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Ethnic Relations in Mixed Communities in Romania After 1989 Südosteuropa 63 (2015), no. 1, pp. 136-156 THE ROMANIAN POLITICAL SYSTEM AFTER 1989 DRAGOș DRAGOMAN Ethnic Relations in Mixed Communities in Romania after 1989 Abstract. Ethnic conditionality, along with democratisation and marketisation, has been a salient factor of the post-communist transition in Romania . It has concerned ethnically mixed communities as well as inter-state relations, and covers the whole period since 1989 . Actors, strategies and outcomes are to be differentiated, because ethnic matters are greatly dependent on internal and external contexts . The changing contexts in Romania turned it from a place of bloody ethnic conflict in March 1990, even before such conflict turned violent in Yugoslavia, to a level of “banal” everyday nationalism, with the overall characteristic of peaceful coexistence between ethnicities . Dragoș Dragoman is an Associate Professor in the Department of Political Science at the Lucian Blaga University in Sibiu, Romania . After the collapse of the communist regimes in 1989, many scholars expected to see institutional and economic transition follow the same pattern as it had in countries in Southern Europe and in South America during earlier waves of democratization there .1 In fact it took almost a decade before it became clear that former communist countries, and especially those in southeastern Europe, have supplementary obstacles to overcome . It emerged that besides harsh economic changes and a new democratic institutional design, those countries had inherited problems related to ethnic minorities, disputed borders, nationhood, and even statehood . Their transition had to balance national integration and secessionist threats, the legal recognition of inherited borders following the disintegration of previous multiethnic states in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union, and a constitutional framework able to accommodate minorities 2. 1 Cf . for example AdamPrzeworski , Democracy and the Market . Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America. Cambridge 1991; Juan J. Linz / Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation . Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. Baltimore/MD 1996. 2 Taras Kuzio, Transition in Post-Communist States: Triple or Quadruple, Politics 21 (2001), no. 3, 168-177. Ethnic Relations in Mixed Communities after 1989 137 Romania also had to tackle the job of combining institutional, economic and ethnic factors . Although the exit from communism was certainly not as dif- ficult, ethnically speaking, for Romania as it was for Yugoslavia,3 Romania’s post-communist trajectory was still heavily influenced by ethnic considera- tions inherited from both its communist past and the time before that . Modern Romania was built up by the integration of provinces that had once been part of Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Ottoman Empires, with ethnic Romanians constituting the largest share of the population in the respective regions . Fol- lowing the 1859 alliance between the historical provinces of Wallachia and Moldova and subsequent independence, Romania engaged in a vigorous and rapid process of modernization to accompany its nation-building 4. Before 1918, Romania had been an ethnically rather homogenous country, apart from its Jewish and Roma minorities . Its present heterogeneity is ultimately a consequence of the First World War, which led to the creation of Greater Ro- mania from the ruins of the earlier empires . On the one hand, the integration of new provinces fulfilled the dream of Romanian national elites in Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia that one day those provinces would be integrated into Romania .5 On the other hand, their integration brought with it large ethnic minorities with vigorous, well-educated, urbanized, and very active elites of their own . The new minorities soon became the targets of nationalist policies put in place by the Romanian elites, whose aim was to consolidate the Romanian element and to homogenize national culture and territory .6 Such policies were considered necessary – if for no other reason – for as long as ethnic Hungarians living in Transylvania continued to be supported by the neighbouring Hungar- ian state as part of the Hungarian nation . Throughout the 20th century, tensions between Romanian and Hungarian national elites were based on the parallel anxieties about the potential for brutal secession on one side, and the fear of slow but painful assimilation on the other . The history of the past century only served to consolidate the fears of both sides . As long ago as 1940, by the second Vienna Award that followed the se- cret protocol of the Non-Agression Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, a large tract of Transylvania was attached to fascist Hungary, in spite of the fact that both Hungary and Romania were allies of Nazi Germany, only for it to be recovered again by Romania after the Second World War .7 At the same 3 Sabrina P .Ramet , Balkan Babel . The Disintegration of Yugoslavia from the Death of Tito to the Fall of Milošević. Boulder/CO 2002. 4 Keith Hitchins, Romania, 1866-1947 . Oxford 1994 . 5 Idem, The Rumanian National Movement in Transylvania, 1780-1849. Cambridge/MA 1969 . 6 Irina Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania . Regionalism, Nation-Building and Ethnic Struggle, 1918-1930. Ithaca/NY 1995. 7 Denis Deletant, Hitler’s Forgotten Ally. Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania 1940- 1944 . Basingstoke 2006 . 138 Dragoș Dragoman time, the Hungarian population in Transylvania began to decline in a process that continued for the rest of the 20th century and not even the communist system under which both Hungary and Romania were governed managed to erase the continued suspicions in each country 8. Despite its internationalist scope, communism turned into fierce nationalism in Romania under Ceaușescu, a man who used nationalism to consolidate his own authority in a relentless effort to reconcile nationalism and universalist Leninism.9 Ceaușescu limited the rights of ethnic minorities by restricting the use of their native languages and by restricting even further the limited regional autonomy of the Hungarians in Transylvania . The regime brutally urbanized many rural areas and deliber- ately changed the ethnic balance in many cities by means of internal migration flows, causing the Hungarian population to decrease even further in districts like Târgu-Mureș, Oradea, Timișoara, Arad, or Brașov. 10 Ethnic Relations in the 1990s The upheaval of 1989 cannot be seen as a turning point in Romanian ethnic relations, for although the fall of communism in that year brought significant change in numerous political, economic and social areas, nationalism remained an essential political vehicle .11 Indeed, the post-revolutionary period is marked by the birth of the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (in Hungarian Romániai Magyar Demokrata Szövetség, RMDSz; in Romanian Uniunea Democrată Maghiară din România, UDMR), the political party for ethnic Hungarians which would put up candidates in all the forthcoming elections . In response, Romanian nationalist parties organized and challenged the UDMR in Parliament and in numerous towns in Transylvania . One of the most vocal Romanian parties was the Romanian National Unity Party (Partidul Unităţii Națiunii Române, PUNR), which between 1992 and 2004 won all the mayoral elections in Cluj-Napoca, Transylvania’s largest town .12 In March 1990, ethnic conflict turned violent on the streets of Târgu-Mureș, bringing Romania to the brink of ethnic disaster only months before Yugoslavia began to be ravaged by a similar sort of bloodshed . It was the willingness of the more moderate political elites in Romania to co- 8 Elemér Illyés, National Minorities in Romania. Change in Transylvania. Boulder/CO 1982. 9 Katherine Verdery, National Ideology under Socialism . Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceaușescu’s Romania. Berkeley/CA 1995; Cheng Chen , The Roots of Illiberal Nationalism in Romania . A Historical Institutionalist Analysis of the Leninist Legacy, East European Politics and Societies 17 (2003), no. 2, 166-201. 10 Gabriel Andreescu, Schimbări în harta etnică a României. Cluj-Napoca 2005. 11 Tom Gallagher, Nationalism and Political Culture in the 1990s, in: Duncan Light / David Phinnemore (eds .), Post-Communist Romania . Coming to Terms with Transition . Basing stoke 2001, 104-126 . 12 Rogers Brubaker / Margit Feischmidt / John Fox / Liana Grancea, Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town. Princeton/NJ 2006. Ethnic Relations in Mixed Communities after 1989 139 operate and find political solutions which took the tension out of the situation and shepherded the problem towards Parliament . The inclusion of the Hungarian party into the political arena was one of nu- merous internal and external contextual factors that influenced ethnic relations in Romania, in this case favourably so . In Parliament, the UDMR was able to represent and defend the rights of the Hungarian minorities both leading up to the adoption of the new constitution in 1991 and then in the debates on the most important laws concerning public administration and education . Although the Romanian framework favours the parliamentary majority and largely expresses the official domination of the Romanians, the early decision to include the UDMR in the political framework proved highly significant. With the UDMR in parliament, the new institutional design at least kept open the possibility of improving
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