The impact of UK-US research collaboration Contents Foreword

Chatty business 4 From armpit cheese to 18 The UK and the US are two research These case studies also emphasise the “A lightbulb went off, How voice systems allow speech-impaired people computer-eating bacteria powerhouses: our scientists have important role that research funders to communicate in the workplace As part of a multi-year project, researchers explored won an impressive 358 Nobel Prizes1 play in creating an environment where and I said, ‘We gotta the role of design in the field of synthetic biology and, between us, we host all of the such collaboration can flourish. All get these people A welcome upgrade to smoother flying 6 world’s top 10 universities2.The US of the research projects described together.’” Recently developed algorithm helps aviation weather Justice will prevail but in what form? 20 is the number one choice for co- here have received support from UK forecasters predict — and avoid — turbulent skies Researchers examine how countries seek authorship for UK researchers and joint Research and Innovation (UKRI). retribution for past national atrocities publications have a citation impact 2.75 In most cases, UKRI funding was “There were a lot of Researchers dig deep to avoid arsenic 8 times greater than the global average3. complemented by support from funders heated arguments... in Bangladesh’s groundwater How to emerge from a deep recession 22 in the US – including the National but it was always While shallow tubewells contain dangerously high levels Economists have found that lowering interest rates isn’t As the case studies in this brochure Science Foundation, National Institutes of arsenic, groundwater at depths of 150 to 200 meters is always enough for a struggling economy to recover show, working together has much of Health and US Department of to make everything considerably safer more tangible impacts than simply Agriculture – as well as other partners better.” How metals in the brain might play 24 increasing citations – UK-US in the UK and EU. What lab animals and people 10 a part in Alzheimer’s collaborations have been able to don’t have in common Researchers found both chemically reduced iron increase our understanding of I’m very proud of the role that “One of the Researchers develop a step-by-step approach to assess the and various calcium compounds in brain tissue, Alzheimer’s disease, revive a dying UKRI North America has played in different impacts that a drug or a chemical might have on neither of which are normally found in the brain language, improve the lives of establishing collaborative funding advantages that we animals versus people people with speech impairments opportunities between UKRI and US have through a UK- Antarctica’s icy lakes are brimming with life 26 and much more. funders, with the express purpose US alliance is a larger Death by a thousand microorganisms 12 International collaborations shed light on continent’s of facilitating partnerships between What researchers have done to tackle subglacial lakes and melting glaciers These impacts were only possible researchers in our two countries. international impact.” emerging plant disease through the combination of unique What can first-ever galaxies tell us 28 expertise from both countries and I look forward to continuing to work How studying the disappearing Kiowa 14 about our universe? the cross-fertilisation of ideas with our partners in the US to build language helped revive it Astronomers find recently discovered faint galaxies across geographical and disciplinary on and grow this relationship, so that Stories told in this unique tribal language are brimming are also some of the oldest boundaries. Transatlantic collaboration we can support many more impactful with complex and elegant sentences typical of Kiowa can help researchers in niche fields find projects – like the ones described here Acknowledgements 30 others working in the same space; it – in the future. New blood test could speed up liver 16 can challenge researchers to question disease diagnosis their assumptions and adopt new Chloë Somers Test could some day be sold as a kit and used approaches; it can increase the reach Director, UK Research and Innovation to monitor liver wellness and reputation of a research project. North America

1. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes/ 2. https://cwur.org/2018-19.php 3. https://www.elsevier.com/research-intelligence?a=507321

2 3 Chatty business How voice systems allow speech-impaired people to communicate in the workplace

Users can select day-to-day So, for instance, a user could quickly Higginbotham had been working While AAC technologies have evolved phrases such as “How’s it select day-to-day phrases such as with his colleague David Wilkins to significantly in the last few decades going?” and “Would you like “Hello,” “Good-bye,” and “How’s it build Frametalker, a language system from picture boards and typewriters, that photocopied?” going?” It’s what the late John Todman, that allowed users to carry out topic- for instance, to apps available on a key member of the team and a giant specific conversations. Meanwhile, smartphones and tablets, the ultimate In the winter of 1963, 21-year-old in the world of AAC systems referred Todman, then a psychology professor goal — as yet the Holy Grail — is to make Stephen Hawking was diagnosed with to as “quickfire comments.” The at the University of Dundee and Alm’s conversation as fluid as possible. For an ALS, a motor neuron disease. Over research tool, which was focused on the colleague, was developing TALK, which AAC user that would potentially mean the years, the famous physicist and workplace, also allowed users to select enabled users to carry out casual increasing the speed of communication author who passed away in March phrases such as “Would you like that conversations that weren’t necessarily from an average two words per minute 2018, became bound to a wheelchair photocopied” or “There’s someone on focused on a particular topic. While to 30 or so words per minute. (The and came to rely on a computerized the phone for you.” the end goal of the systems seemed average person without a speech voice system to communicate, which he impediment talks at a rate of 150-180 described as helping him “communicate words per minute.) In fact, research better now than before I lost my voice.” “It was a meeting of shows that during a conversation, people are expected to take no longer These voice systems — known two determined minds.” than a second or two to respond either as Augmentative and Alternative with words or gestures before being held Communication or AAC — are designed accountable for their “delayed” response. for people who, like Hawking, have a “Real communication is all about different on the surface, both were degenerative neuron disease or have interacting and personalities and jokes focused on increasing speed and Today, CONTACT is part of InterAACt, Multiple Sclerosis, Cerebral Palsy, or and teasing, which requires speed fluidity of communication. CONTACT a larger language framework, owned CONTACT, an AAC system that some other condition that severely and intelligence in the system,” says incorporated elements of both systems by Tobii Dynavox, one of the world’s researchers in the US and UK developed, impairs their speech. Norman Alm, a computer scientist and to predict words based on user largest AAC companies. The system allows users to carry out functional, day- now-retired academic from Dundee frequency and context. not only enables speech-impaired users to-day conversations with relative ease. While several of these voice systems University and one of four researchers to communicate more easily but, by The system also allows them to set the exist, in the early 2000s, a team of US on the team. When renowned experts in their field extension also benefits friends and tone of a conversation to casual, normal, and UK researchers joined forces to come together, the collaboration family. According to Alm, while AAC or formal. create CONTACT, a computer program The team came about when Todman isn’t always easy. “It was a meeting system users only account for one-third that would elevate the quality of met Jeff Higginbotham, a professor of of two very determined minds,” says of one percent of the world’s population, Image courtesy of Jeff Higginbotham communication from message making Communicative Disorders at the Higginbotham, referring to himself “worldwide that’s a lot of people, and for — where users express themselves University of Buffalo, at an international and Todman. “There were a lot of them, it’s a huge problem because if you one word at a time — to interactive conference on AAC, and suggested they heated arguments … but it was always can’t communicate, you can’t be human.” talk, which would allow them to select work together with Alm as well as Portia to make everything better.” The team commonly used phrases, resulting File, a computer scientist at Abertay also collaborated with a US-based This research was supported by UKRI’s in faster and more substantive University in Dundee. engineering firm Enkidu Research as Engineering and Physical Sciences communication. part of the effort. Research Council and the European Union.

4 5 A welcome upgrade to smoother flying Recently developed algorithm helps aviation weather forecasters predict – and avoid – turbulent skies

Millions of people around the world turbulence tends to be transient, so PhD thesis on the generation of gravity are afraid of flying. For some, it’s the these forecasts aren’t always accurate. waves in an unbalanced jet stream. feeling of being trapped in a small In his thesis, Williams had briefly space for hours; for others, it’s a sense As a solution, in 2008, a transatlantic mentioned the idea of an algorithm of powerlessness. Throw turbulence team of researchers including to predict turbulence. Knox, who had into the mix — bumpiness as the plane Williams; John Knox, a professor in previously worked with McCann on rumbles through rough pockets of air, the department of Geography at the clear air turbulence, says, “A lightbulb the sudden drops reminiscent of a ride University of Georgia; and Donald went off, and I said, ‘Man, we gotta get Image courtesy of Cass Productions on a roller coaster — and anxiety levels McCann, an aviation weather forecaster these people together.’” rise further. and founder of McCann Aviation Weather Research, Inc., developed an Within a few years, the trio had A weather radar in a flight simulator Depending on the intensity, turbulence algorithm to better predict turbulence. developed the algorithm, which is now at the UK’s Brighton City Airport can range from being a source of They focused their efforts on clear air used as part of the US Aviation Weather shows clouds and storms ahead discomfort for a few moments to turbulence, which is invisible and, as a Service’s turbulence forecasting system, of the plane. In 2008, researchers causing serious injuries to passengers result, more challenging to navigate. Graphical Turbulence Guidance or GTG. in the UK and US developed an and flight attendants, as was the case This forecasting system is expected algorithm that could predict clear on a recent Miami flight bound for Developing the algorithm involved to replace international forecasting air turbulence, which is invisible and Buenos Aires. Photos showed oxygen studying a complicated chain of systems within the next year or two. In challenging for pilots to navigate. masks hanging from the cabin ceiling, events. For starters, clear air turbulence addition, a Minneapolis-based private food trays strewn across the floor, and typically occurs in a jet stream — weather company, DTN, which serves general disarray everywhere. narrow bands of strong air currents. more than 90 airlines and business jet “Like all good things in life it was Forces that steer the jet stream can operations, also uses the algorithm. “Air turbulence is the leading cause make it unsteady or unbalanced. An a complete accident that this of injury to passengers and flight unbalanced jet stream emits a wave The algorithm has not only improved collaboration happened.” attendants,” says Paul Williams, a called a gravity wave. Moving gravity the flying experience of billions of professor of atmospheric science waves cause changes in wind speed, passengers, but it will prove to be at the University of Reading in the also known as wind shear, which, in especially critical in decades to come UK. The costs associated with turn, leads to turbulence. as climate change — known to further turbulence, including damage to intensify wind shears and subsequently aircraft, treatment of passengers and In order to predict this turbulence, increase turbulence — worsens. “Like cabin crew, missed workdays as a researchers had to take a forecast of all good things in life it was a complete result of injuries, and delayed arrivals, the jet stream up to 18 hours ahead accident that this collaboration are probably in the region of a billion and apply a mathematical equation to happened,” says Williams. “I didn’t plan dollars worldwide annually. determine where the jet stream was it, but it’s meant such a lot to me.” becoming unbalanced. Pilots currently rely on turbulence This research was supported by UKRI’s forecasts that are issued every hour The idea to develop the algorithm first Natural Environment Research Council and mapped out 18 hours ahead. But, took root when Knox read Williams’ and the Royal Society.

6 7 In the late 1990s, Ross Nickson, then manually from tubewells for drinking, Michael, a professor of environmental a master’s student of hydrogeology at washing, cooking, and irrigation. There engineering at the University of Researchers dig deep University College London, traveled are about 10 million tubewells across Delaware and Clifford Voss, a senior across Bangladesh armed with the country of which about 5 million scientist with the US Geological to avoid arsenic in 50 or so bottles that he filled with pump up highly contaminated water. Survey’s hydrological research program. groundwater. Only a few years prior, scores of Bangladeshis had begun to Hand-pumped tubewells typically As researchers continue to work that Bangladesh’s groundwater show symptoms of arsenic poisoning pump water from a depth of less than out, there’s hope for arsenic-safe — including skin lesions, melanomas, 100 meters. But, in the early 2000s, water. “The good side of the While shallow tubewells contain and cancer — and researchers had researchers found that water at depths mechanism that we identified for the discovered that the groundwater, of 150 to 200 meters contained a lot release of arsenic is that as the water dangerously high levels of arsenic, which, it turned out, had dangerously less arsenic. After decades of research, comes out of the ground in a reduced high levels of arsenic, was to blame. “it rapidly became clear that you could state carrying the arsenic in solution, groundwater at depths of 150 to Nickson was there to study the water drill deeper within the sedimentary all you have to do is oxidize that water 200 meters is considerably safer. to determine what was causing these basin in Bangladesh, and you would and the dissolved iron will oxidize to high levels of arsenic. normally reach groundwater which iron oxide,” says Burgess, adding that has ordinary low-level natural the oxidized iron will precipitate out Arsenic is a naturally occurring element, background levels of arsenic in as a rusty colored sludge and it will and groundwater almost anywhere in groundwater,” says Burgess. take with it a large amount of the the world has measurable amounts dissolved arsenic. “That is a very of arsenic. In high doses and over an extended period of time, it’s extremely toxic. The World Health Organization’s recommended limit of arsenic in “Mass poisoning on an drinking water is 10 micrograms per liter. unprecedented scale.”

“In the London basin we have measurable amounts of arsenic,” says William Burgess, Nickson’s professor These findings now serve as a resource commonly used water purification at UCL, who has spent many years and guide for official government technique in any industrialized country.” studying arsenic in the Bengal basin. agencies as well as for non- Still, Bangladesh doesn’t yet have “But it’s an order of magnitude less governmental organizations (NGOs) the infrastructure to install the large than the WHO drinking water limit. such as UNICEF, which have played treatment and filtration systems that So, we’re talking about 1microgram a key role in working to mitigate the would be needed and, until it does, per liter instead of 10.” Compare that arsenic crisis in Bangladesh. people will have to rely on small to Bangladesh where a lot of the domestic- level treatment facilities or groundwater contains arsenic levels as In addition, the findings have privately installed deep tubewells — high as 100 or 1,000 micrograms per helped the Bangladesh government or wait for the government to install liter. With more than 20 million people implement deep groundwater pumping more deep groundwater tubewells. in Bangladesh exposed to these high strategies — including advice on how levels, it’s what WHO has referred to deep wells must go to pump good as “mass poisoning on an quality water — as well as improve unprecedented scale.” monitoring practices.

Bangladesh has especially high levels But, there are still some unanswered This research was supported by of arsenic in its groundwater largely questions. For instance, would pumping UKRI’s Natural Environment Research because of the chemical makeup — and water from deeper levels draw down Council and Engineering and Physical breakdown — of sand that’s deposited the arsenic from the surface and Sciences Research Council, as well as A woman pumps water from a shallow tubewell in from rivers like the Ganges and the potentially contaminate even the the UK Department for International Bangladesh. The groundwater in Bangladesh has high Brahmaputra into the Bengal Basin. deep groundwater as it was pumped? Development (through the Association levels of arsenic; however, recent research shows Unfortunately, residents of Bangladesh That’s what Burgess has been working of Commonwealth Universities and the that deeper groundwater has arsenic levels that are rely on this water that they pump on, along with US researchers Holly British Geological Survey). considerably lower and is, therefore, safe to drink.

8 Image courtesy of Sonia Hoque/REACH 9 What lab animals & people don’t have in common Researchers develop a step-by-step approach to assess the different impacts that a drug or a chemical might have on animals versus people

Laboratory animals play a critical As a solution, in the mid 2000s, an and ultimately predict how humans “It is extremely helpful to have application of the framework concepts role when it comes to testing the international team of researchers were likely to respond compared to to develop the next generation of non- potential toxicity of a drug or chemical developed a framework that broke animals more accurately. an international perspective.” animal assessment methods. in our food and in the environment. down chemical interactions into steps But, often, a chemical compound will that could be individually evaluated. Consider long-term brain damage, for “It is extremely helpful to have an have a different impact on an animal The idea behind the framework was example. Symptoms of the condition international perspective,” says Boobis. than it would on us, given biological that all toxicological responses could take over a decade to show up “Apart from individual expertise of differences as well as the way in could be described in a series of in humans and a matter of months in individuals involved, there’s also the which our bodies process and remove quantifiable changes that occur in both rats. But, by breaking the process down issue of bringing the perspective of compounds. What’s more, relying on experimental animals and humans. And, into steps, researchers could potentially if they’re not severely damaged,” says “This framework allows the transparent different parts of the world, which is observations of toxic effects doesn’t while each step wouldn’t necessarily notice changes in cells within a few Alan Boobis, a professor of Toxicology evaluation of the information and the really important if we’re trying to get a always give the full picture because elicit some kind of toxic response, weeks or months. “So, we might see at Imperial College London and a key communication of the conclusions in framework that’s generally acceptable symptoms, in some cases, show up evaluating and comparing these distinct an early change in humans without member of the team. a very clear way,” says Boobis. As a and not just acceptable in one part of early or late for one species and not at steps in animals and humans could seeing the later change, and that allows result, it is also used in educational and the world.” all for another. result in a more relevant comparison us to compare what’s going on even Today, this framework is applied widely training programs as well as workshops including as part of risk assessments designed for academics and regulators. Over the last few decades, requirements implemented by food and drug safety to approve drugs and chemicals in our authorities across the world as well as It was at one such event in the mid- food and the environment have become Lab animals, such as this rabbit, are by companies looking to get a better 2000s that Boobis met Kevin Crofton, more substantial, says Boobis. As a often used in experiments designed understanding of chemicals before a toxicologist, then with the US result, more companies are using the to better understand impacts of introducing them to the market. Environmental Protection Agency. They framework to understand chemical drugs and chemicals on humans. But were both at an event organized by the effects better and explore alternatives, extrapolating findings from animals In 2011, Dow Chemical Company International Life Sciences Institute, where possible, resulting in better to people can be challenging, so applied the framework to evaluate a non-profit organization that brings control and improved risk assessments. researchers have developed a the impact of its pesticide Sulfoxaflor academics, industry and regulatory step-by-step approach that allows before it was assessed by the UN Food people together. Not long after, the for more informed and relevant and Agriculture Organization and World World Health Organization put together predictions and analyses. Health Organization Joint Meeting a working group and invited Boobis and on Pesticide Residues. The pesticide Crofton to be part of an effort to help caused tumors in experimental rats assess the effects of simultaneous and had an effect on a developing exposure to several chemicals. Given This research was supported by fetus; however, the framework helped their related backgrounds, they decided UKRI’s Medical Research Council and conclude that those changes were to collaborate on developing the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences specific to the lab animals and didn’t framework and went on to work on Research Council, and the UK Food apply to humans. several related projects such as the Standards Agency.

Image courtesy of USDA

10 11 Death by a thousand microorganisms “If you see an emerging What researchers have done to tackle disease, you’d emerging plant disease better jump on it fast.”

Model helps forest managers California, Davis. What’s more, although exchanging a few emails, Gilligan met of affected areas but expanding control the pathogen responsible oaks are primarily at risk, the pathogen Rizzo in the US at a conference on that to thousands of acres is almost for Sudden Oak Death. has been found to infect close to 200 Sudden Oak Death, and they discussed impossible. “For trees, especially in different plant species. In fact, in the the idea of developing a model to a large natural landscape, you do an Shades of brown coat a once green UK, where it was discovered shortly predict and manage the disease better. experiment, and it might be 20 years or forest landscape in California and after California, the pathogen is found Rizzo brought in Ross Meentemeyer, 10 years to see if it worked or not,” says Oregon as millions of oak trees fall on Japanese and European larch trees, an expert in geospatial analytics and Rizzo. “So, we have to do these various victim to a deadly plant pathogen, and several conifer species including landscape ecology, now at North simulations to test those to come up Phytoph-thora ramorum. It has become Douglas fir. Carolina State University. “Having the with the best scenarios.” a familiar sight in the region: barks three groups together, we were really of trees oozing black cankers, often Rizzo had been studying Sudden Oak able to accomplish a lot,” says Rizzo. Rizzo expects that aspects of the model accompanied with bright orange and Death for a few years, focusing on the could potentially be applied to the red patches, and brown spots spreading biology of the spread: when spores As part of the collaborative effort, the study of other emerging diseases. across the leaves. This is Sudden Oak are formed, under what environmental team designed a mathematical model Regardless of the disease, there’s one Death, and it has decimated thousands conditions they spread, and how far to predict factors such as where — key takeaway, says Rizzo. “If you see of square miles of forests. they move, for instance. Then, in the based on its current trajectory — the an emerging disease, you’d better jump early 2000s, he came across a paper disease might spread next, how long on it fast. The longer you wait, the more The disease was first noticed in the that looked at modeling rat populations before it got to an area, and what trees difficult it is to control.” mid-1990s in California and shortly after to better understand and manage the were most at risk. These predictions in Oregon. P. ramorum is also found on spread of bubonic plague. Rather than helped inform management practices. This research was supported by UKRI’s rhododendrons, camellias, and other focusing on an infected human who For instance, by predicting areas likely Biotechnology and Biological Sciences nursery plants, and researchers think doesn’t spread the disease further, the to be impacted next, forest officials Research Council, the UK Department of one of these infected plants, probably technique focused on the carrier of the could pretreat the area to minimize Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs, and planted in a garden adjacent to a disease — in this case an infected flea. damage. So far, the model is used to the US Department of Agriculture. national forest, allowed it to — literally inform policy makers about the risks — jump the fence. This water-loving “That’s exactly what we observed with of emerging diseases like Sudden Oak pathogen produces spores in moist Sudden Oak Death,” says Rizzo. “It Death that has also impacted trees conditions that spread easily through appeared that the oaks were a dead in Florida. In addition, the US Forest wind-driven rain. end. They would get infected, but Service uses the model not only to they didn’t spread it.” Instead, he detect potential spread of the disease The term Sudden Oak Death is a bit of was seeing leaves that would get but also to implement measures to a mis- nomer. It isn’t always sudden: infected but didn’t die. “Those were control it. Similarly, in the UK, the model trees can be infected for as long as two the spreaders,” he says. “And I thought, is used to inform eradication and Trees in California’s Los Padres National to five years before showing signs of ‘wow this is really similar.’” control policies. Forest fall victim to the plant pathogen disease, and they don’t always die. “It Phytophthora ramorum, which has was given the name because the oaks Rizzo reached out to Chris Gilligan, Managing an emerging disease in decimated millions of trees across appeared to go from green to brown in head of the epidemiology and modeling a large natural landscape can be California and Oregon. Researchers a matter of weeks,” says David Rizzo, a group at the University of Cambridge challenging. At most, researchers can have developed a model to predict and plant disease expert at the University of and an author on the paper. After carry out experiments in small patches manage the spread of the disease. Image courtesy of US Forest Service

12 13 There once lived a brother-sister “There’s this enormous calculus that As part of the effort, the team used warrior duo who often accompanied Kiowa speakers carry around in their recordings made between the 1950s How studying the each other on battles and skirmishes. head of these tiny syllables,” says and 1980s, working closely with On one such battle, they were Harbour. “And the basic question is fluent tribal speakers to process the disappearing Kiowa separated. The woman returned home, how does so much meaning get into so material. The project not only increased but her brother didn’t. Wracked with little sound?” He calls it superfusion — knowledge of the Kiowa tradition of grief and convinced that the mountain where a wealth of information is fused story-telling but also helped raise language helped revive it goats were really her brother calling, together into a tiny syllable. awareness of the truly remarkable she went to the mountains in search nature of the language and, in the Stories told in this unique tribal language are brimming of him — never to be seen again. In What’s more, Kiowa has elegant and process, fueled interest within the a tragic twist, the woman’s brother complex sentences where a verb community. Today, there are a range with complex and elegant sentences typical of Kiowa ultimately returned home. is surrounded on either side by an of resources available — from brief identical structure, such that it acts videos of simple words and sentences This is the story behind a haiku-like, like a mirror. “I don’t know of any other in Kiowa and stories narrated by elders two-line Kiowa song — the language of language that does this, where you get to an active Facebook page for the a Native American tribe and indigenous both patterns simultaneously,” says community and beyond. people of the Great Plains. Similar Harbour. “That raises serious theoretical songs once sung by the tribe run the questions about how language is “It is especially gratifying to see risk of being forgotten as the number constructed.” that this community-wide interest of fluent speakers of Kiowa dwindle. and activity is now self-sustaining, (Today there are an estimated 30 or Early on in his research on Kiowa, from Kiowa language classes held in so fluent speakers.) What’s more, Harbour reached out to Laurel Watkins, several locations in Kiowa country to says Daniel Harbour, a professor in a professor of anthropology and continuing consultation on questions the Cognitive Science of Language at linguistics at Colorado College, who of Kiowa grammar and usage with Queen Mary University of London, “It’s had done extensive research in Kiowa. the Kiowa language instructor, Dane not like language goes and everything Soon after, Harbour, Watkins, and Poolaw, at the University of Oklahoma,” else stays intact. There’s a break in David Adger — Harbour’s postdoctoral says Watkins. transmission of culture as a whole.” advisor at Queen Mary University of London — began collaborating to better In addition, linguistics projects like this Harbour has spent the last two understand the connection between also serve as a repository of words, decades studying the unique grammar grammar and discourse in Kiowa. sentence structure, and other related and structure of Kiowa. It’s what’s information. “Sometimes we get the referred to as a “free word order” “Having worked alone on the Kiowa opportunity to work with speakers and language, where words can move language for over 25 years before learners and help them directly, and around in a sentence without, generally, the start of this project, I have been that’s the best of all,” says Harbour. changing the meaning. reinvigorated and delighted by this “But at other times, we’re just silos; collaboration,” says Watkins. “The we’re people who collect information, But that’s not what makes Kiowa coming together of Harbour and stop it from being lost, and make sure truly unique. In fact, many languages Adger’s formal approach and my it’s there in a format that people can such as Georgian and Sanskrit are descriptive orientation has led to the access in years to come.” free word order languages. It’s that in discovery and illumination of many Kiowa you take all the subjects and aspects of Kiowa that might otherwise This research was supported by UKRI’s These booklets contain stories objects — who and how many people have been missed.” Arts and Humanities Research Council. — written in Kiowa and English are doing something to whom as well — that were often shared among as for whom and how many of them, members of the Kiowa tribe. The and squeeze all of that into a single booklets were distributed within syllable in front of the verb. So, for and outside the community as instance, in the sentence, “I’m writing a way to raise awareness of the a letter to you,” the verb prefix is “yán” “The basic question is how does so tribe’s rich culture and traditions. (pronounced yaan); but in the sentence, much meaning get into so little sound?” “We’re writing a letter to you,” the verb Image courtesy of Laurel Watkins prefix is “gyát” (pronounced gyaat).

14 15 New blood test could speed up liver disease diagnosis This research was supported by the Royal Society, UKRI’s Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, the University Test could someday be sold as a kit of Glasgow, UCLH NIHR Biomedical and used to monitor liver wellness Research Center, and the US National Institutes of Health.

Liver disease is often referred to as while the serum of an infected nanotechnology; Rosenberg in liver a silent killer — gradually destroying person would show another pattern. disease; and Rotello in array-based the organ’s tissue without showing Those fluorescent patterns also sensing — to develop the test. any symptoms on the outside. By show increasing intensity as the the time symptoms show up, the disease progresses. “It was a meeting of two groups that disease has already caused significant were just ready to meet each other,” damage, making recovery difficult “Our hope with the polymer test is that says Rotello, of himself and the UK and, often, impossible. we would be able to adapt it so that researchers. The team is now working it could be done maybe in a clinic or to further validate their findings. The Unlike cancer and heart disease, at the bedside, and that it could be next step would be to develop it into liver-related deaths are on the rise. done relatively quickly,” says William a kit format that can be sold at clinics Until recently, the only accurate way to Rosenberg, Professor of Liver Diseases and hospitals and would involve a diagnose the disease was through a in the Institute for Liver and Digestive simple pinprick — much like a glucose blood test, such as the Enhanced Liver Health at University College London. test. In addition, says Rotello, “this can Fibrosis or ELF test, or by doing an Rosenberg also developed the ELF test, be really important in the developing invasive liver biopsy. which has been widely used in Europe world where you don’t have access to and Australia, and recently received a complex laboratory tests and certainly In the spring of 2018, researchers in “breakthrough device” designation from don’t want to do a biopsy.” The test the US and UK unveiled a method to the US Food and Drug Administration. could potentially be used in a wide detect liver damage that’s designed to However, the ELF test needs to be run range of healthcare settings to screen be easily accessible, easy to administer, on a large automated analyzer in a for liver disease amongst people at risk and can return results within a half hour. stable lab, making it less accessible to including those with diabetes, obesity, the general community. heavy drinkers and people taking “It was a meeting of Using nanotechnology, the test relies on medications that can injure the liver. polymers to detect a “fingerprint” or a The idea to develop a polymer-based two groups that were pattern in a serum that’s characteristic test took shape when William Peveler The team also hopes to use the method just ready to meet of liver fibrosis. The polymers are — then a post doc in Rosenberg’s lab to detect liver wellness by programing coated with fluorescently labeled — suggested using nanotechnology the sensor to monitor baseline levels each other.” compounds that bind substances in to detect very scarce molecules in and detect when there’s a change — the serum. When the binding occurs, serum samples of patients with liver similar to a car’s “check engine” light. a fluorescent signal is generated. The disease. Across the Atlantic, Vincent Vincent Rotello (right) along with researchers Yingying Geng signal’s pattern denotes the degree of Rotello, a chemistry professor at the “What our system does is it lowers (left) and Aritra Nath Chattopadhyay (center) prepare the fibrosis in the patient from whom the University of Massachusetts in Amherst the bar for testing for liver disease,” liver sensor as part of their effort to detect liver disease in serum is taken. So, for example, was working on identifying patterns in says Rotello. “So instead of waiting for serum samples. a person without liver disease would serum samples, so the three combined symptoms to develop, you can actually have one pattern of fluorescence, their areas of expertise — Peveler in monitor liver wellness.” Image courtesy of Vincent Rotello

16 17 From armpit cheese to These cheeses made from bacteria found on computer eating bacteria different parts of the body — including designer Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg’s armpit, philosopher Interdisciplinary teams experiment with nature and social scientist Pablo Schyfter’s toe, synthetic biologist Christina Agapakis’ hand, and odor artist Sissel Tolaas’ nose — took a few days to make as part of the Synthetic Aesthetics project.

As part of a multi-year project, the engineering of living things. “As a group we said we wanted the Tolaas made cheese out of bacteria Because of the strong multidisciplinary The Synthetics Aesthetics project was researchers explored the role (Think of bits of DNA code, for project to be like a wedge in the door found on people’s toes, armpits, belly nature of the project, individuals had supported by UKRI’s Engineering and of design in the field of example, as programmable, much that stops synthetic biology from buttons, and tongues — parts of different objectives and takeaways. Physical Sciences Research Council and synthetic biology. like computer software.) closing; that stops synthetic biology the body that tend to be moist and, As a social scientist, Calvert saw the the US National Science Foundation. from becoming boring,” says Jane therefore, hold bacteria. The range of project as a way of challenging the Have you ever wondered what cheese As part of the project, synthetic Calvert, a professor of science and smells was wide: Calvert described scientific community, seeing it as made from bacteria on our toes might biologists were paired with artists and technology studies at the University armpit cheese, for instance, as smelling an “inreach” rather than an outreach smell like; or perhaps what DNA sounds designers — including a smell artist, of Edinburgh and the UK Principal “yogurty and fresh,” while toe cheese project. The synthetic biologists like as it whizzes past you? Would you an architect, and a composer — to Investigator on the project. Consider was “disgusting and strong.” embraced the opportunity to be more drink out of a cup made from bacteria form a total of six teams. Spending an the cheese. As part of their experiment, imaginative about the science while the that could almost instantly transform equal amount of time in each other’s synthetic biologist Christina Agapakis The idea behind the experiment was artists and designers questioned some water into a probiotic drink? workspace, the pairs were given the and odor artist and researcher Sissel to think about our relationship to our commonly held assumptions about freedom to take their work in any microbiome as well as explore the synthetic biology. Other members of These and other mind-boggling direction they chose. The goal of the boundaries between ourselves and Calvert and Endy’s team who oversaw questions were the product of project was to explore what it meant to the food we eat. In fact, many of the the project included Alistair Elfick, Synthetic Aesthetics, a multi-year, design nature and the participants were “We didn’t know stinkiest cheeses are associated a bioengineer at the University of international project that launched in interested in how to do this sustainably, with bacteria that have similar smells Edinburgh and co- Investigator; Pablo 2009 and explored the role of design in by harnessing nature’s properties rather what was going to parts of our bodies such as our Schyfter, a social scientist, also at synthetic biology — broadly defined as than exploiting or manipulating it. to come out of it.” toes and armpits. That’s probably Edinburgh; and London based designer because we have some of the same and artist Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg. microorganisms as cheeses — likely In 2014, the team published a book, the product of artisanal cheese making “Synthetic Aesthetics: Investigating and the subsequent transfer of bacteria Synthetic Biology’s Designs on Nature,” between the cheesemaker’s hands and in which they discussed the project the cheese. in detail. In addition, teams have presented and exhibited their work at Other projects included creating conferences, art exhibits across the cynobacteria that digested computer world, and festivals as a way to explore circuit boards and a look into the future the potential reach of synthetic biology when inanimate machines including in our daily lives. cars and computers could potentially be replaced by living machines. “The “We didn’t know what was going to project reveals … that professionals come out of it,” says Calvert, who had in art and creative design can create never worked with artists and designers significant value by leading work before. But, she says, it was that three- to consider what might be wished way collaboration between synthetic Odor artist Sissel Tolaas and synthetic for, especially when most can’t yet biologists, artists and designers, and biologist Christina Agapakis create imagine,” says Drew Endy. Endy is a social scientists that allowed each to cheese in the lab as part of the bioengineering professor at Stanford get something out of it. “Something Synthetic Aesthetics project. University who served as the US different from what we expected.” Principal Investigator on the project. Images courtesy of Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg

18 19 “The idea is to build toward stronger democracies and human rights cultures in the aftermath of mass atrocity.” Five decades of civil war have left Justice will prevail, Colombia with deep and painful wounds. Recently, the Latin American implemented an “Apology Day” as Payne and Sikkink’s work has had country set up a truth commission part of its effort to address its unjust significant impact on international but in what form? to address the deaths, kidnappings, treatment of aboriginals. policies and practices. “We have sexual assaults, and other crimes that provided scientific backing to a set Researchers examine how countries seek accompanied the war in hopes that Payne and Sikkink met in graduate of processes and determined under victims can begin to recover from the school in the 1980s. Years later, what conditions they are most likely to retribution for past national atrocities trauma and rebuild their lives. during a discussion about work, they have the greatest effect,” says Payne. discovered that they were both working In addition, their collaboration is vital Truth commissions are part of what’s on building a database of transitional as they work with international and referred to as transitional justice justice mechanisms. They decided domestic governments. “One of the mechanisms. These mechanisms to complete their work and then advantages that we have through a are efforts to restore a country that’s collaborate to develop a new, more UK-US alliance is a larger international suffered through human rights robust database. With more funding impact,” says Payne. “It’s not just an violations and conflicts by seeking and, as a result, more resources academic project in the US, but, as an justice for victims. Apart from truth and a larger team at their disposal, international alliance, we can have an commissions, criminal trials and the duo also examined alternative impact around the world.” amnesty policies are two of the most accountabilities — justice mechanisms commonly implemented justice that went beyond the three that were As a result, the team is often invited to mechanisms. “The idea is to build most commonly used. These included share their findings with congressional toward stronger democracies and customary justice; civil trials instead of peace committees, constitution human rights cultures in the aftermath criminal trials; and reparation policies. courts, truth commissions, and of mass atrocity,” says Leigh Ann business people. Over the years, they Payne, a professor of sociology at Spain implements some of these have contributed to workshops with the University of Oxford. alternative accountabilities. “A blanket prosecutors and journalists, they have amnesty law protects perpetrators worked with victim groups and other Payne has spent decades studying of past violence from justice, based members of the community as well authoritarian rule and human rights on the notion that the country would as been involved in UN and the World violations across the world. In 2012, otherwise be trapped in the past in Bank projects. she and colleague Kathryn Sikkink, revenge,” says Payne. But the country a human rights academic at Harvard implemented an alternative memory law Impact and success vary depending University, began building a database that allowed victims’ families to seek to on circumstances; however, regardless of transitional justice mechanisms that find the bodies of those killed during the of whether transitional justice countries have implemented so far. For country’s civil war and dictatorship. mechanisms are used in isolation instance, South Africa set up a truth or in combination with alternative commission after the end of apartheid; In several instances, Rwanda also takes accountability mechanisms, there’s one South Korea set one up in response a less traditional approach by relying big takeaway from their research. “[It] to Major General Park Chung-Hee’s on its “gacaca” or “grass court” system, is that doing something contributed military coup against the government in which is a community-led customary positively to human rights culture and 1961 when many people were detained or traditional justice mechanism. democracy,” says Payne. “And that doing Ministers and other officials participate in the inauguration and tortured; and Rwanda began Perpetrators confess their wrongdoing nothing tended to end up harming those ceremony of Brazil’s National Truth Commission. Researchers in genocide trials in response to atrocities to the community and ask for processes of building democracies and the US and UK developed a database that provides information on against Tutsi and Hutu populations. forgiveness, in the process contributing human rights cultures.” the different justice mechanisms such as truth commissions and to truth, healing, and reconciliation. amnesty laws that countries implement to address past human What’s more, says Payne, “there have This research was supported by UKRI’s rights violations. been uses of these mechanisms in “The idea of some of these customary Arts and Humanities Research Council countries that haven’t gone through justice programs is that what’s and the US National Science Foundation. Image courtesy of Wilson Dias/ABr a transition and are, in fact, stable more meaningful to victims of these democracies.” For instance, the atrocities isn’t that somebody ends database also included countries like up in jail; but that that somebody the US that set up a truth commission has to commit to building a stronger in response to the civil rights violence community, to try to repair the harm,” in the 1950s and 60s while Australia says Payne.

20 21 Lehman Brothers was one of many banks hit by the financial crisis of How to emerge from 2007-2008. While recessions are difficult to predict, researchers in the a deep recession US and UK found that policymakers can moderate their impact not only Economists have found that lowering interest by reducing interest rates but also by implementing aggressive fiscal and rates isn’t always enough for a struggling other financial policies. economy to recover

A little over a decade ago, the world In the early 2000s, Evans began to and the Federal government provided a experience to forecast the future. witnessed a recession that came to be examine measures that a government $787 billion fiscal stimulus of increased It’s what’s referred to as an adaptive seen as the worst financial crisis since can implement to moderate the impact government spending and tax cuts over learning approach and, according to the Great Depression of the 1930s. of a deep recession. While in the case 2009-2011. Evans, it’s critical to consider how Stock markets crashed, and banks lost of a recession, it’s usually sufficient to this approach influences fiscal and hundreds of billions of dollars on toxic cut short-term interest rates in a way The Federal Reserve also implemented monetary policies. assets and bad loans. that stimulates the economy and puts a quantitative easing policy, which it back on the road to recovery, Evans involved purchases of various financial In fact, in 2011, the team launched a In addition to huge financial losses, found that with a deep recession that assets, including longer-term treasury conference series, “Expectations in a recession is usually accompanied kind of monetary policy may need to be bonds and some mortgage-backed Dynamic Macroeconomic Models” at by high rates of unemployment along combined with aggressive fiscal policy securities, as a way to stimulate the the University of St. Andrews, where with a shortfall of outputs where the and other financial policies. economy by reducing interest rates on Mitra was formerly based, to explore economy is no longer producing much- a range of assets including longer-term how best to model policies based on needed goods and services such as In fact, that’s exactly what US treasury bonds. the adaptive learning approach. The houses, automobiles, and industrial policymakers did during the most conference series — largely supported machinery. recent financial crisis. In addition to As part of his research on deep by James Bullard, President of the reducing short-term interest rate to near recessions, Evans worked with Seppo Federal Reserve Bank, St. Louis — has

“It’s fundamentally a waste of zero, the U.S. Federal Reserve — the Honkapohja, an economist and rotated through venues around the Image courtesy of David Shankbone resources,” says George Evans, an central bank of the U.S. — implemented Member of the Board at the Bank world including San Francisco, St. economics professor at the University multiple policies that helped ease of Finland, and Kaushik Mitra, who Louis, Amsterdam, Oregon, and Helsinki of Oregon. “It hits some people more stress that comes with a recession. For holds a Chair in Economics at the where the team has discussed their than others but at the most basic level instance, the Federal Reserve, at the University of Birmingham, on the findings with central bank research it’s really a waste.” time headed by Ben Bernanke, more outlook of individuals and firms during economists and policy makers. than doubled federal deposit insurance a recession. They found that the Then there’s a deep recession, which to $250,000 as a way to reassure people key to managing a recession — and “Most policy makers in central banks “As soon as we know a is what the 2007-2008 financial crisis and small businesses that they wouldn’t subsequently averting a depression — have really liked this adaptive learning recession is coming, it’s ended up being. In a deep recession lose their deposits. is to manage expectations. If people approach,” says Evans. “It looks to them output falls by over 10 percent and believe their funds or jobs, for instance, like a plausible way to look at how firms too late not to have a unemployment rates rise drastically. The insurance was also temporarily aren’t secure, they’re less likely to and households form expectations and recession. But we can The challenge with a recession — extended to cover money market continue their spending or make change how optimistic or pessimistic however deep or otherwise — is that mutual funds that a lot of people had large investments. “How optimistic or they are.” moderate its impact.” it’s almost impossible to predict. “You invested in either directly or indirectly. pessimistic households or firms are know one is going to come because “That was just quick changes to try matters a lot,” says Evans. they do,” says Evans. “That’s the nature to restore confidence in people in of macroeconomy.” But, he says, “as the banking system,” says Evans. In The economists found that this soon as we know a recession is coming, addition, the US Treasury implemented optimistic or pessimistic response This research was supported by UKRI’s it’s too late not to have a recession. But a $700 billion Troubled Asset Relief isn’t necessarily based on rational Economic and Social Research Council we can moderate its impact.” Program or TARP to stabilize banks, expectations but rather relies on past and the US National Science Foundation.

22 23 How metals in the brain might play a part in Alzheimer’s

Members of the UK research team Researchers found both chemically reduced iron and watch a fragile plaque core sample various calcium compounds in brain tissue, neither of being loaded into the Diamond Light Source STXM. which are normally found in the brain Image courtesy of Neil Telling

Peer into the brain of an Alzheimer’s The high-resolution nanoscale scans and Telling’s in the synchrotron patient and you’ll see a high density — carried out at the Advanced Light techniques — to delve deeper into “To have people of insoluble deposits or plaques — Source in Berkeley, California, and at the mechanisms that are causing a with this breadth abnormally formed clusters of a protein beamline I08 at the Diamond Light change in the iron chemistry. called amyloid — and tangles, abnormal Source synchrotron in Oxfordshire of expertise, who accumulations of a protein called tau. — showed microscopic particles of “To have people with this breadth of have got immersed Alzheimer’s patients also show atrophy chemically reduced iron distributed expertise, who have got immersed of the cortex and general shrinkage throughout the plaque samples. enough in a project to really take the enough in a of the brain. All this leads to a loss of The species found included a time to understand each other’s areas short-term memory and changes in magnetic iron oxide called magnetite, and contributions, has been essential,” project to really behavior, among other things. which isn’t normally found in the says Collingwood. take the time to brain. The scans also revealed plaque But that’s not all. Our brains contain a regions that were unexpectedly rich These recent findings not only help understand each number of metals including copper, iron, in calcium compounds. advance our understanding of metals other’s areas and and zinc — all of which have different in the brain but also inform future roles in helping the brain function. According to George Perry, a treatments of the disease. According contributions, has And changes in the levels and the neuroscientist at the University of to the Alzheimer’s Association, the chemical form of these metals are tied Texas at San Antonio, the findings disease accounts for 60 to 80 percent been essential.” to neurological disease. For instance, suggest, “there’s a strong interaction of dementia cases, and currently has brains of Alzheimer’s patients have between amyloid and metals critical no known cure. altered distributions and chemical to the development of the disease.” states of iron. Perry has done extensive work on “At this time when the community is Alzheimer’s disease and published desperately trying to treat people and In a recent effort to better understand hundreds of papers on the topic along ideally protect them from developing how metals are organized in the brains with the late Mark Smith, who was the disease … anything that can offer of Alzheimer’s patients, researchers also an expert on Alzheimer’s. In the a way of managing factors that make extracted amyloid plaques from two late 2000s, Smith introduced Perry to cells more vulnerable would be a great deceased patients and scanned them Joanna Collingwood, now a Reader at step forward,” says Collingwood. using Scanning Transmission X-ray the University of Warwick’s School of Microscopy or STXM — an extremely Engineering. Perry and Collingwood This research was supported by UKRI’s powerful microscope that uses x-rays joined forces with Jon Dobson, a Engineering and Physical Sciences A scan of an amyloid plaque core (top) — rather than visible light. bioengineer at University of Florida, Research Council, Diamond Light Source, taken from the brain of an Alzheimer’s patient and Neil Telling at Keele University. the Alzheimer’s Society, the Alzheimer’s — shows the presence of metal deposits They combined their different areas Association, the Semmes and Lowe (arrows, bottom photo). of expertise — for example Perry’s in Foundations, the US National Institute on the biology of the disease, Dobson’s in Minority Health and Health Disparities, Image courtesy of Plascencia-Villa et al 2016, Scientific Reports the mineralization, and Collingwood’s and the US Department of Energy.

24 25 In frigid Antarctica, life exists in the “It’s just the way it is with Antarctic most unexpected places: deep below Antarctica’s icy lakes sea ice in often interconnected lakes work; it’s more like a space program that span the continent. Here, below than any other area of science.” are brimming with life the Antarctic surface, organisms thrive despite the intense cold darkness and isolation from the atmosphere. International collaborations shed light on over 50 countries that are signatories Siegert is also working on measuring continent’s subglacial lakes and melting glaciers The discovery of life in subglacial of the Antarctic Treaty, calls for hot the bottom of the ice sheet over lakes is the product of international water drilling as one of many protective large distances. In fact, until recently, collaboration that began in the mid- measures along with meticulous scientists had managed to measure only 2000s and involved the work of three cleaning and medical-grade sterilization half of the continent’s ice sheet largely major groups: a Russian team that set of research instruments. due to one key logistical challenge: the off to explore Lake Vostok, the largest aircraft that were used to survey the of Antarctica’s 400 or so subglacial In February 2012, Russian researchers area had short ranges of less than 2,000 lakes; a British team that looked at Lake drilled into Lake Vostok, becoming kilometers (approximately 1,200 miles). Researchers offload supplies from an Ellsworth; and a US team that sampled the first to access a subglacial lake. As a result, says Siegert, “50 percent of Ilyushin Il-76 aircraft at an Antarctic Lake Whillans. The groups often worked However, there was some controversy the ice sheet had never been measured base. The supplies were needed for together — sharing advisory panels over their use of kerosene as an before. And we knew nothing about it.” a preliminary geophysical survey of and exchanging ideas on tools and antifreeze drilling fluid with concerns Lake Ellsworth. techniques. that lake samples were contaminated In 2008, Siegert teamed up with Donald as a result. Later that year, the British Blankenship, a senior research scientist Image courtesy of Martin Siegert But drilling into these lakes is no easy team, led by Siegert, faced their own set at the University of Texas at Austin. feat. For starters, scientists must of challenges at Lake Ellsworth when Rather than using a short-range aircraft, get drilling equipment across several their drill failed to work. they used a Basler BT-76 (DC3) — a hundred miles of sea ice over to the lake longer range aircraft that could cover where they must also set up temporary “It took us 10 years to get that project more than 2,000 kilometers without labs; then, because of icy conditions, up and running in the first place and it having to stop to refuel. A few years they have a roughly 24-hour window will probably take another 10 years to later, they were the first to survey before drilled holes close up again and do a repeat,” says Siegert. “It’s just the Totten Glacier in East Antarctica — one refreeze. And, perhaps, most important way it is with Antarctic work; it’s more of the continent’s largest glaciers. of all, they must be very careful to make like a space program than any other Survey results show that the glacier is A Basler BT76 (or DC3) sits at a sure their equipment as well as their area of science.” retreating at an alarming rate as part research camp in Antarctica. An techniques don’t contaminate these of it sits on the ocean, and the warm international team of researchers pristine environments. In January 2013, a US team ocean waters are causing it to melt. As recently began to use these long-range successfully drilled into Lake Whillans, climate change raises the temperature aircraft to acquire ice-surface and “If we go into them without the using methods that adhered to the of ocean waters, this glacier could sub-ice geophysical data. necessary measures to protect them, Antarctic Treaty’s drilling code of cause sea levels to rise by 5 meters. Image courtesy of Jamin Greenbaum then we’ll ruin them,” says Martin conduct. Their samples showed close And, says Siegert, the rest of East Siegert, a glaciologist and professor at to 4,000 species of single-celled life. Antarctica has enough ice that “if the Imperial College London and co-director whole thing melts, sea levels can go up of the Grantham Institute for Climate While the findings were exciting, the by 60 meters.” Change and Environment. “And we’ll big science is still to be done. “We ruin them in their own sake — there’s want to test whether these lakes are Such large-scale surveys are not enough of the planet that’s already been truly habitats for microbes or whether only challenging but crucial, and ruined — but we’ll also ruin them for the microbes are just passing through international cooperation plays a key future scientific purposes.” them,” says Siegert. Researchers are role in their success. “Looking back, it also working to better understand the was an amazing achievement,” says To keep that from happening, in July sediments of the lake’s floor that will Siegert. “And it’s still going.” 2011, the Scientific Committee on likely contain records of ice sheets Antarctic Research developed a code going back millions of years. This research was supported by UKRI’s of conduct for drilling in the Antarctic. Natural Environment Research Council This code, which has been adopted by and the National Science Foundation.

26 27 “With the wealth of What can first-ever information being galaxies tell us about uncovered by observational facilities on our universe? a regular basis, we are now able to test our theoretical Astronomers find recently discovered faint paradigms in previously galaxies are also some of the oldest uncharted regimes.”

About 75,000 light years away, in for Computational Cosmology at very tiny. Bigger objects form over time what might be considered the back Durham University, and Alis Deason, through the constant merger of these yard of the Milky Way, are some of Royal Society University Research smaller entities. “This idea that there’s the faintest galaxies ever observed. Fellow also at Durham University, a hierarchy in terms of how structures Recently, astronomers in the US and created artificial universes using formed is one of the fundamental UK discovered that these faint satellite theoretical modeling to mimic our predictions of the cold dark matter galaxies, first observed about a decade own universe. While working on these model,” says Bose. ago, that orbit the Milky Way are also simulated galaxies, the astronomers some of the oldest entities that exist in noticed a characteristic shape in their There are still several unanswered the universe. distribution: tiny and faint galaxies questions, however. For instance, does were on one side of the diagram the population of these galaxies tell us These galaxies — Segue-1, Bootes I, and brighter galaxies were on the something about our own galaxy such Tucana II and Ursa Major I — are tiny, other. “That shape is what helps you as how the Milky Way formed? What do which is perhaps why astronomers determine essentially when these the different formations within the Milky discovered them relatively recently. galaxies have formed,” says Bose, Way tell us about the abundance of “We’ve had increasingly sensitive and noting that faint galaxies seemed to these first-ever galaxies? sophisticated surveys to be able to form the bulk of stellar content very pick them up,” says Sownak Bose, a early on — when the universe was “One of the nice elements of this postdoctoral fellow at the Center for about 100 million years old — and the research is that it highlights the Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian brighter galaxies seemed to form stars complementarity between theory and and part of the transatlantic team that later on and continue until the present data,” says Bose. “With the wealth Satellite galaxies orbit a computer-simulated galaxy researched these first-ever galaxies. day. Based on this distinct signature in of information being uncovered by that’s designed to mimic our universe. Recently, their theoretical models, the team was observational facilities on a regular researchers in the US and UK found that some of the To make discoveries like this, able to categorize real galaxies in the basis, we are now able to test our tiniest and faintest galaxies (see white circles) in the astronomers not only rely on highly same way. theoretical paradigms in previously vicinity of the Milky Way are also some of the oldest, powerful telescopes to observe uncharted regimes.” possibly forming when the universe was about 100 galaxies but also on theoretical models This recent discovery supports the million years old — compared to its current age of to understand how the galaxies are current model for the evolution of 13.8 billion years. The brighter galaxies (see blue distributed. As part of that effort, Bose, the universe. As part of that model — This research was supported by UKRI’s circles) were formed later on. along with his former PhD advisor known as the Lambda- Cold Dark Matter Science and Technology Facilities Council Image courtesy of the Auriga Project Carlos Frenk, Director of the Institute Model — the first objects to form are and Harvard University.

28 29 Acknowledgements

UKRI North America is grateful to Divya Abhat for preparing the case studies reproduced here. Many thanks to all of the researchers in the UK and the US who spared their valuable time to share their experiences of transatlantic collaboration.

Every effort has been made to identify and acknowledge funding sources for the research featured in this brochure. Despite that, there will be omissions which are in no way deliberate.

Images have been reproduced with kind permission from the photographers, or are used under a Creative Commons licence.

30 31 UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) is the public funder of research and innovation in the United Kingdom. Operating across the whole of the UK with a combined budget of more than £7 billion, UKRI brings together the seven Research Councils, Innovate UK and Research England.

UKRI North America, based in the British Embassy in Washington, DC, represents UKRI in the United States and Canada, promotes dialogue and works with US and Canadian research funders and endowments to create an environment that fosters collaboration. www.ukri.org

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