With so many choices available, the Children’s (Figure 9.10).As you saw earlier, stations Television that buy a syndicated package of off- audience does not need to be confused Workshop.) network shows have a fixed period about when a show is airing. There are specials, preemptions, and sweeps altercations, and few time slots, apart from “I Love Lucy” or “ER,” remain unchanged. But a time slot change can damage a show, taking the wind out of its sails and halting momentum. When Fox’s “King of the Hill” was moved in its second season (1998) to Tuesday nights from its previous Sunday night berth, it struggled mightily until it was brought back to Sunday nights, where it was given a chance to grow and develop a following. Similarly, Fox’s frequent schedule changes and periods of hiatus for the 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 233 cult favorite “Family Guy” did not help the show get the big ratings, much to the chagrin of loyal fans who subsequently enjoyed the show on record- selling DVDs and on the Cartoon Network’s “Adult Swim.”The loyalty of these passionate fans paid off as seven Figure 9.11 new episodes of the show were created Tavis Smiley, in 2004. The cult following kept the pictured here with show alive, despite the initial on-and-off Neal Kendall, the scheduling. executive producer When ABC decided to switch “The of his show, made a successful Practice” from its usual Sunday night transition from time slot at 10:00 to Monday nights at NPR to PBS. 9:00 during the 2002–2003 season, the (Courtesy The move failed in several ways. Placed Smiley Group.) between “Veritas: The Quest” and “Miracles,”ostensibly to function as a tent- commentator Bill Moyers with “Now pole, the Emmy Award-winning “The with Bill Moyers” in 2002. NPR’s first Practice” fell to fourth in its time slot. African-American talk show host, Tavis In addition, creator David E. Kelley was Smiley, also became PBS’s African- angered by the time slot switch, accus- American vanguard in 2004, with his ing ABC of trying to sabotage the show eponymous show (Figure 9.11). in its seventh season. Kelley was extremely vocal about his displeasure, Overexposure hurting the all-important ABC/Kelley creative relationship. Ultimately, the When networks have a hit, the tendency show returned to its Sunday time slot, is to capitalize on that show’s success by where in the 2003–2004 season it scheduling it too often or by trying to underwent a major change, which we schedule close duplicates too quickly. will cover in a subsequent chapter. For example, when ABC had its Commercial networks are in the habit monster hit, “Who Wants to Be a Mil- of making constant scheduling changes. lionaire,” there was a strong temptation PBS, on the other hand, for many years to exploit the show, particularly because kept the same schedule for its audience it was a relative bargain to produce.ABC of approximately 100 million people. scheduled the show a staggering four PBS President Pat Mitchell initiated a times a week in 2001, eventually killing pilot program with seven major PBS the show through overexposure. When stations to experiment with different ABC brought back a bigger “Super Mil- schedules to revitalize the PBS lineup. lionaire” with a top prize of $10 million Aware that PBS cannot afford to be in February 2004, the network sched- viewed as stodgy, Mitchell sought to uled it five nights in a row but only for make changes. She moved “Masterpiece one week during the February sweeps Theatre” from Sunday nights, although and a second week during the May it was subsequently moved back. Keen sweeps, seemingly avoiding the over- on crosspromoting, she sought to estab- exposure mistakes of the past. lish a closer connection between PBS When Fox had its monster hit, and NPR by bringing in noted NPR “American Idol,” it tried to duplicate 234 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

too expensive for this fledgling medium. Figure 9.12 Most programs were aired live—mis- “I Love Lucy,” takes and all.A process called kinescope starring Lucille Ball, pioneered the recording was developed so that some use of film for programs could be saved or run on the weekly television West Coast at the same “clock hours” as series.The their East Coast origination. But these technique enabled “kines,”which were films made off a TV the episodes to be monitor, were of poor quality. rerun with high From their beginnings in the early quality.The 1950s, Lucille Ball and Desi Arnez programs are still filmed “I Love Lucy,” and everyone syndicated today, thought they were a little crazy—until some 50 years after the foreign market opened up (Figure they were first 9.12).Then Lucy and Desi began raking produced. (Courtesy the in the money from selling their shows Academy of to other countries, and a few fellow pro- Television Arts & ducers decided to follow suit. It was not Sciences.) long before American broadcasting realized it could play these films, too. Thus was born the rerun. the success with “American Juniors” in A basic annual pattern of program the summer of 2003. Too similar? Too scheduling set in. Programs were intro- soon? Whatever the reasons, this “Idol” duced in the fall, ended their season in imitation did not achieve the success of mid-spring, went into reruns for the its predecessor, losing large chunks of its summer, and emerged with new product audience week by week.8 the following fall. This came about Imitations can succeed, for example, through a combination of reality, sur- NBC’s “For Love or Money II” or mise, social habits, and economics. ABC’s “The Bachelorette,” modeled The key reality, as explained pre- after “The Bachelor,” but overexposure viously, was the drop-off in viewing can take away a show’s unique or special over the summer months. From June quality.Too many repeat showings, called through August, daylight remains well encores, can lessen viewer interest.WB into the evening. People stay outside calls its repeats of shows during the same longer, and (according to conventional week an easy view option, and in wisdom) the TV set often stands dark 2004, NBC presented its hit show “The and unattended. Also, during the Apprentice” twice in the same week, but summer a substantial percentage of overexposure is a risky business. The viewers are on vacation and are unavail- public quickly tires when offered too able for, or uninterested in, watching much of a good thing. TV. Through the decades a vociferous executive minority has claimed that this Rerunning and Repurposing assessment is largely an incorrect surmise, grown into a mythic delusion. In the early days of television, few Defenders of the traditional cycle are programs were rerun—for technical quick to point out two important reasons. Videotape had not been reasons for the summer hiatus—cast and invented, and film was considered much staff demand a rest, and networks need 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 235 the revenue from reruns, as described in the section on introducing a show in a quiet time. When a repeat of an episode is scheduled, the cost of payments to per- Figure 9.13 formers and other guild members For many years, ($50,000–$75,000) is the only produc- Donna Mills tion expense. Although the value of the starred in the commercials is somewhat reduced nighttime soap because of the audience falloff in the “Knots Landing,” summer and the diminished attraction where she delivered of seeing an episode twice in the same the famous line, season, the revenue on a reasonably “Let the second Mrs. Ewing give popular program is more than enough the third Mrs. to offset costs. Despite complaints of Ewing some advice. viewers and the frustration of some The first Mrs. program and production executives, an Ewing...doesn’t annual cycle that incorporates a rerun of go away.” virtually every original episode remains (Courtesy Donna a strong possibility. In the summer of Mills.) 2004 CBS, for example, did very well with reruns of its successful shows. It is true that a weekly series is phys- posed on a Thursday night on Bravo ically exhausting for cast and staff. The or vice versa. PBS even engages in hours are long, the pressure relentless, repurposing with the Latino drama and the opportunity to unwind almost “American Family” by licensing a nonexistent. A break is necessary so that secondary run to Telemundo. they do not kill themselves, or each Repurposing enables companies to other. Scoffers downplay the fatigue get much more bang for their buck factor and point to the round-the- from individual episodes. It also enables calendar schedules of daytime serials that different audiences to experience the have been produced without loss of life same show. A niche audience here, a or audience over 4 decades. Even NBC’s mainstream audience there: It all adds up deceased programming genius, Brandon to the benefit of a show’s exposure. Tartikoff, stated: “If you can make 265 episodes each year of ‘Days of Our Boosting the Audience in Lives,’ I’ve got to believe you can make Sweep Periods 40 to 45 episodes of “Knots Landing”9 (Figure 9.13). Although every day in television is As explained in Chapter 2, repurpos- important, some are more important ing, the airing of a show on a different than others. Four times a year for 30- outlet shortly after its initial airing, day periods (February, May, July, and became a significant scheduling tool, November), Nielsen conducts special particularly with the proliferation of sweeps of audience viewing habits in mergers that created a host of sister every market in the country. Although companies ready, willing, and able to many programmers decry sweeps repurpose. Thus, a show that airs on a periods as outdated mechanisms, they Tuesday night on NBC can be repur- are unlikely to go away. Sweeps moni- 236 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

toring is vital to the economic health of Patience each station. This statistical data forms the basis of the advertising rates until the Although many of the shows that results of the next sweep are available. became part of television history were Programmers are under great pressure to slow starters that needed time to build the highest possible ratings for develop and to nurture a word-of- each time period. mouth campaign, patience has been in For many years, event miniseries short supply in recent years. If a show delivered heavenly ratings during does not connect quickly, programmers sweeps. An actor such as Richard find it increasingly difficult to wait it Chamberlin was the king of sweeps. out, hoping to prove that a program- More recently, pop star Michael Jackson mer’s instinct was on the money despite was the crowned king of sweeps pro- a slow start. The competition is too gramming. Anything dealing with strong and the stakes are too high for Michael Jackson was viewed as surefire top management, concerned with the ratings gold. Finding a sweeps-worthy bottom line, to wait “too long” for a event such as the 200th episode of “ER” turnaround. With mergers, companies or the 300th episode of “Law & Order” are often run by individuals that are not weighs heavily on the minds of all pro- primarily broadcasters who understand gramming executives. No one wants the that some shows take time to build; their affiliates to complain about sweeps pro- obligation is to the stockholders, and gramming that did not allow them to they do not have the patience or confi- command viable advertising rates. Local dence to stay with a show until it finds news shows turn to exposing restaurants its audience. where cockroaches abound. Slow starters such as the original During the February 2004 sweeps, “Dick Van Dyke Show,” “Cheers,” ABC’s “Super Millionaire” hit ratings “Barney Miller,”“Hill Street Blues,” and pay dirt on the first night, although it “Everybody Loves Raymond” need dropped afterward, not giving ABC the time. Everyone agrees in theory that much-needed boost for which it had patience is needed when it comes to undoubtedly hoped. scheduling programming, everyone It is getting harder to know what will agrees pressure for the early dismissal of deliver the numbers during sweeps, but a show should be resisted, and everyone the search continues unabashedly. Some agrees that programmers will obtain a turn to specials (awards shows tend to first look at a creator’s next project if the be fairly reliable bullets); others rely current project is given a chance to on highly rated regular programming, develop. Still, it is hard for programmers with just a few added weddings, preg- and their bosses to avoid moving nancies, same-sex kisses, and celebrity quickly if a show performs poorly at the sightings. start. It is proper during sweep periods for In the 2002–2003 season, Fox can- stations and networks to employ as celed its David E. Kelley series, “Girls many of the audience-building tech- Club,” about women lawyers in San niques described in this chapter as pos- Francisco, after only two airings. In sible. The battle for viewers (and 2003–2004, CBS canceled Kelley’s “The therefore dollars) is crucial, and spiking Brotherhood of Poland, New Hamp- devices are a legitimate part of the com- shire,” about three brothers, after four petitive system. outings. Also in the 2003–2004 season, 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 237

NBC canceled “Coupling,” the highly Series Network Aired No. Aired Episodes publicized British import seen as a possible replacement for “Friends,” after “Skin” Fox 3 only four airings. That same season, Fox “Coupling” NBC 4 canceled “Skin,” Jerry Bruckheimer’s look at the world of pornography, after “Luis” Fox 4 three airings. These were only a few of “The Brotherhood of Poland, CBS 5 the many series decapitated that season NH” (Figure 9.14). “The Lyon’s Den” NBC 6 If you do not succeed right away in commercial television, chances are that “A Minute with Stan Hooper” Fox 6 the virtue of patience will not come to “Karen Cisco” ABC 7 your show’s rescue. Cable, on the other hand, tends to be “Tarzan” WB 8 more patient. Having two primary “The Mullets” UPN 10 sources of revenue—advertisers and subscribers—enables basic cable to hold off “Jake 2.0” UPN 12 pressing the cancel button. A premium channel such as HBO can allow a show such as “Carnivale,” which was not embraced by either critics or viewers, to run its course, which probably would In this chapter, we examined the various Figure 9.14 not have been the case on commercial scheduling strategies for television During the TV. Had “Lucky” been on commercial programming. In Chapter 10, you will 2003–2004 TV instead of FX, it probably would learn about specific differences between season, several have been pulled without finishing a full scheduling for radio and scheduling for shows on season. the Internet. commercial television were pulled before finishing a full EXERCISES season.

1. Pick a night and a commercial 5. Describe a crossprogramming idea network and examine that night’s schedule. between two shows that you think would What changes would you make and why? increase the ratings of both shows. 2. Pick a cable network; identify that 6. What would you do to energize PBS’s network’s targeted niche audience. What schedule, both in children’s and in prime- changes would you make in the schedule time programming? to strengthen that network’s appeal? 7. Do you agree or disagree with Alan 3. What speciﬁc show that has been Wurtzel that 50% of households that will canceled do you think would have eventu- ever watch a program get hooked by one ally found an audience if it had been of the ﬁrst two episodes? Why? Do you allowed to grow? have a personal experience that supports or 4. What would you do to boost sweeps contradicts this position? awareness for a particular show? 238 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. “Fox: No More Fall Launch Fray,” 6. Paige Albiniak. “All Oscar All the Broadcasting and Cable, July 22, 1991, p. 15. Time,” Broadcasting and Cable, February 16, 2. Ibid. 2004, p. 26. 3. Ken Auletta. Three Blind Mice (New 7. Ibid. York: Random House, 1991), p. 93. 8. Bill Carter. “Networks Play ‘Who 4. Joe Schlosser. “Reality Slugfest,” Wants to Exhaust a Franchise,’” The New Broadcasting and Cable, September 10, 2001, York Times, July 7, 2003, p. C-1. p. 16. 9. “The Sorry State of Network TV,” 5. Bill Carter.“Record Ratings for Final Los Angeles Times, May 6, 1991, p. F-1. Fling with ‘Sex,’” The New York Times, Feb- ruary 25, 2004, p. B-6. 10 Scheduling Strategies for Radio and the Internet

In this chapter you will learn about the tentpoling, hammocking, bridging, following: blunting, stacking, and stripping (all of which refer to the manipulation of indi- • The radio scheduling clock or wheel vidual programs) do not apply to most • Different strategies for scheduling radio programming. Counterprogram- music on music format radio stations ming is inherent within the format; a • Approaches to scheduling news, con- country music radio station is always tests, commercials, and deejay spots on counterprogramming an album-oriented radio rock station. • The importance of dayparting in All-talk formats use some of the radio television-oriented scheduling strategies • Strategies for launching new radio because they tend to be composed of stations and formats individual programs hosted by specific • The differences and similarities in personalities. But even talk shows tend scheduling commercial, satellite, and to be long (usually about 3 hours), so public radio there is little need for considering the • The difficulty and lack of necessity interrelationships among them. for scheduling on the Internet • Concerns for scheduling live or special content on the Internet The Clock • Using traffic logs to determine Inter- The main scheduling instrument of net scheduling strategies most commercial radio stations and some of the networks is referred to as a COMMERCIAL RADIO clock. SCHEDULING This is a circle that represents an hour broken down into segments. Stations Radio, because it deals primarily with generally program each hour similarly to formats rather than individual programs, enable audience members to know what has an entirely different basis for they will hear at a certain time. For scheduling than television.Terms such as example, with an all-news station clock,

239 240 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

listeners could depend on hearing trafﬁc every 10 minutes and sports 15 minutes before and 15 minutes after the hour (Figure 10.1). Music station clocks indicate the placement of news, commercials, and other verbal elements; they also usually indicate the types of music that will be played at various times (Figure 10.2). A great deal of thought and planning goes into the scheduling of music, both the songs to play and the order in which to play them.

Scheduling Music. A station that con- centrates on current hits must constantly be on the lookout for music that has the potential to become popular. Program directors and disc jockeys receive copies of new releases from record companies, listen to them, and select for airing the ones they think their audience members Figure 10.1 A chart of a radio station clock for an all-news station. will enjoy. Each format and, to some extent each station, has its own sound; as a result, program directors do not all choose the same selections. To help conﬁrm their decisions, program directors often consult the charts in trade magazines such as Bill- board and Radio & Records.These list the top-selling songs in a variety of categories—country, electronic, pop, Latin, R&B/hip-hop, independent, etc. How- ever, popularity of a record is often a result of its airplay.Airplay leads to sales and listings in the trades; these, in turn, lead to more airplay. Not all songs played on the radio are current hits. Many are songs from the past that can be roughly characterized as follows:

• Oldies—Music from 30 or 40 years ago. If the song was once in the Top 10 and sold about a million copies, it is called a “golden oldie;” if it was Figure 10.2 No. 1 and sold several million copies, A chart of a music station clock. it is “supergold.” 10 Scheduling Strategies for Radio and the Internet 241

• Classics—Music from 10 or 20 years format, should take the long view ago. These, too, can be golden or toward their music mix decisions lest supergold. they find themselves in a bind later in • Recurrents—Music that is no longer the game. Zapoleon wrote the follow- current but is not yet considered old. ing about the Top 40 format in the early 2000s: A note of caution: These terms are not standardized within the industry. Because Top 40 owners and programmers Some programmers consider anything are steering their stations more and more more than 3 years old to be an oldie. At rhythmic to go where they think music is heading, the national charts, which are some stations, a recurrent is a fading hit; already extremely rhythmic, will get more at others, it is music at least 2 years old. and more rhythmic . . . What we have here Also, the terms differ. For example, is a vicious cycle that will cause mainstream supergold may be referred to as “power Top 40 to stop being a variety format. Rock and gold.” Mike O’Reilly, program director pop songs will have a harder and harder time at WPDC in Elizabethtown, Pennsylva- finding a foothold on these increasingly nia, divides his music into five group- rhythmic radio stations, and so there will be ings—new, familiar, recent, gold, and less rock and pop hits. Because of this, and oldies. Other program directors have because a lot of the pop rock and pop isn’t their own designations. selling, the labels will put out less rock and A radio station programmer must pop songs. But this music is so very impor- decide what proportion of current hits, tant to mainstream Top 40 format to hold it together. If this trend toward more and more recurrents, classics, and oldies to play. rhythm continues, then we’re back to the Sometimes the format decides this. An doldrums of 1992–94 when we lost 500 Top oldies format, for example will consist of 40 radio stations.1 only music old enough to qualify. But many formats have a variety of music Other factors go into the makeup of from different periods. a wheel. Many stations like to alternate Some stations use the charts to deter- male and female vocalists or bands and mine not when they should be playing solo artists. Others take into account the something but rather when they should overall intensity of the music, perhaps not be playing it. Stations trying to making sure that each quarter hour con- break new hits want to air songs before tains at least one soft song. Others group they hit the charts. Some stations stop songs by the nature of their lyrics. playing music when it makes the charts Thought must also be given to the and everyone else starts playing it. Other transition from one piece of music to stations want to start playing music as it another. If a fast song immediately is falling off the charts. For some seg- follows a slow song, the result can be ments of the radio audience, familiarity jarring. Usually a station will program a is important. jingle or some commercials between the There is no magic formula for decid- two. The same is true when going from ing how many songs of different ages soft music to loud music or sometimes and feels to play.The decision is an intu- from a minor key to a major key. itive one made by the programmer. All of these scheduling strategies are However, programming consultants, considered by stations programming such as Guy Zapoleon of Zapoleon music and by networks or syndication Media Strategies, warn that program- companies that supply music services. ming directors, especially in the Top 40 Knowledge of these elements can make 242 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

music programming more successful, the competition are likely to attract lis- but, as with television, the best strategies teners. However, if they cannot sell their usually arise from a competent pro- fewer commercials at a higher price, grammer’s instincts. they may not be able to balance the budget. For this reason, the number of Scheduling Other Program Elements. commercials often becomes more of a Aspects of programming other than sales and management decision than a music must also be considered in the programming one. Frequent commercial makeup of a clock. The placement of breaks seem less jarring on stations with news, weather, traffic, sports, contests, talk formats than on those with music and even commercials can be important. formats. Music stations often try to hold People tend to be more aware of the their audience members through a com- time placements of these items than they mercial break with a “tease”—an are of the subtleties of music position- announcement of a great new hit or ing.They are much more likely to know contest coming up right after these that they can tune in 5 minutes after the announcements. hour to hear the latest sports scores than Radio stations often tout commercial- they are to realize that a station never free periods where they play straight plays more than two female vocal selec- music for 20 or 30 minutes or even an tions in a row. hour. Obviously, in these cases the All-news stations adhere strictly to normal clock changes. Again, such a their clock because listeners tend to practice might be good for the audience tune in and tune out. If people caught but not for the bottom line. A program- in traffic know that a particular station mer who proposes this idea should have broadcasts traffic reports 15 minutes, 30 in mind a method for recovering the lost minutes, and 45 minutes after the hour, revenue. they are likely to switch to the station The placement of commercials within at one of those times for the update. the clock is also important. If your Music-oriented stations often have station has a format similar to that of newsbreaks on the hour or half hour, another station in town, it is wise to and people become accustomed to schedule your commercial breaks at a tuning in at that time if they want to time different from the competing catch up on the day’s events. A station station. In that way,you catch the button that programs to people whose overrid- pushers searching for something other ing interest is music can arrange its than commercials. This means the com- breaks so that they do not come at the peting station will be programming hour or half hour—that way, it can music over your commercials and attract listeners who push their radio may grab your listeners. Such is the buttons as soon as the news comes on gamesmanship of radio scheduling another station. Other stations vary the strategies. clock over the course of the day. They The disc jockey is another element program news in the morning when it that figures into the clock. If the disc seems to matter and do not program jockey is popular and is the main news for the rest of the day. element attracting listeners to the The number of commercials, their station, then more time should be frequency, and their position in the allowed within the hour for comments clock are all important. Stations that from the deejay. Often this chatter program fewer overall commercials than involves contests that are likely to 10 Scheduling Strategies for Radio and the Internet 243 intrigue a substantial portion of the lis- ing. People’s activities, moods, rhythms, tening audience and that need time for and uses of radio change greatly over the instruction and execution. Many early course of a day. Radio must take morning shows have little music and people’s biological clocks into account concentrate on the antics of the host. If to enable programming to progress in a the deejay is just a facilitator of transi- consistent, successful manner. tions from one element of programming Early in the morning, people want to to another, however, the clock should be know what has been happening (or not more tightly packed. happening) overnight. Many listeners wake up to clock radios, so stations that Variations in Clocks. Nothing is sacred feature primarily music are likely to about a clock. It can be fine-tuned as have more news and information seg- much as necessary to develop the best ments in the morning than at other results. However, refining it too much times of day. Early morning disc jockeys and too often shows a lack of patience are more talkative than their afternoon and has the disadvantages already men- counterparts. All-news stations have tioned in regard to patience and televi- more format competition in the morn- sion programming. Fiddling with the ing than during other periods. wheel without giving it a chance to find As the day wears on, people engage its audience is not advisable. in other activities (caring for children, Some stations place almost fanatical driving the car to a sales meeting, etc.), requirements on adhering to the and radio becomes a background to clock—usually to keep otherwise free- these activities. Music becomes more wheeling disc jockeys in line. Some predominant and talk becomes less pre- program directors list the specific songs dominant on many radio stations. Sta- that should be played throughout the tions with news, talk, or both formats entire day, giving the deejay no flexibil- slide into feature-type material or call- ity. Others, however, use the clock as a in programs. guideline that can be ignored for In the midafternoon, when students numerous reasons—several current hits are out of school, teen-oriented radio are longer than the average musical stations pick up the pace and tempo selections and will absorb more space on of the music, often featuring their the clock; some major news event has most popular disc jockeys in the late occurred and needs to be updated fre- afternoon. quently; the winner of a contest is an As people leave work and begin the intriguing personality who should be commute home, radio once again gives interviewed at length. them information, but usually in a Networks with music formats have gentler way than in the morning. People clocks, just as stations do. But many net- are heading home to relax and do not works and almost all syndicators simply need the up-to-date facts that they supply material for stations to use when might need before the workday. Some they wish. In these cases, the concept of stations will play more soothing music clock does not apply. at rush hour than at other times of day to help people relax as they head Dayparting home. In the evening, radio is used pri- One radio scheduling strategy that radio marily as background to accompany shares with television is that of daypart- reading, studying, or other activities.The 244 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

use of radio is greater by young people ence is made aware of the station. This than by older audience members, who usually involves using media other than are more likely to be tuned to televi- radio to get the message across. Often a sion. Some of radio’s most exciting and station that is changing format will outlandish moments occur late at night change call letters. It is better to sound when the audience is primarily young like the new guy in town that to have adults receptive to innovation. Many the image of an easy listening format recording groups make several versions lingering over a contemporary hit of their song, some longer than others format. Besides, the old call letters may and some containing more borderline not be appropriate. WROC would be language than others. Late at night, the negative for a country station. A bus longer, racier cuts of music are likely to billboard or TV commercial that be played. announces a new station with a new Some stations change their formats format is often effective. completely at certain times of the day All-talk stations launch individual or week, playing music that they would hosts or programs and use some of the not play at any other time. KBIG 104.3 more traditional TV-type launching FM in Los Angeles, for example, features techniques. Radio does not deal in all-disco music Saturday nights and seasons; if launches are necessary, they during the lunch hour weekdays. The are made when the occasion arises and station’s normal format features soft hits not necessarily in the fall or any other from the 1980s and 1990s and select particular time of year. current hits already well worn by Top 40 stations. Other stations take time to SATELLITE RADIO focus on a certain segment of their SCHEDULING playlist.WXRT in Chicago, for example, plays a “Flashback” show Saturday Satellite radio, as a nationwide subscrip- morning that features songs from a spe- tion service, has a different set of facts ciﬁc year. KROQ, Los Angeles’s well- affecting its scheduling decisions. With known alternative rock station, has a more than 100 channels offering every- “Flashback Lunch” hour, featuring songs thing from dozens of format music sta- from a decade or more ago—songs that tions to talk and radio—all on the same occasionally get regular airplay as oldies service—satellite stations only compete in its lineup. with one another. That competition is A radio programmer must take these relatively meaningless unless users switch daypart characteristics into account and from listening to their satellite transmis- merge them, along with format and sions to terrestrial radio. Even then, wheel considerations, into the best pos- satellite radio companies feel no pain sible scheduling strategies. when listeners turn to terrestrial radio for the local touch that their national Launching signals cannot provide—as long as the subscription continues. Just like when television launches new Nonetheless, satellite radio tries to programming, radio weighs important make its service as valuable to its sub- strategic considerations when it changes scribers as possible within its inherent format. The new format must be limitations. Dayparting, for example, is launched so that a new potential audi- hard to accomplish with a single signal 10 Scheduling Strategies for Radio and the Internet 245

reaching across several time zones. Even Performer Eastern Standard Time Figure 10.3 if satellite radio arranged its schedule to XM Radio’s favor one time zone, it would not want Ozomatli 9:00 P.M. channel XM 12 (X Country) to broadly advertise this, lest it seem to The Mavericks 10:00 P.M. be leaving other listeners on the side- featured live lines. Nonetheless, XM Radio lists its Patty Griffin 11:00 P.M. coverage from the South by many special and live broadcasts by Old 97s 12:00 A.M. Southwest Eastern Standard Time, although many Los Lobos 1:00 A.M. convention March extend into the night and morning, 20, 2004. Times making them appeal to earlier time for various zones in the West (Figure 10.3). NPR presents news differently in the performances are morning than in the evening because listed by XM PUBLIC RADIO SCHEDULING people are in a hurry in the morning. Radio by Eastern “Morning Edition” is more modular Standard Time and stretch into the Programming strategies are not as than “All Things Considered,” and “Day morning. important within public broadcasting as to Day” is less topical and can therefore they are in commercial. As NPR’s Bill be scheduled with more flexibility Buzenberg put it, “Public broadcasting (Figure 10.4). In the morning, no story needs to think first about content and lasts longer than 8 minutes; in the less about format and strategies. That’s evening, a single story can occupy as one big way that we differ from com- much as 20 minutes—both numbers mercial broadcasting.” But public broad- unheard of by commercial standards. casting finds some of the typical Both NPR and PRI offer many Figure 10.4 programming strategies useful. news-related shows that can be sched- PRI and NPR affiliates are free to NPR’s “Day to uled anytime during the day. These Day” with Alex select the network programs they want shows attempt to steer away from topics and intermix them however they wish Chadwick is on which significant developments or recorded in NPR’s with locally produced material. Some changes could occur during the day, newest studios in stations, such as Pasadena, California’s making the shows seem stale when they Culver City, KPCC, even choose to broadcast call-in air on local stations that have them pro- California. shows, such as NPR’s “Talk of the Nation” out of their timeslot—thus not allowing local listeners the opportunity to participate in the program broadcast live hours before. Despite such strident station autonomy, both NPR and PRI program with dayparting in mind and make suggestions to stations as to when certain programs would play best. NPR’s “Morning Edition,” for example, would sound ridiculous if it aired at 3:00 P.M. Like- wise, most stations that program NPR’s evening newscast “All Things Consid- ered” do so in the early evening hours when people are likely to be in their cars commuting home. 246 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

aired outside of work hours, sometimes even suggesting the timeslot they would most prefer, such as Saturday nights and Sunday mornings for Garrison Keillor’s “Prairie Home Companion,” but individual stations are not obliged to con- form (Figure 10.5). Clocks are also important for network public radio programs that may be aired live because stations must know the exact times that they can break in for local news or announcements. Provi- sions must be made so that stations that do not wish to program local items need not do so. NPR’s “All Things Consid- ered” handles this problem by building natural breaks into some stories. For example, it may program a 5-minute story that could conclude at the end of 3 minutes. Those stations wishing to make local announcements can cut off Figure 10.5 grammed in the evening rather than in the story after 3 minutes and return to PRI suggests times the daytime, when they were originally “All Things Considered” 2 minutes later. for stations to air produced. PRI’s “To the Point,” for Other stations let the story run for 5 Garrison Keillor, example, usually focuses on in-depth minutes. NPR also uses short musical but stations can air discussion and analysis of events that interludes called zippers that can be his program occurred a day or two previously. NPR’s played in their entirety by some stations anytime they like “Day to Day” tends to provide general and cut away by others. without sanction. (Courtesy background on current events, cover Stations are eclectic in their program- American Public cultural news, and offer commentary. ming philosophies. Some, particularly Radio/Fred Public radio is also home to many those that are public-affairs oriented, Petters.) entertainment programs, some based on schedule similar to television in that current events, others not. PRI and they air individual programs and pay NPR suggest that these programs be attention to audience ﬂow from one 10 Scheduling Strategies for Radio and the Internet 247

program to another (Figure 10.6). Mountain Program Others, mainly the ones that emphasize Standard Time music, program more like commercial radio in that they use clocks. However, 3:00–7:00 A.M. Morning Edition many of public radio’s musical selec- 7:00–7:10 A.M. NPR News/Montana Morning News tions, especially classical music, are so 7:10–7:33 A.M. Morning Edition long that the clock has few entries on it. 7:33–7:35 A.M. Montana Morning News

7:35–8:10 A.M. Morning Edition/NPR News/Montana Morning News

INTERNET SCHEDULING 8:10–10:00 A.M. Morning Classics

Is there such a thing as scheduling in the 10:00–10:10 A.M. Stardate/Ask Dr. Science/University and Community amorphous, interactive, and global envi- Activities ronment of the Internet? Many websites 10:10–11:59 A.M. Morning Freeforms/Writer’s Almanac with tie-ins to brick-and-mortar entities may vary their content to correspond to 12:00–12:30 P.M. BBC World Service current products or broadcasts, although 12:30–1:05 P.M. Chrysti the Wordsmith/Listener’s Bookstall/Performing the different time zones and schedules Arts Calendar/University and Community Activities/ of local brick-and-mortar outlets makes Alternative Sources this process complicated. News websites 1:05–2:00 P.M. Dancing with Tradition will want to be sure their content is up to date at all times, and web loggers will 2:00–4:00 P.M. Performance Today want to add content to their sites at 4:00–5:00 P.M. Pea Green Boat/ Everyday Science regular intervals so that the viewers of their sites can develop a habit of coming 5:00–5:30 P.M. All Things Considered back. 5:30–6:00 P.M. Montana Evening Edition/Native News According to a March 2004 study by the Pew Internet & American Life 6:00–7:30 P.M. All Things Considered/Earth and Sky Project, somewhere between 2 and 7% 7:30–8:30 P.M. This American Life of Internet users maintain personal blogs. Of those, only 10% update their 8:30–9:30 P.M. Selected Shorts sites on a daily basis. Most update 9:30–10:00 P.M. Making Contact weekly or even more infrequently. 10:00–11:00 P.M. In Other Words However, visitors to blogs often leave their own comments or responses to the 11:00–2:00 P.M. Night Train original content. Well-traveled blogs 2:00–3:00 P.M. BBC World Service may induce active communication not only between the blogger and the visitors but also among visitors, which can that falls in the forest makes a sound if Figure 10.6 lead to more frequent and dynamic no one is there to hear, they put down Montana Public content updating.2 It may, however, take their axes. So, on a more personal level, Radio’s Wednesday time and effort to develop a following as with television and radio, patience— Schedule. of regular readers for a blog. Many blogs or a lack thereof—can become an issue. (http://www.mtpr start and just as quickly end, when blog- Some websites feature live chats with .net/programs/. Accessed March gers lose patience with their missives celebrities, politicians, or experts in 7, 2004.) heading out into cyberspace to be con- which these people answer questions fronted with a deafening silence. Unable posed by a live Internet audience.These to answer the question of whether a tree chats must be scheduled to optimize 248 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Internet radio stations might also be able to analyze this usage information to strengthen content or to beef up programming in lower traffic periods to build audiences (Figure 10.7). The “scheduling” of Internet content mostly is determined by users of the Internet searching for the content they wish to consume whenever they are hungry for it. If the content involves other users, however, as in a chat room, Figure 10.7 access for the interested audience. But there may be peak and lull times. A This traffic chart transcripts are usually posted of the night owl in the United States who for a university chats, allowing interested parties to wants to engage in a little Internet chat club’s website access them any time after the chat even may have to browse to a chat room in shows that the if it does not allow them to participate the Philippines, for example, to find high traffic periods and ask questions. These chats are not numerous available chatters. are late at night. If usually a free-for-all anyway but are One Internet characteristic that may the club wanted to sponsor a special moderated by a screener who selects be tangentially related to the concept of web event, it would questions from the Internet audience to scheduling is the choices that Internet probably want to pose to the personality. Often the per- content developers make about which schedule it during sonality is not even at a computer. content they feature in “prime” spots on the peak hours. Instead, questions may be relayed over their sites’ home pages and which they the phone by the moderator; the bury several clicks from the home page responses are then transcribed and in “nonprime” locations. posted in the chat by a typist. Looking at the statistics of visitors to After all the development, testing, strate- websites, most webmasters can see that gizing, and scheduling is completed, there their sites have general patterns of high remains the question—did it work? This and low traffic periods. These statistics brings us to the scorekeepers: Who are may help to determine times when they? How do they get their numbers? special or live content would be best to How accurate are these? Chapter 11 incorporate into the site. Operators of deals with program evaluation. 10 Scheduling Strategies for Radio and the Internet 249

EXERCISES

1. Chart an hour of content on a local noting differences in content during the popular music radio station, characterizing morning rush hour, midday, evening rush the types of songs, commercial breaks, pro- hour, and night. How could these motional spots, and deejay breaks that approaches be improved to attract more lis- occur. Chart another hour and compare the teners or keep listeners listening longer? results between the two hours. If there are 4. Visit a blog indexing site, such as significant deviations, do these seem to Blogger.com or Weblogs.com, to set up and occur for some reason—such as to play up view your own or others’ blogs. After a a popular deejay or artist? month of visiting and posting to your own 2. Chart an hour of content on a local blog, analyze the experience and your reac- radio station whose format most closely tion to it. Were you able to work blogging resembles the first station you charted. Do into your personal schedule? Were the there appear to be competitive program- schedules of the blogs of others able to keep ming strategies between the two stations? your interest? What did you find frustrating How could these strategies be improved? and interesting in the experience? 3. Sample several radio stations for a half hour each, four times throughout the day,

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Guy Zapoleon “Hit Radio—One 2. Anick Jesdanun.“Study: Blogging Still Size Doesn’t Fit All,” http://www.zapoleon Infrequent,” http://www.pcmag.com/ .com/zms/kbase.asp?article_id=54. Accessed article2/0,1759,1541128,00.asp. Accessed March 5, 2004. March 7, 2004.

11 Program Evaluation

In this chapter you will learn about the numbers obtained through audience following: measurement is “ratings.” Advertising fees, which provide • The purpose and uses of program- revenue for TV, radio, and the Internet, ming evaluation are based on these audience measure- • The history of metering technologies ments and ratings statistics. Over the and strategies years, buyers and sellers have agreed • The two main players in the ratings upon certain scorekeepers whom they game: Nielsen and Arbitron believe are able to estimate audience • Current practices in metering sizes and demographics with reasonable audiences accuracy. The most prominent of these • Ways data is parsed out to represent systems are described in this chapter. different audience behaviors Because a programmer’s job is to • Special measures taken to capture attract audiences that will produce a underrepresented populations proﬁt for the company, he or she should • How the sweeps rating periods are know who is doing the counting and used—and abused how the numbers are calculated. • New metering technologies in devel- Sometimes programming executives feel opment and deployment uncomfortable with the mathematical • How programmers use and are orientation of research.But if they do not affected by ratings understand the underpinnings of ratings, • Longstanding concerns about and they may ﬁnd that people in the research investigations into ratings accuracy department will be making decisions that Theoretically, media programming could should be the domain of programming. be evaluated any number of ways—the The purpose of this chapter is to give number of fan letters received, the artis- a basic overview of audience measure- tic merit of the programs as rated by ment so that you understand how it can critics, the social good accomplished by (and should) be used.The chapter avoids airing the material, etc. Sometimes one the complex mathematics involved with or more of these methods is used, the statistical computations. It offers depending on the goal of the program guidelines that allow you to understand (see Chapter 6). But the most prevalent the basic strengths and weaknesses of form of evaluation is body count: how the ratings process and enable you to many and who. The procedure involved communicate effectively with researchers. in counting the number of people or households watching, listening to, or TELEVISION interacting with a particular program is called audience measurement. The Nielsen is the primary service used common term used to refer to the to compile ratings information for

251 252 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

subdivisions that have countless ways to gauge audience size, dates back to 1923, long before the days of television audience research. A.C. Nielsen, Sr.’s main customer during the early days of his company was the drugstore industry. He asked several drugstores to save their invoices; then his company analyzed the invoices and sold the information to drug manufacturers so that they could predict future sales.

Meter History and Development. In 1936, Nielsen bought a crude machine called an audimeter from two MIT professors. This device consisted of a moving roll of punched paper tape that could be attached to a radio so that it would record when the radio was turned on and to which station it was tuned. Nielsen perfected this device and, in 1942, started using it to measure radio program audiences. The equipment was so complicated that specially trained technicians had to visit each of the of the 1000 homes where Nielsen had Figure 11.1 commercial and cable television. Until placed the audimeter at least once a This 1949 1993, Arbitron also compiled television month to take off the old tape and put audimeter is one of ratings (primarily for stations), but it on a new one. But Nielsen was able to the first that could now only reports on radio; Arbitron is analyze this information and sell it to be operated without nevertheless working with Nielsen to stations, advertisers, and others interested a technician’s perfect a portable and improved people in knowing how many people were assistance. People meter for television. In addition to listening to particular radio programs in the survey could remove a tape and Nielsen and Arbitron, many other spe- (Figure 11.1). mail it to Nielsen. cialized audience research firms conduct Both Nielsen and the audimeter have (Courtesy in-depth research or use methodology changed greatly over the years. The Nielsen Media different from that of Nielsen or company started measuring TV in 1950 Research.) Arbitron. These firms include Magna and then in 1964 dropped radio because Global, Griffin Publishing, Paragon the audimeter was not suitable to handle Research, or Strategy Research. Strategy the programming changes, mobility, and Research, for example, specializes in audience fragmentation that radio was conducting face-to-face interviews to undergoing. Nielsen now handles only provide data concerning TV viewing in television. families where only Spanish is spoken. The audimeter went through many modifications to make it more user Nielsen friendly, allowing ordinary mortals, rather than only trained technicians, The leader in audience research, to change the tape. Eventually the device Nielsen, which boasts divisions and was connected directly through phone 11 Program Evaluation 253 lines to the computers in Nielsen’s Florida office. The revised device recorded when the TV set was turned on or off and what channels it was tuned to or switched to while it was on. With the improvements, the audimeter underwent several name changes, for example, the “instantaneous audimeter,” the “storage instantaneous audimeter,” and eventually the “recordimeter.”Today, it is generally called the “set-tuning meter.” It measures local markets during data-collection sweeps and is used with written diaries that participants in the rating process are asked to fill out by hand, which augment and are compared with automatically collected data. These diaries indicate which members of the about who is watching. In other words, Figure 11.2 family are watching which programs. the people meter gathers the informa- An early Nielsen They also provide demographic infor- tion previously collected by both the people meter. mation, such as age and sex, for the audimeter and the diary. In the middle (Courtesy viewers of various programs. of the night, the data recorded by the Nielsen Media In the late 1980s, Nielsen introduced people meter is automatically sent over Research.) a device called a people meter (Figure phone lines to Nielsen’s main computer. 11.2). In 1987, it replaced all its audime- There is a great deal of controversy ters measuring national prime-time pro- involving the switch to people meters gramming with people meters, and it from the combination of diaries and has gradually introduced people meters settuning meters. Under pressure, in the for calculations in large cities. For spring of 2004, Nielsen postponed its example, Boston converted to people plan to replace diaries for sweeps report- meters in 2002. But because of the ing with people meters in New York, expense involved in changing meters, the largest market in the country, most local markets are still measured because of concerns that people meters by set-tuning meters and diaries. contain flaws that would make the For a people meter, each person in gathering of data for African-Americans the family has a special button on a and Latinos increasingly vulnerable. remote control device that he or she Although Nielsen argued that the must push periodically while watching people meters would produce better TV. (Buttons are also available for data for these minorities, concerned cit- visitors.) When the set is turned on, all izens and the Fox network feared that people watching should push their the use of people meters in large local remote buttons. Anyone new entering markets might undercount as much as the room to watch should push the 25% of young and minority viewers, appropriate button.When a person stops particularly if the meters did not come watching, he or she should turn off the with detailed instructions. Test usage of button. In this way, information is gath- the people meters produced marked ered not only about when the TV is on drops in ratings for some programs tra- and what channel it is tuned to but also ditionally highly rated in the minority 254 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

population under the old audimeter. any place with a TV set. For years, only UPN’s prime-time show “One On residential homes were included, but One,” for example, saw its numbers drop objections arose in the late 1980s con- 62%, and ABC’s “My Wife and Kids” fell cerning viewers who did not have a 27%. These dramatic shifts and the chance to be in the sample because they ensuing outcry from the affected net- were in college dorms, bars, hotels, works prompted postponement of the hospitals, and the like. As a result, transition to the people meter, although Nielsen began to extend its sample base Nielsen pointed out that minorities did beyond homes. not simply disappear from ratings “uni- For local measurement, the sample verse”; there were ratings increases for potentially includes all places with TV some minorities on some cable sets in the particular market of the TV networks.1 station. Nielsen divides the country into 210 designated market areas Sampling Size: National, Local, and (DMAs) to find samples for particular Syndication. How are people selected geographic areas. DMAs are nonover- to participate in the Nielsen surveys? lapping areas where people generally Although soliciting volunteers would have access to the same stations. Gen- probably produce participants who erally they are cities, such as Boston, would be motivated to be thorough in Cincinnati, and Salt Lake City, but their usage of the ratings technology and sometimes they are several cities close diaries, Nielsen does not accept volun- together, such as Albany-Schenectady- teers, fearing that volunteers might not Troy, New York. accurately represent typical television In each local market, 400 to 500 viewers. Instead, it chooses households households are given set-tuning meters, through random sampling.Theoretically, which are attached to television sets; almost anyone who can receive a par- these meters are different from the ticular TV program or service has a people meters used in the national chance to be selected. Understandably, samples, and one household or location people who work in the TV industry, cannot be included both in the local such as station and network program- sample and the national sample. During mers, are not allowed to participate. sweeps, in addition to the set boxes, National ratings numbers provide participants in the 210 local markets information about the country as a are given diaries to detail their television- whole, and local numbers refer to view- watching habits. ership in a specific market. Both Where the sample universe for measurements are important. Networks national programming includes people and national advertisers care about the across the nation, and the sample for national numbers, and individual local programming consists of only local markets and local advertisers need to participants, the sample universe for a know how they are performing in syndicated show, naturally, is limited to relation to the country as a whole and all places with TV sets in markets where in relation to other local markets. the syndicated program is airing. For measurement of national program For its national sample, Nielsen selects sources, such as commercial broadcast 5100 households (averaging about networks, cable networks, Spanish- 13,000 individuals total) out of a total language networks, and national syndi- population of 108.4 million television cators, the sample might include almost dwellings, which makes someone’s 11 Program Evaluation 255 chances of becoming part of a Nielsen calculations that result in audience mea- household extremely remote (about 1 in surement data. A human looks over the 21,255). computer’s “shoulder” as the data comes But Nielsen tries to make these 5100 in to check for obvious accuracy prob- dwellings in the national sample as rep- lems. If, for example, a people meter resentative of the total United States reported that someone watched TV public as it can. The goal is to have for 26 hours in 1 day, something is the sample mirror the interests and awry. Such data is unusable, and a field demographic characteristics of the total representative is dispatched to the population. To do this, Nielsen attempts home to check the health of the to locate every housing unit in the people meter. country. It mostly uses readily available The national count consists of tabu- government census data to find house- lating viewership in 31-second intervals. holds, but surveyors employed by A viewer is counted as watching a show Nielsen have found living quarters in if he or she watches for 31 seconds at a railway cars, beer trucks, trees, and caves, time. Thus, someone watching 31 all equipped with TV sets. seconds of a show on NBC will give Once all the nation’s housing units NBC credit for 1 minute because 31 are uncovered, they are symbolically seconds is the greater part of 1 minute. placed in a large hat from which If the viewer then switches to CBS 5100 are chosen. Actually, a computer and watches for at least 31 seconds, CBS program randomly selects the sample will get credit for 1 minute.The minutes group so that each location has an equal are then tallied to provide the total chance of being selected. The computer count. program ensures that no more than The local count operates on a 15- one housing unit per block is chosen. minute cycle instead of a 1-minute To do so would introduce bias; televi- cycle; a viewer must thus watch more sion usage in two homes in one block than half of the 15 minutes to be would be similar because of factors such counted as a viewer. as TV reception and the presence of During sweeps, a combination of cable TV. results from set boxes and diaries is used Once a sample member has agreed to to determine ratings numbers. participate, Nielsen sends a field representative to the home (or apartment, Ratings, Shares, and Cumes. The statis- dorm room, or other domicile) for tics most important to television pro- training. gramming executives are ratings, shares, People participating as part of the and, increasingly, cumes. Nielsen sample receive a small token A rating is simply the percentage of payment. Nielsen found that paying households tuned to a particular people makes them feel obligated and program out of all the TV households in that they therefore perform their duties that universe. The universe for all (pushing their buttons and filling out network shows is all households in the their diaries) more faithfully. United States. For mathematical sim- plicity, assume there are 10,000 house- Calculations. Once the Nielsen com- holds in the United States. If 2000 of puter has gathered all of the data from them are watching a show on NBC, the all of the people meters, set-tuning rating for that show is 20 (2000/10,000 meters, and diaries, it undertakes the = 2/10 = 0.2, or 20%). If 1500 are 256 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

watch different programs on different TVs and people watch more TV outside of their homes. With the people meter, Nielsen can easily break down the data for individuals rather than households. That is the current trend because individual viewing is considered more important to advertisers and networks than household viewing. With the rating there is the share. A Figure 11.3 share is the percentage of households A pie chart viewing a particular show measured showing ratings against all households that have their sets based on 10,000 on at that time. So if, out of 10,000 homes. homes owning TVs, only 5000 of them have sets turned on, then 2000 of those watching a show on Fox, that rating is watching a particular program would give 15 (Figure 11.3). that program a share of 40 (a share most As you know, there are not 10,000 programmers would be thrilled to have households in the United States; there in a time of declining ratings and shares). are 108.4 million, and almost 100% of If out of the 5100 Nielsen sample them have TVs. If the NBC show has a homes only 2550 of them are watching rating of 20, that means 21.68 million TV, then 2550 is used as the base for households are watching. One rating determining the share. For a program to point is worth 1.084 million homes (1% have a share of 50, 1275 of the homes of 108.4 million homes), thus 20 ¥ would have to be watching that program 1,084,000 equals 21,680,000. (1275/2550 = 0.50, or 50%). That same Historically, ratings have been tied to program would have a rating of 25 households. Today, when ratings are (1275/5100 = 0.25, or 25%) (Figure reported, they usually refer to the 11.4). number of households with a TV set Shares, like ratings, are starting to be tuned to the program. But TV viewing reported in terms of people rather than is becoming more of an individual activ- households. When shares are reported ity as people within the same household for households, they sometimes add up to more than 100% because of homes that have more than one TV set. Programmers sometimes also use HUT or PUT levels. This is simply the percentage of homes that turn the TV set on to anything or the percentage of people who watch TV.When HUT and PUT levels go down, everyone in the business experiences the jitters because Figure 11.4 most shares and ratings (and hence A theoretical dollars of income) go down, too. distribution of Another of the many statistics used in shares using the audience measurement is the cume.This same numbers as term is short for “cumulative” and refers in Figure 11.3. to the total audience impressions. For 11 Program Evaluation 257 example, some syndicated shows run account for half of all the discretionary once during the week and once on the spending in the United States” but they weekend. The production company account for less than 10% of the adver- combines the numbers from the two tising money spent. Advertisers surmise showings and sells a cume audience to (and back up with solid research—and the advertisers. common sense) that as young people As the viewership for television con- grow into older people they usually tinues to fragment, emphasis on cume carry the spending habits and brand loy- totals has intensified. This is especially alties from youth into their more afflu- true for cable television. Cable’s niche ent adult lives, where they are less likely programming ratings and shares are typ- to be “taught new tricks” or swayed from ically smaller than the ratings and shares their beaten path by new advertising. for commercial television’s general audi- Advertisers, therefore, want to strike ence fare, so cable stations have to find while the iron is still hot.2 ways to quantify strengths (and weaknesses) for advertisers. Reports. From the data collected and Because a cume measures the number calculated by the computer, Nielsen of different people who watch a channel publishes rating reports. So-called fast or program over time, a cume can show nationals, which provide next-day data differentiation between two channels, about the top 56 markets, are available both of which have only a 2 rating at a around 10:30 A.M. Eastern Standard specific time. Advertisers are particularly Time. These fast nationals give a good interested in cumes because they often indication of what the full national place their ads on cable channels several ratings will be when they are released times during one day. For example, a several hours later, although they can perfume manufacturer might have an ad sometimes be misleading. Some research run at 7:00 P.M., 7:35 P.M., 8:10 P.M., analysts select a representative city from and 8:40 P.M. and want to know how the 56 cities to predict what the rest of many different people were exposed to the country will do, as opposed to that commercial. Channels likely to have embracing the fast national numbers as short-term viewing, such as CNN and a whole, but the fast nationals come The Weather Channel, particularly like out first and are usually the numbers to refer to their cumes, showing that executives seize upon. although the number of their viewers Cable ratings, which Nielsen began may not be impressive at one time, over tracking as far back as 1972, used to take any period large numbers of viewers longer to be tabulated. Today, they are drop in and become available for available daily, although in 2004 no fast advertisers’ messages. nationals were available for cable. As The numbers most important to most cable increases its dominance, it programming executives are the demo- becomes essential for commercial televi- graphics. High ratings, shares, and cumes sion executives to be able to compare are good, but these numbers mean little and contrast cable ratings with broadcast if the people watching the programs, no television ratings quickly and easily. matter how many, are not the people Some executives long for the day that advertisers want to target. A young both sets of ratings will be reported demographic is desired. The emphasis together rather than separately. placed on demographics cannot be over- The reports dealing with national TV stated. Media observer Jonathan Dee are referred to as the Nielsen Televi- reported that “People over the age of 50 sion Index (NTI, Figure 11.5). The 258 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Figure 11.5 A sample NTI report that shows cable rankings (a), and a sample page from a weekly NTI report that shows prime-time rankings (b). (Courtesy Nielsen Media Research.) (a)

(b) 11 Program Evaluation 259

NTI is published twice a year in booklet form and once a week in an abbreviated form. The NTI booklet includes all the necessary data, including a summary of households using television, reports on daytime network programs, cume audiences, and reports that show 3-year trends. There is also a Nielsen Hispanic Index (NHI); the NTI and NHI are expected to merge. Nielsen also publishes a special report called Nielsen Home Video that covers not only cable TV but also VCRs and home satellite dishes. Special statistics are often reported such as the percentage of home dish or VCR penetration in each market, the types of programs people are most likely to record with their VCRs, or the average number of channels on cable systems in each market. Nielsen publishes a supplementary report on public television. Although public television places less emphasis on ratings than the commercial networks, ratings are becoming increasingly important. Solid ratings are necessary to keep underwriters sponsoring programs. Public television is also interested in knowing whether its programs are place. Overemphasis on the marketplace Figure 11.6 serving the public for which they were would only lead to, in his words, “the “The Civil War,” designed. worst kind of programming.” which featured As former PBS President Bruce More important to PBS than ratings stories about people Christensen said, “While looking at an is an annual evaluation of programming such as these overall audience, we also want to know undertaken by a subcommittee of the Confederate volunteers of the the makeup of that audience. Are chil- PBS board. This subcommittee sends First Virginia dren’s shows being watched by kids and surveys to stations and gathers input Militia, received their families? Are programs we’re pro- from producers, minority advocacy much-acclaimed ducing for various age levels and cate- groups, underwriters, the press, and ratings as high as gories of people being viewed by those other people who have a stake in the 9, but in general, people?”3 national program service. Armed with public broadcasting In his keynote speech at the Broad- the results of this survey, PBS program- does not place as cast Educators Association convention in mers make decisions. They usually con- high a value on 2004, Christensen, who ran PBS when sider three major questions: What is the ratings as do the Ken Burns’s highly rated, groundbreak- value of the program to the overall commercial ing “The Civil War” premiered (Figure schedule? Is the program valuable to the networks. 11.6), stressed that PBS must continue overall goals of public broadcasting? Is (Courtesy Florentine Films.) its mission to serve the public rather the program meeting its own objectives? than be concerned with the market- These are goals Christensen would 260 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

clearly have embraced in his quest to Another problem with cable TV keep public broadcasting serving the ratings revolves around ascertaining the public’s needs. program lineup on every channel on each cable system. When only networks Sweeps. Generally, station ratings are and stations existed, Nielsen and Arbi- undertaken four times a year in Novem- tron could keep track of channel ber, February, May, and July—the sweeps numbers in each market and know, periods. The weeks of the sweeps are through published schedules, what was important to local stations because the playing on each station. In addition, if numbers produced determine advertis- there were doubts, company personnel ing rates for the following 3 months. could call local stations to verify pro- The report containing station data is grams and time periods. But when cable called the Nielsen Station Index, and it, came along, people in one part of town like the NTI, breaks the information might have WXXX on channel 6, those into various forms, including demo- down the street had it on channel 12, graphics. Nielsen also publishes reports and those across town watched it on for syndicated programming and for channel 37. public television. The cumbersomeness of dealing with The various (and numerous) Nielsen these inconsistencies led Nielsen to reports are purchased by networks, sta- develop automated measurement of tions, advertisers, and any other compa- lineups (AMOL), which it introduced nies that need to know audience in 1982. Each network and syndicated statistics.They are available in hard copy, program is coded invisibly in a manner on diskette, or online. There is also a similar to grocery store bar codes.Then, website specifically for clients. The cost as the program plays, Nielsen equipment is generally kept quiet, but is estimated tracks this code and can determine what to be in the neighborhood of $6 million program is shown on which channel at a year for networks and somewhat less what time. This has been particularly for advertisers, stations, and others. helpful for calculating ratings for individual syndicated programs that may be Special Considerations Associated with playing on innumerable stations and Cable and Audience Measurement. The cable systems throughout the country. advent and growth of cable has caused VCRs, even more than cable, have numerous problems for the rating com- presented difficulties for the rating companies. For one thing, it has fractional- panies. Generally, programs are counted ized the viewing audiences, making it as being watched if they are recorded. harder to analyze everything. During the But many recorded programs are never 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, three networks watched, and some are watched several dominated the airwaves and most cities times. In addition, people playing back had only four or five stations. Ratings a tape often zip through commercials, for each network were generally in the destroying the purpose of ratings. 20s and shares were in the 30s. Now, not Because ratings are so important and only have network ratings decreased because viewing patterns are constantly into the low teens, but ratings as low as changing, audience measurement must 1 or 2 have become common for TV constantly be revised or updated. For stations and cable services. The proba- example, in the summer of 2005, bility of error in rating estimates on Nielsen will start to record viewership numbers this small is high. of shows on digital video recorders 11 Program Evaluation 261 using active/passive meters to rate time- One of the important subscriber con- shifted programming (i.e., programming cepts for cable systems is penetration. watched at the time other than when it This refers to the number of homes in originally aired). To be counted, a show the cable system’s territory that connect must be played within 7 days.4 to cable. If the number of households served by cable is 10,000 and the Ratings Massage. Ratings drive adver- number of households that have asked tising rates, which is why so much to have cable hooked to their TV sets is importance is attached to them. In the 6,000, cable penetration is 60%. A pen- same way that politicians strive to redis- etration of about 80% is considered trict voting districts to gain an advantage, viable. heads of networks seek ways to improve Cable also likes to keep its churn rate their chances in the war for ratings. low. Churn refers to the number of For example, Nickelodeon gained a people dropping the service even temporary ratings edge when it split its though they may later reconnect. For ratings for Nickelodeon and Nick at obvious financial reasons, pay cable net- Nite after the first quarter of 2004. works like their subscribers to stay with Before the split, both had been consid- them, not to drop out for several ered a single network. With the change, months and then resubscribe. Cable net- the two were rated individually. Nielsen works are reluctant to release data on approved this change because Nick- their churn rates, leading some to con- elodeon and Nick at Nite sell their pro- sider churn to be cable’s “dirty little grams to advertisers separately. secret.” In the first quarter of 2004, Nick- Indeed, some analysts estimated cable elodeon was the most-watched cable churn rates to be as high as 5 to 6% per network, according to analyst Scott month in 2003–2004. Interestingly, Collins. TNT was second. Had the split digital cable churn rates were particu- of Nickelodeon and Nick at Nite been larly high in 2003 because many people in effect for this quarter, Nickelodeon who only watched 15 to 18 channels would have remained No. 1 but Nick at felt they did not need the additional Nite would have been No. 2, bumping channels that digital cable offers. Thus, TNT to No. 3. Similarly, Lifetime, many canceled their digital subscriptions which held the No. 1 spot in the key in favor of cheaper services that gave demographic of women 18 to 49 years them access to the smaller number of old, would have yielded that honor to channels they regularly watched.6 Nick at Nite.5 The separation irked the Cable systems are averse to losing and other networks, causing Nielsen to end regaining large numbers of customers. the 3-month split between Nickelodeon They lose money when people discon- and Nick at Nite. nect even if they sign up again later. Despite the situation engendered by Worse than churn is the permanent the Nickelodeon and Nick at Nite, cable disconnect—the subscriber who tries systems generally place less emphasis on cable, does not like it, asks to have the ratings than do commercial systems service removed, and never comes back. because cable has two sources of income: advertisements and subscribers. COMMERCIAL RADIO Therefore, cable systems and networks often factor in subscriber statistics to As mentioned earlier, Nielsen dropped evaluate their success, or lack thereof. radio ratings in 1964, but Arbitron 262 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Arbitron

Arbitron’s radio ratings are determined entirely by diaries (not meters) and are based on people (not households). So much of the radio audience consists of one person listening to one radio outside of the home that meters placed on household radio sets, as is done with television sets, would be inadequate for gathering meaningful measurements. Samples are drawn on a household basis in a random manner similar to how households are selected for TV ratings. However, with radio, each person in the household over 12 years is asked to keep a diary for 1 week and then mail it to Arbitron (Figure 11.7). No one is asked to keep a diary for longer than 7 days. If the survey lasts longer than 1 week, different people are used for each week. Radio ratings cover two areas for local stations—metros and total service areas (TSAs). Metros correspond to the government’s metropolitan statistical areas and are primarily individual cities. Usually a station’s metro is the city to Figure 11.7 measures radio station audiences and is which it is licensed—an area in which it Sample of Arbitron generally considered the primary radio can be heard clearly.TSAs are larger than diary card. ratings company. Other companies have metros and often include part of some (Courtesy entered (and left) the business. Because other metro. The weaker stations of a Arbitron.) of the mobility and fragmentation of metro area often cannot be heard clearly radio listening, collecting ratings data is throughout the TSA. This difference in expensive—which led to the demise of carrying power led Arbitron to break entrepreneuring companies. In addition, down ratings for the two areas. If ratings radio’s tendency to play fast and loose were reported only for the TSA, the with the concept of national networks lower-powered radio stations would be and syndicators makes it much more unjustly penalized (Figure 11.8). complicated to quantify and vet ratings Once the diaries are mailed back to for national network programming Arbitron (the return rate is about 50%), often aired, with the same national com- they are edited, taking a variety of points mercials intact, on thousands of stations into account. If someone has listed a dial across the nation at different times and setting, program name, or personality in different contexts. An industry- rather than the call letters, an Arbitron supported organization, radio all- employee finds and enters the correct call dimension audience research (RADAR), letters. Diaries postmarked before the therefore has been developed to measure survey period ended are eliminated, as are radio network audiences. identical diaries from the same household 11 Program Evaluation 263 or diaries that indicate someone listened to the radio 24 hours a day for the whole week. As with TV, diaries from a particular demographic group may be weighted if that group, as a whole, returns a low percentage of diaries.7 Indeed, ethnic weighing, as the practice is called, can significantly skew data. The valid edited information is processed through a computer that cal- culates audience measurement statistics. Rating and share are important to radio, just as they are to TV,but the usual method for calculating these revolves around the average quarter hour (AQH). AQH ratings and shares are developed by adding the number of people who listen to a pointed out, “We want to affiliate with Figure 11.8 station for at least 5 minutes during a 15- stations that have high ratings. So we Map of a Metro minute period and then dividing that by look at the ratings and then try to sell and TSA. the number of quarter hours in a particu- our service to stations that target our lar daypart. Figure 11.8 shows an example type of audience and have high ratings.” in which 100 KXXX listeners are keeping diaries; if 40 of these people listen to RADAR KXXX for at least 5 minutes between 7:00 and 9:00 A.M., the station’s AQH Theoretically, radio network material rating would be 5. can be extrapolated from Arbitron sta- AQHs are used because radio is not as tistics. Local stations air network pro- structured as TV.A great deal of button gramming included in various quarter pushing occurs in radio listening, espe- hours, so if a network knows when its cially for all-news stations that people material is being aired, it can find its tend to dip into briefly. Measuring in ratings. However, the inconsistency with small blocks helps find the audience. which network material is programmed The cume is also important to radio. makes such a process complicated. As with cable, advertisers are often inter- As a result, a group of about 20 net- ested in knowing how many different works (which has grown to more than people their ads reach if the ads are 80 in 2004) joined to support RADAR. placed at various times. These companies initially paid a Arbitron surveys all of its radio company named Statistical Research to markets at least once a year. The large track their programming by telephone markets are surveyed more intensively recall methodology.Trained interviewers than the smaller markets; some very large randomly phoned selected potential markets are measured almost year round. sample households and asked one person One of the interesting uses made of in each household to recall what radio Arbitron data relates to the network– programs he or she listened to yesterday affiliate relationship. Radio networks and the day before yesterday. If the look at ratings to decide what stations interviewee could not remember they wish to affiliate with. As Leon specific programming, the interviewer Cleveland of National Black Network asked for slogans, dial position, or 264 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Quarter Hours No. People material. Local stations, however, have missed the mark occasionally (or fre- 7:00–7:15 A.M. 3 quently) when it comes to airing network 7:15–7:30 A.M. 5 programming in the cleared time period.

7:30–7:45 A.M. 7 If the network content is not aired at the reported time, then the ratings for that Figure 11.9 7:45–8:00 A.M. 10 material will not be accurate.Therefore, If 40 of 100 8:00–8:15 A.M. 3 to give confidence to advertisers and people keeping network executives, Arbitron conducts 8:15–8:30 A.M. 5 diaries listen to random monitoring: Arbitron records KXXX for at least 8:30–8:45 A.M. 4 samples of radio broadcasts and compares 5 minutes between 8:45–9:00 A.M. 3 the material with the clearance informa- 7:00 and 9:00 tion it receives from the local stations and A.M., the station’s = 8 quarter hours = 40 people networks. Ratings are adjusted accord- AQH rating would 40/8 = 5 ingly, and reports of discrepancies found be 5. in the monitoring process are given to anything else that might help define the the involved parties for follow-up. material. The interviewer also assisted the respondents with probes such as THE INTERNET “Did you wake up to a clock radio?” or “Did you listen to the car radio while Radio and television, broadcasting con- driving home from work?” tinuously whether there is an audience This type of phone research had a or not, must rely on companies such as 63% response rate; in other words, 63% Arbitron and Nielsen to estimate the of people agreed to be interviewed.This number of people experiencing their was about 13% higher than diary product. The Internet, on the other returns, probably because people could hand, waits until a request is made by an answer the questions instantaneously audience member to broadcast its and need not remember to write or content. These requests can and are mail anything. The drawback, however, automatically tabulated in site activity was that it relies on recall, which is often logs, giving website owners a ready- incomplete or inaccurate. More impor- made set of statistics related to site tantly, the RADAR process was expen- activity and audience traffic. sive and, in many ways, redundant with These statistics, however, can be Arbitron’s work. So, with a few tweaks, deceptive. Although they keep track of the RADAR ratings were folded into how many times files on the site were Arbitron, which now conducts this accessed, the amount of accurate infor- research using its weekly diary reports, mation they can provide about who selecting representative samples from accessed the site, for what purpose, in the different metro areas for a sample what context, and for how long is that reflects the national audience. limited. Take this scenario: An avid When networks sell their program- collector of TY Beanie Babies, on word ming to local stations, the local station that he or she must move to another agrees on a time that it will air the mate- country, decides to sell the entire col- rial in its lineup. Arbitron uses these lection of plush toys in online auctions. “clear” times, in conjunction with diary The seller wants to provide pictures of entries, to determine how many audi- each item but does not want the trouble ence members listened to the network of taking the pictures. Instead, a website, 11 Program Evaluation 265 perhaps the official TY site, is found that nies, therefore, have thrown their hats in already contains pictures of the items. the ring to provide Internet audience The seller copies the addresses of the measurements. pictures from the TY website and uses Combining hit data with traditional the pictures directly in the auctions. metering strategies, Nielsen has devel- Thus, every time an auction is viewed, oped the NetRatings service, which there is a hit on the TY website because measures Internet audience numbers the files are stored on that site and and behaviors and keeps detailed track simply linked to in the seller’s auc- of advertising trends on the Internet. tions—but none of these hits represents Meanwhile, Arbitron is developing a someone visiting the TY website. So, new system capable of tracking radio, if number of “hits” was the criteria television, and some Internet content by which advertisers determined how (See sidebar on following page). many viewers would be exposed to their Another form of Internet ratings is a ads, they could be sorely mistaken. site’s positioning on popular search Likewise, many times sites are visited engines. Although the methodology for but advertisers would be loathe to count ranking sites for display in the coveted these visits toward the number of con- Top 10 position is made intentionally sumers that have seen their ads. Search obscure and mercurial by search engine engines, a crowded field including companies to avoid having systems Google.com and Yahoo, are constantly duped, many factors clearly go into these scouring the Internet, indexing the rankings. First, and most easily under- content of sites. Automated programs, stood, is relevance to the keywords called spiders, visit hundreds of thou- entered by the search engine user. But sands of web pages per day, checking for if the user puts in a broad search phrase new sites, new content, and dead ends or word, such as “happiness,” millions of that should be removed from the sites will contain that word. Therefore, system. In the competitive world of factors other than relevance are taken search engines, a company loses face, into account in ranking. Most search and customers, if its search results are engines nowadays take into account how not complete and up to date. Advertis- many other sites have links on them to ers, however, do not benefit from a specific site; if other webmasters have counting spiders as consumers. found the content of a specific site so In addition to traffic from automated compelling that they put a link to it on spiders, webmasters and other employees their own site, then the site must have of companies that maintain websites may value. Knowing that propagating links to visit a site numerous times a day to make their sites will give them a better sure that changes they have made are ranking on search engines, webmasters operating correctly. One way that web- have taken to exchanging links (e.g., “If sites can remove these visits from their you put a link to my site on your site, log is by placing identifying cookies on I’ll put a link to your site on mine”). No the computers of visitors to specifically system is going to be perfect, but even identify visitors on subsequent visits. in link exchanges, at least it can be Thus, a simple log of the number of assumed that the webmaster who would hits or visitors must be viewed with a go to the trouble of exchanging links grain of salt by advertisers who want to broadly across the Internet would also get the biggest bang for their buck. go to the trouble of creating interesting Nielsen,Arbitron, and emerging compa- and valuable content. 266 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Amazon.com, in 2004, launched a new search engine, A9.com, that not only ranks sites in the traditional ways but also allows users to review sites. So, if you visit a site and you like it, you can give it a 5-star ranking and leave some comments, just as you might review a book listed for sale on Amazon.com. Internet programmers will want to work to get their sites ranked high in search engines; it will usually mean not only more trafﬁc will come to the site but also more advertisers will be attracted to paying to have their Figure 11.10 messages viewed by those visitors. Arbitron’s portable people meter features a pager- sized metering THE PORTABLE PEOPLE METER device and a nighttime docking When Nielsen introduced AMOL in to wear the device wherever they go. station that serves 1982, it hit on a technology and This method also helps to easily concept that is now being expanded. account for media exposure outside of as both a battery AMOL puts a code into television the home—anywhere the participant charger and a broadcasts that helps audience mea- may go. communications surement set boxes determine which The PPM augers many other poten- hub, sending programs are playing on any channel tial uses as well. Retail outlets, for collected data to at anytime. Arbitron has been working example, can broadcast an unde- Arbitron every since 1992, in an on-againÐoff-again tectable code in their stores, keeping night. (Courtesy relationship with Nielsen, on a track of which stores participants visit Arbitron.) portable, crossmedia audience mea- and how long they stay. Potentially surement system that also works combining this information with check- through encoded programming. out receipts, stores could determine The portable people meter (PPM) is how much the participants spend and a pager-sized device that survey par- the exact products they purchase. ticipants carry with them throughout Aggregating this information with the the day (Figure 11.10). The device has knowledge of the participants’ expo- a built-in microphone that monitors all sure to radio, television, and Internet audio occurring in the vicinity of the media and advertising, a correlation device wearer. Radio and television could potentially be drawn between broadcasts, as well as Internet audio exposure to advertisements and pur- broadcasts, can be encoded with an chases. All of this could add up to audio signal undetectable by the unprecedented amounts of detailed human ear but recognizable by the information about media consumption device. Each radio station, television and its effects on consumers. But as of channel, and web stream can be given 2004, although test runs of the PPM a different code, and the PPM can had been successful on many keep track of when and how long par- accounts, there were still many details ticipants are exposed to each discrete to work out, both in terms of the signal throughout the day. With this technology and in terms of the method- system there is no need for diaries, for ology of administering the surveys and interviews, or for participants to push interpreting the data. buttons, turn knobs, or interact except 11 Program Evaluation 267

DO RATINGS WORK AND DO watch exactly the same television. SAMPLES SAMPLE? Nielsen’s answer to this is as follows:

The main issue that a programmer has Try this interesting experiment (hypotheti- to deal with concerning ratings is deter- cally—unless you happen to have 100,000 mining how much weight to place upon beads handy). Imagine 100,000 beads in a them in relation to all the other factors washtub: 30,000 red and 70,000 white. Mix involved in program decision making. thoroughly, then scoop out a sample of Should a commercial TV network pro- 4000. Even before counting, you’ll know grammer cancel a series if it ranks in the that not all beads in your sample are red. bottom half of the ratings? Should a Nor would you expect your sample to cable TV network be removed from a divide exactly at 1200 red and 2800 white. As a matter of fact, the mathematical odds cable TV system if it never achieves are about 20 to 1 that the count of red beads a rating higher than a 2? Should a radio will be plus or minus 60 beads—or a range disc jockey be ﬁred if the ratings for his of 28.5 to 31.5 of the sample. daypart fall from 5 to 4? Should “Sesame So, in short, you have now produced a Street” be moved to a different timeslot “rating” of 30, plus or minus 1.5, with a 20 if most people watching it at 2:00 P.M. to 1 assurance of statistical reliability. are men in their 30s? One of the factors These basic sampling laws wouldn’t involved in determining how much change even if you drew your sample of weight to place on ratings revolves 4000 from 90 million beads instead of around whether the ratings are accurate 100,000—assuming that the 90 million or, perhaps more appropriately, accurate beads had the same ratio of red and white. enough. This is a simple demonstration of why a small sample is just as adequate for a nation of 90 million households as for a city of Variables That Affect 100,000. Rating Accuracy Yes, but people aren’t beads. Of course not, but, then, neither do we attempt to Even the rating services do not claim measure people in all their complexities. In that their numbers are totally accurate. some ways, measuring a television audience Nielsen, in its booklet What TV Ratings is as simple in principle as counting beads. Really Mean, writes, “Note that when We’re asking questions such as: “Is the set we described the rating, we used the on?” and “If on, is it tuned to channel A, B, C, or D?” These questions are just as simple words ‘statistical estimate.’That’s because as asking if the bead is red or white. The a rating is subject to a margin of statis- answer in each case is a simple yes or no.9 tical error.”8 But beyond statistical error, there are problems that can affect rating Statisticians generally agree with accuracy. Nielsen and other audience measurement companies that sampling works. Sampling. Sample size is one aspect of The sarcastic retort given to those who ratings frequently questioned when it do not believe in the accuracy of sam- comes to determining rating accuracy. pling is, “The next time you go to the How can a company possibly report on doctor to get blood taken out, tell him what people are watching when only to take it all because you don’t believe 5100 out of 108.4 million homes are that the small amount placed into the sampled? No two people are alike, and vial will give accurate results.” even households with the same number Statisticians have found that, in of children and same income do not general, the larger the sample, the 268 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

smaller the sampling error. Unfortu- charge, the majors, trying to keep adver- nately, doubling the sample size does not tising rates high, accused Nielsen of cut the sampling error in half; the shoddy sampling and reporting prac- sample size has to be quadrupled to do tices. Nielsen asserted that the numbers this. This type of increase is costly. were as accurate as ever, responding that Nevertheless, as the population of the if the networks wanted an answer to the country increases, Nielsen is planning to drop in ratings, they should look at their double its sample size to 10,000 by own programming strategies, strategies 2006. that offered little to interest young men. In other words, if MTV’s “Sunday Stew” Where Did the Men Go? In 2003– can’t get men, it was not Nielsen’s fault. 2004, programming executives and This controversy exploded in the fall of viewers alike began a new round of 2003 with Nielsen and the networks serious questions about the accuracy of exchanging blame, although subsequent the Nielsen rating system. Was it anti- ratings data showed the number of male quated? Did it try to do too much, for viewers edging up again. example, in 2004 by measuring how many times television viewers see spon- Are Minorities Adequately Represented? sorship signs at sports stadiums? Or, Nielsen also received significant ques- again in 2004, by tracking video game tioning over the years for its gathering playing? of minority data, specifically informa- In particular, the 11 to 12% drop in tion about Latino and African-American television viewing by young men at the viewership. Many think that Nielsen’s start of the 2003–2004 season alarmed sampling does not include a fair pro- broadcasters who thought that a rise in portion of minority viewers, although video game playing and Internet usage some industry analysts say that the could not be responsible for the sudden sampling of minorities is more than precipitous drop in the number of adequate and is representative of the young male viewers. Nielsen responded country as a whole. Because Nielsen has that its system was sound and that shown signs of moving from diary broadcasters were simply unwilling to reporting and toward more automated accept the new reality of decreased statistical gathering, there has been sig- viewing by young men. nificant outcry, especially when the data MTV’s “Sunday Stew” lineup, includ- has differed markedly regarding minor- ing reality shows such as “Viva La Bam,” ity viewing. For example, when Nielsen with intentionally juvenile stunts; distributed its people meter for sweeps “Punk’d,” with its staged tricks on in various markets in 2004, many celebrities; and the car makeover show, Fox network shows reportedly showed “Pimp My Ride,” managed to capture a drop in minority viewership, fueling the coveted young male demographic the controversy. Nielsen, however, has that the major networks found missing maintained that as the local ratings in 2003–2004.What the majors saw was picture becomes more accurate, with that a significant number of males 18 to better sampling techniques, many 34 years old stopped watching. established stations and programs could Where did some 750,000 young men experience ratings declines and other suddenly go? Or was there a flaw in the cable and satellite channels could register Nielsen system? With NBC leading the gains. 11 Program Evaluation 269

Rating Techniques about what they watch. Perhaps they do not want to admit to watching game Beyond sampling, there are many other shows, to listening to radio sex and psy- problems that can creep in to the ratings chology shows, or to forgetting what process. People who know their viewing they watched. They may simply put or listening habits are being monitored down a well-known show, ignoring the may act differently than they ordinarily “little” cable show that does not figure do, watching higher-end programs than as readily in their memory. they might normally. With telephone interviews, people Households with people meters suffer can be influenced by the tone or atti- from button-pushing fatigue, thereby tude of the interviewee or, again, they artificially lowering ratings. Some can be less than truthful about what groups of people are more likely to push they watched or listened to out of buttons than others. When the people embarrassment or in an attempt to meter was first introduced, sports- project themselves in a respectable light. viewing ratings soared and children’s People are also hesitant to give infor- program ratings decreased significantly. mation over the phone because they One theory was that men, who were fear the person calling is a salesperson. watching the sports intently, were reliable about pushing the button, perhaps Studies and Investigations some even out of fear that the TV would shut off if they did not keep Because of the possibility for all these pushing that button. Children, on the sampling and methodology errors, other hand, were confused or apathetic ratings have been subjected to numer- about the button, therefore underrating ous tests and investigations. In 1963, the children’s programming. House of Representatives became so Contrary to the controversy that skeptical of ratings methodology that it raged in 2004 in favor of keeping diaries held hearings. Most of the skepticism instead of converting to people meters arose because of a cease and desist order during sweeps, diaries have innumerable from the Federal Trade Commission documented problems. The return rate (FTC) telling several audience measure- is low, and many diaries that are ment companies to stop misrepresenting returned have missing data, data that is the accuracy and reliability of their then “filled in” statistically by computer. reports. The FTC charged the rating To some ratings customers, this practice companies with relying on hearsay of filling in missing data in a statistical information, making false claims about sample with statistical numbers gleaned the nature of their sample populations, from other samples (also called Monte improperly combining and reporting Carlo audience ascription) is data, failing to account for nonrespond- indefensible. ing sample members, and making arbi- Also, many people do not fill out the trary changes in the rating figures, all diaries as they watch TV or listen to the pretty heavy accusations. radio. They wait until the last minute The main outgrowth of the House and try to remember everything they hearings was that broadcasters estab- have watched or listened to, perhaps lished the Electronic Media Rating aided by a copy of TV Guide or a radio Council (EMRC) to accredit rating schedule. Some people are not honest companies. This group periodically 270 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

checks rating companies to ensure their audience. It simply indicates which sample design and implementation meet network can manipulate the sweeps preset standards that broadcasters have game better than the competition. agreed upon, to determine whether What is at stake is advertising fees that interviewers are properly trained, to can translate into millions of dollars. It oversee the procedures for handling is easy to understand why programmers diaries, and to ensure in other ways that under intense pressure from their man- the ratings companies are compiling agements to perform well during sweeps their reports as accurately as possible. are tempted to do almost anything to Today, all the major rating companies maximize the numbers. The better have EMRC accreditation. program directors will stay within Also, as a result of the 1963 hearings, reason. The people who should remain broadcasters undertook several basic vigilant are the advertisers and their studies to determine the accuracy of agencies. They are the losers if they pay ratings. They tested sample size and rates based on a stunt that artificially found, as mentioned previously, that the stimulated the ratings and bears no larger the sample, the smaller the sam- resemblance to the programs in which pling error.They also found that people the sponsor is investing. who cooperated with rating services watched more TV, had larger families, How Programmers Should and were younger and better educated Use Ratings than those who would not cooperate. And they found that the telephone Ratings are not foolproof, nor are they technique gets a 13% higher coopera- the only measurement of program tion rate than diaries.10 success or failure. There are many other indications of a show’s vitality and its Programming Aberrations potential for a productive run. Even Nielsen cautions, “Rarely . . . should a As if life were not tough enough for the programming decision be made on just ratings companies, programmers often one ratings report; repeated measure- try for end runs around the ratings ments substantially reduce the range of system. TV stations program their most statistical error that applies, as well as sensational material during sweeps provide broadcasters with a vital sense of ratings periods: “Reverse circumcision. direction as to whether an audience is See how it is done. Tonight on channel building or dropping off.”11 8.” The strategy of using sensational Furthermore, the greater the fraction- stunt techniques to increase ratings is alization of the audience, the less precise called hypoing. TV networks preempt the measurement. Nielsen admits it is their series and show star-loaded specials dealing with numbers that 95% of the so that their affiliates will fare well in time are plus or minus 1 or 2 points ratings and, therefore, can increase their from the real rating. The other 5% of advertising rates. Cable networks show the time, the rating is even less accurate. new programs rather than reruns. Radio It is true that in commercial broad- stations run unique and financially casting ratings are the way the score is rewarding contests that require listeners kept. But the savvy programmer will use to “keep listening for further clues.” them as an aid, not a crutch. It would All of this negates ratings’ real be foolish for a programmer to make a purpose: determining the largest regular judgment on a show based on 1 or 2 11 Program Evaluation 271 rating points (to say nothing of a judgment made on 0.1 or 0.2 points). Also left out of the mix is the intensity with which viewers watch certain shows. An audience of 10 million devoted fans may be more valuable to a broadcaster and an advertiser than 12 million viewers involved with two or three other activities while sitting in front of the set. When looking at ratings, programmers should be more concerned about trends and tendencies than a single raw Figure 11.11 number. Even if a current rating is low, The cast of “One Tree Hill,” which if it is part of a gradual increase it could started slowly on have positive significance, as in 2004 the WB but built with the WB’s “One Tree Hill” (Figure into a hit, 11.11). Conversely, a higher number that justifying the WB’s is part of a flat pattern may indicate a faith in keeping the problem down the road. show on the air. The ratings-as-a-crutch approach to (Globe Photos, programming has a certain appeal. A Inc.) number is easily understood, it permits facile comparisons, it has the look of science about it, and it offers a more take a stand, as NBC’s Jeff Zucker did compelling argument than such vague with the low-rated, quality show, statements as “I have faith in the show,” “American Dreams” by renewing it for “My gut tells me it will work,” or the a third season in 2004. familiar laugh getter, “Trust me.” But But sometimes the numbers are bad good programmers are made of sterner not by tenths of a point but by many stuff. They factor in the other consider- points. Something has to be done. How ations (trends, demos, fan letters, the programmers go about making the “feel” of the show, etc.) and, if there is necessary changes is your next field of enough there to rebut a number, they study. 272 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

EXERCISES

1. Conduct a sample in your class. Ask 3. Find a low-rated show on a ratings each person in your class to keep, for 1 day, report. View or listen to the show and a diary of television viewing, radio listening, advertising on the show, taking into Internet surfing, or a combination of these. account its competitors in the timeslot. Tally all of the results from the class, then What factors do you think have kept the put the diaries in a hat and draw 10% of show on the air, despite its poor ratings? them. Do the results from the 10% sample 4. Examine a ratings report. How could reflect the results of the group as a whole? ratings information be presented to make 2. After you have conducted Exercise 1, the ratings appear more or less favorable for describe whether you and your class think specific shows than they appear in the your viewing, listening, and surfing habits presented format? were altered by the use of the diary.

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Steve McClellan. “Fuzzy Math,” Description of Methodology (New York: Broadcasting & Cable, March 8, 2004, p. 11. Arbitron, 1996). Its website at http://www 2. Jonathan Dee. “The Myth of 18–34,” .arbitron.com also contains a great deal of New York Times Magazine, October 13, methodological information. 2002, p. 60. 8. What TV Ratings Really Mean (New 3. “PBS’s National–Local Balancing York: Nielsen Media Research, 1989), p. 8. Act,” Broadcasting, July 18, 1990, pp. 37–38. 9. Ibid., pp. 13–14. 4. John Higgins. “Nielsen To Rate 10. Ibid., p. 12. Time-Shifted Programming,” http://www 11. Details of these studies can be found .broadcastingcable.com/article/CA401075 in ARMS—What It Shows, How It Has .html. Accessed March 3, 2004. Changed Radio Measurement (Washington, 5. Scott Collins. “Nickelodeon Squeezes DC: National Association of Broadcasters, 2 Ratings Out of 1 Very Diverse Network,” 1966); CRAM—Cumulative Radio Audience Los Angeles Times, March 25, 2004, p. C-1 Method (New York: National Broadcasting through C-4. Company, 1966); and Television Ratings 6. Peter Grant. “Millions Rejecting Revisited: A Further Look at Television Audi- Digital Cable,” http://www.delawareonline ences (New York: Television Information .com. Accessed April 12, 2004. Ofﬁce, 1971). 7. Arbitron’s main book describing its radio methodology is Arbitron Radio: 12 Changing and Canceling Programs

In this chapter you will learn about the remember that salvaged shows can rep- following: resent enormous economic savings— speciﬁcally, not running ﬁnished • When programs require changes to episodes after a show has been banished avoid cancellation is not cheap and the lure of syndication • What changes can be made to keep a dollars can keep a program on the air. program viable Efforts should be made to keep shows • How a time change can make or viable. But there are times when can- break a program cellation seems the best, or only, alter- • Why programs are canceled native. Cancellations are usually caused • The best way for executives to handle by one of the items described in the giving a cancellation notice sections that follow. • The types of and reasons for changes and cancellations in radio • Potential controversies that could Unsatisfactory Ratings spring from show cancellations Most commercial television shows are • Why websites stay active or go to the canceled because they fail to achieve sat- cyber graveyard isfactory ratings.The cause may lie else- Sometimes a program will be painstak- where, but low audience levels are the ingly researched, carefully developed, reason for the cancellation. In some launched with carefully crafted market- cases, these low-rated shows did not ing and promotion—and fail. In pre- belong on the schedule. Not all shows vious chapters, you observed that that succeed are quality shows (look at experienced programmers know the the successes of many inane reality general elements of successful show- shows), but many canceled shows simply making; they can, however, be defeated are poorly conceived, executed, or both by taking some wrong turns along the and should not have been scheduled. programming highway. When this They landed on the air because of con- happens, changing and canceling pro- tractual commitments, an absence of grams becomes necessary. alternatives, or bad judgment by a decision maker, and the disappointing ratings TELEVISION should not come as a surprise. It can be perplexing to note that some There are several reasons for changing a shows with weak ratings remain on the television program, not all of which call schedule but others with similar or for a cancellation. Programmers should better ratings are canceled. For example,

273 274 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

days, a timeslot considered valuable real estate for CBS, and the ratings that “The Guardian” received were deemed inadequate. When “Century City” aired in that timeslot, it garnered worse numbers than “The Guardian.” “Century City” was also canceled. It is interesting to note that in 1970, CBS dropped three highly rated shows, Figure 12.1 “The Red Skelton Show,” “Jackie “Alias” has Gleason Show,”and “Petticoat Junction,” developed a cult to rejuvenate CBS.1 This was a contro- following among college students versial move at the time, but one CBS despite mediocre profited from. It suggests that there are ratings. (Photo several ways to interpret ratings. CBS © ABC found that, in terms of its long-range Photography program planning, it had to replace Archives.) these highly rated shows to attract a broader audience. in May 2004, CBS canceled “The Rob Lowe’s series following “The Guardian” after three seasons. The show West Wing,”“The Lyon’s Den,” was also consistently received adequate, if not part of the 2003–2004 season. It came spectacular, household numbers, often in at No. 57 for the season, ahead of winning part or all of its timeslot. For renewed shows such as ABC’s “Alias” the 2003–2004 season, it clocked out at (No. 71, Figure 12.1), the WB’s “Ever- No. 42 of 161 series, ahead of renewed wood” (No. 125),“Charmed” (No. 126), shows such as Fox’s “24”and CBS’s “Joan or “Gilmore Girls” (No. 128). Again, the of Arcadia.” It aired at 9:00 P.M.Tues- cancellation of “The Lyon’s Den” has to do with ratings expectations in a timeslot (10:00 P.M. Tuesdays) too valuable for ratings leader NBC to allow to underperform. What a struggling network like ABC accepted as satisfactory ratings for a show like “Alias,” ratings leaders and fierce competitors Figure 12.2 NBC and CBS refused to accept, The Outdoor forcing the cancellations of “The Lyon’s Channel, being on Den” and “The Guardian.” Similarly, cable and able to tiny ratings for a cable niche network attract targeted such as the Outdoor Channel (Figure advertisers, can 12.2) will prove satisfactory, but equiva- thrive with ratings lent numbers will mean disaster for the that would be anemic to another major networks. network. (Photo courtesy Tom Exhaustion Kelsey,The Outdoor Unfortunately, all shows are mortal. Channel.) Eventually, they just run out of gas. No 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 275 more variations can be tried; no more aunts, uncles, cousins, and babies can be added to the cast without destroying the show’s integrity. As gifted as the writers and producers of “The Cosby Show” were, there were no more arrows left in their creative quiver. Similarly, after Ed got married on “Ed” in 2004, there was nowhere to take the show (Figure 12.3). “Sex and the City” had many fans, but the producers wisely chose to go out on top in 2004 rather than try to mine more gold from a formula beginning to tire. The reality show “Joe Millionaire” was the hit of the 2002–2003 season, but when programmers got greedy and tried to repackage the same program as “Joe Millionaire 2” during the 2003–2004 season, the concept was already exhausted. It had worn out its welcome. The traditional wisdom about reality is that it does not repeat well, and the its charm when internal friction and Figure 12.3 visible failure of “Joe Millionaire 2” bizarre scripts diminished the chemistry “Ed” finished its proved that even a successful format between the leads. Similarly, “Dawson’s run on NBC in cannot go on indefinitely. Programmers Creek” took too many detours, resulting 2004 after Ed got must bow to the inevitability of fatigue in convoluted story lines that dimin- married. The show and reluctantly say farewell to friends ished the show’s appeal. The last season had completed its primary story line who can no longer deliver. of “Roseanne” in 1997 also lost its focus with the wedding. when Dan and Roseanne won $108 (Globe Photos, A Lack of Focus million in the Illinois lottery, abandon- Inc.) ing the show’s working class roots. New programs, such as David E. Kelley’s When John Ritter died during “Girls’ Club” for the 2002–2003 season, the run of ABC’s “8 Simple Rules,” the can lack focus, thus diminishing their show lost its focus. Gone was the chances for success. Established pro- parental figure who defined the show’s grams can slowly (or quickly) lose their essence. Attempts to “save” the show by focus. Producers on established shows introducing James Garner and David get wrapped up in new projects and Spade into the cast in 2004 did not fill forget to maintain the old ones; stars Ritter’s shoes. For many viewers, the become “difficult,” convinced they are show has lost its focus even though hit- indispensable; writers go off course; and starved ABC needed to keep the show suddenly a successful series bores or on the air. insults its audience because it has lost its In some instances, a candid, air- way. “Moonlighting,” once a sophisti- clearing discussion among the principals cated comedy–adventure on ABC fea- can put a show that has drifted off turing witty, acerbic banter between course back on track. Often, too much Bruce Willis and Cybill Shepherd, lost has transpired and the program, sadly, is 276 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

the “The Bob Newhart Show.” As the audience members responded to these adult themes, their appetite for the marshmallow episodes of “The Brady Bunch” diminished, and the show was off the air by August 1974. Changing tastes and the social climate had ren- dered it obsolete. Interestingly, shows that portray a simpler time are finding receptive audiences on TV Land or Nick at Nite. Somehow, young people who were not alive in the 1950s and 1960s are drawn to the television fare of those periods, enabling television to provide a kind of history lesson about cultural values. The influx of programming about gays is one social change that revolutionized television starting around 2000. The number of shows that contain one or more gay characters has increased by leaps and bounds. Shows such as “Will & Grace,”“Queer As Folk,”“Queer Eye for the Straight Guy,” or “Boy Meets Boy” would not have been accepted by a public watching “The Brady Bunch.” Nor would that audience have accepted Figure 12.4 irretrievable. Cancellation then becomes Ellen DeGeneres’ declaration over an “The Brady the only viable solution. airport loudspeaker, “I’m gay.” Bunch” reflected As Robert Greenblatt, Showtime’s the times in which Social Changes president of entertainment, said, “In it was made. terms of how TV is developed, I think Although it still “The Brady Bunch” was a harmless network executives and advertisers are has fans, the show sitcom salute to traditional family values. much more open to gay characters than would not mesh 2 with the social Launched by ABC in 1969, it brought they have ever been before.” climate of today. together a widower with three sons and There may still be complaints by (Globe Photos, a widow with three daughters (Figure groups objecting to the proliferation of Inc.) 12.4). Their featherweight adventures gays on television, but it is clear that the were scheduled on Friday evening social climate has enabled writers and during the family hour, and the show producers to explore gay story lines in achieved reasonably strong ratings for a way that would not have been possi- three seasons. ble a few years back. However, by 1972 CBS was presenting such gritty hits as “All in the Aging Demographics Family,”“Maude,” and “M*A*S*H” and such sophisticated and well-turned series Programming executives are attuned to as “The Mary Tyler Moore Show” and aging demographics because they are 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 277 frequently taken as a sign that a show is Tuesday nights where it stagnated with “on the bubble”—that is, in trouble. its companion piece, “Greg the Bunny,” Aging demographics are often the first before putting the show on another sign that a show is at risk. The usual hiatus.3 Only the loyalty of fans and pattern with programs is that the longer stellar DVD sales allowed the show to they are on, the older their demograph- come back for the 2004–2005 season. ics become. Young viewers tend to be Few shows have been moved around as restless; they are the first to seek new much as “Family Guy,” and few shows and different programs, and the first to have been placed in as many poor leave them. Older viewers come later timeslots. but then become fiercely loyal and are During the 2003–2004 season, two often willing to stay tuned for years.The shows in particular were placed in the departure of the young audience makes wrong time periods: NBC’s “Miss the program unappealing to advertisers, Match” and Fox’s “Wonderfalls.” “Miss dictating a change. Sometimes the addi- Match” starred Alicia Silverstone as a tion of new, youth-oriented elements in lawyer with a knack for matchmaking, the program can slow the departure rate. and “Wonderfalls,” a quirky show about It is always worth a try if the alternative a girl who conversed with inanimate is cancellation. objects, starred Caroline Dhavernas. Both shows were scheduled Friday The Wrong Time Period nights when the intended young audience is traditionally not at home watch- Programs have to be scheduled sometime. ing television. A programmer cannot leave gaping holes in the schedule. This is true for Excessive Relocation both commercial television and cable. Test patterns do not attract viewers, “Hill Street Blues” is a classic case of a although some cynics might claim that good program maneuvered into near test patterns are more entertaining than extinction. In its first 4 months on the some of the shows that make it to air. air, NBC shunted it around three time Not all spots in the schedule are desir- periods, much to the mounting fury of able. Some, however, are less desirable Grant A. Tinker, then the president of than others. Lower expectations for a the producing company, MTM. Tinker show in a particularly difficult timeslot recalled: “I watched them bounce the can allow a show a little breathing room, show around from pillar to post. [The but a truly incompatible timeslot can NBC management] was crazed trying to quickly destroy a program’s chances. find an audience. They were in a manic There are many examples of a badly state even when they had something as scheduled show, but many would agree good as they had with ‘Hill Street.’ So that the way Fox mishandled Seth they put it on Thursday at 10:00, then MacFarlane’s “Family Guy” is a text- Saturday at 10:00, then Tuesday at 9:00. book example of what not to do. Not Then they said,‘Make me two and we’ll content with the strong ratings that the play it as 2 hours.’ It was just no way to show received when it followed “The run a railroad.” Fortunately, the program Simpsons,” in 1999 Fox scheduled survived the changes, finally settled in at the show against “Friends,” where it gar- 10:00 P.M. Thursdays, and for 5 years nered abysmal ratings. Fox then put the was one of television’s most popular show on hiatus, eventually scheduling it series. 278 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Not all shows can survive changes, Generally, the show in inventory was particularly when there are so many available when the schedule was set. It choices a viewer can select. For did not get on because it was judged example, NBC’s “Just Shoot Me,” once weaker than other available choices. In a strong ratings provider, was unable to effect, many replacements are rejects overcome time and night changes. It given a second chance. Programmers performed well for 5 years on Thursday would do well to remember this before nights but was then moved to Tuesdays pulling a lineup apart too quickly. where it plummeted, causing the show’s eventual cancellation in 2003. The Desire for Something New Relocating “Buffy the Vampire Slayer” from the WB to UPN in 2001 When new managers arrive, significant split “Buffy” and its companion piece on changes generally follow. They have the WB, “Angel,” hurting both shows. been brought in to make things happen, and standing pat will not get it done. A Lack of Awareness New officers also bring their pet projects, attitudes, and personnel with them; With so many choices available, it all of these usually find a place on the becomes a serious problem for pro- schedule, a strategy that does not always grammers to ensure viewers know a improve ratings. Often, the new owner- show is on the air. Competition is fierce; ship makes a dramatic across-the-board many shows come and go making little realignment of programming. A sure or no noise. Even the most ardent tele- way for newcomers to make their pres- vision fanatics often do not know what ence felt is to get rid of the develop- is available. Wanda Sykes complained ment of their predecessors. Cynics bitterly that nobody knew that her might add that it is easier to throw 2003–2004 show,“Wanda at Large” was out the projects accumulated by the on the Fox schedule before it was prior team than to review them. If inevitably canceled. Similarly, who knew change is called for, why not change that the WB had a show called “The everything? Help” or that UPN had “The Mullets” For example, when Disney took over on the air during the same season? channel 9 (KHJ) in Los Angeles in the late 1980s, it changed not only the call Bringing on the Understudy letters to KCAL but also the programming philosophy.The station abandoned When patience is in short order, the all entertainment shows in the evening show that was not placed on the sched- and presented nothing but news. This ule can start to look good, particularly if was an extreme form of a new broom the chosen program is starting to stutter. sweeping clean. Backup shows held in inventory are like Mindy Herman changed everything backup quarterbacks. Every football fan about E! when she first got the position knows that the most popular person in as head of the channel. Like most man- the stadium when things are going badly agers who take over a programming is the quarterback on the bench. He is function, she wanted to leave her mark always perceived to be the savior: fresh, by making E! edgier than it had been. exciting, gifted, and unflappable—until She stirred things up (before she was he gets in the game. Then, more often fired in 2004) with her hard-hitting than not, he proves why he is No. 2. celebrity exposes and by giving model 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 279

Anna Nicole Smith her own show. New Programs placed in inhospitable hires want to break with the past. They periods have little chance of success. want to try something new. It is how They may be against solidly entrenched the television entertainment business opponents and not have a fair opportu- operates. nity to be sampled.The time period may When major concept changes occur, not offer the best demographics for the the networks often adopt different show’s primary appeal. Or both. In these names—following the advice that it is instances, if the programmer still has better to start with a clean slate than faith in the show, a move should be have the remnants of the old failure tried. hanging overhead. Christian Broadcast Even a show as mighty as Network was originally religious pro- “M*A*S*H” could not succeed every- gramming. When it decided to change where it was placed. It premiered on to wholesome family-oriented material, Sundays at 8:00 P.M., a dismal spot for it became The Family Channel; now a dark comedy about the madness of that it is owned by Disney, it is ABC war, and was almost canceled after its Family. Likewise, when Daytime and first season. The following year, CBS Cable Health Network merged, they hammocked it Saturday nights at 8:30 changed the name to Lifetime.Viacom’s between the phenomenally strong “All HA! and Time Warner’s Comedy in the Family” and the equally powerful Channel merged to form Comedy “The Mary Tyler Moore Show.” It Central. New names suggest a new zoomed to fourth in the season’s ratings. direction, a new beginning, and hope- Once it had established its following, fully a new larger audience. CBS management confidently moved it to Tuesdays at 8:30 P.M. behind the Programming Options popular “Good Times,” where it continued to perform well. But 1 year later, When a show is not clicking or is stum- CBS inexplicably shuttled it to 8:30 bling, one of three changes may be nec- P.M. Fridays to blunt the ratings of the essary: placing the show in a new time then red-hot “Chico and the Man.” period, adjusting program elements, or The strategy backfired;“M*A*S*H” was canceling the show. shifted to 9:00 P.M.Tuesdays for 1 year and then spent 5 smash years at the same Placing a Show in a New Time Period. hour on Mondays. If a program is compatible with its time The movement of a show to take on period, programmers are well advised to a more important role in an overall leave the program where it is. Remem- schedule can be an effective strategy. If ber, once the program is moved, the the timing and judgment are correct, the recruitment of viewers must start over. relocation can attract a “bonus” audi- As we explained in the section on ence for the entire night. As you have excessive relocation, unnecessary jockey- just seen, “M*A*S*H” was nurtured in ing can be counterproductive. a hammock position, developed its own There are two valid reasons for relo- large and loyal audience, and then “grad- cation: the program is underviewed and uated” to a key time period to anchor may prosper in a new period, or the a night’s schedule. show has developed independent The key element in relocation is strength and is ready to occupy a more timing. It must be done early in the important timeslot. show’s life, as was done in 1994 when 280 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

restored to its original position, but it never recaptured its previous popularity. A costly maneuver indeed. On the other hand, “The Simpsons” challenge of the “The Cosby Show” in 1990 paid off because the timing was right. In its second season on the air, when Simpson mania was at its zenith, the animated show moved against the perennial ratings champ then beginning Figure 12.5 its seventh year. It not only held its own, Emmy Award- it knocked “Cosby” out of the Top 10. winning producer The following year, the season-long David E. Kelley rating for “The Simpsons” was less than vehemently objected 2 points behind “Cosby” and toward the to the relocation of end of the run was topping it on his show, “The occasion. Practice.” (Photo Sometimes a time change can cause © ABC signiﬁcant friction. For example, in Photography 2003, when ABC moved “The Practice” Archives.) from its established timeslot on Sunday to Monday, überproducer David E. Kelley (Figure 12.5) complained vocif- CBS moved “Chicago Hope” so that it erously about the change, which he would not be up against “ER.”The rela- interpreted as ABC’s attempt to kill tionship between an audience and a the show or to negotiate a lower license time period is fragile.When the habit is fee because of the lower ratings that the disconnected, it is difﬁcult to recon- show would be getting as a result of struct. Only when a show is in its ascen- the move. He was also widely quoted as dancy is it prudent to risk a change. saying that trying to understand ABC’s An example from television history thinking about scheduling was impossi- illustrates this point. In 1979, ABC took ble because there was nothing in the “Laverne and Shirley” out of the minds of ABC schedulers. Tuesday 8:30 P.M. timeslot, where for 3 There are risks as well as advantages years it had been a successful extension to placing a show in a new time period. of “Happy Days,” and moved it to If a changed timeslot does not seem the Thursdays at 8:00 P.M. The show’s best option, perhaps an adjustment in rating plummeted. At midseason, it was the program can solve the problem.

CHANGING CHANNEL NUMBERS ON CABLE

Cable systems frequently make Sometimes the system rebuilds to add changes in their channel lineup. Often, channels and is then able to add more however, the only thing that is changed services. But rather than lumping all is the channel number. MTV may be the new ones at the end, the system switched from channel 12 to channel may want to give some rhyme or 26. The reasons for this are many. reason to channel numbers. For 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 281

example, it may want to group all pay for, then that household’s channel music services (MTV, VH1, Country options will not include ESPN at a Music Television, etc.). If the only savings to the household. Because music service it had been carrying pre- most people do not watch all channels viously was MTV, grouping these ser- available to them, the à la carte option vices may involve moving MTV. has many advocates. Sometimes channel moves are made Rarely will a system replace one pay to bring a whole region into confor- service with another, such as eliminat- mance. Systems in a particular geo- ing Showtime and adding Cinemax. graphic area may decide that they Reeducating all of Showtime’s sub- should all place MTV on channel 26 so scribers so that they switch to Cinemax that MTV’s programming can be pro- is costly—and generally ineffective. moted regionally without confusing the The main result is loss of subscriber viewer. income for the system owner. Other times, cable systems remove One of the chronic criticisms of cable certain services and replace them with systems is their inability (or lack of other networks. Sometimes this is desire) to communicate channel done from altruism—the desire to add changes to their subscribers. To sub- a service that will serve the subscribers scribers, the alterations look wanton. needs more effectively. More often, One day they turn on the TV and the however, the decision is economic. channels are ﬂipped around—mass One network’s cost to the cable system frustration. Systems are often wary will be less than another’s cost. Or the of communicating exact details if system may feel it can make more from the change involves eliminating some a pay-per-view service than from a service. There are always people who basic network. To confront the cost will kick and fuss when something is issue, some favor an à la carte taken away. What cable systems often system. With à la carte programming, do is send subscribers an innocent- viewers only pay for the channels they looking channel card with their monthly watch. For example, if a household bill. This lists the new lineup without does not watch ESPN, one of the more indicating what has been eliminated. expensive channels system operators

Adjusting Program Elements. Many change of personnel. Performers can long-running shows, such as “ER” or become arrogant or sloppy in their work “NYPD Blue,” manage to stay fresh and and begin to alienate viewers. On rare engaging by introducing interesting occasions, backstage demands by one story lines and captivating characters. cast member may stir up such hostile They avoid exhaustion and readily adapt feelings among other principals that to changing social customs, adjusting cast changes ensue. For example, the program elements over time. Sometimes, Hollywood rumor mill maintains that however, elements need to be altered David Caruso was so difficult in the without the benefit of time. early years of “NYPD Blue” that both During the pilot process, for example, Amy Brenneman and Sherry Stringfield casting adjustments need to be made left the show. quickly for the show to have a chance. When a show opens well but quickly During the 2004–2005 pilot season, begins to lose audience, it is a sign that many roles were recast once shows were viewers liked the idea but found some- picked up. Once a show is officially on thing wanting. A change seems indi- the air, there is a risk that a casting cated. Too often producers are content change will disorient viewers. Some- to make cosmetic modifications: times, however, a program requires a redesign the set, create a new theme 282 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

song, or develop new graphics.These are PBS must have funding from the gov- not meaningful; even though they may ernment; Congress provides approxi- be improvements, they do not influence mately 15% of PBS’s annual budget, a viewer’s decision to watch. approximately $2 billion in 2004.4 The fundamental problem, whatever Mitchell’s programming adjustment it is, must be addressed. To discover it, silenced complaints about PBS’s liberal programmers are advised to commission bias and enabled it to continue to the most definitive research possible in receive needed financial support. the shortest span of time. Setting up a Cable is more tolerant than commer- series of focus groups in a variety of cial television. Quick cancellations are markets throughout the country is a more common on commercial televi- useful approach. sion than on cable. As cable matures and As soon as the problem is defined, builds more advertiser support, it may programmers should move immediately find it necessary to succumb to some of to make the adjustment. Speed is essen- the quick cancellation policies of the tial. The longer the show appears with networks. At present, cable services are its damaging flaw, the greater the unlikely to remove it once they have number of core viewers who will be produced it. alienated.The hardest job in television is to recapture viewers who have sampled Cancellations. Since the early to mid- a program and rejected it. They tried 1980s, the rate of program cancellations it, have not liked it, and have gone on has accelerated. Patience is hard to come to other things, as was the case in by, and in an environment increasingly 2003–2004 with Stephen King’s controlled by conglomerates, parent “Kingdom Hospital,” a show that began companies are reluctant to take a wait- with positive ratings and quickly went and-see approach to programming. The downhill. introduction of overnight or fast To remain viable and to continue to national ratings to virtually every major be funded, PBS has made interesting market and the expansion of the adjustments. In addition to program- number of cable channels have acceler- ming more American shows and ated the cancellation rate. These factors importing fewer from England, PBS, have intensified competition, thinned under the leadership of Pat Mitchell, has the audience size for most shows, and adjusted its programming philosophy to supplied buyers with immediate rating include programs that reflect a more information. In such a superheated envi- conservative point of view. ronment, buyers are disinclined to wait Rightly or wrongly, PBS has been to see whether a program can find an perceived to have a markedly liberal audience. In the area of network prime- agenda, with Bill Moyers as the key time programming, the rate of cancella- liberal spokesman. To correct the tion for new shows approaches 80%.The impression that PBS espoused liberalism syndication story is much the same. at the expense of other voices, Mitchell, Public broadcasting, on the other who became the head of PBS in 2000, hand, has been the most traditionally recruited significant conservative voices benign of all forms when it comes to to public television, such as Tucker cancellation. Programs such as “Master- Carlson, the co-host of CNN’s “Cross- piece Theatre,” “The MacNeil–Lehrer fire,” and Paul Gigot, the editorial-page NewsHour” (“The NewsHour with Jim editor of The Wall Street Journal. Lehrer” since the death of Robert 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 283

MacNeil), and “Sesame Street” (Figure Figure 12.6 12.6) have been on for decades, virtu- “Sesame Street” ally unchanged. The problems within which began in public television have not revolved 1969, has had around coping with change but rather great longevity on around initiating any, but this too may public television be changing. and is one of the reasons funding for public broadcasting Giving a Cancellation Notice survives.Whenever funding is The joy of the business is issuing threatened, the pickups. Everyone is happy, hands are prestige and love pumped, and optimism abounds. Buyers for the show is enjoy this function; it makes them invoked. “Sesame heroes and reasserts their power. Unfor- Street” draws guest tunately, there is a reverse side to the stars, such as ceremony, the dreaded cancellation Whoopi Goldberg. announcement. All shows come to an (Courtesy end—some after a few episodes, some Children’s Television after a decade. Whenever it happens, a Workshop.) member of the buying side must inform the people on the production side. experienced producer, for example, Although always an uncomfortable, maintains that executives who promise sometimes painful process, there are to get back to you with an answer in a certain procedures that, if properly few days simply will not initiate the call observed, can ease the discomfort and that delivers bad news. If a producer form the basis for renewed relationships. wants a clear answer, he or she will have The ﬁrst thing representatives on to keep calling to force a reluctant exec- both sides must remember is that the utive to speak up. Otherwise, 3 to 4 industry is small and time moves swiftly. weeks (or months) without a response is Buyers need sellers and sellers need assumed to be a “no.” buyers. It is imperative that both parties The guidelines for cancellation are separate in a manner that permits, even few but important: encourages, future associations.The cancellation conversation is no time for 1. The head person should do it vindictiveness, vituperation, or settling a. Too many program leaders try to old scores. The brief pleasure such an duck the assignment. It is awkward outburst might afford can have disastrous and difﬁcult, and they would rather consequences. Buyers who satisfy them- not. That is a mistake. Production selves by letting loose a diatribe against company executives admire the the producer may be cutting themselves head buyer who has the courage to off from future hits; sellers who unleash say the tough words, and it is a blast are simply reducing by one the somehow less painful to hear it potential buyers for their next project. from the summit. Even in a competitive town where b. When the cancellation notice is everyone claims to be making the delegated to a lower level staff “tough decisions,” executives do not member, as when NBC’s Jeff want to be the bearers of bad news. One Zucker had subordinates call Julia 284 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Louis-Dreyfus to inform her that b. With smaller production entities, her show, “Watching Ellie,” was the key person is often the agent canceled,5 the production people representing the project. The agent are left with a second-class feeling might have put the package that, when added to their already together, negotiated the deal, served depressed condition, can result in a as an intermediary in disputes, and deeply resentful attitude. generally been acknowledged as the c. Sending an email announcing a pivotal business element in the cancellation, reportedly done to enterprise. For these programs, it is staff members of Fox’s “Cedric the appropriate to notify the agent first. Entertainer Presents,”6 is simi- 4. Make additional calls larly not the way to handle the a. After the chief person on the pro- situation. duction side has been contacted 2. The producers must be the first to and has had a reasonable opportu- know nity to inform the talent and staff, a. This is not always easy in a visible it is wise and humane for the pro- business with a highly refined grammer to follow up with calls to rumor mill. However, the quality cast members and key staff person- buyer will always take every nel. The personal touch will be precaution against the premature appreciated, and the conversations leak of a cancellation decision. It (brief is best) give the programmer is grossly unfair for a producer to an opportunity to express gratitude read about his or her show’s demise and establish a warm basis for in a trade article or through future associations. some other unauthorized source. b. The cancellation dialogue is as Nothing will guarantee a quicker much about the next show as it is and longer-lasting rupture between about the defunct show. What is the buyer and the seller than a gone is gone. Both parties should clumsily handled cancellation that conduct themselves a manner that embarrasses the producer and the makes another program possible. staff. 3. Tell the right person RADIO a. This can vary from show to show. The prevailing rule is to notify the Changes and cancellations in radio can person with whom the original vary: slowly phasing a song out of play deal was made. For the major pro- rotation, pulling the plug on a host or duction companies, the appropriate disc jockey no longer perceived to party is usually the head of tele- connect with the desired demographic, vision production at the studio. or even erasing a station’s format and Chances are this was the person supplanting it with new hosts, songs, call with whom the agreement was first letters, and all other content. As with reached, and it is fitting that the commercial TV,the driving force behind circle be completed with the same change is nearly always ratings. principals. Sometimes, because of personal relationships or other Adjusting Program Elements unusual dynamics, the right contact is the executive producer or If a station does reasonably well overall producer. in the ratings but one daypart is low, 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 285 then it is time to look to the elements that make up that segment of time. Sometimes the problem is inherent in the clock—there may be too much news, advertising, or chatter. Those problems are easy to correct. But more often the problem lies with the on-air personality—the disc jockey, talk show host, or anchor newscaster. Focus groups and TVQ-type tests can Figure 12.7 confirm this possibility.A disc jockey on Ryan Seacrest’s a contemporary-oriented station may cache with youth simply grow older and no longer relate after hosting to the teenage audience. Such was the “American Idol” case when comedic staple deejay Rick primed him to take Dees was bumped off youth-oriented over coveted radio Top 40 station KIIS-FM in 2004, positions with replaced by the younger, up-and- KIIS-FM and coming deejay and “American Idol” American Top 40. host Ryan Seacrest. Weekly shows, such (Globe Photos, as “American Top 40,” have seen a pro- Inc.) cession of hosts. Casey Kasem began the show in 1970 to be followed, in 1988, Arbitron-rated radio personality during by a 10-year stint with host Shadoe the heyday of Los Angeles’s alternative Stevens. In 1998, Kasem returned to rock station, KROQ. With his radio host the show until he was supplanted duties, he took on various television in 2004 by Seacrest. Seacrest saw his hosting positions (much as Seacrest is demographic appeal change over time— doing in the new millennium). The although in an atypical direction, from 1990s saw a slow waning of Blade’s adult to youth markets. Before he started cache in the youth-oriented radio dodging potshots about his “metro- market, and in 2000 he moved to the sexual” preening from notorious Caribbean to teach scuba and write “American Idol” judge Simon Cowell, scripts, returning in 2002. Soon he Seacrest was host of an afternoon drive began to host VH1’s “Bands Reunited” radio show on the more adult-oriented show, taking advantage of his contacts Los Angeles station STAR 98.7 (Figure and memories of VH1’s older demo- 12.7). graphics and starting his deejay stint The career of another STAR 98.7 with STAR, playing “Flashback” songs disc jockey, Richard Blade, shows a from his 1980s heyday at KROQ.7 more common career trajectory in When a personality must be fired, the terms of demographic appeal. Born in executives should exercise the same care England, where he cut his teeth on the described regarding commercial TV BBC, in the early 1980s Blade saw a show cancellations—the news should Clint Eastwood movie and asked himself come from the top, and the person the question,“Do you feel lucky, punk?” involved should be the first to know. His answer was yes, and he packed his Every on-air person has some support- headphones and headed for California, ers, and a messy firing can lead to neg- where he quickly became the No. 1 ative press for the radio station. 286 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

network), NPR was kowtowing to demographics and ratings just as commercial radio does. Everyone at NPR, including Edwards, danced around the reasons for the change. NPR’s senior vice president for programming, Jay Kernis, said, in a cryptic response to a petition from SaveBobEdwards.com, “this is about our broad commitment to delivering the kind of high-quality in- depth coverage that makes our reporting remarkable,” noting, in a seeming contradiction, that “we know that [Edwards] will continue to make an extraordinary contribution in his new role.”8 Another element that leads to program adjustment is burnout. The popularity of current songs does not last. Programmers must know when to remove a hit from airplay so that listeners do not turn to another station simply because they are tired of hearing the song. Watching the charts in the trade journals can give some indication of burnout, as can the telephone research described in the evaluation chapter. Programmers can make rough predictions about when burnout will occur by Figure 12.8 NPR hoped to dull this kind of neg- considering the complexity of the When NPR ative reaction in listeners when, in 2004, music. Complicated music takes longer decided to remove it decided to replace the 3-decade to burn out than simpler music. Songs Bob Edwards from anchor of its “Morning Edition” news with irregular rhythm and more verses its flagship morning program, Bob Edwards. It announced last longer than songs with regular program, “Morning the decision some time before Edwards’s rhythm and repetitive choruses. Also, the Edition,” there was last day hosting the show. Despite the more often the song is played on the great outcry, including the early notice, the outcry from listeners radio, the faster it is likely to burnout. launch of a and even from some member stations Songs on their way to burnout should website, and other on-air talent was far from be played less often than songs at their Savebobedwards.com. muted. One listener started a website, peak. This occurred SaveBobEdwards.com (Figure 12.8), to despite the advance give other disgruntled listeners a place Network Changes notice the network to combine their efforts to contest the provided to try to decision and even discuss whether they Some radio networks produce programs dull any would stop contributing to NPR. Many subject to cancellation, but few are given controversy. listeners worried that, in dropping the ax. Once a program has gained an Edwards from the show (despite keeping audience, it often continues in perpetu- him on as a senior correspondent for the ity unless it is closely related or epony- 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 287 mous with its host and that host departs the extensive Gulf War coverage [in or dies. NPR, for example, did not need 1991]—even though the war was over.” to cancel its flagship “Morning Edition” Even worse for PRI was the cancella- program just because its originating tion of Garrison Keillor’s “Prairie Home host, Bob Edwards, was replaced. Simi- Companion.” Keillor left because he larly, “American Top 40” has survived wanted to explore new vistas unrelated the departure of Casey Kasem—twice. to radio. “The audience really com- When, in 2003, Rush Limbaugh left the plained,” said Jensen. “We tried airing airwaves temporarily to seek drug treat- reruns of his programs, but that didn’t ment, the show was able to survive on work very well. When Garrison finally a string of guest hosts, but had decided to return to public radio several Limbaugh’s absence been protracted, the years later, his following came back show would not have been able to con- almost instantly.” tinue, at least not under its Rush In 2004, Clear Channel yanked “The Limbaugh moniker. Howard Stern Show” off all the When a network alters its programs, network’s stations that had been airing the change is usually not traumatic. As it (only six—although one in the major Ed Salamon, president of programming market of San Diego) after a caller to for Unistar, said, “All our programming the program used a racially charged is produced in-house. When something word and was hung up on by Stern. is canceled, people can move from one Nonetheless, the show continued to air project to another within the company. on more than 40 stations owned by Our main problems are with the adver- Clear Channel competitor Infinity tisers. If an advertiser is on a show that Broadcasting. Stern argued that the same is not doing well and we need to cancel racially charged word had been used it, we have to decide what to do with countless times on his show in the past. the ads. Usually we can transfer them to What, he asked, made this instance any another program. Also, if a station was different? He asked his listeners to scour dependent on the program we are can- what other radio programs were airing celing, we try to help them find some- and alert his show to any “offensive” thing else.” content that others were getting away Canceling and changing are not with without the kind of sanctions he major issues for radio.When ratings (and had suffered both from the FCC and hence dollars) are low, alterations are from Clear Channel. His listeners found called for. But because some stations do no dearth of such instances, giving not even use ratings as part of their sales Stern justification for claiming that the pitch, a well-thought-out programming crackdown on his show was not philosophy can keep advertisers and motivated by the words or situations it audience happy for long periods. contained but by some other reason— political or religious agendas, he sur- Dealing with Unwanted Changes mised. “As soon as I came out against [President George W.] Bush,that’s when Dan Jensen of PRI noted, “We received my rights to free speech were taken a lot of complaints when we stopped away. It had nothing to do with 288 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

THE INTERNET Content on the Internet comes and goes as regularly as a high-ﬁber diet. Because web developers do not have to worry about ﬁnding room in a tempo- ral schedule for their material, decisions are not either/or, as they are on radio and television. If some content is deemed worthy of putting resources into developing, another project does not have to be sidelined to make room for it; however, more production money must be spent to develop two projects rather than one. Once developed, content can stay online as long as it is desired. For many reasons, however, the desired time may not be long.

Is It Worth the Trouble? Figure 12.9 As explained in previous chapters, one Although primarily apolitical or antipolitical in of the cardinal rules in web develop- the past, Howard Stern took to criticizing ment is to keep content fresh—if you President George W. Bush and even supported want audience members to have the his Democratic rival in the 2004 election, Senator John Kerry. Stern was soon removed incentive to return after their ﬁrst visit from Clear Channel’s lineup and saw his to the site. When in an early episode of troubles with the FCC mount, which he says NBC’s “Will & Grace” the character proves that the censorship against him was Jack mentioned he was starting a Just- politically motivated. (Globe Photos, Inc.) Jack.com website, NBC had the site running in time to rope in all the show’s diehard fans who would undoubtedly log on to see whether the site existed. It did, although it was composed of only of a few pages, rarely updated and soon indecency,” Stern said March 19, 20049 gone, replaced by a page that simply (Figure 12.9). redirected visitors to the main “Will & Obviously, this kind of sniping by a Grace” website. Obviously, executives at nationally syndicated personality, such as NBC did not ﬁnd a way for the Just- Stern, could turn off some listeners from Jack.com site to help the bottom line of Clear Channel stations as a matter of the show enough to justify the expense principle. But with Clear Channel’s of keeping it up to date. dominance of the radio market after On the other hand, public television’s deregulation, many argue that a listener “American Family” series started off with who wants to boycott Clear Channel as a companion website relating to one of a result of this issue would practically the characters, Cisco, and “Cisco’s Journal” have to throw his or her tuner in the on the web has continued to expand as trash. new episodes to the show are aired. 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 289

Granted, with a more continuous story potential employer will “google” them line than the episodic “Will & Grace,” and find some crass comment they made perhaps “American Family” is a better fit in response to a post on a bawdy blog for a web journal, but it is doubtful that somewhere in the Internet ether. Web- it would survive to the extent that it has masters of sites that invite public posts were the show on commercial television are often approached with requests that and subject to the financial exigencies of posts be expunged. the commercial market. If the resources or time are not avail- Facelifts and Add-ons able to keep a site up to date, there is little reason to embark on the project. But unless they are failing financially (in The only way that a blog, for example, which case they simply drop off of the attains a consistent and growing audi- map), most websites—like television ence is if there is constant activity on it. shows and, to a lesser extent, radio— If a web surfer visits a site once and likes simply go in for occasional facelifts.This what she or he finds there but on several keeps them fresh and lets them incor- successive visits finds nothing new, porate new technologies and ideas. A chances are that interest will drop, no television show running out of story matter how strong the initial attraction lines might have a crotchety, recently was. A blogger whose posts are infre- widowed in-law move in so that it can quent will soon find he or she might as continue and move into the lucrative well keep a journal unlocked on his or syndication market; a website might her coffee table—it will probably attract want to get more out of its audience by more viewers that way. adding content or new branches to the well-traveled trunk of its offerings. TMI: Too Much Information As this chapter and most of the others Some bloggers or persons that maintain have pointed out, the programming personal sites sometimes take down sites process involves many hard decisions in for reasons other than not having the the spheres of both interpersonal rela- time to keep them up to date or think- tionships and global concepts. Program- ing that what they put up might be mers are faced with many alternatives going into the great abyss of anonymity. and temptations as they attempt to meet With carefully honed search engines, the goals of their organizations and their some may worry about what others will own needs. How these decisions can be find out about them if, for example, handled is the subject of our final they are looking for a job. Maybe a chapter—programming ethics. 290 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

EXERCISES

1. Pick a current radio or television thing, could the station change, in its pro- program that in your opinion might be at gramming, to keep you tuned in? risk of cancellation. Suggest specific 4. You are the executive in charge of changes that might help keep the program giving a cancellation notice for a scheduled on the air. program. Prepare what you would say. How 2. Select a current program you would would you ensure you could work with the cancel. What specific reasons would you production team in the future? provide to back up your decision? 5. Identify some specific social changes 3. When listening to the radio, note that have influenced program adjustments when you change the station.What, if any- or cancellations.

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Les Brown. Television: The Business 7. “Richard Blade: The DJ that Helped Behind the Box (New York: Harcourt Brace Shape the New Wave Music Scene is Jovanovich, 1971), pp. 55–56. Back and Exclusively on STAR 98.7,” 2. Paula Hendrickson. “In His Own http://www.star987.com/richardblade.html. Words: Robert Greenblatt,” Emmy, Issue Accessed June 11, 2004. No. 3, 2004, pp. 72–74. 8. Jay Kernis. “NPR’s April Response,” 3. Jon Ganahl. “Family Guy,” an unpub- http://www.savebobedwards.com/npr_s_ lished paper, May 8, 2003, pp. 1–5. april_response.html. Accessed June 11, 4. Ken Auletta. “Big Bird Flies Right,” 2004. The New Yorker, June 7, 2004, p. 42. 9. Maureen Farrell. “The Clear Channel 5. Elizabeth Jensen. “The TV Stars, the Controversy, One Year On (Why Howard Ads and All That Jazz,” Los Angeles Times, Stern’s Woes Are Your Woes, Too),” May 12, 2003, p. E-12. http://www.buzzflash.com/farrell/04/03/ 6. Greg Braxton. “‘Cedric’ Gone but far04009.html. Accessed June 13, 2004. Not Quite,” Los Angeles Times, June 20, 2003, p. E-32. 13 Programming Ethics

In this chapter you will learn about the self-mockery. The famed radio come- following: dian, Fred Allen, once commented,“You can take all the sincerity in Hollywood, • Ethical dilemmas regularly faced stuff it into a gnat’s navel, and still have by television, radio, and Internet room for six caraway seeds and the heart programmers of an agent.” • The thin line that separates a legal As an industry, entertainment is prob- matter from an ethical one ably no worse than any other, which is • How the blending of news with not much of a compliment. However, entertainment has made ethical television, radio, and the Internet are the debates increasingly complicated most far-reaching and persuasive com- • Some “real life” case studies that munication tools ever developed; there- reflect the complexities associated fore, those involved in these media bear with programming ethics a greater ethical burden than most com- • Guidelines instituted to address pro- panies. Unfortunately, cynical realism gramming ethics often prevails: Get the deal first, sort out • Student interest in a required course the ethics later. Do not worry about the in ethics as preparation for future people who got screwed; they will be entertainment careers back. With mergers, megacompanies The way the story goes, the devil become the only game in town, and appeared to a network executive one those who want employment have few day and said, “I’m going to offer you a alternatives, no matter how they are deal. For the upcoming season, I will treated. arrange it so that you can have on your The hope is that the next generation schedule, and no one else’s, Ray Romano, of broadcasters will aim higher and do the reunited cast of ‘Friends,’ ‘The better. Toward that end, this chapter Simpsons,’ and all of the shows created includes some guidelines for ethical by Jerry Bruckheimer. In exchange, you behavior. We encourage you to keep must turn over your soul to me for all these in mind when analyzing the case eternity.” The executive thought for a histories that are the focal point of this, moment and said, “What’s the catch?” the final chapter of the text. Many a joke has been leveled at the industry’s cynical ethical behavior, partly THE MEANING OF ETHICS because it is true, partly because it is a highly visible business, and partly Ethics is a code of moral principles. It is because its participants have a gift for the value system relating to human

291 292 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

conduct by which actions are deemed As explained in a previous chapter, right or wrong. To be sure, there is a performers touted pharmaceuticals sizable gray area in the evaluation of without disclosing that they were paid most ethical behavior, but broadcasters spokesmen for the makers of the drugs. should strive to recognize ethical right Illegal? No. Ethical? A story line on and wrong, even under difﬁcult circum- ABC’s “According to Jim” has the stances. It is often said that the key to characters from the show doing a com- being successful in programming is the mercial for the Disney Cruise Line; ability to think quickly on your feet. ABC is a part of Disney. Illegal? No. This includes being able to quickly Ethical? decide what is the ethical thing to do Video news releases from companies and what is not. and even the government are frequently Students have found that ethics and offered to beleaguered news programs values are increasingly important in the strapped for money. Some of these workplace but that most disciplines do “news segments” have phony news not do enough to prepare them for the anchors, but they are not illegal. Are real world.1 In this chapter, we approach they ethical? For example, the use of programming ethics from several video news releases came under scrutiny perspectives to enable you to make in 2004 when they were used by the informed, ethical decisions. Bush administration to introduce a newly passed Medicare plan (and, Ethics and Illegality doubters suggest, to gain political points for the Republican-controlled White It is important to make a distinction House and Congress). Produced by the between what is legal and what is Department of Health and Human ethical. The two are not synonymous. Services using tax dollars, these releases Payola is against the law: A record appeared to be stories reported by legit- company cannot bribe a disc jockey by imate news anchors, but the on-camera giving him or her money to play a song. anchors (actors, not newscasters) read However, a record company can scripts prepared by the government.The “present” a song as an advertisement and videos have drawn criticism from some pay the station for airing the ad—and news media ethicists, who consider song. In 2004, when this newest pay- them at odds with journalism’s mission for-play strategy came to light, it was to verify independently the claims of not illegal, but is it ethical? corporations and governments.2

“RED CHANNELS”: A TEST THAT TELEVISION FLUNKED

With the disintegration of the Soviet At the conclusion of World War II, Union well behind us, it is difficult for hysteria gripped the United States. Americans today to realize how fright- Nazism had been defeated, but a new ened people were in the 1950s of the and potentially more destructive oppo- perceived imminent spread of commu- nent had surfaced—communism. nism. This national fear provided the When the Soviets exploded an atomic television industry with an early test of device in 1948, thereby ending its integrity, and it failed. America’s exclusive hold on nuclear 13 Programming Ethics 293 armament, the country was terrified Commission on Americanism devel- over the prospect of an Armageddon- oped “Firing Line,” a publication that like showdown with the “Red Menace.” identified dupes and red-fronters, and Fueling these fears was Senator a supermarket operator in Syracuse, Joseph McCarthy, who claimed to have NY, Laurence A. Johnson, founded the knowledge of communists, “pinkos,” Syracuse Crusade. Whenever a man- red sympathizers, and dupes in the ufacturer advertised on a program that United States Cabinet, Army, State employed a “listed” person, Johnson Department, and all levels of national threatened to hang a sign on the and state government. Citizens des- shelves where the offender’s products perately attempted to establish their were displayed stating that the own patriotic purity and expose the company supported subversives. traitorous intent of others. These “patriotic” efforts were dis- This paranoid environment had a mayingly effective. The networks and devastating effect on the entertainment the agencies instructed producers that industry. Because radio, television, and no performer, writer, or director was to motion pictures were capable of reach- be hired without undergoing a clearing millions with their messages, the ance procedure. If the person’s name superpatriots resolved to prevent any appeared in “Red Channels” or any of possibility of sinister influence by the other lists, he or she would be denying employment to anyone even rejected. However, the existence of a remotely tainted with communist sym- blacklist was never to be acknowl- pathies. Thus was born the pernicious edged. Producers were told to use policy of “blacklisting.” such phrases as “you’re not right for In 1947, some former FBI employ- the part” or “we’ve found someone a ees formed a newsletter titled “Coun- little more qualified.” This led some tal- terattack,” a publication designed to ented people to despair, financial ruin, battle communist infiltration in the and even suicide. United States. Shortly thereafter, they In some instances, the malevolence published the first edition of “Red of the practice reached ludicrous Channels,” a booklet containing the levels. On one occasion, Mark names of those in the entertain- Goodson, television’s foremost pro- ment media considered politically ducer of game shows, was stunned to unacceptable. learn that a panelist on one of his A person could be listed for a variety shows had been declared unaccept- of reasons: membership in an organi- able by the sponsoring advertising zation deemed subversive, a relation- agency and was to be dropped imme- ship with someone with communistic diately. She was an English actress links, attendance at a leftist function, named Anna Lee, and she had no signing a telegram congratulating the known political affiliations and a seem- Moscow Art Theater on its 50th ingly innocent history. Goodson dug anniversary, etc. Much was based on into the matter and discovered that she hearsay and unsupported evidence, had been confused with another Anna but once a name made the list, it was Lee who wrote occasional articles for virtually impossible to have it removed. the Daily Worker, a leftist newspaper. The booklet was distributed to net- When he confronted the agency with works, stations, advertisers, and their this information, the executives said, agencies. The implications were clear: “Yes, we know that, but she still has to any broadcaster or sponsor who hired go. We’re already receiving letters.” someone on the list was knowingly Goodson exploded and stormed out of aiding the cause of communism in the the meeting. He was later told that as United States. soon as the door closed someone Other organizations supplemented asked, “Is he a pinko?” Lee stayed on. “Red Channels” in the search for So did the show. And so did blacklist- offenders. The American Legion’s ing, at least until the late 1950s.

continued 294 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

Ironically, one of the main contribut- nel of having red sympathies. He and ing forces to the end of the practice his aids bullied witnesses to such an was television. The famed TV journal- extent that the public became outraged ist Edward R. Murrow (Figure 13.1) and the Senate voted to censure presented a program that exposed McCarthy. McCarthy and his methods. This Will censorship and character program is generally cited as the assassination of this magnitude ever beginning of the senator’s declining again plague the television industry? inﬂuence. In 1954, network TV covered Vigilance, ethics, and courage by the congressional hearings in which next generation of programmers will McCarthy accused U.S. Army person- help prevent a reoccurrence.

The surge in reality programs has rural families every time they were resulted in a series of complex legal and baffled by the sophistication of glam- ethical questions. What does getting a orous Beverly Hills? (One CBS execu- release from a reality show contestant tive made the mistake of talking about mean? Can an 18-page release form the hilarity that would ensue when the entitle a programmer to do whatever hillbillies went about interviewing the show’s creative team demands? If a maids.3) Might ethics have been slighted contestant has signed a full release, is at the expense of rural America, even if nothing private? For example, can the the releases covered all the legal bases? camera follow you everywhere, includ- CBS dropped the search for the right ing the bathroom? Is nothing off limits families (some called it “a hick hunt”), Figure 13.1 when competition for “eyeballs” gets seeking to save face by claiming it Newsman Edward fiercer every year? A programmer may simply could not find the right partici- R. Murrow did a be covered legally if the phalanx of pants for the show, which, by that show that exposed lawyers has done its job, but will he or time, had become a public relations Senator Joseph McCarthy’s tactics she be covered ethically? nightmare. during the era of Had the Kentucky-based Center for blacklisting in the Rural Strategies not pressured CBS to Ethics in Programming Decisions late 1940s and abandon its reality show, “The Real and Business Practices 1950s. (Globe Beverly Hillbillies,” could the show have Photos, Inc.) made fun of the transplanted Southern For those in the media, ethical conduct involves two constituencies: the audience and the people in the industry.The audience develops a feel for the character of a broadcaster by the messages put on the screen. Overly hyped and misleading promos, excessive violence in newscasts and entertainment programs, disregard for important but perhaps low- rated local events, wanton commercial- ism, shabby productions, and sweeps specials drenched in sensationalism are clues to the viewer about the broadcaster’s ethical standards. Within the industry, producers, executives, and others build or harm their 13 Programming Ethics 295

Figure 13.2 Producer Steve White, shown here on the set of one of his Halloween Disney Channel movies, has found that writing up the key points discussed at meetings helps avoid confusion and misunderstandings. (Photo courtesy Steve White.) reputations if they do not treat suppli- of agreements is either impossible or ers, advertisers, and fellow employees impractical. It is essential that both honorably. If the word gets out that parties honor their commitments even if whatever a particular executive says there are no other witnesses and no means nothing, that executive is going documents. Trust has to be the founda- to have a hard time getting people to tion of the contract. If one of the parties deal with him or her. Nobody wants to is lying, or later denies commitments, all do repeat business with someone whose future contact between the parties will word is meaningless. be contaminated. Experienced producer and executive Ethics and Lying Steve White has a simple solution to the confusion that often follows a meeting In broadcasting, lying is probably the involving a lot of people covering a lot most common form of unethical behav- of ground. After a meeting, he writes ior. The euphemist might prefer to call down what was said and sends his notes it “fudging the truth,” but no matter to the executive at the network for con- how you perfume it, it is an intentional ﬁrmation that he got the details right untruthful declaration to another (Figure 13.2). For him, this solves many person. German philosopher Immanuel problems of interpretation. Kant held that any lie, no matter how Some ﬁne distinctions about ethics virtuous the intent, is unacceptable and lying need to be made about the because “it vitiates the source of law.”4 buying and selling process.A certain tol- Broadcasting is fast paced. Much of erance is allowed for the hyperbole and the dealmaking is done over the phone enthusiasm of a seller. When a salesper- or at meetings in which the recording son says, “This is the hottest show since 296 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

‘Friends,’” the buyer knows that this is More disturbing still is the “flaming,” puffery; it is not to be taken literally. or insult throwing, that happens in Puffery is one thing, but an outright online discussion groups, forums, or just lie is something else. For a producer email.With the anonymity of the Inter- eager to make a sale to say that “Adam net, and the numerous communication Sandler and Julia Roberts are scheduled cues lacking in much of the text-based to guest star in a series’ first week,” interaction online, it is easy to be mis- when both have flatly refused to appear, understood or to jump to conclusions is a breach. Many executives avoid and respond without thinking first. telling lies not simply for ethical reasons Many an aggressive or demeaning word but also because it becomes too hard to is typed online, even if the person doing remember what lie was told to what the typing would not dare respond so person. It is too easy to trip up. offensively anywhere other than in The buyer–seller exchange is akin to cyberspace. When people allow them- the evasive moves of the ball carrier in selves to act so out of their normal char- a football game, the head fakes by the acter, is that, in some ways, a lie? Many basketball star, or the luring traps of people, doubtless, go online simply to the chessmaster. They are all designed cause trouble, which can be disturbing to mislead, and are “lies” in a sense, but to those who want earnest business within an environment where such interactions or social contact. For some, actions are accepted. The behavior this flaming has become an art—coming up chapter addresses relates to words and with the perfect quip to squash unsus- actions presented as truth and intended pecting web surfers. Often one quip to be accepted as truth. Anyone who leads to an equally acerbic response and exploits that belief to misdirect and a flame war might start, throwing what- deceive is guilty of unethical conduct. ever civilized discussion might have Then there is the Internet. Relative been occurring off of its tracks. anonymity makes it a fertile breeding For these reasons and more, many ground for lies and awkward or rude people have suggested Netiquette, some behavior among individuals who may common principals of which are as not otherwise mix and may never meet follows: in person. Etiquette on the Internet (or Netiquette) has special ethical concerns. • Act in your Internet interaction as Step into any public chat room on AOL you would in your real life. or Yahoo and,despite the strident terms- • Remember that you are (usually) of-use guidelines that forbid it and dealing with another human being, promise banishment, the room will not just a disembodied string of doubtless, at some point, be flooded words. with expletives, hateful or rude com- • Respect other people’s time. If you ments, or just a stream of unfathomable are in a playful or not-serious mood, nonsequitors. Perhaps you will initiate a are looking to blow off steam, or chat with someone who will intrigue simply want to waste time online, try you with weird responses to your first to make this clear to anyone with few questions then send you a web link whom you may be engaging and to a site, and you will realize you have make sure that person is on the same been trying to talk with an impersonal page. program, or “bot,” designed to increase • Respect other people’s privacy. It is traffic to the site. easy to go blabbing about other 13 Programming Ethics 297

people online, in discussion groups, in and its members have pledged to follow mass emails, or on a blog. If you are them: not sure that someone would appre- 1. Strive to present the source or nature ciate having personal facts advertised, of broadcast news material in a way change the name or details to make that is balanced, accurate, and fair. the person unrecognizable or just a. Evaluate information solely on its share details about yourself. merits as news, rejecting sensation- • Do not add fuel to the fire of a flame alism or misleading emphasis in any war. When others are engaged in an form. annoying string of insults, although it b. Guard against using audio or video may be tempting to tell them how material in a way that deceives the infantile, moronic, and tiresome they audience. are being, doing so will likely only c. Do not mislead the public by pre- invite a string of new insults toward senting as spontaneous news any you. It is better to leave or simply material that is staged or rehearsed. ignore what is happening and hope d. Identify people by race, creed, cooler heads will eventually prevail. nationality, or prior status only • Contribute your expertise. Everyone when it is relevant. is good at something or has some e. Clearly label opinion and useful knowledge or experience to commentary. share with others. If you know a way f. Promptly acknowledge and correct to easily remove melted wax from errors. plush carpeting, by all means post it 2. Strive to conduct yourself in a on the Internet. You will save manner that protects from conflicts of someone’s day. interest, real or perceived. Decline gifts or favors that would influence or ETHICAL GUIDELINES appear to influence judgments. 3. Have respect for the dignity, privacy, Most of the great philosophers—Hume, and well-being of people with whom Mill, Kant, Augustine—have written you deal. extensively on the subject of ethics. 4. Recognize the need to protect confi- Their works are available in libraries, dential sources. Promise confidential- and we encourage you to consult them. ity only with the intention of keeping It is not this book’s intent to endorse that promise. any particular ethical system. It is simply 5. Respect everyone’s right to a fair our hope that a heightened awareness of trial. ethical considerations will help you 6. Broadcast the private transmissions make sound judgments and improve the of other broadcasters only with moral environment of the industry. permission. Several ethical codes have been drawn 7. Actively encourage observance of this up by professional media organizations code by all journalists, whether to help guide people in the industry. members of the Radio–Television These codes often contain vague lan- News Directors Association or not.5 guage and none of them are enforceable, but they serve as guidelines to ethical The National Association of Broad- behavior. For example the Radio– casters also provides guidelines: Television News Directors Association The challenge to the broadcaster often is to has drawn up the following standards, determine how suitably to present the com- 298 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

CONSIDERING ETHICS Probably the most effective guidelines are those people of conscience develop for themselves. One veteran executive has a simple rule of behavior: “I picture myself describing a situation to my family at the dinner table. If I can tell them what I plan to do and I am comfortable while I say it, I go ahead and do it. If I get itchy,I go back and rethink it.” When it comes to programming targeted at children, there are concerns other than whether an idea makes you “itchy” to consider. Programs designed Figure 13.3 plexities of human behavior without com- primarily for children should take into ABC’s “Good promising or reducing the range of subject Morning America” matter, artistic expression, or dramatic pre- account the range of interests and needs was once classified sentation desired by the broadcaster and its of children—from educational material as an entertainment audience. For television and for radio, this to a variety of entertainment material. program, but it is requires exceptional awareness of considera- Children’s programs should attempt to now classified as tions peculiar to each medium and of the contribute to the sound, balanced devel- news. (Photo composition and preferences of particular opment of children and to help them © ABC communities and audiences. achieve a sense of the world at large. Photography Archives.) Each broadcaster should exercise responsible and careful judgment in the CASE HISTORIES: ACTUAL selection of material for broadcast. At INCIDENTS the same time, each broadcast licensee must be vigilant in exercising and The following sections describe several defending its rights to program accord- incidents that involve some key ethical ing to its own judgments and to the decisions. In this text, the primary programming choices of its audiences. emphasis has been on entertainment This often may include the presentation programming. In this chapter, however, of sensitive or controversial material. we also focus on news. This is because In selecting program subjects and the distinction between entertainment themes of particular sensitivity, great and news has been blurred, and this care should be paid to treatment and blurring has raised several ethical ques- presentation, so as to avoid presentations tions. When respected newsperson purely for the purpose of sensationalism Diane Sawyer hosts a reality special or to appeal to prurient interest or about wild or wacky weddings; when morbid curiosity. the morning networks’ shows “Good In scheduling programs of particular Morning America” (Figure 13.3), sensitivity, broadcasters should take “Today,” and “The Early Show” are clas- account of the composition and the lis- sified as news and not entertainment; tening or viewing habits of their specific when, for political candidate equal-time audiences. Scheduling generally should provisions, the FCC classifies “The consider audience expectations and Howard Stern Show” as news; and when composition in various time periods.6 the celebrity interviews Barbara Walters 13 Programming Ethics 299 conducts after the Oscars are also con- $39,850. But does that constitute an sidered news, it is time to reevaluate the ethical difference? I’m not sure I’m pre- preexisting separation of entertainment pared to make that call.”7 and news and to examine the frequent In 2003–2004, CBS News was overlaps. involved in several negotiations that We encourage you to think about seriously threatened CBS’s preeminence how you would act if confronted with in television news reporting. Sought situations similar to those described after interviews, known as “gets,” here, remembering that the individuals resulted in package offers that seemingly involved in the following actions have to undermined journalistic ethics. For justify, or at least accept, their decisions. example, CBS laid a compensatory Can you live with yourself if money or carrot of temptation in front of Aron survival is the sole justification, with no Ralston, who severed his arm to free regard for ethical behavior? As you himself from a boulder, and Private review these case histories, assume that Jessica Lynch, after her rescue from an you have just left the boss’s office where Iraqi prison, offering them multiple you have been told in direct language opportunities within the Viacom that ratings must improve or heads will family—CBS News, CBS Entertain- roll. ment, MTV, MTV2, Simon & Schuster publishing, Country Music Television— Checkbook Journalism all ready to service the get. As Jim Rutenberg observed in The During 1991, when the William New York Times, “CBS’s dangling of Kennedy Smith rape trial was big news, movie, television, and book deals in the syndicated show “A Current Affair” front of potential interview subjects has paid $40,000 to one of the key witnesses troubled some media critics who worry to appear on the show and discuss the that in an age of media conglomerates, case. This payment was questioned by where news operations coexist with media watchers, but a spokesperson for their entertainment counterparts, jour- “A Current Affair” said, “Sometimes we nalistic independence can suffer in the compensate for stories of interest to the race for synergy.”8 public and in so doing, we are no dif- CBS’s complicated package deal with ferent from any other network or syn- singer Michael Jackson, which resulted dicated show of this type.” in Jackson’s appearance on “60 Av Westin, executive producer of a Minutes,” further tarnished the reputa- similar program,“Inside Edition,” agreed tion of CBS News. As part of the that fees are often paid to people, some- package, Jackson was originally sched- times for exclusive rights to their story uled to do an entertainment special, but and sometimes as reimbursement for when his legal troubles surfaced, the travel expenses or lost workdays. “We entertainment special was canceled. would have no problem offering [an Instead, Jackson was left only with a “60 interviewee] money,” he said. David Minutes” appearance. Still, $1 million Bartlett, president of the Radio–Televi- was paid to Jackson, bringing into ques- sion News Directors Association, said tion the stated policy that CBS News compensation has become a sticky issue. does not pay for interviews. CBS “Is there a substantive difference defended itself by saying that the enter- between paying $150 for a limo drive or tainment division paid for Jackson’s “60 $40,000 for an interview? Yes, about Minutes” appearance, but the ethical 300 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

question remains: a paid interview is a her?” the caller responded quietly,“Yeah, paid interview, no matter who or what I know I did.” division pays for it. Over the next few days the station Reflecting the growing concern was inundated with calls and faxes from about the trend of checkbook journal- people trying to help solve the crime. ism, the Edinburgh International Televi- The network TV series “Unsolved Mys- sion Festival scheduled forums to teries” twice broadcast a tape of the examine the practice and to discuss the conversation and was deluged with effect of televised trials on the justice responses. Burbank police coordinated system. their efforts with police agencies around the country to investigate the hundreds Make the Deal, but Don’t Close It of leads generated. The most persistent callers were a mother and father in The CEO at a small production North Carolina desperate to unravel the company wanted to be perceived as a mystery surrounding the death of their real player. He instructed his develop- daughter. In April 1991, the deejays ment staff to go out into the commu- admitted it was a hoax undertaken to nity and to generate deals. He sought increase the ratings. action from his crew, and at the weekly Under the rules then in effect, the staff meetings demanded to know what FCC had limited options for punishing projects had been sold. Meanwhile, as hoaxers. It could either admonish a the company’s financial difficulties station or revoke its license. Revocation increased, the CEO secretly instructed could be enforced only if there was his head of business affairs not to close proof of management participation or any of the deals that the development perjury. In the KROQ case, the execu- executives presented to him. Thus the tives of Infinity Broadcasting, owner of CEO could see himself as a player the station, said the deejays did it on without putting up any money. their own and nobody else knew about it. Their testimony held up under the An On-Air Murder Confession FCC’s scrutiny, and the station’s only penalty was a 4-page letter of admon- In June 1990, two deejays at the KROQ ishment for “deliberate distortion of radio station in Burbank, California, programming.” The commission also staged an event that triggered a nation- stated that the letter would be entered wide police search for a nonexistent in the station’s file and could be taken killer. On their morning show, the two into account when its license comes up personalities, Gene Baxter and Kevin for renewal. Ryder, developed a comedy element The deejays were suspended for a titled “Confess Your Crime” in which week without pay and were forced to listeners were encouraged to call in and reimburse the police investigative costs, reveal their transgressions on the air. To approximately $12,000. Within a year, punch up the feature, they conspired the FCC crafted and adopted a rule that with an Arizona radio performer, Doug allowed it to fine stations up to Roberts, to fabricate a homicide. On $250,000 if they broadcast “false infor- June 13, Roberts phoned the show and mation concerning either a crime or a “confessed” that he had badly beaten his catastrophe if it is foreseeable that girlfriend. When one of the deejays broadcast of such information will cause asked, “Is there a chance that you killed substantial public harm, and broadcast of 13 Programming Ethics 301 the information does in fact directly cause such harm.”9

Sex in Public Places When radio shock jocks Opie and Anthony (Greg Hughes and Anthony Cumia, Figure 13.4) instigated their sex in public places competition, which resulted in a couple having sex in St. Patrick’s Cathedral in New York, they got more than a week’s suspension; they were fired by Infinity-owned station Figure 13.4 WNEW-FM in 2002. Some felt that the Radio personalities laxity the FCC had demonstrated over Opie and Anthony the years was party responsible for Opie created a stunt that and Anthony’s infraction, but most felt encouraged callers that the sex in public places stunt was to engage in sex in simply going too far. public places. (Globe Photos, Sharing the Wealth Inc.) An executive at a production company and a producer sold a project to a noting what the call was about or that network. When the production it was an important call. The secretary company went bankrupt, the executive said that she did her job; she wrote the wanted to remain with the project as an call down and gave the call sheet to her executive producer, sharing the pro- boss. She added that the executive was ducer’s fee. The executive said he had purposely “rolling her calls” to avoid this earned this because the project origi- particular call so that the project would nated with the executive and the pro- end up with another producer, someone ducer. The producer disagreed, saying she preferred. What was the result? The that because the production company secretary was chastised for not writing was no longer going to be involved as a more detailed messages on the call sheet deficit financier, the executive had no and she was moved to another desk. claim on the project. Anonymous Complaints at E! Who Is to Blame? In 2004, Mindy Herman was fired from An executive at a network was seriously her job as president and CEO at E! reprimanded by her boss for letting a based on complaints sent in anonymous hot project get away. The executive letters. The complaints included abusive defended herself by saying her assistant behavior, using company funds to host had not told her that the call from the baby showers for herself, employees’ producer controlling the project was an fears that if they did not produce suit- important call that should be returned able (meaning expensive) baby gifts they immediately.The secretary simply wrote would be fired, and commandeering down the name of the producer who gifts sent to others in the company. had called on the call sheet without Herman is credited with making E! 302 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

more vibrant and edgy, but the anony- being investigated for fraud, called a mous complaints were enough to get news conference. After making a brief her fired. Are Herman’s faults more statement, he pulled out a gun and shot egregious than those of other top exec- himself—while TV cameras taped him. utives? What is interesting here is the Because the footage was available, sta- credibility granted the anonymous com- tions and networks had to decide plaints. Given the state of the business, whether to air it. with the threat of lawsuits ever present, CNN, ABC, NBC, and CBS chose can an employer elect to disregard not to show the suicide, but they broad- anonymous complaints? cast Dwyer talking at the press confer- According to an employment attorney ence before he shot himself. Several at a major entertainment company, there Pennsylvania TV stations showed the is more emphasis on complaints today entire event—suicide and all.10 than there was 10 to 15 years ago, partly because the laws have changed and Images of the Iraqi War partly because some companies have their own detailed policies. Every Should graphic images of war be shown anonymous complaint will be read, but on television? Should body parts be not all will be investigated. Whether visible on television sets anytime day or someone investigates becomes a judg- night? Should the funerals of soldiers ment call based on what the law killed in Iraq be shown? What about the requires, what company policies require, bodies of dead “enemy combatants” or and whether sufficient specific informa- civilian, so-called collateral, casualties? In tion has been provided for the investiga- 2004, controversy erupted over showing tion. In terms of evaluating a complaint, the on-air decapitation of American the attorney is more wary of complaints captive Nicholas Berg by Iraqi insur- that surface after an employee has been gents.The decapitation was widely avail- disciplined by the department supervi- able on the Internet even if the network sor. He or she also pays a great deal of news organizations did not show it. attention to the number of complaints Several teachers who showed their stu- filed against an individual or department dents the decapitation were reprimanded and evaluates the seriousness of an because parents and school administra- anonymous complaint. There are exist- tors objected to its graphic nature. ing laws in place that focus on retalia- It is interesting to note the role that tion against employees; however, an the Internet has played in making pre- anonymous complaint by, for example, viously guarded or classified materials an intern or show extra will be consid- readily available to large numbers of ered thoroughly because these categories people. Because of the Internet, it is of employees would necessarily be more harder to close the book on secret or likely to submit an anonymous com- sensitive topics. Websites based in other plaint for fear of not being employed countries—not under the jurisdiction of regularly. Thus, the anonymous com- U.S. law, reflecting ethical standards or plaint is clearly no longer dismissed. viewpoints different from those prevalent in the United States, or both—can A Suicide on TV easily broadcast whatever text, images, audio, or video they want over the In January 1987, Pennsylvania State Internet. Anyone in the United States Treasurer R. Budd Dwyer, who was who can find it can view it—often 13 Programming Ethics 303 without the benefit of context provided right to know. Others disagreed. Ashe by reporters. Many hold that this is no was no longer an active athlete and different from the Cold War-era U.S. therefore not a legitimate news figure, policy of broadcasting “Radio Free he was not an officer of a publicly Europe” around the world to provide traded company whose health might those in countries oppressed by totali- affect stockholders’ investments, and he tarian governments news and informa- did not hold public office where his tion they could not get in their own illness might prevent him from repre- countries. With media conglomeration senting his constituency effectively.Why, in the United States, some say the full many asked, did the public have to story has become unavailable within the know about his personal situation? U.S. broadcasting system. Several U.S. Where, they further inquired, should individuals now broadcast radio pro- print and electronic reporters draw the grams over the Internet and shortwave line when their pursuit of a story con- radio that they have dubbed “Radio flicts with an individual’s right to Free America,” providing information privacy?11 not covered by traditional media. The First Amendment vs. the The Right to Privacy Sixth Amendment Arthur Ashe was one of the finest tennis The First Amendment deals with players ever produced in America. For a freedom of expression, and the Sixth decade, he generally ranked within the Amendment deals with the right to a Top 10 and in 1975 won the men’s fair trial. In many instances, the two singles championship at Wimbledon. In collide, resulting in difficult ethical deci- 1984, Ashe underwent surgery for a sions for all concerned. heart condition that involved some In 1987, NBC aired a highly rated blood transfusions. The blood was con- miniseries, “The Billionaire Boys Club,” taminated and he contracted human about a group of prep school friends immunodeficiency virus. Although his whose get-rich-quick plans involved condition required constant monitoring, murder. It was based on a publicized, all those connected with his medical ongoing case, providing tabloid-like rev- treatment respected his request to keep elations about the rich and rich the condition from becoming public wannabes and their sordid lives. Two of knowledge. Ashe and his wife were the defendants in the case, Joe Hunt and raising a young daughter, and they felt Jim Pittman, were portrayed in the film her childhood would be far happier committing crimes for which they had if her father’s condition remained not been convicted. Their lawyers filed unpublicized. an injunction against the airing of the In 1992, a reporter at the newspaper miniseries, which was denied. NBC’s USA Today learned of Ashe’s infection on-air promos teased viewers, branding and asked him for a confirmation. the film as “the movie Joe Hunt tried Fearing the imminent publication of the to keep you from seeing.”This promo- information, Ashe called a news confer- tion was quickly attacked as being in ence and emotionally announced that poor taste and was subsequently pulled he was HIV positive. off the air. But the questions remain The newspaper vigorously defended about a dramatized portrayal of a true its actions on the basis of the public’s story before the trials have been 304 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

strong ratings. If ratings are most important, should First and Sixth Amendment concerns go by the wayside?

Entertainment Programming Figure 13.5 Ethics Brian Lowry of Daily Variety and Brian Lowry (Figure 13.5), a keen Broadcasting & observer of the entertainment industry Cable frequently writing for both Daily Variety and Broad- writes about ethical casting & Cable, notes that in Hollywood dilemmas peculiar it is assumed everyone is for sale. In a to the town where nepotism is rampant and entertainment power is the currency of choice, Lowry industry. (Photo finds that entertainment journalists are courtesy Brian often seen as wanting to “hop the Lowry/Daily fence,” leaving lowly paid journalism Variety.) jobs for the glamour and high-voltage pay of production. A producer who concluded. What is better: protecting wants positive press from a journalist a fair trial or protecting the right of might say, “You’re such a good writer, freedom of expression? I’m sure you’ve got some ideas that Can a fair trial be possible if there has would make terrific stories.” been a television portrayal of the events For Lowry, it is ethically unacceptable that have not been resolved in a court for a journalist to transition from a pos- of law? Is an individual who has been sibly adversarial relationship, asking convicted of similar crimes in the past tough questions of an interviewee, to a “libel proof” even if he or she has not collaborative one developing projects been convicted of the crimes shown in together. If a journalist financially a TV dramatization? depends on someone, such as a pro- “The Billionaire Boys Club” is not ducer, the journalist has crossed an the only telefilm to air before the con- ethical line. For example, if a journalist clusion of the legal process. For is encouraged to give a script to a pro- example, in 2004, USA aired another ducer or if the journalist requests that highly rated film about Scott Peterson, the producer being interviewed read his accused of killing his pregnant wife. It, or her script, ethical behavior has been too, was a highly publicized case, cap- compromised. turing many tabloid headlines. The film Everyone craves good press; in a town was called “The Perfect Husband,” and where perception matters more than it starred former television Superman, reality, everyone wants to spin the best Dean Cain. Except for the last shot of version of events. It is thus tempting for the film, a close up of an orange-suited an interviewee to dangle a creative Peterson in jail, the film was objective, carrot in front of a journalist who has avoiding taking sides about Peterson’s the power to write a positive or nega- guilt or innocence, but it remains that tive piece. the film aired before a resolution. For Lowry, an entertainment journal- Both “The Billionaire Boys Club” ist constantly has to be on guard regard- and “The Perfect Husband” achieved ing ethics. Are you allowing personal 13 Programming Ethics 305 feelings about an actor, producer, or network gig ends? Lowry finds that it is director to color your opinions? Can maybe too tempting for executives to corporate ownership sway your coverage keep their futures in mind when they of a division within the corporation that are dealing with producers. Are ethics pays your salary? ignored when programming executives As an aside, Lowry draws an interest- looking to feather their nests make ing ethical line between product place- choices that can pave the way for future ment and product integration. He sees job offers? Lowry calls it “the rule of no inherent ethical conflict with two.” In other words, if high-level exec- product placement in a show where a utives do favors for the right people, can of Coke or some other marketable they not only can count on getting a item is used as a prop. He feels that new position after their current one product placement is recognized by the expires but also can be confident of a viewing public for what it is, namely, job after that.That gives them assurances product placement that viewers accept of employment for many years, so it is as “being sold.” However, he finds that tempting for programming executives to the growing trend of product integra- think twice about projects they are tion, where a story line is constructed advocating or passing on and production around a particular product, is mislead- company heads they are helping or ing to a viewer. For him, product inte- “hosing down.” gration results in program-length commercials that violate essential A SERIES OF ETHICAL boundaries between advertisement and DILEMMAS programming content. Lowry also questions the ethics Instead of exercises at the end of this behind the kind of controlled interview chapter, we included additional ethical pioneered by the powerful PMK public situations for you to contemplate. What relations firm. The controlled interview would you do and why? How would works like this: For an interview to be you explain your action to others and, granted with a top star such as Tom possibly more importantly, to yourself? Cruise, certain questions are off limits. If Keep the realities of the business fully in the journalist does not agree to the stip- mind when you answer. ulations dictated for the interview to be granted, the interview simply does not 1. Should you go through the trash of take place. Is this all right? Is this ethical? a competitor to get documents or The more handlers guard access to their information you can use to bolster clients and the more journalists agree to your position? the handlers’ demands, the more biased 2. Should you, as a radio station pro- reporting becomes the norm. grammer, pay people to call a com- Lowry notes that programming posi- peting station and request unpopular tions at the networks do not last forever. songs in hopes that the listeners will Three- or four-year tours of duty seem switch to your station for a better to be the average. Thus, executives have selection of music? to plan their next jobs while they are in 3. Should you release the name of a the present positions. If an executive rape victim on the Internet or on a does favors for a particular production radio or television program? company, does that increase his or her 4. Should you pitch a story you do not chances of being hired when the have the rights to see whether there 306 PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET

is any interest in the story before was happy with the ratings because, you go to the expense of acquiring for example, the competition was an option? fierce, even if the network said 5. Should you reenact news footage otherwise? because the footage you had of the 13. To make a true story more accept- event was of poor broadcast quality? able to an audience, should you alter 6. Should you show graphic depictions facts that do not coincide with the of crimes that can be duplicated story you would like to tell? (copycat crimes) by people in the 14. The on-air spots for your program viewing audience (think of “The are misleading. Do you keep quiet, Sopranos,” for example)? assuming the experts know how to 7. Should you pay students to moon- promote a show, or do you suggest light at research companies and ways in which the spots could be report on competitor’s projects? made more accurate? 8. Should you, as a programmer, allow 15. You do not agree with the politics that swimming pool you have always of the news anchor your boss has just wanted to be built in your backyard hired and you think your audience for free because it will serve as a set will turn away.What should you do? for one scene in a miniseries you 16. Your boss has requested on your first have just commissioned? week on the job that you do some- 9. If you get a tip that a candidate thing you cannot agree to in good running for office is going to spend conscience. What you are asked to the weekend at a motel with a do is not illegal, but it feels unethi- starlet, should you send a camera- cal to you. What should you do? person to hide in a nearby tree to capture “appropriate photographic material?” Ethical considerations in the electronic 10. If you have agreed verbally to hire media too frequently receive short one actor as the lead in a miniseries, shrift.The urgency to complete the deal should you withdraw your verbal and make the profit tends to overwhelm agreement because a better, more the moral considerations.When this atti- marketable actor becomes available tude pervades the entire industry, the hours before you are scheduled to reliability of all within it suffers. Every sign the written contract for the first handshake leaves a doubt, every com- actor? mitment becomes suspect. Only if 11. Should you hire the editor of a mag- broadcasters make “right” decisions a azine that covers the entertainment priority, only if they create a climate of industry as a consultant on one of honor, can the industry become a work- your projects to make sure that the place of trust. Admittedly, the ground magazine gives your project favor- rules are vague and many of the calls are able coverage? borderline. Sometimes the only guide- 12. Your telefilm has tanked in the line is that pesky inner voice that does ratings. Should you tell the produc- not want to go away. Listen to it. How tion community that the network else are you going to make it better? 13 Programming Ethics 307

REFERENCES/NOTES

1. Lynnley Browning.“Ethics Lacking in 7. David Bartlett. “Checkbook Journal- Business School Curriculum,” The New York ism Bounces Back,” Broadcasting, December Times, May 20, 2003, p. C-3. 9, 1991, p. 5. 2. Robert Pear. “U.S. Videos, for TV 8. Jim Rutenberg. “To Interview News, Come Under Scrutiny,” The New Former P.O.W., CBS Offers Stardom,” The York Times, March 15, 2004, pp. A-1, A-16. NewYork Times, June 6, 2003, pp. A-1, A-12. 3. Meg James. “Beverly Hillbillies? CBS 9. Claudia Puig.“Will KROQ Get Away Has Struck Crude, Appalachia Says,” Los With Murder?” Los Angeles Times, April 22, Angeles Times, February 11, 2003, p. A-1. 1991, p. F-1; “FCC Panel Clears Inﬁnity, 4. Sissela Bok. Lying: Moral Choice in KROQ Management in Hoax,” Daily Public and Private Life (New York: Vintage Variety, November 26, 1991, p. 3; and “FCC Books, 1979), p. 40. Adopts $25,000 Fine for Hoaxes,” Broad- 5. Code of Broadcast News Ethics casting, May 18, 1992, p. 5. (Washington, DC: Radio–Television News 10. David E. Tucker. “Teaching Broad- Directors Association, n.d.). cast Ethics,” Feedback, Spring 1989, p. 18. 6. Board of Directors, National Associa- 11. Victor F. Zonana. “Ashe Case Raises tion of Broadcasters. “Statement of Princi- Fame vs. Privacy Debate,” Los Angeles Times, ples,” http://www.nab.org/newsroom/ April 10, 1992, p. A-26. Issues/NAB%20Statement%20of%20Prin ciples.html. Accessed June 26, 2003.

Glossary

Advertising agency: A company that places particular station for at least 5 minutes its clients’ commercial messages on radio, during a 15-minute period. television, the Internet, or in print media. Bandwidth: The capacity for data transfer of Affiliated station: A radio or TV station a communications system; more complex aligned with a network. files, such as graphics, audio, and video, À la carte system: Cable subscribers pay for consume more bandwidth than text does. the channels they want rather than for a Banner: An advertisement on a web page package of channels, some of which they that, when clicked, will bring the user to may not be interested in. the product’s web page. Ambush: Getting talk show guests to con- Barter: The sales practice in which a station front one another on air.An ambush often forfeits a certain amount of commercial occurs when one guest reveals a secret time to a supplier in exchange for the about another, setting up an ambush. right to broadcast a program. Ascertainment: A process that required sta- Basic cable: Programming services that cable tions, as part of their license renewal systems offer subscribers for a monthly process, to interview community leaders fee, as opposed to premium cable, to learn what they believed were the which requires additional payment. Basic main problems in the community. cable programming usually contains adver- Audience flow: Schedulers strive to group tisements; premium cable usually does compatible shows so that the audience not. will stay tuned from one show to the Bible: A detailed report that describes a next. program’s essential elements, such as the Audience measurement: Methods that endeavor premise, story line, main characters, loca- to determine the number and kind of tions, and future story growth. viewers watching a program, listening to Blogger: An Internet user who writes per- a station, or viewing a website. sonal and opinion journals or diary Audimeter: Nielsen’s metering device that entries displayed on websites. was attached to TV sets to measure Blowback: When a publicity campaign back- minute-by-minute viewing of sample fires, creating the opposite effect of what households. was intended. Auditorium testing: A research technique in Blunting: A competitive strategy that which numerous people are brought into attempts to minimize the effectiveness one place to record their reactions to TV of the early episodes of an opponent’s or radio programming material. programs. Automated measurement of lineups (AMOL): Bouncing the needle: A trick used by pro- Nielsen’s method of picking up special ducers to have their shows test well by codes from programs so that it can deter- including things in shows that test audi- mine which programs are on which ences will like. Producers usually try to channels in each market. bounce the needle at the beginning with Average quarter hour (AQH): An audience a dramatic or sexy sequence so that test measurement calculation based on the audiences will be likely to view the rest average number of people listening to a of the program in a positive light.

309 310 GLOSSARY

Branding: Giving a channel, network, or entered the business of live shows, or Internet site a clear identity. concert promotion, there has been some Brick-and-mortar store: A traditional, phys- fear that airplay will be driven by a desire ical retail store, as opposed to an Internet to gain concert sales rather than to play store. Some stores have both Internet and music of interest to the public. brick-and-mortar stores. Cookie: A small file that websites create Bridging: A programming strategy in which and store on a web user’s computer. The the start time of a competitor’s show is file can contain personal information such arched by an ongoing program. as a user identification code, customized Broadcast standards and practices: A depart- preferences, or records of pages visited. ment at a network that rules on the The file can be read by the web server acceptability of program content. on subsequent visits, allowing the web- Burnout: When songs played on a radio site to customize itself to the individual station start to lose their appeal to the user. station’s listeners. Coproduction: An agreement between two Cable-based study: A testing process in which or more companies to combine the the program to be examined is transmitted underwriting, development, and produc- on a cable channel to a preselected universe tion responsibilities of a program. of homes. Copyright: The individual or company that Callout: A telephone survey conducted by controls the copyright has sole ownership a radio station, most commonly used to of a given property. find out which musical selections should Cosponsorship: Two or more organizations be taken off a radio station and which that share the costs of producing a should be added. Sometimes it is used for program. other elements, such as determining the Counterprogramming: The strategy of popularity of a new disc jockey. scheduling a program that appeals to an Call screeners: In talk radio, station person- audience not being reached by rival nel who interview callers to a program shows. before letting them on the air. Cross-ownership: Newspapers, cable chan- Churn: The rate of turnover in cable sub- nels, television stations, or a combination scribers as a result of disconnects and new of these owned by the same company. customers. Crossprogramming: The tactic of having Classics: Music from 10 to 20 years ago. performers in one series make guest Clock: A radio station’s program schedule appearances on another program. in which each hour is divided into care- Cume: Cumulative audience, or the total fully timed units. nonduplicated audience for one program Commons: An idealized use of the Inter- or commercial message or for a series of net in which each opinion, idea, and ex- programs or messages. pression is given common weight and Dayparting: The practice of dividing the attention. broadcast day into segments according to Compression: A technology that allows the size and composition of the available more audio, video, or both types of audience. information to be carried through the Deficit financing: The difference between airwaves, over the Internet, or on a cable the license fee and the cost of production. TV system. This amount is covered by a production Concept: The main idea of a program. company that hopes to recoup the deficit Concept testing: Testing that evaluates the amount through foreign sales, syndication, main idea of a show. etc. Concert promotion: Revenue in the music Demographics: The classification of audi- industry comes from record sales, airplay, ences based on social and economic and live shows—or concert promotion.As conditions such as sex, age, income, companies that own radio stations have education, ethnic origin, and occupation. GLOSSARY 311

Deregulation: Any action by Congress or lower than the return rate by the other the FCC to reduce or remove restrictions group. governing any portion of the industry Fairness doctrine: A series of FCC rulings over which it has regulatory authority. and court cases that required a broadcaster Designated market area (DMA): A term used to afford a reasonable opportunity for a by Nielsen to define a geographic area in discussion of conflicting views on issues which the local stations receive the largest of public importance. The fairness doc- audience share. trine is no longer in effect. Development: The process by which a Family hour: No longer in effect, this was program is nurtured from initial concept a voluntary effort by broadcasters to to pilot; in public broadcasting, the present programs from 7:00 to 9:00 P.M. process of trying to obtain funding for a that would be suitable for all members of program or series. the family. Development ratio: The number of pro- Financial interest and domestic syndication grams put into development in relation to (fin-syn): An FCC ruling that prohibited the number of programs made. Producers the three major networks from owning or are fond of low development ratios controlling the rebroadcast rights of the because it means that if a project gets into shows they presented on their airwaves. development, it stands a good chance of This rule is no longer in effect. getting made. First-run show: A program that makes its Diary: A questionnaire on which respon- initial appearance in domestic syndication. dents are asked to record their listening or Focus group: A collection of sample listen- viewing activities for a specified period. ers or viewers, usually no more than 10 Drive time: Considered peak hours by many to 12, who offer their opinions about radio stations, this is the time that listeners programs or performers under the guid- are driving to or from work. ance of a moderator. Dropping in: Several shows or well-known Format: The dominant type of program- movies contain scenes viewers are eager ming an electronic media operator (par- to see every time the material is aired, ticularly a radio station) selects, such as even if viewers do not watch the entire all news, country music, or children’s show. This is called “dropping in” for a programming. particular sequence. Format-dominant program: A show struc- Easy view: A euphemism for a repeat tured around a specific concept or episode. premise. Email marketing: A campaign of product Franchise: An agreement between state, or service solicitations delivered through local, or both types of government and a email. cable television service that awards the Encore: A euphemism for a repeat episode. right to install a coaxial or fiber-optic Equal time: A provision in Section 315 of cable in a community to deliver cable TV the 1934 Communications Act that states programming. that if a broadcast licensee permits use of Golden age of radio: During the 1930s and its facilities by a political candidate, it 1940s, radio produced programs that lis- must offer an equal opportunity to all teners embraced for their originality and other legally qualified candidates for the daring. same office. Golden age of television: During the 1950s, Ethnic weighing: The policy of some audi- television aired high-quality programs ence measurement organizations of count- that enriched the medium. Many pro- ing diaries returned by members of grams during this golden age aired certain ethnic groups more heavily than live. diaries returned by members of other Hammocking: A scheduling strategy that ethnic groups because the percentage of places a new program between two estab- diaries returned by one group is much lished shows. 312 GLOSSARY

High-concept show: A project whose prem- Limited series: A program that has a set ise is accessible and quickly grasped. number of episodes, usually between four Hold: A period during which a project is and eight. contractually committed and cannot be Link: See Hyperlink. shopped elsewhere. Link sharing: A process in which web Households using television (HUT): The developers put hyperlinks to other web- percentage of homes in a survey area with sites on their own sites in exchange for a one or more sets in use during a specific reciprocal link. This drives more visitors period. to sites and improves placement or Hyperlink: A clickable electronic object ranking on search engines. link providing direct access from one dis- Log line: A one- or two-sentence descrip- tinct URL or place in a document to tion of a project that captures the essence another. or theme of a project. Hypertext: A clickable electronic text link Longform: Television programs more than providing direct access from one distinct an hour in duration. URL or place in a document to another. Lottery: The involvement of chance, prize, Hypoing: Using as many stunts and public- and consideration (money) for a game or ity tricks as possible to boost ratings. contest—barred from broadcasting by Indecency: An offense against recognized Section 1304 of the United States Crim- standards of propriety and good taste in a inal Code. particular community. Magazine concept: A sales policy in which Independent station: A station that has no advertisers buy commercials within a network affiliations. Stations allied with show purely on the basis of its audience Fox are still called independents because size and with no involvement in its that was their status before the new content. network originated. Metro: An area, usually an individual city Indie: Another name for an independent and its environs, used to determine radio station; also a small production company station ratings. that supplies programs to networks. Minipilot: A film or tape that presents a Infomercial: A commercial message in the few key scenes of a sample show rather form of a full program, usually 30 minutes than a completed episode. but sometimes longer. Miniseries: Television movies more than 2 Invasion of privacy: An illegal or insensi- hours long, usually airing over two or tive intrusion into the life of another more nights. person. Minitheater test: The testing of a program Kinescope recording: A record of a televi- before an audience in a small auditorium sion show made by filming it off a tele- of 35 to 40 seats. vision monitor. Monte Carlo audience ascription: The practice Libel: A statement about a person, broadcast of some audience measurement companies or printed, that is unfavorable and false. of filling in missing diary data by making License: Formal permission from the FCC educated assumptions about what would for a broadcaster to operate a station. have been filled in had the diary keeper License fee: The amount of money a completed the diary correctly. network or distributor pays to a produc- Movie package syndication: Several movies tion company to make a program, or the grouped and sold as a unit into syndication. amount of money a station or cable oper- Multiparter: A story line that carries over ator pays to a distributor for the right to several episodes to capture the viewer’s broadcast a syndicated program. attention. Lifestyle research: Research that focuses on Multiple system owner (MSO): A company how people live to determine whether a that owns more than one cable system. particular show will appeal to people’s Music callout: Research, usually by phone, lifestyles. conducted to determine which songs GLOSSARY 313

should be taken off a station and which production whom the agent or agency should be added. represents. Music mix: A strategy for combining dif- Pay-per-view system: A user fee system in ferent types of musical selections to appeal which subscribers pay per program rather to the broadest audience possible within than with a monthly subscription. a format. Payola: The practice by radio management Music within format: Songs that adhere to or personalities of taking cash or other a defined genre. payments in exchange for playing speci- Must-carry rule: An FCC ruling that fied records. compels cable operators to present the Peer-to-peer network: A set of protocols programming of the television stations that allow two computers to directly broadcasting in the system’s local area. communicate with each other through a Narrowcasting: Directing programs toward network, allowing file swapping. specific demographic audiences or limited Penetration: The proportion of television interest groups. or cable households to total households in Nielsen Television Index (NTI): A Nielsen an area. service that provides audience estimates People meter: A mechanical device devel- for all sponsored network television pro- oped by Nielsen that contains a button grams in the United States. for each individual in a household to Obscenity: Action or language that depicts engage when watching television. sexual acts in an offensive manner, appeals Perceptual callout: A phone call made to a to prurient interests of the average radio listener to ask questions about ele- person, and lacks serious artistic, literary, ments of radio other than music, such as political, or scientific value. the likeability of a talk show hostess or Off net: Programs that first appeared on a the recognizability of a station logo. network and are then available for Persons using television (PUT): The per- rebroadcast on other outlets. centage of all people or of people within Oldies: A format that features music from a given demographic category in the 30 or 40 years ago. survey area viewing television during a On-demand media: Media delivered when, specific period. how, and where the consumer wants it, Pilot: A sample episode of a projected typically audio or video streamed over the series. Internet. Pitch: A presentation by program creators Overnights: Nielsen household ratings and to prospective buyers, the goal of which shares provided to clients the morning is to obtain a commitment for further following the telecast. development. Owned and operated station: A station Playlist: The musical selections played by a owned and managed by a network or by radio station. one of the large station groups, such as Plugola: Paying cash or bestowing some Group W or Tribune Company. other favor on producers, performers, disc P1 listener: The name radio stations use to jockeys, or others connected with a describe core audience members, a person program in exchange for a visual or verbal for whom the station is preference promotion of a product or service. number 1. Pod deal: A contractual arrangement be- P2 listener: The name radio stations use to tween a studio and a full-fledged pro- describe secondary audience members, a duction company—not with individual person who listens to the station occa- writers, producers, or directors, as in an sionally but not as a first preference. umbrella deal. Package commission: A fee exacted by an Preemption: The substitution of a special agent or agency based on the cost of an production for a normally scheduled entire production as opposed to a com- program. Local sports coverage often pre- mission on just the person in the empts scheduled programming. 314 GLOSSARY

Premium cable: Cable channels that offer Recurrent: Music that is no longer current specialty fare without advertisements. Pre- but is not yet considered old. mium channels charge payment beyond Repurposing: When a program is broadcast the charge for basic cable. on a different outlet shortly after its orig- Prior censorship: When an official agency, inal airing—for example, a show that airs such as a court or the FCC, punishes a one night on NBC is repurposed on station or tells it not to air something Bravo a few nights later. before it actually airs it; such a practice is Rerun: The airing of a program beyond its outlawed by the Communications Act of initial play. This differs from repurposing 1934. in that the program is aired on the same Product integration: A product becomes a outlet. major part of a story line, as opposed to Safe harbor: The hours between 10:00 P.M. being simply featured in a show, as with and 6:00 A.M. when indecency is allowed product placement. (when it is assumed children might not Product placement: Many programs gain be members of the audience). additional revenue by featuring products Sampling: The selection of one or more in programs. With product placement, an elements (individuals or households) from advertiser avoids being zapped during a universe to represent the universe. commercials. Satellite: A space vehicle that receives radio Promise vs. performance: A procedure where- and television signals and then transmits by a station promised what it would do them back to earth. during a license period and then was Scarcity theory: The belief that broadcasters judged on the fulfillment of its promises should be rather heavily regulated because when its license came up for renewal. It is there are not enough station frequencies no longer in effect. available for everyone to have one and Public access: Programming planned and that the people who own them should, produced by members of the public for therefore, act in the public interest. local cable TV channels. Search engine: On the Internet, a program Puffery: Extreme boasting about the virtues that searches for keywords in files and of a given project. documents found on the World Wide Qualitative research: Research that goes Web. Some search engines are used for a beyond ratings statistics to gather infor- single Internet site, such as a dedicated mation about the factors that influence search engine for a website. Others search audience viewing patterns. many sites, using automated programs, Quiz show scandals: When the public dis- such as spiders, to gather lists of avail- covered that the popular quiz shows of the able files and documents and store these late 1950s and early 1960s were rigged, lists in databases that users can search by audiences felt betrayed by the medium. keyword. Quota: A limitation on the amount of Share: The percentage of the households or TV programming produced in a foreign people using a radio or television tuned country that can be shown on a national to a specific program or station in a spec- TV system. ified area at a specified time. Rating: The estimate of the size of a tele- Showrunner: The individual responsible for vision, radio, or Internet audience relative the day-to-day operation of a show. to the total group sampled, expressed as a Simulcasting: A process of broadcasting the percentage; for example, the rating of a same material in two mediums, most national television show is the percentage commonly broadcasting the signal from a of 108.4 million households tuned to the terrestrial radio station over the Internet. program. SLAPS test: For a work to be defined as Reach: The area in which a radio station’s obscene, it must lack Serious, Literary, transmission can be received. Artistic, Political, or Scientific value. GLOSSARY 315

Spider: A software program that “crawls” already being broadcast in a market, the the web, searching and indexing web cable system must black out the show and pages to create a database that can be substitute other programming. easily searched by a search engine. Syndication: A program delivery system Spin: Information presented in such a way through which shows are provided that a negative is turned into a positive. directly to stations or cable networks Spin-off: A new series developed out of an by the production company or its existing one, usually by lifting secondary distributor. characters and making them leads. Synergy: When different departments or Spot: A commercial message placed within divisions join forces and pool resources or between programs in such a way that for a common goal. the company is not directly associated Telephone research: Obtaining information with the program. in question-and-answer sessions over the Stacking: A scheduling strategy in which telephone. several programs of similar appeal and Tentpoling: Placing a well-established show demographics are placed consecutively for at a pivotal time to provide strength to all, or the bulk, of a daypart. the programs around it. Star-dominant program: A show created Theming: Grouping programs of similar around the personality of a particular content or tone into a schedule. performer. Tier deal: A syndication buying practice Station compensation: The money paid by among TV stations in which prices and a network to its afﬁliated stations for car- other sales arrangements are established rying its programs. for a range of times. Sticky: Web content designed to keep a Toll station: The early radio technique of web surfer on a website. charging a fee to anyone who wished Streaming media: A technique for transfer- to use a station’s facilities to present a ring data so that it can be downloaded message. and experienced simultaneously. The Top 40: A radio format that plays a rotation alternative would wait for the data to be of the most popular songs of the day. completely downloaded before viewing Topless radio: The presentations of salacious or hearing it. Also refers to live transmis- material by radio personalities or by lis- sions over the Internet. teners who called in to talk shows. Stripping: The strategy of scheduling a Total service area (TSA): Arbitron’s division series in the same period throughout the for radio station ratings of large geo- week. graphic areas that may not receive all sta- Stunting: The use of imaginative schedul- tions clearly. ing or programming devices to produce Treatment: A synopsis of a program’s story immediate ratings increases. line that may also include other pertinent Supersizing: A bridging strategy that adds data such as descriptions of principal extra minutes to a program to encourage characters and key locations. viewers to not switch channels. TVQ: A research technique that attempts Superstation: A station whose signal is avail- to determine the intrinsic popularity and able through a satellite to cable systems recognizability of performers and pro- around the country. grams as opposed to their ratings. Sweeps: A period, usually 4 weeks, during Umbrella deal: A contractual arrangement which all local TV markets are simultane- between a creative person (producer, ously measured and reported by a rating director, or writer) and a production service. company in which the company supplies Syndicated exclusivity: An FCC ruling stat- money and services to the creator in ing that if a cable system imports a exchange for the exclusive right to his or program on a distant channel that is her output. 316 GLOSSARY

Underwriter: A company that pays for program, the assumption being that if the production or distribution of public people are aware of a show that show has broadcasting programming. a better chance at success. Uniform resource locator (URL): A speciﬁc Voice tracking: A method of recording radio address for a page on the World Wide program content that can be compiled Web. and broadcast in several markets or at a Unique selling proposition: Something about different time, creating the impression that a project that distinguishes it from all the broadcast originated locally, is live, or others. both. Unit of good: A public broadcasting term Web ring: Related websites that are inter- used to designate the inherent, uplifting linked so that you can visit each site one worth of a program. after the other, eventually returning to the User interface: A set of commands or menus ﬁrst website. through which a user communicates with Window: The period between when a or navigates through a computer program movie is shown in the theater and when or website. it is made available to various television Vertical integration: When a company con- media forms. trols the production and the distribution Zipper: A short musical interlude in public of a product. radio programming that allows stations to Viewer awareness: A way to gauge how cut away and program something else. familiar audiences are with a particular Index

A “American Idol,” 138, 147 Aaron Spelling Productions, 14, 133 “American Music Awards,” 42 ABC. See American Broadcasting American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), 2–3 Abdul, Paula, 138 “Angels in America,” 143 ACT. See Action for Children’s “Another World,” 137 Television Arbitron, 1, 3, 11, 12, 51, 251–252, Action for Children’s Television, 260–267, 285 165–166, 171 Arnaz, Dezi, 234 Actualities, 59 Arts and Entertainment (A&E), 20, 76, Advertiser, 4–9, 11–12, 16–17, 21–22, 127, 231 43–45, 61, 90, 93, 114–116, Ascertainment, 195–196 123–126, 146–147, 150, 161–166, ASI. See Audience Studies Institute 168, 171, 178–180, 184, 187, 189, “As the World Turns,” 137 193, 203, 209–210, 223, 226, 237 AT&T. See American Telephone and Advertising agencies, 3–6, 13 Telegraph A&E. See Arts and Entertainment Audience Studies Institute (ASI), Affiliated stations, 41, 172 100–101, 104–106, 118, 120 Affiliated “member” stations, 12 Auletta, Ken, 41–42, 119, 227 Affiliates, 35, 44, 125, 162, 182, Austin, Sherman, 208–209 217–218, 236, 245 Automated measurement of lineups Agents, 46, 48–49, 70–72, 74–76 (AMOL), 260, 266 Air America, 89 Aylesworth, Merlin, 3 “Alcoa Hour,” 6–7 Alda, Alan, 138–139 B Alley, Kirstie, 137 Ball, Lucille, 18, 234 “All in the Family,” 38, 108, 117 “Barney Miller,” 236 “All My Children,” 138 Barr, Tony, 109 “All Things Considered,” 52, 245–247 Bates, Ted, 149 Altavista.com, 64, 96 “Batman,” 12, 117 Amazon.com, 156, 158–159, 209, 266 BBC. See British Broadcasting “American Bandstand,” 42 Corporation American Broadcasting Company Bell, Bill, 137 (ABC), 5–8, 11–14, 16, 20–24, Benny, Jack, 4–5 30–35, 39–42, 47–49, 66, 71, 76, Bergen, Candice, 140 81–82, 90, 117, 124, 130–139, “Beverly Hills, 90210,” 25, 134, 219 149, 163–164, 170, 173, 178–187, “Bible,” 77 201, 215–216, 218, 222–237 Billboard, 86, 240

317 318 INDEX

Black Entertainment Television, 52, 126 Chernin, Peter, 219 Blog, 92, 155, 157, 195, 247, 289, 297 “Chico and the Man,” 279 “Blue Book,” 195 “China Beach,” 216 Blunting, 226–228, 239 Christensen, Bruce, 259 “Bob Newhart Show,The,” 33 Churn, 261 Bochco, Steven, 18, 148–149 Cinemax, 32, 124, 281 “Boy Meets Boy,” 143 “Civil War, The,” 38, 118, 148, 259 Bravo, 20, 39, 127, 235 Clark, Dick, 42 Bridging, 225, 239 Classics, 241, 247 Brinkley, J.R., 195 Cleveland, Leon, 263 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Clinton, Bill, 210 13, 38, 90, 115, 211–212, 247 Clooney, George, 139 Broadcast standards, 11, 161, 180–187, CNN. See Cable News Network 193 “Coach,” 26, 222 Brodkin, Herbert, 164 Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), Brooks, Bob, 109 5–6, 14–17, 30–39, 41, 44–45, 52, “Brothers,” 143 65, 71–72, 94, 101–109, 117–119, Bruckheimer, Jerry, 134 124–128, 134, 162, 167–173, Burnett, Carol, 131 186–187, 204, 218–228, 235–237 Burnout, 113, 286 Columbia Pictures, 35 “Burns and Allen,” 231 Comedy Central, 38, 144 Burns, George, 4 Communications Act, 24, 35, 52–53, Burns, Ken, 37–38, 148, 259 56, 63, 166, 172, 174, 189, 201 Bush, George W.,56, 174, 204, 287, 292 Congress, 12, 44, 58, 165, 169, 172–175, “Bus Stop,” 173 182, 200–204, 210, 282, 292–294 Buzenberg, Bill, 245 “Cop Rock,” 149 Cordes, Ted, 180–181 C Corporation for Public Broadcasting Cable-based research, 106 (CPB), 12, 110, 174 Cable Health Network, 279 Cosby, Bill, 131, 137 Cable News Network (CNN), 16, “Cosby Show,The,” 33, 131, 134, 221, 44–45, 52, 65, 90, 92, 126, 257, 223, 275, 280 282, 302 “Counterattack,” 293 Cable systems, 15, 45, 126, 163, 184, Counter programming, 6, 222–223, 215, 259–261, 280–281 225, 239 Callout, 112–113, 119–120 Cowell, Simon, 138 Cancellations, 99, 169, 273–274, 282, CPB. See Corporation for Public 284–285 Broadcasting Carnegie Commission, 12 Cross-programming, 230–231 Carsey, Marcy, 33, 134 Crystal, Billy, 143 Carsey-Werner Company, 33, 134 C-SPAN, 45 “Car Talk,” 13, 52 Cuban Missile Crisis, 163 Carter, Bill, 227 Cume, 110–111, 256–257, 259, 263 Carter, Jimmy, 175 “Current Affair, A,” 299 CBS. See Columbia Broadcasting System “Charlie Rose,” 13, 218 D Charren, Peggy, 165 “Daily Show,The,” 144 “Cheers,” 33, 108, 135–136, 219, 236 Daily Worker, 293 INDEX 319

“Dallas,” 138, 145 Equal time, 175–176, 202, 298 Daly, Carson, 61 “ER,” 138–139 Danson, Ted, 104, 137 ESPN, 16, 43, 45, 124, 231, 281 Davis, David, 176 “Ether advertising,” 2 Dayparting, 216–218, 239, 243–245 “Evening Shade,” 228 “Days of Our Lives,” 137 Exxon, 13, 20 Daytime, 38, 129, 217, 228, 235, 246, 259, 279 F “Day to Day,” 245–246 Fabian, 173 DBS. See Direct broadcast satellite Fairness doctrine, 176 Dees, Rick, 61, 285 Family Channel, The, 279 Degeneres, Ellen, 131, 166, 276 Family hour, 133, 183, 276 Deregulation, 24–25, 33, 45, 53, 59, 63, FCC. See Federal Communications 127, 148, 162, 165, 196 Commission Designated market area, 118, 254 Federal Communications Commission Development ratio, 82–83 (FCC), 13–15, 24, 34–35, 45, 63, Diary, 155, 253, 262, 264, 268 67, 85, 87, 127, 162, 165, 168, “Dick Van Dyke Show,The,” 236 172–176, 182–183, 186–187, “Different World, A,” 33, 221 195–196, 200–201, 213, 287–288, Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), 32 298–301, 307 Discovery Channel, The, 38, 127, 144 Federal Radio Commission (FRC), 195 Disney, 24, 30, 39, 47, 55, 183–184, Federal Trade Commission, 269 210, 231, 278–279, 292 Financial interest-domestic syndication Disney Channel, The, 124, 295 (ﬁn-syn), 14, 16, 23, 33–35, 50 Dixie Chicks, The, 56–57 Fin-syn. See Financial interest-domestic DMA. see Designated market area syndication Dodd, Thomas, 173 “Firing Line,” 293 Dropping in, 18 First Amendment, 200, 207, 303 Durability, 136–137, 153 “Flintstones,” 150 Dwyer, R. Budd, 302 Focus groups, 99, 101–104, 110–114, “Dynasty,” 133 118, 282, 285 Foreign production, 38–39 E Format, 5, 42, 60, 79, 84–88, 94, 98, Editorials, 87 102, 112, 123, 130–131, 137, 141, “Editors, The,” 141, 180 143, 150, 153–154, 192, 239–244, Educational broadcasting, 12 275, 284 E! Entertainment TV, 62, 278, 301 Fox, 8, 16–18, 24, 30, 32, 34–35, Electronic Media Rating Council 38–41, 45, 71, 80, 90, 100, (EMRC), 269, 270 124–128, 147, 150, 172, 179–180, “Ellen,” 143 185, 211, 218–219, 221–223, 229, Emmy, 20, 37, 76, 81, 117, 127–129, 232–233, 236–237, 253, 256, 268, 131, 134, 144, 166, 228, 233, 280 274, 277–278, 284 “Empty Nest,” 33 Fox, Michael J., 137 EMRC. See Electronic Media Rating Franchise, 15–16, 54, 84, 137, 216, 227, Council 230 English, Diane, 140–141, 148 Franken, Al, 89, 91, 154 Enright, Dan, 10, 99 “Fresh Air,” 13, 57 “Entertainment Tonight,” 42, 169 “Full House,” 222 320 INDEX

G Hoover, Herbert, 2 Garner, James, 275, 277 Hussein, Saddam, 108 Gay and Lesbian, 62, 91, 129, 139, HUT. See Households using television 142–144, 147, 166, 176–177, 227, 276 I General Electric, 6, 30, 39, 184 Ifilm.com, 96 “General Hospital,” 137, 229 Iger, Robert, 163, 227 General Motors, 164 “I Love Lucy,” 15, 18, 223, 232, 234 Gerber, David, 39 Indecency, 173, 183, 186, 199–201, Gerbner, George, 171 205–206, 288 Glass, Ira, 92 Independent stations, 14, 16, 109, 225 Globalization, 25–26, 84–85 Infinity Broadcasting, 52, 300 Godfather, The,48 Infomercials, 44, 145, 217 Goen, Barbara, 177 “Inside Edition,” 42, 299 Goldberg, Whoopi, 137 Invasion of privacy, 183, 202, 209 Golden age of radio, 3–4, 62, 90 “It’s All Relative,” 143 Golden age of television, 6–9, 20, 171 “Golden Girls,” 33, 42 J Goldenson, Leonard, 5, 124, 222 Jackson, Randy, 138 Goodson, Mark, 293 Jensen, Dan, 287 “Good Morning America,” 231 “Jeopardy,” 29, 42, 78, 221 “Good Times,” 279 “Joe Millionaire,” 137 Google.com, 64, 96, 208–209, 265, 289 Grammy Awards, 42 K Grant, John, 176 Kasem, Casey, 55, 285, 287 Griffin, Merv, 29 KCAL, 278 Gross, Terry, 13, 91 KCET, 46, 176–177 Group owners, 110, 193 KCRW, 13, 56, 119 Group W, 40, 145–146 KDKA, 2 “Growing Pains,” 166 Kefauver, Estes, 173 “Guiding Light,” 5, 137 Keillor, Garrison, 246, 287 “Gunsmoke,” 5, 145 Kelley, David E., 148, 223, 230, 233, 236, 275, 280 H Kemp, Barry, 26 Hammocking, 221–222, 239 KFI, 3–4, 60, 75, 167, 178, 186 Hanson, Ira, 193 KFOR, 109 “Happy Days,” 280 KHJ, 278 Harvey, Paul, 14–15 KIIS, 62, 285 HBO. See Home Box Office Kinescope, 234 Hendrie, Phil, 55, 60–61 King World, 41, 78 Hip-Hop, 86, 152, 155 Kissinger, Henry, 133 Home Box Office (HBO), 15, 24, “Knots Landing,” 235 31–32, 37, 39, 48, 73, 75, 81, 99, Kobin, William, 177 124–129, 136, 147, 165, 171, 177, KQED, 176 184, 203, 219–220, 227, 237 “Kraft Television Theater,” 5, 6 “Homefront,” 222 KROQ, 244, 285, 300 “Home Improvement,” 222 KTLA, 17, 61 Households using television (HUT), KTTV, 40 220, 256, 259 KVTV, 162 INDEX 321

L Miller v. California, 183, 199, 206 “LA Law,” 18, 166 Mills, Steve, 167, 186 Lansbury, Angela, 137 Minitheater research, 104–106 Launch.com, 65, 93–94, 115 “Missiles of October,” 163 Launching, 83, 110, 218–220, 244 “Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood,” 218 “Laverne and Shirley,” 280 “Monday Night Football,” 125 “Law & Order,” 140 Monte Carlo audience ascription, 269 Lear, Norman, 14, 167 “Moonlighting,” 34, 275 Lee, Anna, 293 “Morning Edition,” 52, 245, 247, Lendburg, Paul, 101, 120 286–287 Leno, Jay, 144, 176, 227 Movie Channel, The, 32 Libel, 44, 183, 202, 304 Moyers, Bill, 45, 233, 282 License fee, 19, 30, 33, 56, 77, 179 MSO. See Multiple system owner License renewal, 150, 172, 195–196, 201 MTM, 14, 33, 277 Lifetime, 25, 31, 39, 71, 126, 231, 261, MTV, 17–18, 41, 45, 49, 52, 61, 65, 279 82–83, 93, 115, 125, 169, 227, Likeability, 137–139, 153–155 268, 280–281, 299 Local origination, 45, 59 Multiple system owner (MSO), 124, Longform, 19–20 184–185 Lotteries, 201–202, 275 “Murder, She Wrote,” 223 Lynch, Jessica, 47, 299 “Murphy Brown,” 140, 228 Murrow, Edward R., 294 M Music licensing, 56 “MacNeil-Lehrer Newshour, The,” Must–carry, 162 282–283 Mutual Broadcasting System, 5 Madonna, 166 Magazine concept, 9 N Mahony, Roger M., 176–177 NAB. See National Association of “Major Dad,” 228 Broadcasters Marketing Evaluations, Inc., 106 Napster, 211 “Marketplace,” 13 Narrowcasting, 17, 125, 162 “Married ...With Children,” 35, 139, National Association of Broadcasters 167, 172, 221 (NAB), 63, 150, 193, 297–298 Marriott, Evan, 137 National Black Network, 263 “Marty,” 7, 207 National Broadcasting Company “Mary Tyler Moore Show,The,” 136, (NBC), 1–6, 9, 14–18, 20, 22, 24, 276, 279 30, 34–35, 38–41, 45, 52, 66, “M*A*S*H,” 32, 35, 117, 136, 229, 71–72, 76–77, 82, 94, 102, 279 124–125, 128, 132, 134–136, 164, “Masterpiece Theatre,” 13 166, 173, 179–184, 201, 215, “Maude,” 276 218–227, 234–237, 255–256, 268, MCA Universal, 30, 41 271, 274–278, 283, 288, 302–303 McCarthy, Joseph, 293–294 National Public Radio (NPR), 12–13, McGee, Fibber and Molly, 4 52–53, 57, 60–63, 91–92, 114, McGraw,Tim, 152 140, 154, 233, 245–247, 286–287 “Melrose Place,” 134 NBC. See National Broadcasting Metro Trafﬁc, 52 Company MGM/UA, 39 Network programming, 3, 5, 12, 43, “Miami Vice,” 82, 142 52–53, 84 322 INDEX

Nickelodeon, 45, 52, 109–110, 126, 261 Pilot, 24, 31, 79, 81–84, 96, 100–104, Nielsen, 17, 64, 101, 106, 108, 216, 117, 139, 178, 233, 281 235, 251–261, 264–268, 270 Pitch, 72–77, 82, 89, 91, 142, 144, 146 Nielsen Station Index, 260 Playboy, 62 Nielsen Television Index (NTI), Plugola, 201 257–260 Poltrack, David, 108 Nixon, Agnes, 137 “P.O.V.,” 176–177 Nixon, Richard, 174 Pressure groups, 162, 165–167, 193, 207 Nolan, Kathleen, 108 Product integration, 21, 23, 43, 305 “Northern Exposure,” 228 Product placement, 21, 43, 305 Nostalgia Television, 125–126 Public access, 29, 46 “Nova,” 41 Public Broadcasting Act of 1967, 12 NPR. See National Public Radio Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), NTI. See Nielsen Television Index 12–13, 20, 37–38, 41, 78, 94, 109, 126–127, 148, 163–164, 176, 218, O 221, 228–235, 259, 282 Obscenity, 183, 189, 199–201, 206 PUT. See Persons using television Oldies, 112, 240–241, 244 O&O. See Owned and operated Q station “Queer as Folk,” 147 “Oprah Winfrey Show,” 40, 42, 78, 131 “Queer Eye for the Straight Guy,” O’Reilly, Bill, 39, 60, 91, 154 139, 143 Outdoor Channel, The, 144, 231–232, Quiz show scandals, 9–11 274 Overnight, 282 R Owned and operated station (O&O), RADAR. See Radio All-Dimension 40 Audience Research Radio All-Dimension Audience P Research (RADAR), 262–264 Paciﬁca Radio, 53 Raisetheﬁst.com, 208–209 Package commission, 72 Rakolta, Terry, 167 Paley,William, 6 Ratings, 11, 48, 86–87, 94, 106, Paramount, 16, 30, 52, 61 108–113, 124, 135, 144, 152, 169, Parkin, Judd, 134 193, 218, 227, 229, 236, 251–271, Pay cable, 22, 31, 261 273 Pay-per-view, 31, 126, 281 Ratings Massage, 261 Payola, 57–59, 201, 292 Reagan, Ronald, 169, 175 PBS. See Public Broadcasting Service Realism, 134 Pennycamp, Peter, 114 Recurrents, 241 People meter, 252–256, 266, 268 “Red Channels,” 292–294 Pepsi Cola, 166 Red Water,8 Persons using television (PUT), 220, Reiner, Carl, 136 256 Remote control, 156, 221, 253 Petrie, Dan, 7–9 Rerunning, 39, 234–235 Philbin, Regis, 137 Reruns, 14, 39, 93, 163, 219–220, Phillips, Irna, 137 234–235, 270, 287 “Phyllis,” 33 “Rescue 911,” 222 Pierce, Fred, 130 Resing, George, 146 INDEX 323

Reynolds, Gene, 117 Spin-offs, 33 “Rhoda,” 33 Stacking, 228–229 “Rich Man, Poor Man,” 20 Station compensation, 80 Ritter, John, 142–143, 275 Station groups, 31, 79 Rivers, Joan, 231 Statistical Research, Inc., 263 Roberts, Doug, 300 Stern, Howard, 18, 52, 62, 154, 172–173, Roberts, Julia, 18, 32, 296 176, 200, 287–288, 298–299 “Roe vs. Wade,” 166 Steven Bochco Productions, 18, 148–149 Rogers, Will, 3 Stewart, Jon, 144 “Roots,” 19, 20, 48, 134, 216 “Stop the Church,” 176–177 “Roseanne,” 31, 49, 131, 134, 139, Storz, Todd, 6 222, 275 Stripping, 232, 239 “Rush Limbaugh,” 52, 60–61, 89, 139, “Studs,” 40 287 Stunting, 229–230 Ryder, Kevin, 300 Super Bowl, 173, 219 Superstations, 8 S Sweeps, 169, 229, 232–233, 235–236, “St. Elsewhere,” 33, 108 253–255, 260, 294 Salamon, Ed, 287 Syndicated exclusivity, 15 Sampling, 100–102, 110–111, 218–219, Syndication, 16–17, 33–35, 39, 42, 221, 254, 267–270 52–54, 60, 69–70, 78–79, 93, 136, “Sanford and Son,” 38 145, 179, 215, 254 Sarnoff, David, 6 Syracuse Crusade, 292–293 “Saturday Night Live,” 45 Scarcity theory, 162 T Schlessinger, Dr. Laura, 52, 60–62, 154 Tandem-TAT, 14 Screen Actors Guild, 108 Tartikoff, Brandon, 41–42, 235 Section 315, 175 “Taxi,” 26 Semple, Bernie, 10 Telemundo, 235 “Sesame Street,” 12, 37, 109–110, 218, Telephone research, 102, 106–109, 111, 232, 283 286 “7th Heaven,” 134 Tentpoling, 221, 239 “Sex and the City,” 147, 165, 219–220, Theming, 231–232 275 “This American Life,” 52, 92 Share, 177, 220, 256, 263 Thomas, Clarence, 140 Sheen, Martin, 137 “Thornbirds, The,” 20 Shepherd, Cybill, 275 Three Blind Mice, 119 Showtime, 31–32, 38, 165, 169, 179, “Three’s Company,” 142–143 184, 281 “3–2-1 Contact,” 37 Silverman, Fred, 226–227 Time Warner, 24, 184, 279 “Simpsons, The,” 136, 150, 221, 277, Tinker, Grant, 33, 277 280 TIVO, 21–22, 43 Sinatra, Frank, 131, 191 “Today,” 43, 298 “60 Minutes,” 223 Toll station, 3 SLAPS test, 183 “Tongues Untied,” 176 Smiley,Travis, 233 “Tonight Show,” 176 “Soap,” 33, 143 Top 40, 6, 52, 59, 62, 90, 241, 244 Spelling, Aaron, 14, 133 “Topless radio,” 200 324 INDEX

Total Service Area (TSA), 262–263 WEAF, 2–3 Totenberg, Nina, 140–141 Weather Channel,The, 45, 126, 257 “Tour of Duty,” 108 Weaver, Sylvester L. “Pat,” 9, 223 Treatment, 77 Weblog. See Blog Treyz, Oliver, 173 Werner, Tom, 33, 134 Tribune, 80, 184 Westin, Av, 299 TSA. See Total Service Area Westinghouse, 80 Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), 8, Westmoreland, William, 44 71 Westwood One, 52 Turner Network Television (TNT), 23, “West Wing, The,” 7, 30, 43, 128, 136, 124, 190, 261 224 Turteltaub, Saul, 81 WETA, 38 TV Guide, 169, 269 WFLX, 41 TVQ, 106–109 WGBH, 13, 41, 110, 176 20th Century Fox, 30, 34 Wheel, 241, 243–244 “Twenty-One,” 9–10, 174 “Wheel of Fortune,” 42, 221 “24,” 7, 20, 147, 223, 274 “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?,” “Twin Peaks,” 25, 216 137 Wildmon, Donald, 166 U “Will & Grace,” 143 “Uncounted Enemy,The,” 44 Williams, Robin, 71 “Under Cover,” 216 Willis, Bruce, 275 Underwriters, 13, 20, 45, 78, 126, 129, Winfrey, Oprah, 40, 42, 80–81, 215 164, 259 “Wiseguy,” 108 Units of good, 126, 148 Witt/Thomas/Harris Productions, 33 Universal. See MCA Universal “WKRP in Cincinnati,” 33 “Unsolved Mysteries,” 300 WLBT, 172 USA, 31, 40, 43, 124, 168, 170, 304 WLS-TV, 41 USA Today, 303 WNET, 13, 41 World War II, 164, 292 V WPDC, 241 Valenti, Jack, 34–35 WPEC, 41 Van Doren, Charles, 10, 174 WQED, 218 VCR. See Video cassette recorder Wurtzel, Alan, 219 VH1, 65, 285 Viacom, 52, 101, 169, 173, 279, 299 Y Video cassette recorder (VCR), 21, 23, Yahoo!, 94, 96, 202–203, 209, 265, 102, 259, 260 296 Vietnam War, 174 “You Bet Your Life,” 5 “Voice of Firestone,” 11 “Young Riders, The,” 216 “Your Hit Parade,” 5 W “War of the Worlds,” 4 Z Warner Brothers, 6, 24, 30–31, 39, 134, Zippers, 246 142 Zucker, Jeff, 225