Programming for TV, Radio, and the Internet: Strategy, Development, and Evaluation Philippe Perebinossoff Brian Gross Lynne S. Gross ELSEVIER Programming for TV, Radio, and the Internet Programming for TV, Radio, and the Internet Strategy, Development, and Evaluation Philippe Perebinossoff California State University, Fullerton Brian Gross EF Education, Jakarta, Indonesia Lynne S. Gross California State University, Fullerton AMSTERDAM · BOSTON · HEIDELBERG · LONDON NEW YORK · OXFORD · PARIS · SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO · SINGAPORE · SYDNEY · TOKYO Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier Acquisition Editor: Amy Jollymore Project Manager: Bonnie Falk Editorial Assistant: Cara Anderson Marketing Manager: Christine Degon Cover Design: Dardani Gasc Focal Press is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK Copyright © 2005, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, e-mail: [email protected] may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting “Customer Support” and then “Obtaining Permissions.” Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 0-240-80682-4 For information on all Focal Press publications visit our website at www.books.elsevier.com 05060708091010987654321 Printed in the United States of America Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org For Carol Ames Donny Sianturi Paul Gross & Ed Vane Contents About the Authors xv Preface xvii 1 The History of Programming 1 The Need for Programming 1 The Early Days of Programming 2 The Beginning of Network Programming: A New Lease for Radio 3 Radio’s Golden Age: The Advertising Agency Years 3 The Introduction of Television and Its Effect on Radio 5 Programming Cycles and Trends 6 Radio Redux: The Switch from Shows to Formats 6 Television’s Golden Age of Drama 6 Quiz Shows Take Center Stage 9 The Television Networks Take Over Programming 11 The Development of Public Broadcasting 12 The Financial Interest and Domestic Syndication Rule 13 The Rise of Independent Stations and Syndicators 14 The Explosion of Cable 14 Syndication in Radio 16 New Networks with Targeted and Niche Programming 16 The Quest for a Young Demographic 17 Viewing Patterns and Changing Audience Attention Spans 17 The Decline of Longform Programming 19 Supercharged Programming Choices: The Internet 20 New Media Recording Technologies 21 The Rise of Consumer-supported Media 22 The Video Game Explosion 23 Regulations 23 Globalization 25 Exercises 26 References/Notes 27 2 Sources of Television Programming 29 Beyond the Idea—into the “Deep Pockets” 29 Major Production Companies 30 Independent Production Companies 33 vii viii PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET Foreign Production Sources 38 Networks 39 Stations 40 Buyers 41 Syndicators 42 Advertisers 43 In-House Production 44 Members of the Public 46 Newspapers, Magazines, and Books 46 Managers, Agents, and Stars 48 Exercises 50 References/Notes 50 3 Sources of Radio and Internet Programming 51 Sources of Programming for Radio 51 Syndicator/Network Programming 52 The Purpose of Today’s Radio Networks/Syndicators 53 From Town to City to Metropolis and Syndication 54 Sources of Music Programming 56 Sources of News Programming 59 Sources of Talk Radio Programming 59 Sources of Other Programming 62 Sources of Satellite Radio Programming 62 Sources of Low-Power FM Programming 63 Sources of Internet Programming 63 Every Computer a Potential Source of Programming 64 Obstacles to Internet Mass Usage 64 Traditional Media Sources 64 Internet-Only Sources 66 Private vs. Public Sources of Programming 66 Exercises 67 References/Notes 67 4 Development 69 Television Development 70 Securing the Rights 70 Attaching a Star,Writer, or Showrunner During the Development Process 71 The Role of Agents 71 Development Deals 72 Getting Ready for the Pitch: Creating a Log Line 72 Writing an Effective Log Line 73 Getting a Meeting 74 The Pitch Meeting 75 CONTENTS ix “Laying Pipe” for a Pass 77 Fundamentals of the Deal 77 Public Television Development 78 Syndication Development 78 Station Development 80 The Pilot 81 Development Ratios 82 Testing 83 The Decision 83 Globalization 84 Radio Development 85 Developing a Format 85 Management and Consultants 86 Developing Programming 88 Profit and Other-Than-Profit Motives 89 Satellite Radio Development 89 Public Radio Development 91 Internet Development 92 History of Internet Development 92 Traditional Developers Adapt to the Internet 93 A New Venue for Independent Developers 95 Exercises 97 References/Notes 98 5 Testing 99 Television Testing 99 Awareness Testing 100 Sampling 100 Focus Groups 102 Minitheater Research 104 Cable-Based Research 106 Telephone Research 106 Station Testing 109 Public Broadcasting 109 Radio Testing 110 Sampling 110 Testing Methodology 111 Research Areas 112 Public Radio 114 Internet Testing 114 Testing (Or Not) Simulcast Content 115 Testing Archived and Independently Produced Content 115 Testing User Friendliness 116 Does the Research Work? 117 Exercises 120 References/Notes 121 x PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET 6 Elements of Successful Programming 123 Television Programming 123 Programming Objectives 124 The Search for a Successful Formula 130 Industry Professionals Weigh In 132 Key Elements for Success 134 Radio Programming 150 Programming Objectives 150 Fundamental Appeals to an Audience 151 Qualities Tied to Success 153 Internet Programming 155 Freshness 155 Targeting Content 156 Consistency 157 Innovation 158 Branding 158 Exercises 159 References/Notes 160 7 Influences on Television Programming 161 External Influences on Television 161 Station Influence 162 Advertisers 163 The Family Friendly Programming Forum 164 Pressure Groups 165 The Religious Right 167 Timing 168 The Media 169 Academic and Nonprofit Studies 171 The Government 171 Internal Influences on Television 178 The Sales Department 178 The Finance Department 179 The Broadcast Standards and Practices Department 180 The Top Management 184 The Promotion, Marketing and Research Divisions 185 Exercises 186 References/Notes 187 8 Influences on Radio and Internet Programming 189 Influences on Radio Programming 189 Internal Influences on Radio 189 External Influences on Radio 193 CONTENTS xi Influences on Internet Programming 202 Internal Influences on Internet Content 202 External Influences on Internet Content 205 Exercises 212 References/Notes 213 9 Scheduling Strategies for Television 215 Television Scheduling 215 Fitting the Show to the Available Audience 216 Dayparting 216 Launching the Show: The First Strategy 218 Tentpoling 221 Hammocking 221 Counterprogramming 222 Bridging and Supersizing 225 Blunting 226 Stacking 228 Stunting 229 Crossprogramming 230 Theming 231 Stripping 232 Changing a Show’s Time Slot 232 Overexposure 233 Rerunning and Repurposing 234 Boosting the Audience in Sweep Periods 235 Patience 236 Exercises 237 References/Notes 238 10 Scheduling Strategies for Radio and the Internet 239 Commercial Radio Scheduling 239 The Clock 239 Dayparting 243 Launching 244 Satellite Radio Scheduling 244 Public Radio Scheduling 245 Internet Scheduling 247 Exercises 249 References/Notes 249 xii PROGRAMMING FOR TV, RADIO, AND THE INTERNET 11 Program Evaluation 251 Television 251 Nielsen 252 Commercial Radio 261 Arbitron 262 RADAR 263 The Internet 264 Do the Ratings Work and Do Samples Sample? 267 Variables That Affect Rating Accuracy 267 Rating Techniques 269 Studies and Investigations 269 Programming Aberrations 270 How Programmers Should Use Ratings 270 Exercises 272 References/Notes 272 12 Changing and Canceling Programs 273 Television 273 Unsatisfactory Ratings 273 Exhaustion 274 A Lack of Focus 275 Social Changes 276 Aging Demographics 276 The Wrong Time Period 277 Excessive Relocation 277 A Lack of Awareness 278 Bringing on the Understudy 278 The Desire for Something New 278 Programming Options 279 Giving a Cancellation Notice 283 Radio 284 Adjusting Program Elements 284 Network Changes 286 Dealing with Unwanted Changes 287 Internet 288 Is It Worth the Trouble? 288 TMI: Too Much Information 289 Facelifts and Add-ons 289 Exercises 290 References/Notes 290 13 Programming Ethics 291 The Meaning of Ethics 291 Ethics and Illegality 292 Ethics in Programming Decisions and Business Practices 294 Ethics and Lying 295 CONTENTS xiii Ethical Guidelines 297 Considering Ethics 298 Case Histories: Actual Incidents 298 Checkbook Journalism 299 Make the Deal, but Don’t Close It 300 An On-Air Murder Confession 300 Sex in Public Places 301 Sharing the Wealth 301 Who Is to Blame? 301 Anonymous Complaints at E! 301 A Suicide on TV 302 Images of the Iraqi War 302 The Right to Privacy 303 First Amendment vs. the Sixth Amendment 303 Entertainment Programming Ethics 304 A Series of Ethical Dilemmas 305 References/Notes 307 Glossary 309