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Spring 1971 UA68/10/1 Sociological Symposium No. 6 – Adolescence WKU Sociology
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SOCIOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM ADOLESCENCE A BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE JOURNAL
Prepared & Published By An Editor ial Committee Department of Sociology & Anthropology Western Kentucky University
Department Head & Committee Chairman : Clifton D. Bryant, Ph.D.
Design & Production : H. Hepler
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Editor , SOCIOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM Department Of Sociology & Anthropology We stern Kentucky University Bowling Green KY 42101
Published Spring & Fall At Bowling Green, Kentucky Copyright 1970 By Western Kentucky University All Rights Reserved NUMBER SIX / SPRING 1972
S 0 [ I 0 lOG I CAL S Y M P 0 S I U M
THE SOCIOLOGY 01= .AD~lESCENCE
Betty E. Cogswell 1 CO~~~UNICAT ION WITH ADOLESCENTS: A STUDY OF SEX INFORMATION SESSIONS
George E. Dickinson 19 SEX INFORMATION SOURCES OF BLACK & WHITE ADOLESCENTS IN A SOUTHERN COMMUNITY
Mary Jo Huth 23 DRUG ABUSE & AMERICAN YOUTH
Martin L . Levin 39 INTRA-l~AMILIAL PATTERNS OF POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION : THE MODEL OF MALE DOMINANCE RE- EXAMINED
John J . Newman & Martin L. Levin 47 PATTERNS OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN ADOLESCENTS & THEIR PARENTS ON ADOLESCENT RULES
Michael Schwartz 59 EDUCATION & ADOLESCENT ADJUSTMENT
Doris Y. Wilkinson 63 RACIAL BELIEFS OF WHITE ADOLESCENTS : AN EXPLORATORY INQUIRY
J . Gipson "Tells 73 A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE SOCIOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE
ANNOUNCEMENT
CLIFTON D. BRYANT. Ph D. who as the department head served as chairman of the editorial committee and super visor of this journal' s manufacture. announces his reSig nation as pr ofessor and head, department of sociology and anthropology, Western Kentucky UniverSity. Dr. Bryant's new appointment Ouly 1972) is· professor and head, dep:Ht ment of sociology. Virginia Polytechnic ins titute & State University. " = SOCIOLOG I CAL SYMPOS I UM Nu mb e r Six (Spring 1971)
BE TTY E, COGSWELL"
COMMUNICATI ON HITH ADOLES CENTS A STUDY OF SEX I NFORMATION SESS IONS · ·
INTRODUCTION t sex infODnati on for adolescents. the ultimate goal is to reduce the r ate of The practice of holding sex information unwanted adolesce nt pregnancy. sessions for disadvantaged youth in the ir own neighborhoods is a re la tive ly 111is paper r eports a n ongoing study of new developme nt in the United States. sex information sessions which a ttempts TIl is innovation has grown through the to ascertain the cogniti ve s tyles of p ro concern of fam ily planni ng advocates fessiona l service personnel and adoles over the high rate of illegitimate p reg cent youth from low income neighbor na nc ies among tw e lve to twenty year hoods. Our hypothesis is tha t there oids and from the awareness that even will be differences in cogn itive styles if sex e duca tion i s provided by t h e be tween those who prel;icnl sex i.nforma school system m any of these youths witt ti on and those who receive it. It i s fur not b e r eached because Illany have thet: hypothesized tllat an incong- rui ty or dropped out. Although the immedia te varia tion in cognitive s tyles will impetJe goa l of these programs is to provide t he communication p r ocess w tth a con sequent need for professionals to
• ll. COGSWELL (MS , North Ca w linu Sta te ; Ph D, Nor·th Ca r- a lina) is a n a ssis t t 111C u Jta collection inst r ulllcnt dc a nt prorcssor of soc iology, Carolina scrih:.!u in this P:,II)(.' I- W;JS deve loped hy Population Ce nte r . Univers ity or No rth Jane Schoul tz and the <.IlIth( lI-. \Ve wi~h Carolina a t Chapel llill. to thank C. 8. Arnold and M. H. SIISS man for their helpful COl1ll1lenl:s and .... 111is study was supPol·tcd in part hy suggestions in discussing the initial Grant NIl I- KICHD-69-2167. Na ti ona l idea w ith LIS . -nle author a l so wishes to [nstitutc 0 f Child Ile a ltll & Human ~ thunk Jane Schoultz for her insig"htfuJ YClOpiITen t, and in part hy Grant CG comments on an ca r lier draft of thi s 85H.1 , Officc of Econom ic Opportunity. pape r .
ONE 2
modify cognitive s tyles in order to en sente r s are professionals--phys ic ians, hance their communication skills . This social workers, c lergymen, teachers, pape r, however, will discuss only the ma r riage counselors , or health e duca cognitive style of the adole sce nts . tors . In almos t e ve r y instance the y are college educate d, middle class adults . By cognitive s tyle I mean the dominant In c ontrast, the youths who come to wayan individual pe rceives the world, the se sessions live in poverty are as, the response pa tterns he de ve lops to often belong to m inority groups , and handle ideas, to e xperie nce new a nd r e many have little e ducation and intellec curring s ituations , and to communicate tua l training. As a result of these dif with othe rs. It is thought that individ fere nces in backg round and life e xpe ri uals are socialized i.nto cognitive s tyles ence s, presenters and audiences mani early in life. but a s they grow older fest diffe r e nces in cogniti v e s tyle s some investigators believe that the se which impede a CCurate communica tion. s tyles may change through education and r e la ti on s hip s w ith diffe re nt soc ial g roups , organizations and ins titutions. RESEARCH DLFFICUL T lES The quality of one ' s cognitive s tyle is IN LOW INCOME NEIGHBORHOODS hi g hl y influence d by the culture or cul tures in which he has lived. Before discuss ing the study itself, it is impo rtant to mention s om e of the cJ iffi Data f r om the sex information programs c ulties inhe r e nt in resea rch projects in unde r s tudy ha ve been collecte d in two low income ne ighbo L"iloods . TIlroughout c ities--one a large metropolita n area in the countr y. r esicJent s of s lum a reas the m id-Atlantic region a nd the othe r a .:I re reginning to p rotest in vestigations. capita l city in the So uth. In the m id These r csidents say the ir ne ighborhood s Atlantic region sex information sessions h.:lve al re ady heen over- s t\ldied o nd that occurred under the auspices of PI;:lIUled rhey have received nOllC of the pr omised Parenthood. in the southe rn c ity t hey he nefits fl'OIll these stlldics. lJy per- were a n integral pa l-t of a man! COlll son~1l comnlltllication wc ha ve been told prehens ive pn)g n!lll to re du ce unw~l nte d tha t som e CO lll lllLl lliLies 0 11 r!lc West ado l e~ce nt pregnclncy. 1n ha th IUC:H ions COilSt have oq,:C1 lli zcd to pe r mit only howeve r , the s tr uc ture of sessions is those stltdic .-.; appr oved hy ;J cOlllm unity sindla)-. Audiences arc draw ll frolll the boan.! and to r l!q ll irc suhs ta ntia l pay illltllediate neighhor hood and s~ssjolls ment tu rcspondents ror pa rticipation . arc held in loc;1I cl1(11"ches , r ~L:n.. 'ilt ioll Til::! tby or casy resea rch clcces::; to low centers o r cOllllnun iry ce ll te r :-> , Atfn lc:-> i nCO lll c groups is qllickly pclssing. cents ;Ittc ndi ng r ~ l l lge rl- UJl1 ahout twelve The re is :1 n C'x pl-esscd a nathcm.1 for tIl ninctecn ycars (l id ; 110WCVL'r , in iJ wo rds such as resea rc h, expe riment, rew inst:lnccs YOllths inthcir ea rl y twen subject. intel-view ;J 11 d questio nna ir e . ties attend. Pres('nl('I"S tend to conduct To gu in accepclIlcc we have found tha t sessions in 811 informa l fllanller--;.1t we Illust clnnge (JUI" resea rch voca h ~ least infornwl i ll COlll lkll"i soll La t h e la r y. Fo r CXclll lPJc , instead o[ asking a IISll,l l c l-I ss roo111 s tylcs. Ul add il'i on to I) c r son if we nJ oy inte rvie w him , we ;.1 talk, a fi lm or rillll s trip is somc a chieve he tter results hy saying, .. Do timcs shown ;J ntl adolescents a rc en you mind if I ta lk to you a bout ...• " couraged to ask questions. Most pce- or "Would you s it cl ow n and talk to me
--~~------3 about . • In s te a d of i n tro d uc in g assistants led a g r oup of six to twelve oneself hy saying , " I' m involved in a ado I esc e n t s in d iscussion about the study of .••• " o ne ~ets bette r results session. by s aying, " I' ve been tulki ng to some people in this ne ighborhood about . • . " I.n Ma rc h 1970 we a ttempted to deve lop 'nlese pe ople are uni mpressed with aca a more sys tematic data collection in dem ic c re de nt ia ls and the inherent s tr ument* based on i Ilsigh t s gained worth of research. through prelim inary review of the above mentione d sources of data and adm inis Fo r respondent pa rtic ipation it is a lso te red this in the sout hern c ity. 111e necessa r y to develop new data c ollection discussion of findings will show that ou r techniques. G r oup i n te r v i ews often app roach to the development of this in elicit more inform ation tha n individua l str ument was e ither too complex and inte rviews. Conversati ona l inte rview sophis tica te d or too na ive . techniques a r e more easily a cce pte d and questions a re more readily a n Tile inst rument cons is ted of seve nteen swer ed than if the interviewers follow questions and was designed to ide nti fy the us ual procedure of fo r mally reading cognitive styles of adolescents . Eight questions fr om a pre pared interview polar dimensions were selecte d for sche dule or questionna ire. Adolescents exam i nat io n: (1) Specific/Ge ne r a l, in partic ula r m a ke highly negative com (2) Lndividua liS a cia 1 No r m , (3) Pc r ments about se lf - adm iniste red question son<.l t / [mpcrsonn I, (4) Flexible / Rigid, rw ires. Atte ntion spa ns are re latively (5) E xc e ption a l Case/Usual Case, s hort; thus da ta collection mu st be (6) No n-Te chnical / Technic The A answer re presents a social norm FINDINGS a nd the B a nswe r r e pre sents individ ua lity. From previous expe rie nce with low in come adolescents ' r esista nce to paper a nd pencil data c olle ction fo r ms. we Wha t Can A Girl Do were s ur prised to find that they will To Keep Prom Ge tting Pregna nt? ingly partic ipa ted. Although research assistants a chll inis te r ing the instrument (A) Eve ry girl who is not llsing t·eport that expla nation of tll e procedure some form of pr otection should in brought many negative comments such s is t that the boy use a rubber. a s , " Oh, no! Just like schooU" 0 r " I 5 wonder ed when you were going to ask us DIMENSIONS OF COGNITIVE STYLE to do something for you!" - - this mood changed drastically once the tape began. Individual/Social Norm The adolescents evidenced an enthusi asm both non - verbally and verbally. On this dimension. adolescent prefer The no response r a tes fo r individual ence was in the expected direction of questions ra nged from 20%t04. 5% the individual on both questions with (Table 1). Adolescents reported that females s how ing a higher preference they liked these sessions because they than males and with no change in pref learned something and because they had erence by age (Tables 3 & 4). 'This the oppormnity to choose between tw o dimension i s illus trated by the r e correct answers. The game-like qual sponses to the previous ly mentioned ity of the instrument may have also been question--Can a girl ha ve sex while on an incentive. her period? -- and perhaps ha s more stability and more support than any other dimension. In individual inter views about sexual behavior. to ques To analyze the data , percentages were tions on how old one should be when the calculated for adolescent preference fo r boy or girl starts having sex, on what a the A or B response on each of the sev g i r 1 should do if she gets pregnant. enteen item s (Table 2). Because the and on whether boys mind using rub study group is not a r andom sample. bers, the most frequent first r esponse tests for s ignifica nce of difference were is: " It a ll depends." Adolescents will not performed. Adolescents obvious ly then indicate circumstances under which have decided prefe rences. For twelve different choices should be made and questi. ons. over 60% preferr ed a par differences among ind ividuals which af ticular answer with a high of 85% pref fect choice. These same responses are erence in one question. In four ques given by parents, a fact which suggests tions. there is a 55 % to 59% preference. that this is a basic style of these low in Only one question has a 50-50 division. come populations . Socia l norms are When preference percentages are con recognized, but there is also a realiza trolled for male / fema le . we find that tion that there ar e many extenuating females indicate a more decided pref circumstances which make behavior by erence for a response than males in 16 the norm difficult, unrealistic or unten out of 17 questions. able . Flexible / Rigid On the Flexible/Rigid dimension. pref Analysis by inspection of the eight cog erence was in the expected direction nitive s tyle dimensions shows prefer toward the flexible . with fema les show ences in the hypothesized eli rection for ing a higher preference than males and two dimensions and in the opposite with an increase in preference by in direction for two others. For the other crease in age. Flexibility r efers to the four dimensions ther e are inconsisten ability to perceive a lternatives or op cies among questions which comprise tions and respond appropriately to a the dimension. given s itUation. This adaptability and 6 its correlate open-mindedness arc con Personal/Impersonal trasted with the rigidity and close mindcdness of an authoritarian orienta Again preference is contra ry to the ex tion. In flexible responses, presenters pected direction. The impersonal re discuss a variety of techniques for sponse is chosen with females showing events such as birth control. abortion a much higher preference than males or delivery. The presenter offering a and with increase in choice of the im rigid response would discuss and en personal with increasing age. rThi s dorse the one technique he considers dimension was included because those best suited for the given set of circum presenters who attain good rapport with stances implied in the adolescent's the adolescents are asked many per question. The increased preference for sonal questions such as: Are you mar the flexible with increasing age may ried? 00 you have children? What suggest that older adolescents fecI more would you do if ... ? Similar to the competent to make their own decisions last dimension, 0 u r mistake in con when presented with a set of alterna structing the instrument was to portray tives. the personal by having the presente r give a personal opinion on an informa tional question. A rap session of ado lescents presents the duality of their Exceptional Case / Usual Case perspective very well: Here usual refers to the average or I'd rat:1er have more than a doctor' s near average occurrence and the excep or one person's personal opinion, tional to the rarely occurring or never yet 1 still think there has to be some occurring event. 111is di:nension was personal interest. A doctor should included because of the frequency with be able to answer personal questions wh ich adolescents raised questions or without getting himself involved. gave illustrations of the exceptional We want him to come across as a such as: Can a five or six year old girl person. have a baby? I know a woman who had a loop and got cancer! 00 doctors get ex Adolescents also want the privilege of cited when they give a pelvic? I heard asking questions about the presenter's about a woman who got pregnant by a personal life: Are you married? Do dog--is that possible? The preference, you have children? Where do you come contrary to our hypothesis, was for the from? They want a personal approach usual with females choosing this alter but not a personal opinion. to opera native in a higher ratio and with little tiona liz ing both this dimension a nd the difference in preference by age. Ado previous one, we mistake nly transferred lescents obviously do not want present the initiative for brinhring up the per ers to answer a question by c iting an sona l and exceptional fl°0111 adolescent exceptiona l case. Our observations of to presenter. s~ions and lists of questions asked does support however the notion that Remaining Dimensions adolescents do want the freedom to ask aoout the exceptional and want these 10 the four remaining dimensions- - Spe questions to be treated with respect. cific / General, Non- Tech nic a l / 7 Technical, Concrete/Abstract, and Con tion of the questionnaire, research versational/Lecture- -there were incon assistants held rap sessions with the sistencies among questions representing adolescents and asked why they chose the dimensions. For example, on two the answers they did. This source of questions for the Specific/General, ado data as well as rap sessions conducted lescents chose the specific in one in after regular presentations y i e Ide d stance and the general in the other. By some surprising results. These data inspection of the data and review of the will explain my initial comment that our instrument, two inferences can be made A/B instrument was either too sophis about these inconsistencies: ticated or too naive. (1) It is very difficult to construct In many instances a literal meaning of presenter responses representing words taken out of context by ad0tes polar extremes and still give equal cents results in faulty communication. amounts of information in the A and To question 10 on the instrument: Do B response. By crude estimate ten you have to be a certain age before you responses gave more information in can have a baby? one response reads: one alternative than in the other. "No, there is no certain age. Usually a Seven out of ten times the response girl would be able to have a baby be providing the most information was tween the ages of eleven and thirteen." preferred. Adolescents expressed dissatisfaction with this response and said, "Between (2) In several cas e s preference eleven and thirteen? That sounds like appears to be related to the substan after you're thirteen you can't have a tive topic. For example, in a ques kid I" tion on VO the concrete was decid edly preferred to the abstract. In a Sometimes miscom munication results question on homosexuality the ab when adolescents give an unintended stract response was chosen by a literal meaning to a word. This is par much higher proportion than the ticularly true when a lay term is used concrete. VO is a frequent problem in a technical sense. 10 discussing a among these adolescents. Theprac question on menstruation one sixteen tice of homosexuality is infrequent, year old boy says: "1 picked B because although they express a lively inter everybody knows that most girls are on est in discussing the topiC. The their period on the last part of every choices of the adolescents suggest month. " Further comments made it that concrete answers are impor obvious that he meant the end of May, tant when questions deal with prob the end of June, the end of July. If ore lems in their life situation, but the considers the way many physicians or abstract is preferred in matters of teachers explain the 28 day cycle which curiosity and not those of experi terminates with a monthly period, one ence. can begin to imagine why this boy thinks girls have periods at the end of each month. Many presenters after FOR TUITOUS FINDINGS mentioning a 28-30 day cycle use the word "month" as a synonym for cycle. In the five instances after administra- Also the very wording of the colloquial 8 term "monthly period" may be mislead cr acks the shell 7" In descriptions of ing. Late r the s ame boy s aid: "Most physical exams for contraceptives. pre people don't unders tand that the period senters often mention that the physician i s the womb. " The meaning of this takes a his tory. a blood pressure , and statement i s beyond our imagination. s o forth. Among these adolescents , hI-story arouses images of Geor ge Wash In one session that I observed, a girl ington and Abr aham Lincoln. If we in as ked a presente r to explain the rhythm tended to com municate effectively, we method. The presenter. a physician. cannot assume that even simple words gave ate n minute explanation while will be interpreted by the adolescents sketching a chart of the 28 day cytle on according to our intended meaning. In the chartborad. Afte r he completed fact. simple words used in a teclurical this short lecture. anothe r girl asked if sense are apt to r esult in gr eater com he would now explain the rhythm method. munication distortion than c o m pIe x The phys ician was baffled a nd s ilent. A t e chnic a l ter ms. Adolescents are third girl then said: "I thought rhythm aware that they do not know the meaning was the way you moved." "No. that's of terms like fallopian tubes and hyster not it." replied another; " it means you ectomy; but they feel confident that they come and then he comes." Thus we see under stand the simple ter ms corr ectly. that for this group of people rhythm i s an unfor tunate word choice for a speci In sever al ins tances in our instrument, fied period of abstine nce. we found that the choice of one of the two r esponses was based on one key Another physician used the pr eposition wor d. In three questions a slang ter m prior to to avoid confus ion, re ferring was u sed in one response and not in the t o " prior to ovulation" a nd " prior to other. In all t h ree cases the r esponse the egg and sperm meeting , " for exam with the slang term was preferred. and pIe . In the r ap sessions follow ing this infor mation from rap sessions r eveals presentation, the adolescents discussed that these responses were chosen be at length the meaning of this word. The cau se of the Slang. In two questions final consensus of the gr oup \~ as that the phrase in nature appear s in one r e prior to i s an or gan located on the upper sponse and not in the other. Rap ses left hand side of the female ' s a bdomen. s ions revealed that in nature i s equated In one session they mentioned that they with God's will and thi s r esponse i s did not under stand what the pres enter chosen "because God want s it th a t meant when he said: " Fertilization did way. " Thus we cannot rely on an as not occur , so the uterus shed its lin sumption that adolescents are replying ing. " "Shed, shed; what does that to the response as a whole. mean 1" they inquired. "Ah. like shut (shed) the door," they volunteer ed. " It means the uterus i s shut (shed) up and SUMMARY you can't get pr egnant." Data gathered through rap sessions and Many other term s have caused compli observation cas t doubt on t he actual cations. After an explanation of how meaning attributed to simple words by the egg comes down the fallopian tubes, the adolescents in this s tudy. If mis a twelve ye a r old boy asked : "Who repre sen tation s such as those just 9 illustrated occur frequently among this These findings point up very clearly that population, and if this extends to a wide research in poverty neighborhoods is variety of words in our normal vocabu much more problematic than we begin to lary. the validity of responses to sim enviSion. The validity of responses to ple language is highly uncertain. If this questionnaires and standardized data particular study had not included sev collection instruments becomes dubiOUS. eral methods of data collection in addi Ways to reduce communication distor.,. tion to the A / B questionnaire, this pa tion are obscure. It is almost impossi per would most probably contain num ble to ask directly about the meaning of erous inferences based on a set of com words, questions and statements . and to puter print-outs. The presentation account for variations in meaning stem would have been logical and probably ming from different contexts. My pri convincing. If the validity of findings mary suggestion is that in research de were questioned. it is unlikely that signs for studies in poverty neighbor these questions would deal with the hoods. open informal techniques for meaning of simple terms. data collection be coupled with more formal approaches. (Tables Follow) ------10 TABLE 1 TOTAL POPULAT ION : ANSWERED NE I THER OR BOTH AlB Neither Both Di mension Ql* 13 14.6% 0 Specific/General Q3 18 20. 2 0 Q2 10 11. 2 0 Individual/Social Norm Qll 7 7.9 0 Q4 7 7. 9 0 Personal/Impersonal Q8 10 11. 2 0 Q14 6 6.7 2 2.2% Q5 6 6.7 2 2.2 Flexible/Ri gid Q16 7 7.9 0 Q6 14 15.7 0 Exceptional/Usual Ql0 6 6.7 0 Q7 4 4.5 0 Non-Techni cal/Technical Q9 7 7.9 1 1.1 Q12 7 7.9 0 Concret e/Abstract Q13 8 9.0 0 Q15 7 7.9 0 Q17 9 10.1 0 Conversational/Lecture * Question Number Total Population: 89 11 TABLE 2 TOTAL ADOLESCENT POPULATION PREFERENCES BY COGNITIVE STYLE DIMENSIONS Hypothesized Non-Hypothesized Response Response % Difference % (N) % (N) (TN) Columns 2 & 4 Specific General Q1* 44.7 (34) 55.3 (42) (76) 10. 6 Q3 62 . 0 (44) 38.0 (27) (71) 24 . 0 Individual Social Norm Q2 69.6 (55) 30 . 4 (24) (79) 39. 2 Qll 63 . 4 (52) 36.6 (30) (82) 26 . 8 Personal Impersonal Q4 45.1 (37) 54.9 (45) (82) 9.8 Q8 38 . 0 (30) 62.0 (49) (79) 24 .0 Q14 29 . 6 (24) 70.4 (57) (81) 40 . 8 Flexible Rigid Q5 74.1 (60) 25.9 (21) (81) 48 . 2 Q16 61.0 (SO) 39.0 (32) (82) 22 . 0 * Question Number (Conti nue d ) • 12 TABLE 2 (Continued) • Hypothesized Non-Hypothesized Response Response % Difference % (N) % (N) (TN) Co lumns 2 & 4 Exceptional Usual Q6 * 45 . 3 (34) 54.7 ( 41) (75) 9.4 Q10 14 . 5 (12) 85.5 (71) (83) 71.0 Non-Technical Technical Q7 50 . 6 ( 43) 49.4 (42) (85) 1.2 Q9 30.9 (25) 69 . 1 (56) (81) 38.2 Concrete Abstract Q12 36.6 (30) 63.4 (52) (82) 26.8 Q13 63.0 (51) 37.0 (30) (81) 26.0 Q15 30.5 (25) 69.5 (57) (82) 39.0 Conversational** Lecture Q17 41.3 (33) 58 . 8 (47) (80) 17.5 * Question Number ** See Flexible/Rigid for Q16 which is also a part of the Conversational/Lecture Dimension. 13 TABLE 3 TOTAL ADOLESCENT POPULATION PREFERENCES BY COGNITIVE STYLE DIMENSIONS & SEX Hypothesized Non-Hypothesized Response Response % Difference % (N) % (N) ( TN) Columns 2 & 4 Specific General Q1* M 50 . 0 (21) 50 . 0 (21) (42) 0.0 F 38.2 (13) 61.8 (21) (34) 23 . 6 Q3 M 67.5 (27) 32.5 (13) (40) 35.0 F 54 . 8 (17) 45.2 (14) (31) 9. 6 Individual Social Norm Q2 M 62 . 2 (28) 37.8 (17) (45) 24 . 4 F 79 . 4 (27) 20 . 6 (7) (34) 58 . 8 Qll M 53.3 (24) 46.7 (21) (45) 6. 6 F 75.7 (28) 24.3 ( 9) (37) 51. 4 Personal Impersonal Q4 M 52.2 (24) 47.8 (22) (46) 4 . 4 F 36 . 1 (13) 63 . 9 (23) (36) 27 . 8 Q8 M 45 . 2 (19) 54.8 (23) (42) 9.6 F 29.7 (11) 70 . 3 (26) (37) 40.6 Q14 M 31.8 (14) 68.2 (30) (44) 36.4 F 27 . 0 (10) 73 . 0 (27) (37) 46.0 Flexible Rigid Q5 M 61.4 (27) 38.6 (17) (44) 22 . 8 F 89.2 (33) 10.8 ( 4) (37) 78. 4 Q16 M 57.8 (26) 42.2 (19) (45) 15.6 F 64.9 (24) 35 . 1 (13) (37) 29.8 N = Number * Question Number M = Male TN = Total Number F = Female (Continued) 14 TABLE 3 (Continue d) Hypo thesized Non-Hypothesized Response Re sponse % Difference % (N) % (N) (TN) Columns 2 & 4 Exceptional Us ua l Q6* M 47 . 5 (19) 52 .5 (21) (40) 5. 0 F 42 . 9 (15) 57 .1 (20) (35) 14.2 Ql0 M 17.0 ( 8) 83 .0 (39) (47) 66.0 F 11.1 ( 4) 88.9 (32) (36) 77 . 8 Non-Technical Technical Q7 M 42 .6 (20) 57.4 (27) (47 ) 14 .8 F 60.5 (23) 39 . 5 (15) (38) 21. 0 Q9 M 35 . 7 (1 5) 64.3 (27) (42) 28 .6 F 25.6 (10) 74 .4 (29) (39) 48 . 8 Concrete Abstrac t Q12 M 42 . 2 (19) 57 . 8 (26) (45) 15 . 6 F 29 .7 (11) 70 .3 (26) (37) 40.6 Q13 M 58 . 1 (25) 41.9 (18) (43 ) 16. 2 F 68 . 4 (26) 31. 6 (12) (38) 36.8 Q15 M 31.1 (1 4) 68 .9 (31) (4 5) 37.8 F 29. 7 (11) 70 . 3 (26) (37) 40.6 Conversational** Lecture Q17 M 48.8 (21 ) 51. 2 (22) (43) 2.4 F 32.4 (12) 67.6 (2 5) (37) 35 . 2 N "" Number M- Ma le TN • Total Number F · Female * Question Number ** See Flexible/ Rigid f or Q16 which is also a part of the Conversational/Lecture Dimension. 15 TABLE 4 TOTAL ADOLESCENT POPULATION PREFERENCES BY COGNITIVE STYLE DIMENSIONS & AGE Hypothesized Response Non-Hypothesized Response % (N) % (N) (T N) Specific General Q1 ' a 50 . 0 (13) 50.0 (13) (26) b 37 .5 ( 9) 62 . 5 (15) (24) c 46 . 2 (12) 53 . 8 (14) (26) Q3 a 60 .9 (14) 39 . 1 ( 9) (23) b 65 . 4 (17) 34 .6 ( 9) (26) c 59 . 1 (13) 40 . 9 ( 9) (22) Individual Social Norm Q2 a 69 . 2 (18) 30 . 8 ( 8) (26) b 70. 4 (19) 29 . 6 ( 8) (27) 69 . 2 (18) 30 . 8 ( 8) c , (26) Qll a 58 . 6 (17) 41.4 (12) (29) b 75.0 (21) 25.0 ( 7) (28) c 56 . 0 (14) 44 . 0 (11) (25) Personal Impersonal Q4 a 50.0 (15) 50.0 (15) (30) b 46 . 2 (12) 53.8 (14) (26) c 38.5 (10) 61.5 (16) (26) Q8 a 46.4 (13) 53.6 (15) (28) b 24 . 0 ( 6) 76 . 0 (19) (25) c 42.3 (11) 57.7 (15) (26) Q14 a 40 . 7 (11) 59 .3 (16) (27) b 24 . 1 (7) 75.9 (22) (29) c 24 . 0 ( 6) 76.0 (19) 925) N "'" Number * Question Number a • 11- 14 Years Old TN m Total Number b = 15-16 Years Ol d c • 17 Years Old & Over (Continued) 16 TABLE 4 (Continued) Hypothesized Response Non- Hypothesized Response % (N) % (N) (TN) Flexible Rigid Q5* a 62.1 (18) 37.9 (11) (29) b 76 . 9 (20) 23 .1 ( 6) (26) c 84.6 (22) 15 . 4 ( 4) (26) Q16 a 65 . 5 (19) 34 . 5 (10) (29) b 72.4 (21) 27.6 ( 8) (29) c 41. 7 (10) 58.3 (14) (24) Exceptional Usual Q6 a 48.0 (12) 52.0 (13) (25) b 40.7 (11) 59.3 (16) (27) c 47 . 8 (11) 52.2 (12) (23) QI 0 a 14.3 ( 4) 85.7 (24) (28) b 7.4 ( 2) 92.6 (25) (27) c 21.4 ( 6) 78 .6 (22) (28) Non-Technical Technical Q7 a 51. 7 (15) 48.3 (14) (29) b 50 .0 (15) 50.0 (15) (30) c 50 . 0 (13) 50.0 (13) (26) Q9 a 36 . 0 ( 9) 64.0 (16) (2 5) b 20 . 7 ( 6) 79.3 (23) (29) c 37.0 (10) 63.0 (17) (27) N = Number * Question Number a • 11-14 Years Old TN = Total Number b • 15-16 Years Ol d c • 17 Years Old & Over ( Co ntinued) 17 TABLE 4 (Conti nued) Hypothesized Response Non- Hypothesized Response % (N) % (N) (TN) Concrete Abstract Q12 * a 48 . 1 (13) 51. 9 (14) (27) b 20. 7 ( 6) 79.3 (23) (29) c 42 . 3 (11) 57 . 7 (15) (26) Q13 a 42 . 3 (11) 57 . 7 (15) (26) b 75 . 9 (22) 24 . 1 (7) (29) c 69 . 2 (18) 30 . 8 ( 8) (26) Q15 a 29 . 6 ( 8) 70 . 4 (19) (27) b 31. 0 ( 9) 69 . 0 (20) (29) c 30 . 8 ( 8) 69.2 (18) (26) Conversational** Lectur e Q17 a 32 . 0 ( 8) 68 . 0 (17) (25) b 31.0 ( 9) 69 . 0 (20) (29) c 61. 5 (16) 38 . 5 (10) (26 ) N = Number a • 11-14 Years Old TN Total Numbe r b • 15-16 Years Old c = 17 Years Old 6. Over * Question Number ** See Flexible/ Rigid for Q16 which is also a part of the Conversational /Lecture Dimensio n . I SOCIOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM Number Six (Spring 1971) GEORGE Eo 01 CKI NSON' SEX IN FORMATI ON SOURCES OF BLACK & WHI TE ADOLESCEN TS IN .A SOUTHERN CO'1MUN ITY" THE ADEQUACY of various sex inform region (county population density: 25) at ation sources has been debated quite fre the western edge of the Bible Belt . TIle quently since the late 1960's; therefore community's racial composition con research on this topic by social scien sists of s ixty-nine percent Wh ites and tists should aid in giving insight to these thirty-one percent Blacks (1960 census). discussions. The purpose of this re Since the 1870's there have been racial port is to ascertain the stated source of ly-based differences in various aspects sex information of Black and White ado of the community life. Some examples lescents in a southern communi ty and of race differences in the early 1960' s relate this source with preferred source are: as s tated by the adolescents. ( 1) Average Household Size: THE SETTING Blacks: 3. 4 Whites: 2. 8 This study was made in a northeast Texas community (population of 4000) (2) Median Gross Family Income: located in a sparsely populated agrarian Blacks : Less than $ 2000 Whites: More than $ 4000 • G. DICKINSON (M Ao Baylor; Ph Do (3) Sex Ratio: Louisiana Sta te ) i s an assistant profes Blacks: 84 sor. sociology & anthropology. Gustavus Whites: 89 Adolphus College. (4) Socio- Economic Status: •• This research note is an excerpt (Warner Index of from "Small town: a sociological analy Status Characteristics)+ sis of an east Texas c ommunity" (MA Blacks: 91% Lower Class thesis, Baylor University. 1964) . Wlrttes: 20% Lower Class NI NETEEN 20 (5) Median Education Achie vement for thirty- four percent of Black adoles (Year s) cents, for seventeen percent of Whites. Blacks : c 7 Friends was the major source of in Whites: c 9 formation for thirty percent of the Whites while only seven percent of Black adolescents cited this source. (Table) METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES Each respondent was further asked: In The population from which data were ob your opinion, from what source should taine d for this investigation was com one receive most of his sex informa posed of the sophomore, junior and sen tion? Responses here do not correspond ior classes of the Black and White' high with the actual sources of sex informa schools in the community. The number tion since s ixty-eight percent of the of respondents was 367 with the break Blacks and seventy- four percent of the down of the sample by sex and race be Wh ites named Parents. (Table) 1Wenty ing 119 White females. 141 White males, four percent of Blacks preferred Books. 57 Black females and 50 Black males. Pamphlets & Other Reading Material as This represents e ighty- seven percent of compared to only six percent of Whites. the tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades Friends as a preferred sour ce of sex who wer e enrolled in the spring of 1964 information was listed by fewe r than s ix in the two high s chools . TIle remaining percent of both Black and White adoles thirteen pe rcent were a b sen t from cents. School on the days when information was sought. Thus Books, Pamphlets & Other Reading Material appears to be more significant The research instrument utilized was a to Black adolescents than to Whites in questionnaire which was administered actual sources used and in preferred in the classroom. Only a small portion choice. Friends is given as a major of the information obtained was u~ed for source of sex information for Whites, this paper. especia lly males, but plays a minor role in the sex education of Black ado lescents . Very few Blacks or Whites preferred Friends as a major sex in FINDINGS formation source. Each respondent was asked: What is your major source of sex information? CONCLUSIONS For fifty-one percent of the Blacks and thirty-two percent of the Whites, the r e While the majority of both Black and sponse was: Parents. (See Table for a White adolescents prefers Parents as breakdown of responses by race and sex their major source of sex education, as well as to which parent the student these data reveal that parents are not made reference.) Books, Pamphlets & the major Source for the majority of Other Reading Material was the sour ce adoLescents. The fact that pa rents of mack adolescents are a major source of + See Warner (1960) 1 21~2 9 for com sex information more than for the Whites putational techniques of IS C . may suggest that communication lines 21 TABLE 1 STATED VERSUS PREFERRED SOURCES OF SEX INFORMATION OF BLACK & WHITE ADOLESCENTS Race & Sex Stated Preferred Signi ficance Level Of Ado l escents Source Source Of Chi-Square Parent Of Same Sex Males : Black 12 (24)* 13 (26) Hhite 10 (7) 44 (31) .01 Females : Black 17 (29) 12 (21) . 05 White 35 (29) 55 (46) Parent Of Opposite Sex Males : Black 4 (8 ) 5 (10) Number of responses White 7 ( 5) 3 ( 2) too small to test for significance Females : Black 1 ( 2) 3 ( 5) with Chi-Square White 0 0 Both Parents Males: Black 8 (16) 9 (18) NS White 21 (15) 54 ( 38) Females : Black 13 (23 ) 31 (55) NS White 11 (9) 36 (30) Books, Pamphlets & Other Reading Material Males : Black 14 (28) 17 (34) . 01 White 30 (21) 10 (7) Females: Black 22 (39) 9 (15) NS Hhite 14 (12) 6 (5) Friends Males: Black 7 (14) 4 (8 ) Number of responses White 49 (35) 8 ( 6) too small to test for significance Females: Black 1 ( 2) 0 with Chi-Square White 30 (25) 4 ( 3) * Percentages given in parentheses. 22 within Black families are more open authority patterns of Black families. than in White families or that perhaps Black parents in this study simply fulfill These findings challenge the argument the role of sex informant for their off of many opponents of sex education in spring to a greater extent than White school that the function of sex education parents. However. the role of sex in sho"Jld remain with the family. (See former cO:Jl d be a latent function of par Baker 1969: 210-17 for a summary of ents since they lllay not conscio'Jsly these argum,ents.) D3.ta presented here make an effort to "ed-Jcate" their off fail to give major s'Jpport to the family spr ing but through t,.eir wor d of "mouth functioning in the role of sex education. and deed" may achially be socializing Thus , according to this report. the ar their children concerning sexual mat gument to leave the sex education func ters. From data analyzed here. one tion with the family is not warranted. cannot ascertain if the sex information derived from parents was done ina Assuming that sex education is a signi manifest "Let's sit down and talk about ficant aspect of the socialization of the birds and bees!" type of approach these adolescents and that adequate sex or if it was a latent function. Pursuance education is or should be a societal of this question by further research goal, the source which would adequately would be of interest to social scientists. serve the majority sf individuals would be the best source to utilize. Despite the fact that these adolescents" ideally" The Black father as a sex informant is desire parenta l sources of sex informa mor e" successful" than the White one, tion, experience has shown this source this research showing that the White fa to be inadequate in reaching the majority ther i s a major source of sex informa of adolescents. Since by state law indi tion in only seven percent of the cases vidLlals are required to attend s(!ho~l c ited, whereas the Black father i s the until they reach a certain age, the source in tvventy-four percent of the school system might well be the answer cases - -a finding contradictory to re to the dilemma of sex information ports which s tress the matriarchal sources • ._-_._------ BIBLlOG RAPHY BAKER, L. G., Jr. The Rising furor over sex education. The Family Coordinator (July 1969) 210-17. WARNER, L. W. Social Class In America. New York: Harper & Row, 1960. SOCIOLOG I CAL SYMPOSIUM Num b er Six (Spring 1971) MARY JO H UTH* DRUG ABUSE & AME~ICAN YOU TH EXTENT OF TH E PROBLEM the ages of e ighteen and twenty-five, reflecting the gradual decline in the av ESTIMA TES of t he number of drug ad erage age of drug users. D.lring the dicts in the United States vary consider 1960's for example, while the total num ably from a low of 60.000 to a high of ber of arrests for drug related offenses 200. 000. but it is generally conceded increased 325 percent, juvenile arrests that there are more a ddicts in this coun increased 1860 percent. 1 try than in all Western nations com bined. Since the supplying and use of drugs outside the context of medical THE PROBLEM AMONG TEENAGERS treatment are illegal practices in the United States. drug traffic is restricted The fi rst teenage drug fad in the United largely to metropolitan areas on the States. a relatively innocuous one based east and west coasts and to other major on the myth that one could get "high" on transportation centers such as Chicago, a combination of aspi rin and coke, ap Detroit and Miami. Florida, where sup peared in the m id 1940' s . Ln the m id pliers have a large number of potential 1960's however. two dangerous drug users and addicts can easily maintain fads became popular among Amer ican anonymity. [n the early par t of this teenagers- -glue sniffing and the inhala century drug addiction was primarily a tion of fumes from various solvents and phenomenon of the middle and later amyl nitr ate (Amy Joy), a potent drug years of life . but current data suggest prescribed for relief of the painful heart that as many as one-third of the addicts ailment. angina pectoris. Today's in the United States a re youths between youth are resorting to even more dan gerous for m s of drug abuse - - the oral and/or intr avenous ingestion of LSD. >II M. l-flJTI-I (MA, Indiana; PhD, Saint Louis) is an associate professor of so ciology, department of sociology. an 1 J. Lngersoll. Drug menace: how thropology & social work. University of serious? U. S. News & World Report Dayton. (25 May 1970) "38. TWENTY -THREE 24 marijuana, amphetamines, barbiturates estimated at between five and twenty and to a lesser extent heroin. Of the pe rcent with a concentration of users in 900 pe rsons who died in 1969 from her the college of arts and sciences, the oin related causes in New York City for graduate school , and the schools of art, example, 224 (c 25 %) were teenagers archi tecture, drama and music as op and t\Yenty-four of these were under fif posed to the schools of agriculture, bus teen years of age. 2 iness administration, education and en gineering. At the bottom of the list in terms of student drug use (less than 5 %) DRUG ABUSE are those institutions of higher learning AMONG COLLEGE S'IUDENTS where the vast majority of American EXAGGERATED college students are enrolled -- state teachers' colleges, junior colleges, Ther e is a high correlation between the community colleges. smaller denomina intellectual "climate" of a college and tional colleges. and most Catholic cot the incidence of drug use among its leges and universities -- and which are students. The highest incidence is found char acterized by a strong vocational at sm all, progressive, Uve ral arts col orientation and the presence of str ong leges with superior students as meas student subcultures centered a round so ured by College lloards - - colleges with a cial and sports activities. If the single non-vocational orientation, a high facul larges t group of student drug users- ty-student ratio. close student - faculty "taste r s" who have t.ried drugs a few relationships, and a great emphasis on times out of curiosity but who have no academic and personal fr eedom. At plans to continue -- are excluded f['ol11 perhaps a dozen or so such college3, in conSideration however, fewer than five cluding Antioch, Reed, Swarthmore and percent of our nation's total cotlege Wesleyan (Connecticut), the proportion population could be labeled Drug Abus of students which has tried marijuana ers -- students who have experimented or some other hallucinogen probably ex with a variety of drugs and who have ceeds fifty percent, but there are more made drug use the central focus of their than 2200 other colleges in the country. college lives. 3 For these young men Lesser rates of student drug use (10 to and women, generally called Pot Heads 50%) not only characterize the college or Acid Heads by their contemporaries, of arts and sciences at such private uni dL-Ug use is not just an inter mittent as versities as Harvard, Yale, Stanford sist in the pursuit of meaning but an ex and Chicago and at such large state uni preSSion of their membership in a col versities as Michigan, Wisconsin and legiate version of the Hippie subculture. California , but also at such major tech nical schools as Cal Tech and MIT which are notable for their recruitment of high ability students and fo r their emphasis on intellectual excellence and academic freedom . Rates of student drug use at most state universities are 3 K. Keniston, Drug problem among students--how bad: What's back of it ? U. S. News & Wo rld Report (24 p.,·larch 2 [bid. 1969) 90. 25 MARIJUANA USE period to harvest and hide the illicit AMONG AMERICAN G. I. ·S crop. Although the South Vietnamese IN VIE1NAM Government, at the i nsistence of United States officials, issued a decree (8 Oc Various studies have shown that thirty tober 1968) making it illegal to grow, to fifty percent of the American troops sell or use marijuana, enforcement has in Vietnam have used marijuana and that been weak. 5 The Saigon Government the percentage is r is ing as evide nced by seems to feel that since the use of mari the fact that marijuana related a r rests juana is mainly a problem among Amer have increased about 3000 percent s ince ican military fo rces, the United States 1965. Vietnam marijuana. a much Government should bear primar y re s tronger variety than that available in sponsibility for its control. Besides the States, may be purchased at any American military commanders' con newsstand or bar or from any prostitute cern about the negative effects of mari or taxi driver for as little as five to fif juana use upon the performance of our teen cents per c igarette, because about combat t roops, there is the problem of JOO . 000 kilograms of processed mari relieving addicts of dependence upon the juana are produced annually in Vie tnam drug a t the termination of their tours of and one kilogram makes 1000 cigarettes. duty. The United States Government is Since no marijuana cigarette factory has currently establishing some twenty-five yet been found , it is surmised that the treatment centers in various parts of reefers are packed in homes and shops the United States for this pur pose. on a kind of cottaged industry basis . The farmers who supply these packers Besides the largely physical repercus bring the marijuana to Saigon on market sions of drug abuse cited in the chart on day hidden among other goods and food the following pages, there are drastic stuffs such as r ice and corn. socio- economic consequences. Drug abusers are not only exploited financial Little marijuana was grown until Amer ly by their underworld suppliers (organ ican troops began arriving in large num ized crime annually reaps at least $300 bers in 1965 ; since that time however, m illion in profits from illicit drug traf marijuana production has been detected fic) , 6 but they are frequently forced in in six provinces. The search for mari to prostitution, theft (the average heroin juana, usually found growing amidst r ice addict steals some $50, 000 worth of fields , is conducted from low and s low property annually), 7 or into drug-push flying American helicopters. When ing itself to secure sufficient funds to spotted an order is sent to the South support their habit. If arrested and im Vietnamese national police to burn the prisoned for one or more of these plants within twenty- four hours . Many crimes, they are branded as criminals, farmers who have caught on to what the helicopters are searchingfor have suffi cient time elur ing this twenty-four hour 5 Marijuana--the other enemy in viet nam , 69. 6 Congressional Record (12 October 4 Marijuana--the other enemy in viet 1970) E 9190. nam, U. S. News & World Report (26 7 Congressional Record (9 July 1970) January 1970) 6S. E 6455. - I"'" 8 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF TIlE MOS T COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS N Drugs What They Are Effects Morphine nus principal component of opium i s Man is very sensitive to its respira (M, dreamer) a sedative & analgesic . It comes in tory-depressant effe ct until tolerance several forms: crystalline powder, develops. Psychic & physical depend light porous cubes, or small white ence* develop quickly; deprivation re tablets. sults in a characteristic withdrawal syndrome: running eyes & nose, nau sea & vomiting. abdominal cramps & diarrhea, m ild temperature & chills , bone-ache & restlessness. Heroin Heroin is diacetylmorphine. an alka O:!pendence liability greater than for (snow, stuff, H, junk) loid derived from morphine; a white. morphine, but other effects similar. off-white, or brown crystalline pow der J it is the choice drug of opiate addicts . Codeine A derivative of morphine . but in Novices consume it in liquid prepara most cases, much less effective than tio ns (cough medicine) for "kicks, " morphine . but large amounts required to pro duce effect; occasionally used by op iate dependent persons to tide them over, but with inadequate results . 8 Congressional Record (5 November 1969) S 13808 . • In recent years physicians & psychiatrists have been using the term Drug .Q:!pendence to include both addiction (im plies physiological dependence, tolerance for increasingly large doses, & withdrawal symptoms) and habituation (con tinuous use of drugs due to psychological rather than physiological dependence. Description Of Drugs (Continued) Drugs What They Are Effects Cocaine Extracted from the leaves of the co Convuls ions & death may result fr om (the leaf, snow, speedballs when ca bu s h, it is a white , ordorless, an overdose; par anoid activity; pro mixed with herOin) fluffy powder which resembles crys- duces very s trong p s y chi c depend talline snow. ence , but no physical dependence or tolerance . Amphetamine Amphetamines are stimulants pre Can cause high blood pressure, ab (bennies, copilots, footballs, hearts. scribed by physicians chiefly to r e nor mal heart rhythms, & e ven heart pep pills) duce appetite & to relieve minor cas attacks . Teenagers who take it to in es of depression. Often used to pro crease the ir nerve may behave reck mote wakefulness or alertness & to lessly. Excessive use can cause hal increase energy. lucinations & excitability. Tolerance to large doses acquired by a busers; psychic but no physical dependence results; there i s no typical withdr aw- al syndrome. Methamphetamine A very strong s timulant used medi Effects r esemble those pr oduced by (speed, crystal) cally to treat obesity & narcolepsy. amphetamine, but a r e mor e marked- e xt r em e r estlessness, irritability, violence, & paranoid r eactions -- & toxicity is greater - - psychotoxiC ef- fects sometimes fatal. N " Description Of Drugs (Continued) N 00 Drugs What They Are Effects Barbiturates Sedatives prescribed by physicians Produce both psychic & physical de (red birds. yellow jackets. blue to induce sleep or to provide calm pendence; many deaths each year from heavens, goof balls) ing effects. intentional & unintentional overtinses. Potentiation when combined with alco hol also hazardous--coma & even death may result from respiratory failure. Withdrawal syndrome--potentially fa tal convulsions resembling epileptic seizure s- -cha racteristically different from that associated with opiates. Synthetic Hallucinogens·· LSD is a lysergic acid derivative; Even small doses may cause halluci (LSD, acid) mescaline is a chemical taken from nations lasting for days & psychotoxic peyote cactus; and psilocybin is syn episodes may recur months after an thesized from Mexican mushrooms. injection--victim "sees" smells. "hears" colors, tries to fly, & brush es imaginary insects from his body. Damage to chromosomes, & hence po tentiallyto offspring, has been demon- strated. Marijuana The dried flowering or fruiting top The vivid visions & exhilaration re (pot. grass. joints, weed, Mary of the Canabis sativa plant, com sulting from the use of marijuana of Jane, reefers, sticks) monlycalled Indian hemp. Usually ten lead to dangerous behavior; acci - - a natural hallucinogen looks like fine, green tobacco. dent- proneness due to time & space distortion; psychic but no physical de- pendence • •• The term Psychedelic Drugs is frequently used to include both natural & synthetic hallUCinogens. 29 which in turn jeopardizes their employ has been used for years by Negro and ment opportunities, oftentimes resulting Mexican American youths as an escape in their becoming further involved in from blighted reality: lack of education criminal activity as a means of obtain al opportunity, unemployment, poverty, ing a live lihood. The effects of drug welfare dependency, dilapidated hous abuse on the user's family, if he or she ing, malnutrition, inadequate medical is married, are also serious: poverty care, disorganized family life. Stress with all its implications and sometimes ing the relationship between family addicted offspring due e ither to congeni p roblems and drug abuse, Chein et al tal factors or to example. reported that separation, divorce, open hostility, and lack of warmth and mutual interest characterized the marital rela MAJOR EXPLANATIONS tionship in ninety-seven percent of the FOR DRUG ABUSE heroin users' homes they studied. In AMONG TODA Y'S YOUTH eighty percent of the cases, users ex perienced an e xtremely weak rela tion Why have so many of our young people ship with their fathers , and in forty turned to drugs? This is a major ques eight percent of the cases a father fig tion which parents and other laymen are u r e was absent during the greater part asking today of various professionals- of their childhood. Moreover parental psychologists, psychiatrists, sociolo norms were described as vague or in gists, clergymen and educators. Ad consistent in sixty-three percent of the mitting that in any particular case of cases. 11 drug abuse there are usually several motivating factors and that the combina In recent years however, there has been tion of factors m ay change from time to a dramatic increase in heroin use by time, Or. Emil S. Trellis9 has classi white adolescents from middle and up fied the basic causes of the problem in per income families . Affluence has un three interdependent categories: intra dermined personal relationships within psychic, intrafamilial and intrasocial. 10 the American family in several insidi In other words, the causes of drug abuse ous ways. Husbands and fathers in af reside in the psychological make up of fluent families often devote most of the individual drug user, in his family their time to their professions and tend relationships, and in the context of the to be perceived by their wives and child larger society in which he lives. ren as self-propelled robots who dress in three-piece suits, carry an attache case, and provide expensive gifts and AN ESCAPE FROM other "advantages" -- cars, stereo and UNPLEASANT REALITIES tv sets, furs. jewelry. sports equip ment, maid service. governesses. ex In the ghettos of our large cities heroin c lusive c I u b memberships, private schooling, and foreign travel-- as a 9 Former Psychiatric Chief, Women's Addiction Service, United States Public Health Service Hospital, Lexington KY 11 I. Chein. D. Gerard. R. Lee & E. 10 Congressional Record (25 Septem Rosenfeld, The Road To H (New York: ber 1969) E 7845. Basic Books, 1964) 272-73. - 30 compensation for the fathers' lack of ted to the concept of "better living personal involvement and interaction through chemistry" -- chemical fertil with other family members. Wives and izers are used to produce bigger and mothers, desperate to be "interesting" better crops; chemicals are dropped in persons, are often involved in an exces clouds to contr ol s torms; chemical sive number of activities outside the preparations are used by international home, many of which their adolescent agencies to 'Control diseases and popula children view as "phoney.·t This sirua tion gr owth in underdeveloped nations; tion is compounded by the gap which chemicals such as tear gas and mace these youths observe between their life are frequently used to restrain crowds- style and that of most other people, and it is not surprising that many youngpeo they soon come to the conclusion that pIe resort to chemicals as a means of their own lives are "unreal." Such coping with their personal problems. young people are not only attracted to psychedelic drugs in an effort to see "life as it r eally is." but they may be come Hippies and emulate lower class life considered by them to be more au thentic or genuine than thei!:' own. AN EXPRESSION OF ADOLESCENT NEEDS Un like more experienced drug users who take specific drugs because of the AN ASSIST IN CO PING particular effect they produce, many WITH PERSONAL PROBLEMS adolescents associate drugs in general with the youth culture and take whatever An alternative to escaping from difficult drugs are available when interacting life situations through heroin is the use within their peer groups to be "part of of amphetamines. especially dexedrine the scene" -- in order not to feel "left and methedrine. to secure the self-con out." Another disturbing feature of the fidence and power necessary to control adolescent years is the tendency to do such situations. Many students for ex incredibly dangerous things "just for ample take amphetamines when studying kicks. " including the use of dangerous for examinations. Virtually all re drugs and the misuses of non-drug sub search indicates however that ampheta stances such as glue and various sol mine use is greatest among suburban vents. Parental rebellion is still anoth housewives on "diet pills." Even after er strong tendency among adolescents their diet is over. many of these women which is normal and desirable to the ex continue to take a maintenance dose of tent that it enables a youth to establish s uch pills to suppress their appetites his own identity but abnormal and unde and to "feel better," frequently attrib sirable to the extent that it is used as a uting the latter result entirely to weight means of hurting his parents. Many reduction. Such matrons of respectable youths purposely use heroin for exam society are just as much on " speed" as ple, realizing that their parents fear their Hippy sons and daughters. More this drug more than any other and would over, when one considers how finnly feel terribly distressed should they die American society as a whole is commit- from an overdose. 31 A MEANS OF SECURING When President Johnson decided upon a UNIQUE PSYCHOLOGICAL Significant escalation of the war in 1965 EXPERIENCES necessitating huge increases in the fed eral budget, many young people experi Psychological explanations -- the desire enced a tremendous crisis of faith in the for deeper insight into themselves and "system" because the already meagerly others and for mystical experiences- financed Great Society programs were are most frequently advanced by con suddenly given a lesser priority than firmed Hippies who indulge .exclusively military expenditures. Moreover many in psychedelic drugs such as marijuana. young people consider United States in LSD. mescaline and psilocybin. These tervention in .the Vietnam War unjusti young people almost unanimously insist fied and the killing to be mu rde r because that even a "bad trip" is worthwhile if they regard the conflict to be a c ivil one the reby achieves a better under war, the Viet Cong to be nationalists standing of himself and others. TIle rather than Communists, and the Saigon mystical experiences of psychedelic regime to be corrupt. Such youths drug users are e xplained as insights spend anxious years wondering if and into "how everything in the world fits when they will be drafted and resenting together. " resulting in death of the ego the possible interruption of their life and its concomitant. an egocentric view plans by military service. Hence when of the universe. Many members of the their elders ask: Why can't they (youths) Hippie subculture who have experienced work through the system? -- a question such insights become extremely passive which assumes the moral integrity of and have an almost irresistible desire the system - -the ir voices seem to belong to become part of a larger reality which to an "age of innocence" long since they have perceived as complete and past. Some young people respond by perfect. Thereafter personal property advocating the violent overthrow of ex loses significance as does the ego need isting institutions so that more equitable to "w in" an argument or to cope with ones can be erected in their place; while hostile persons. Both the insights and others feel that even revolution cannot mystical experiences associated with reform our society and that the only so psychedelic drug use are important ele lution is to "drop out." While the form ments contributing to group cohesive er strongly oppose drug use contending ness among Hippies, which is reinforced that it dulls the revolutionary mentality, by their shared feelings of persecution the latter feel that they can at least lib by and alienation from . j straight" soci erate their own minds ·and " get their ety and by common patterns of speech own thing together" with the help of and dress. drugs. From Our Dehumanized AN EXPRESSION OF ALIENATION Technologically-Oriented Society From The Federal Government Members of the Hippie subculture are convinced that many spiritual values The Vietnam War is unquestionably the have been lost as a result of the techno central political issue explaining the logical innovatiOns which have accom alienation of today's young people. panied the industrialization of our 32 society. As they study the long assem of illicit drug traffic follow ing World bly lines in our giant factories. the War '!\vo, Congress passed the Boggs masses afmeo whose working hours are Act in 1951, prescribing prison terms totally oriented toward the production of ranging from two to five years for the more and more gadgets. and a school first offense of possession to ten to system dedicated primarily to preparing thir ty years for the third offense and students for more efficient participation denying parole to those convicted of in this huge materia listic marathon, our drug law violations. Cdngress also society appears to them more like ham passed the Narcot ic Control Act in 1956, sters running through a maze than like increasing the maximum sentence for human beings living in a community. If possession to forty years, prescribing au r "phoney" familial. educational. a mandatory sentence of life imprison economic and political institutions could ment for selling her oin to a m inor and only be dismantled. they muse, they permitting the death penalty for the lat m ight be free to experiment wi th new ter offense upon recommendation of the styles in which the dignity of man would jury. 12 be preserved. Historically speaking the federal govern ment' s broadest attack upon drug abuse CONTROL OF DRUG ABUSE is embodied in the Comprehensive Drug Control Act of 1970 including prevention, The Legal Approach treatment and rehabilitation provisions as wellas revised penalties and enforce Efforts to suppress addictive drugs in ment measures. Congress thereby the United States have had an interesting authorized $39 million for drug abuse history. Prior to World War One addic education projects, $85 miUion for spe tive drugs could be purchased freely cial treatment and rehabilitation pro·· from pharmacies, mail order houses grams. and $75 million for community and even grocery s tores. Following the mental health facilities dealing with ad Hague Opium Convention of 1912 how dicts and drug dependent persons for ever, the Harrison Narcotics Act of fiscal 1971, 1972 and 1973. Drugs to be 1914 was passed requiring all importers controlled under the Act have been clas and handlers of coca and opium products sified into five categories, but the most to register with the Treasur y Depart frequently abused a nd harmful ones are me nt and to pay a stamp tax of one pen in the first three. Hence heroi n, mari ny per ounce. Physicians were specif juana, LSD. mescaline and peyote are ically exempt from the Act's provisions. classified under Category I ; methadone but only when prescribing or adminis and liquid methamphetami ne (Speed) • !::,w1rtg drugs in connection with their under Category II ; and most ampheta medh -.1 practice. Initially some doc mines and barbiturates under Category tors and public : ~ alth clinics interpreted III . 13 this exemption Revised penalties under the 1970 law Suleyman ~m i re l needs all the politi are as follow s : (1) possession of a con cal support he can get and is not likely trolled drug by a firs t offender for his to alienate 100,000 Thrkish opium farm own use constitutes a misdemeanor pun e rs by banning one of their major crops. ishable up to one year in prison and a France, whose clandestine laboratories fine of up to $5. 000 or both; if such a around Marseille convert opium and person is under twenty-one however. he morphine into heroin for the American may seek a court order expunging his market. has also promised a crackdown guilt from official records; (2) anyone on drug traffickers, but the financial re over e ighteen who sells a controlled sources and manpower of its narcotics drug to someone under twenty-one how squads are inadequate for the job. The ever. will receive twice the authorized Mexican Government a lso has pledged penalty for that offense; and (3) profes itself to elim inate opium production and s ional crim inals trafficking in drugs to prevent the flow of narcotics into the will henceforth receive a mandatory United States, but these good intentions minimum sentence of ten year s and a have become snarled in a web of bureau maximum fine of $100. 000 for a first cracy, lethargy and corr uption. Even offense and a minim um term of twenty if all these traditional sources of opium year s and a maximum fine of $200.000 were eliminated, drug traffickers have for a second offense. The law also pro s tockpiled enough narcotics to keep the vides that enforcement officers may ob exi sting market s upplied for several tain "no-knock" search warrants if year s . In addition Arne'r ican syndicates there is probable cause to believe that are showing increased interest in the the drug sought would be destroyed or new opiu m - growing lands of Burma, that someone' s life or safety would be Laos and Thailand. 15 Aga inst this endangered if advance notice ofa search background American narcotics agents were given. Finally an annual appro are pessimistic about their ability to priation of $6 million, beginning in fis significantly restrict international drug cal 1971, was authorized under the Act traffic for the indefinite futu reo Much to enable the Bureau of Narcotics & could be done to eliminate opium pro D3.ngerous Drugs to add at least three duction in underdeveloped countries if hundred agents to its present staff. 14 the United Nations would do more to up lift their economies. but this would re Attempts by the U. S. Treasury Depart quire a much deeper commitment to ment to limit the im portation of drugs narcotics e limination and much greater have been generally unsuccessful. Opi expenditures of money by member na um is still pouring out of Thrkey, the tions than they have thus far demon main source of natural narcotics for the strated. The principal conclusion to be American and West European markets drawn from these facts is that the only despite government promises to outlaw meaningful approach to the problem of the business. because Prime Minister drug abuse is the education and regen eration of the user and of the society which contributes to his degeneration. 13 Congress c l ears comprehensive drug control bill, Congressional Quar terly (16 October 1970) 2539. 15 Congressional Record (7 July 1970) 14 Ibid. , 2539- 40. E 6351-52. b 34 The Educational Approach John E. Ingersoll, Director of the Fed eral Bureau of Narcotics & Dangerous Almost without exception drug addicts Drugs, believes that educational pro state that prior information about the grams regarding drug abuse should harmful effects of drug abuse might begin in the third and fourth grades and have prevented their involvement with continue through high school, but that it drugs. especially when curiosity and is essential for the teachers involved to thrill-seeking were the principal moti be well infonned and to avoid emotion vating factors. President Kennedy's alism and preaching when discussing Advisory Commission on Narcotic & the subject, both of which tend to "turn Drug Abuse stressed in its November off' young people. 18 In additi.on to 1963 report the importance of the educa classroom discussi.ons there are other tional approach to drug abuse as follows: activities which can constitute valuable educational experiences relative to the An educational program focused on problem of drug abuse. For example, the teenager is a sine qua non of any g.roups of students might be required to program designed to solve the prob collect newspaper items, magaZine lem of drug abuse. The teenager articles, pamphlets and other publica should be made conscious of the full tions on drug abuse for a class resource range of harmful effects, physical file; to compile a list of community and psychological, which narcotics agencies concerned with drug abuse and and dangerous drugs can produce. to describe their respective f1Jnctions He should also be made aware that and programs; to dramatize a situation although the use of drugs may be a in which a student is urged to try dan temporary means of escape from gerous drugs; to interview persons hav the world about him, in the long run ing professional experience with drug these drugs will destroy him and all abuse problems and/or to invite these that he aspires to. 16 experts to speak to their classes; to write research papers, essays or short Similar convictions motivated President stories on drug abuse themes (prizes Nixon (3 Dzcember 1969) to invite all could be offered for the best ones); to the State governors to a White House present panel discussions on drug abuse Conference on Drug Abuse where he for PTA meetings and for the meetings urged them to wage an educational cam of various civic and service organiza paign against drug abuse that would tions in the community; and to make reach all the people of the nation. 17 posters and bulletin board exhibits on the subject of drug abuse,. The Therapeutic Approach 16 The President's Advisory Commis Federal Government Hospitals: 10 the sion On Narcotic & Drug Abuse: Final mid 1930's the U.S. Public Health Ser Report (Washington: U. S. Government vice established two hospitals for the Printing Office, November 1963) 32. treatment 0 f narcotic addicts at 17 Growing drive against drugs, U. S. News & World Report (15 Dzcember 1969) 38. 18 Ingersoll, 0i". cit., 42. 35 Lexington, Kentucky, and Fort Worth, ing. Then they become eligible for Te xas . Today these hospitals are being parole as ou tpatients, a condition of used for the examination and treatment which is that they must submit to peri of addicts under the Narcotic Addict Re odic tests of Nalline, a synthet ic anti habilitation Act (NA RA) of 1966. Under narcotic which produces abrupt with this Act's provisions addicts charged drawal symptoms if a person is using with certain federal crimes may choose narcotics . Since 1965 the program has treatment instead of prosecution; or ad also provided half-way houses where dicts convicted of a federal crime may outpatients who feel unable to adjust be committed by the court for treatment; immediately to community life may stay or addicts not chargedwith a c rime may as long as ninety days. New York's ask to be civilly committed. 19 Eventu Drug Abuse Control Law , passed m ally the federal government i.ntends to 1966, provides for a compuls ory three make available in local communities year treatment program s imila r to that throughout the country all the services in California and for recommitment to now pr ovided at the Lexington and Fort therapy if an addict r eturns to drugs Worth hospita ls , for follow-up srudies during the pos t-treatment parole pe ri reported by Glaser & O' Leary in 1966 od. 22 Unlike California and New York indicated that twenty-five to fifty per how ever , most states e ither have no cent of the addicts released from the drug addiction treatment programs or two hospitals experienced a relapse very inadequate ones. In some the only within aperiodofsix months to a year.20 facilities provided for addicts are men In the Pitts burgh area the federal gov tal hospitals or jails , wher e no attempt er nment has a lready contracted with the may ever be made to alleviate the ad Harmanville Rehabilitation Center for dict's withdrawal sufferings much less the pos t-hospital care of approximately provide any other type of therapy. twenty addicts . 21 Private Programs: According to the State Government Programs: The wo National In stirute of Me nta l Health there most advanced s tates in the handling of are at least twenty-five private r esiden drug problems are California and New tial programs for the treatment of drug York. Since 1961 when California in addiction in the United States today, all troduced civil commitment for persons of them patterned after Synanon, an addicted to narcotics under the Narcotic lIQO-member community in California Treatment-Control Project operated by which began in 1958 as an offshoot of its State Department of Co rrection, Alcoholics Anonymous. One of the in addict s stay in the California Rehabili herent weaknesses 'of these programs tation Center at Corona for at least s ix however, i s their voluntary character; months undergoing group psychotherapy, one-third of the addict s who join Syn remedial e ducation and vocational train- anon for example, lea ve within a month. 23 I3ut for those who s tay . 19 Congressional Record (25 Septem ber 1969) E 7846. 22 D. Louria, The Drug Scene (New 20 Freeman & Jones, op. cit., 441. York: McGraw Hill, 1968) 185-88. 21 Congressional Record (25 Septem 23 Congre~sional Record (22 Septem ber 1969) E 7846. ber 1970) E 8523 . .. 35 motivation to "kick" the habit is thadone maintenance is far from a pana strengthened by the group-living experi cea for our nation's drug abuse prob- ence as well as by the emphasis upon 1em. Critics point out that while i t personal responsibility for one's life relieves an addict's craving for heroin, condition. it offers no relief to non-heroin drug addicts such as chronic amphetamine Admission to most residential treatment and barbiturate users ; thct since metha programs is deliberately humiliating: done itself is addictive the majority of first the addict must withdraw from persons can never get off the drug with drugs "cold tur key"; secondly he i s not out reverting to heroin or resorting to permitted to see his family for several some other drug; that unless methadone weeks; thirdly he must start a t the bot is administered under carefully con tom rung of the treatment center' s job trolled conditions, t here is danger of ladder - -cleaning toilets and washing methadone patients selling the drug on dishes. Three times a week. groups of the black market thereby spreading nar eight to ten residents get together to cotic addiction; and finally that metha play the "encounter game" designed to done maintenance is only a half-way ap e licit the expression of feelings previ proach to drug addiction, failing to ously submerged by a " fix" . Member strengthen the victim ' s ability to cope ship in a residential treatment program with life without drugs. g ives the addict a sense of involvement in something greater than himself, i. e'." involvement in a kind of spir itual move ment which enables persons w ith a com CONCLUSION mon problem to live together in love w ithout prejudice or fear of any ki nd. Gunnar Myrdal. the Swedish political However, since many addicts "cured" Scientist, recently listed drug addiction. or rehabilitated in such programs have along w ith a ir and water pollution. the experienced difficulty securing jobs and population explosion, and the prolifera even housing in the "outSide" commun tion of modern weapons, as the major ity, re-entr y to t hem is not forced. in factors threatening to extinguish half deed, many former addicts make a the earth's population by the year 2000. t r eatment center their permanent home Drug abuse is undeniably symptomatic while wor king in the community, and of a society which has become unan still others serve as directors or staff chored--a society which is unsure of its members of new centers. values and goals and which resorts to desperate measures in search of happi Met hadone maintenance programs are ness and escapes from frustrating life a lso spreading r apidly in the United c ircumstances. Moreover drug abuse States: the National Institute of Mental thrives wherever and whenever human Health recently reported that there a r e beings fail to recogni ze the inherent sixty- four such programs, fifteen of dignity of their fellow men, creating and which receive federal funds. 24 But me- perpetuating social, economic and racial injustice. In the final analysis there fore. the current drug abuse crisis in 24 Congressional Record (22 Septem the United States is a reflection of the ber 1970) E 8524. moral and intellectual disorientation of L 37 moral and intellectual disorientation of terial goals. Laws can be passed, edu our society--a society which appears to cational programs established, and mil be dominated by a technology it cannot lions spent on treatment programs, but or will not control, and which at least until this society r egains its original temporarily seems to have subordinated vigor, direction and integrity. drug humanistic va lues to the pursuit of ma- abuse w ill remain a serious problem. SOCIOLOG I CAL SYMPOSIUM Number Six (Spring 1971) MART IN L, LEV IN' EITRA- FAMI LI AL PATTERNS OF POLITICAL SOC I ALW. TI O~1 THE MODE L OF MA LE DOM INANCE qE - EXAM I NED POLITICAL scientists and sociologists That the family is the s ingle most im have had a long s ta nding concern with portant agent of political socia lization the influence of the family in the mem is one of the best documented findings ber 's development of a political party in social psychology. As early as 1928 p reference. The major findings of this Allport, in a study of 340 undergradu research tra dition have received wide ates. foun d seventy-nine percent of the dissemination in spite of the fact that students expressing a presidentia l vot not all of these results have been con ing preference identical to their fa s is tently suppo rted. Consequently, sub thers·. 1 The now classic Erie County sequent research endeavors in this area & Elm i ra studies conducted by Colum have neglected certa in important aspects bia's Bureau of Applied SOC ia l Researc h of the influence process, Th r ee major reported s im ila r findings. 2 In a n ex themes in the liter ature on the processes cellent review of the literarur e on polit of party p reference infl uence or trans ical SOCia lization Hyman c ited several mission within the family will be treated other s tudies all confirming this r e s ult. 3 here: (1) the family as the prime agent of socialization; (2) the fathe r as the dominant infl uence in the political so 1 G. Allport. TIle Composition of po cialization process within the family: litical a ttitudes, Amer ican Journal 0 f and (3) the male as the least susceptible Sociology 35 (1929-1930) 220-38. member of the family to the family in 2 P. Lazarsfeld et a l. The People ' s fluence in political socializati on. Choice (New York: Columbia Un iver s ity Press, 1944) : B. Berelson e t aI, Voting (Chicago: Univer.sity of Chicago Press. 1954). * M. LEVIN (BS , Massachusetts Insti 3 H. Hyman. Po litical Socia lization: tute of Technology; PhD. Johns Hopkins) A Study In The Psychology Of Po litical is an associa te profQssor of sociology. Behavior (Glencoe: Free Press. ] 959). Emor y University. Among othe r s Hyman r e fers to: A. TH I RTY- NINE L 40 Additional support may be found in a ciates suggested this male dominance study of high school student s in ll. li noi5 also existed between father and daugh where parents' political party prefer ter, and by implication the e ntire nu ence was found to e xplain sixty-eight clear family. percent of the variation in the party preferences of their adolescent off The male dominance model has received spring. 4 recent support from a study conducted a t Ru tgers University by the Rileys.7 Lazarsfeld and his associa tes5 were They found tha t youths who di scuss pol probably the first to report evidence itics with their families a r e most likely suggesting the husband to be the politi to di rect such communication toward the cally dominant influencing agent within father . Greenstein found the father the family. TIley found tha t when there more likely to be chosen as the "pre was disagr eem e nt i n the fam ily as to fen"ed source of voting advice" than the vote intention e a dy in the campaign, mother by c hildren. 8 At least one psy agreement was established by election choanalyst suppor ts the model of fathe r time "as a result of male dominance ... 6 dominance of the children' s political at Wives were mor e likely to be aware of titudes through case s tudy procedures. 9 their husband' s political opinions than the reverse, a nd wives r eported politi TIle impact of the Lazarsfeld findings l O cal discussions with their husbands upon subsequent research i n political while husbands rarely reported such behavior seems to have been so great discussions . Lazarsfeld and his as so- that a model of male domi nance in the political c limate of the family was firm ly established. irrespective of the pal' Campbell et a I, The Voter Decides ticula r conste llation of rela tionships (Evanston: Row Pe t erso n, 1954); E . within the fa m ily or the e xte nt of con Havemann & P. West. They Went To census wi thin it. TIl is view persisted College (New York: Ha r cour t, 1952); i n spite of the fact that research pre P. Fay & W. Middleton, Certain fac dating the Lazarsfeld s tudy by several tors related to li beral & conservative years suggested that this particular pat attitudes of college students : II. Fa te rn of male domina nce doe s not a lways the r' s political pre ference; Preside ntia l a ppea r in par ent-child r ela tionships. candidates favored in the 1932 & 1936 A study conducte d by Newcomb & Svehla e lections, Jour nal of Social Psychology benveen 1931 and 1934 found that in 11 (1 940) 107- 19; N. Young, F . May - a ns , Jr ., & B. Corman, TIle Political prefer e nces of adolescent s . Teachers 7 As repor ted by Hy man. Political So College Record 54 (1 953) 340-44; and c ia lization, 101. E. Maccoby. R. Ma tthews & A. Morton, 8 F . G reens te in. Sex r e la ted political Youth & political c ha nge, Public Opin diffe r e nces i n childhood, Journal of Pol ion Quarte rly 18 (1954) 23- 39. itics 23 (1961) 353-71. 4 M. Levin. Social climates & politi 9 R. Renneker, Some psychodynamic ca l socia lization. Public Opinion Qua r a spects of voting beha vior. Ame r ican terly 25 (1 961) 596-606. Voting Be havior. cd. E . Burdick & A. 5 The People's Choice. Brodbeck (Glencoe :- F ree Pr ess. 1959) 6 Ibid. , 14 1-42. 399-413. 41 attitudes toward Communism, "father In a 1954 shldy Maccoby a nd her asso daughter and mother-son correlations ciates14 presented additional evidence are higher than those between par ents to cast doubt upon the model of male and children of the same sex. II This political dominance within the family. finding suggests parental political domi They found that when there was a lack nance operates selectively and in this of party prefer ence consensus, the off case cross-sexually. spring was somewhat more likely to choose the party of the mother. conclud Other research has also demonstrated ing that "there i s no evidence of a tra that the model of male political domi ditional 'father dominance' ... 15 A Mid nance may not be as universally valid dleton & PuOley study supported Macco as had been thought. Hartshorne, May by's r esults by finding that both males & Shuttleworth reported higher partial a nd females are more likely to disagree correlation coefficients between mother with the politica l pOS ition of the fathe r and child than fo r father and child on than that of the mother. 16 mor al values. 12 In a Purdue Opinion Poll for Young People reported by Rem Previously unreported evidence in sup mers & We ltman (1 947). it was found port of the findings of Middleton & Put that par ty preference correlations be neyand Maccoby andassociates is avail tween mothers and sons wer e higher able. In a 1961 study of 612 high school than any other combination (.94) with seniors in s ix high schools in fllinois,l7 that between fathers and daughters next highest. 13 The correlation between mothers and daughters was also high 14 Youth & political change. op. cit. (.91) but the correlation between fathers 15 Ibid.. 103. and s ons was the lowest obser ved (. 80). 16 R. Middleton & S. Putney, Political lower even than that betw een fathers expression of adolescent rebellion, and m others (. 87) . American Journal of Sociology 68 (1963) 527-35. 17 The data are from a larger s tudy of 9, 220 adolescents in ten selected high 10 The People's Choice. schools in IllinoiS. The larger r eport 11. T. Newcomb & C. Svehla. Intro of this shldy, along with a detailed de Family relationships in attitude. Soci scription of the deSign, may be found in ometry I (1937) 180-205. These fInd J. Coleman. The Adolescent Society: ings wer e r eplicated and reported in The Social Life of the Tennager & It s G. Murphy e t a i, Experimental Social Impact on Education (New York: Free Psyc hology (New York: Harper. 1937 ) Press, 1962). The data presented above 1004. are from the thir d wave of the data col 12 H. Ha rtshorne et al. Studies In ' the lection effort. the only wave in which an Nature of Charaq.t:er. Studies in the atte mpt wa s made to gather data on po Organization of CHaracte r. vol. 3 (New litical attitudes other than party prefer York: Macmillaft. 1930). ence. although this attempt wa s severe~ 13 H. Remmers & N. We ltman. Atti ly limited by space considerations in tude inte rrelationships of youth, their the questionnaire. Fotl an explanation parents. & their teachers. Journal of of the reasons for the inclusion of only Social Psychology 26 (1947) 61-68. six of the ten schools in the thi rd wave ~------42 sixty-two adole scents reporte d that adolescents wh ich could ha ve been com the ir mothers ha d voted fo r a different pleted under anyone of three conditions: candida te than the ir father in the 1960 comple ted by father a lone, completed by Preside ntia l Election. Of these s ixty the mother a lone. or completed by both two adolescent s who pe r ceived a lack of working together, Thus if it is assumed politica l consensus in the ir family, sev that (1) when both parents fil led out the enty- six percent chose the ca ndidate for questionnaire there was a consensus on t hemselves whom they perceived as the ir party preference response [there the ir mother's choice. was no way they could easily indicate a lack of consensus]; (2) when on ly one Since the findings of both Newcomb & par ent filled out the questionnaire that Svehla a nd Remmers & We ltman sug it is only in th is instance tha t a lack of gest the mothe r has more influence over party consens us may e xist (a lthough the son than the fa ther. and the father the re will p r obably be consensus in the has mor e influence over the daughter, bulk of instances); and (3) that the inci it is impor tant that the a dolescent' 5 dence of fam ilies with a lac k of consen choic e of a candidate in these non-cen s us is no gr eate r when the mother filled sensual families be examined with the out the questi onn a ire alone than when sex of the a doles cent controlle d. The the father did s o, the n the condition un results do not show c r oss- sex influence der which the quest ionna ire was com patte rns between parent a nd child. Only pleted can be used as a rough indicator four gi rls out of the thirty- two reporting of political consensus a m ong the par a lack of voting consens us between th eir e nts. Thus the r e ported pa rty p refe r pa r e nts (12 %) chose the party of their e nces of the fa m ily responde nt un de r father. cont rary to wha t would ha ve eac h condition can be compare d with been expecte d on the m s is of the New that of the adolescent under consens us com b & Sve hla and the Rem mer s & a nd non-consens us conditions and the We ltman fin dings . Boys in non- cons en pr oportion of agree m ent with a particu s ua l fam ilies on the othe r ha nd were lar pare nt calculated in the latter in m ore like ly than were girls to c hoose s tance . It s hould be emphasized that the ir fathe r ' s ca ndidate with thirty this index differ s fr om that used in the s even per cent out of thir ty such boys te xt in that it was based upon the ado agreeing with the fa the r 's choice, but le sce nt ' s pe r ception of his pare nt' s par s till they were more a pt to choose the ir ty preferences whe rea s the present in mother 's candidate tha n the ir fa ther ' s de x is based upon a report of the par (63%).18 [Text Continues On Page J ent(s) indepe ndent of these pe rceptions . The t rend of the results in the table is clea r . (See footnote table on fo llow ing page. ) For both boys a nd g ir ls , see E. Mc Dill & J. Cole man, Fa mily & agreement is highest when the m othe r peer influe nces in college pla ns of high comple ted the quest ionn aire and is low school student s . Sociology of Education est whe n the fathet- did s o. Indeed 28 (J965) ]]2-26. agreem e nt is higher when the mother 18 The data collected in the ten high completed the questionnai re than when schools allow a pa rtia l test of the s ta both pare nt s comple ted it togethe r. bility of this r esult. A Questionnaire The r esults are cons iste nt with a nd lend wa s adm inister ed to the parents of the support to the findings in the text. ~3 A third important finding of the political political discussion toward co- workers socialization research is that the male while women direct such discussion is apparently less s usceptible to influ toward family members. 23 ence on political attitudes within the family. In his review of the political Additional support for the contention socialization literature Hym an is led to that males are more independent of assume "the male sex role penn its family influence in political attitudes greater independence and conceivably than women is reported by Middleton & the attenuation of the parental influence Putney. 24 They found from a study of on politics should be greater . ,,19 students in sixteen colleges and univer Among the evidence for this assumption sities that boys are mor e likely to devi he cites the following results: (1) a ate from the parry prefere nces of their study of college graduates which showed parents than are girls. Finally results the bulk of the defections from family from a study of high school students al voting patterns to be the r esult of sons' so indicate that adolescent girls are r ather than daughters' disagreements mor e likely than boys to express the with the ir parents' vote;20 (2) daughters same party preference as their are more li kely to resemble their par parent s. 25 ent s in political attitude than are sons;21 (3) women r eport themselves to be more Most of the above- mentioned studies likely to be influenced by relatives in have implicitly assumed that the family their politics than do men who report in its r ole as a SOCia lizing agent has business associates as the major source r eached a con sensus on party of such influence;22 and (4) men di rect 23 M. Benney et a I, How People Vote 19 Political Socialization, 103. (London: Routledge, 1956) lOS. TItis 20 P. S. West, TIle College graduate result is supported by Be r elson et aI, in american society (P h. D. diss. , op. cit. Columbia University, 1951) 150. 24 Po litical expression 0 f adolescent 21 Newcomb & Svehla. op. cit. rebellion. 22 Lazarsfeld et aI, op. cit. 25 Levin, op. cit. PERCENT ADOLESCENTS EXPRESSING SAME PARTY PREFERENCE AS THEIR PARENTS Conditions Under Which Parents ' Questionnaire Was Compl eted Boys Girls By Father Alone 64 (406) 63 (386) By Mother Alone 72 (730) 74 (805) By Both Parents 68 (687) 69 (671) .. 44 preference. 26 ll1at i s to say, the parents as voting for different candi findings are usually based upon either dates from each other in the 1960 Presi a comparison of the respondent's party deC' ''i.al Election. preference with the respondent' s forced report of his family's (or only his fa This is not to suggest that such analysis ther' s) party preference, 27 or when the has never been attempted. Certainly respondent was allowed to report a sep the Maccoby study examined the trans arate preference for each of his par mission of party prefer ence in non-con ents, his own preference was compared sensual families.30 Nonetheless it does with each separately but reported in ag seem to be true that no research (in gregate rates by each parent. 28 Thus cluding that reported here) has delib few attempts have been made e ither to erately set out to explore the differ pa rtial out the relative influence of the ences in the process of political social parents in the process of party prefer ization between consensual and non- con ence transmission, or to differentiate sensual families. The implication of the child's susceptibility to each of the this situation is important, for so long parent' 5 influence by the sex of the as corr e lations on party preference are child. He nce the r e has been little ex presented only between child and par ploration of the nature of the differen ents or bet\veen child and father ~ and tial political influence, within the fami child and mother separ a te ly, the r e la ly, of the same sex and different sex tive influence of each parent in the con parent- child dyads. Moreover the pos sensual family as wetI as in the non s ibility of inter-sibling political influ consensual family remains unknown. ence has been completely neglected. Hence understanding of the dynamic aspects of political socialization within Because the male dominance model im the family i s impeded. plies that political rotes in the fam ily are differentiated, lack of attention to The current status of the model of m a le the processes of party pre ference political dominance within the family transmission under non- consensual con does little to help the situation. What ditions is rather surpris ing. T his seems curious is that when patterns oversight could not have been the r e contrary to the male dominance model sult of an inability to find such non have been discovered, researchers consensual families, for Lazarsfeld and seem a lmost embarrassed by their re his associa tes reported that one hus sults . They pay them little attention ~ band-wife pair out of every t\venty-t\vo dismissing the results with a line or did not agl:ee on the choice of candi two and make no serious attempt t o ex date,29 and in the s tudy r eported here, plain the findings. The impact of the based on a non-random and non-repre male dominance model as much as the sentative sample , nearly one out of fa ilure to examine non-consensual fami every ten adolescents perceived tlleir lies has probably retarded the rate a t which our understanding of the pr ocess 26 Excepting Maccoby et aI, op. cit. of intra-family political socialization 27 See for example Berelson et a I, op. has proceeded. cit. and Allport, op. cit. 28 Campbell et a I, op. cit. 29 The People ' s Choice. 30 Maccoby e t aI, op. c it. 45 From these themes - - the influence of cal s ocialization must reconcile the the family in the development of politi findings supporting the male dominance cal attitudes and the sex role differenti model with those in opposition to it; and ation in the tr ansmission and reception secondly, it must examine more closely of such influence ambiguous though the the process of political socialization validity of the male dominance model within the family at the level of inter may be- -a problem emerges for empir personal and intra-personal processes. ica l investigation: in the context of the The conditions under which the model of transmission of political influence with male dominance holds or does not hold in the family, which of the parents takes m us t be determined. Moreover the as the dominant role or is the most effec sumption that male dominance is or i s tive in eliciting the response the parent not operating when political agreement deSires in the offspring? between father and offspring is or is not observed must be avoided. In stead such dominance must be examined from the SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS point of view of the principles guiding the family's socialization practices. There seems to be no doubt that stu Agr eement on party preference or other dents of political socia lization have political attitudes may not be the pri tended to over s implify the intra -famil mary goal for which the father exerts ial patterns of influence on political at influence. Such consensus may be of titudes. As indicated earlier the major secondary importance to a primary goal shortcoming has been the failure to that the child be interested in politics challenge the assumption of political or show evidence of the intellectual ma consensus betNeen parents. This as turity necessary to develop independ sumption has contributed to the further ently his political attitudes. For exam failure to examine closely the notion of ple Kohn argues that "class differ ences male political dominance, a failure in parent-child relationships are a which appears related to the over sun product of differences in parental values plification of the intra -familial influence (with middle class parents' values cen processes with respect to political so tering on self direction and wo rking cialization. class parents' values on conformity to external proscriptions ... 3 1 If this is It is clear, given the present body of true, then the middle class father may knowledge in the area, that the model of encourage independent determination male dominance in political matters and r eward political disloyalty of off within the family must be r evised. spring under certain circumstances. Evidence has been presented to show Hence he may s till be "dominant" al that adolescents when faced with a though such dominance may no t be dis choice betNeen the party preferences of covered by observing political agree their mother and father are more likely ment with his children. Moreover Kohn to ch@l!l6e the mother' s preference. This result is in direct contradiction to the male dominance mode l. 31 M. L. Kohn, Social class & parent child relationships: a n interpretation, Thus it seems that future resear ch ef American Journal of Sociology 58 (1963) forts in the r ole of the family in politi- 471 - 80_ - 46 links the source of these values a ffect tura l factors . Finally the intervening ing socia liza tion pr actices to the "con effects of the nature and kind of the ditions of life." associa ted with position parent- child relationship, the sex r ole, in the stra tification system. a nd espe the degree and kind of child rebellIous cially with occupational conditions. ness, the salience of politics for both Hence the study of the role of the family parents and offspring must be accounted in the political s ocia lization of the ado for in future research efforts. lescent must account for these struc- I SOCIOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM Number Six (Spring 1971) JOHN F, NEWMAN & MARTIN L, LEVIN' PATTERNS OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN ADOLESCENTS &THEIR PARENTS ON ADOLESCENT RULES" THE BASIC MODEL for this study was based on the concept that values and attitudes acquired in one social setting will carryover into other social settings. As such, given an opportunity to form alize certain standards of conduct, there is possibility of agree ment or lack of agreement with respect to certain issues among individuals whose peer group experiences may vary. Using a sub sample of 1,150 responses from Coleman's THE ADOLESCENT SOCIETY parent-adolescent responses to a question concerning the rules which parents and adolescents mayor may not have were analyzed. It was shown that rules designated as courtship related or non-courtship-related varied according to the sex of the adolesc~ent and the parent who filled out the questionnaire. It was suggested that the perception of rules for adolescents within a family context may be influenced by peer group expectations . • J. NEWMAN (MA, PhD, Emory) is research associate, Center for Health Administration Studies, University of Chicago. M. LEVIN (B.S, Massachusetts Insti ** This article is a revised version of tute of Technology; PhD, Johns Hopkins) a paper delivered at the thirty-fourth is an associate professor of sociology, annual meeting of the Southern Socio Emory University. logi.cal Society, Miami, May 1971. FORTY-SEVEN - 48 INTRODUCTION analysis i s developed as follows: Wide attention during the 1960's was Bowerman & Elder (1964) suggested focused upon James S. Coleman' s (1961) that the adolescent tends to view the affirmation of the presence and exist parent of the same sex as the domi ence of a distinct adolescent subculture nant parental figure. Similarly, in an industrial society. The existence David Lynn (1959) has concluded that of a subculture implies that its mem with increasing age the male be bers assim ilate the ideas, attitudes and comes more closely identified with va lues which the subculture represent s. the masculine role and tha t fema les Although Coleman ties hi s concept of tend to identify with their mother' s the adolescent subculture to the broad role. If these findings are valid, it processes of social change in an indus suggests (as does, among others, tria l society. he makes the point that Baber 1953) that the re is greater the adolescent lives in a "world apart" communication between parents and from a dults and that there is a lack of children of the same sex. It follows effective communication and shared val then that the father-son combina ues bet\veen child and parent: tions, for example, should generally be closer in agreement involving TIle sharp contrast of these values sex- role performance than father with those expressed by the students daughter combinations. again exhi bits the divergence of the parental values and those of the ado Moreover, Gottlieb & Ramsey (1964) lescent subcultur e. To be sure, and Pa r sons (1942) have pointed to these values may not be those they the differential r egulation of the ado express day by day to their chil lescent by pa rents according to t he dren. (Coleman 1961 : 32). sex of the adolescent and the type of the regulation or rule . In general. Coleman' s study is not unique in its girls tend to be mor e regulated by treatment of the problem of subcultures rules than boys with many of these in relation to adolescents. Barnard rules concerned with regulating con (1961), Be ttelhe i m (1963), Gottlieb & tact with the opposite sex. Ramsey (1964: 18 4), Rogoff (1967), Se bald (1968) and Gottlieb & Reeves (1963) Three significant va riables which would have indicated some of the problems of therefore be relevant to the study of c ommunication between the adult and agreement between pa r ents and adoles youth, a nd the differ ent value systems cents are: (1) sex of the par ent, (2) sex of each group as they reflect general of the adolescent, a nd (3) type of rules cultur al conditions a nd Ufe experiences. and regula tions. An investigation of these communication The data for thi s paper were made diffe r e ntia ls is examine d in this paper. a va ilable by James S. Coleman fr om SpeCifically , the patte rn of agreement hi s study r eporte d i n T HE ADOL ES betwee n a dolescents and the i r parents CENT SOCIE TY. The data we r e take n on fa milia l r ules gove rning courtship from the fi ve schools loca ted in small a nd non-court s hip be havior a re ana rura l tow ns and communitie s . Far m lyzed. The gene ral appr oach of the dale, Marketvil l e , Elmtown, Maple 49 Grove and Green Junction are the pseu In addition to the data on the rules and donyms used by Coleman. TIle school the sex of the adolescent, information sizes ranged from 150 in Farmdale was also ava ilable as to wh ich pa rent (approximate population of 1, 000) to filled out the parent s' questionnaire: 500 in Green Junction (approximate pop fa t her, mot her, or both pa r ents to ulation of 5, 000 ) at the time of the gether. With the available infor mation study. then, there are s ix possible parent adolescent combinations: fa the r-son, Th e information available per m i t s father-daughter, mother- son, mother matching of a par ent's response to a daughter, bo t h- son, both-daughter. particular question concerning adoles These parent-adolescent combinations cent rules with his offspring's l'esponse wer e t hen cross-tabulated wit h the to the same question. Approximately courtship and non-courtship rules. 1,150 matched parent-adolescent com binations were obtained i n the five Utilizing parent and child responses to schools. the same question, a 2x2 table was con structed which yielded information on Specifically, this s tudy will make com the agreement o r disagreement on the parisons with respect to certain rules presence or absence of rules. Whe r e listed in the fo n ow in g question asked of there is a congruence of r esponses be both adolescents and the ir parents: tween par ent and child, the situation is termed an agreement situation; where Below is a lis t of items on which ther e is no congruence between the par some parents have rules for thei r ent and child the situation i s termed a teenage children, while others don't. non-agreement or disagr eement situa Check each item that your parents tion. have definite r ules fo r: As a measure of agreement we s imply 1 Time for being in at night on took the number of times there was con weekends. gruence between par ents and adolescents 2 Amount of dating. and divided that number by the total 3 Against doing s teady. number of pa rent-adolescent combina 4 Time spent watching TV. tions , summed s epar ate ly f0r court S Time spent on homework. ship- related and non-court s hip- related 6 Aga inst going around with rules. The resulting figu r e was then certain gi rls (boys). deSignated a s the pr oportion agreeing. 7 Against going out with certain Thus, the p roportion agr eeing could be boys (girls). e xpret>sed in three forms: 8 Eating dinne r with the fa mily. 9 No rules for any of the above 1 Total agr eement on both the ite ms . p resence and absence of r u 1 e s . (Figure 1: Cells 1 & 4) These rules were g rouped into two broad 2 Agreement on the pr esence of categor ies designated a s co u r tshi p rules. (Figure 1: Cell 1) r elated rules (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6,7) and non courts hip-re late d rules (Nos . 4, 5, 8, 9) . 3 Agreement on the absence of 50 FIGURE 1 Adolescent Yes No (Rule Present) (Rule Not Present) 1 2 Yes Agreement On No n-Agreement (Rule Present) Presence Of Rules Parent 3 4 No Non-Agreement Agr eemen t On (Rule Not Present) Absence Of Rules I r ules. ( Fi!,ru r e 1: Cell 4) with non-courtship rules having fifty seven percent agreement and courtship rules having forty-two percent agr ee RESUL 1'8 & DISCUSSION ment. Summing over a ll of the adolescent Presented in Table 2 is the total propor rules for the tota l numb ~ r of parent tion agr eeing for t he two types of rules adolescent combinatjons (9. 920). our for each par ent- adolescent combination. initial res ults revealed that there was For courtship ru les the proportion s ixty-five percent ag r'ce ment. Further agreeing is higher for any parent-son more, the percentage for agreement on combination than for any parent-daugh the prese nce of rules was seventeen ter combination. The pattern is r e percent and the agreement on the ab versed for non - courtship r ules, although sence of rules was forty-eight per cent. the percentage differences bcbveen the respective parent-son and pa rent-daugh However, as shown in Table 1. the pro te r combinations is not as great as it portion agreeing diffe rs markedly when was for cou rts hip rules. Howeve r . for the rules are designated as courtship or both types of rules, the greatest per non-courtship-rela te d. 'l11ere is s light centage differences by sex of the adoles ly less argument (64 %) for total agree cent wa s when both parents completed ment for courtship- related as opposed the questionnaire . to non- courtship-re lated (67%) ru I e s. However . the proportion agreeing on the presence of courtship rules is twelve While the foregoing tables show the total percent higher tha n for non-courtship patterns of agreement, Tables 3 a nd 4 r e lated rules. The pattern i s reversed present more deta iled informat ion. The for agreement on the absence of rules follow ing results were obtained: 51 TABLE 1 PERCENTAGE AGREEMENT ON THE PRESENCE & ABSENCE OF RULES BY TYPE OF RULE* Agreement Agreement Total On Presence On Absence Agreement (l) (2 ) (1 + 2) Courtship Related 22% 42 % 64% (5524) Non-Courtship Related 10% 57% 67% (4396) Numbe r of Combinations = 9920 * We had initially screened t he data to exclude adolescents for whom no parent questionnair e was completed . However , in a few instances for each rule, either the par ent of the adolescent gave no r esponse . This means that the denominator for the pr oportion agreeing is not equal to the num ber of rules times the number of parent-adolescent combinations . TABLE 2 TOTAL PROPORTION AGREEING FOR COURTSHIP- RELATED & NON-COURTSHIP-RELATED RULE S BY PARENT-ADOLESCENT COMBINATIONS Combination Courtship- Related Non-Courtship-Related Both-Son 68 % (1124)' 62% ( 898) Both-Daughter 59 % ( 901) 69% ( 710) Father-Son 67% ( 443) 66% ( 794) Father- Daughter 60 % ( 406) 68 % ( 324) Mother-Son 67 % (1256) 66% (1007) Mother-Daughter 62% (1394) 70% (1106) * Number in parentheses indi cates total number of combinations upon which t he table percentage was based. 52 2 For non-courtship rules and groups such as the family. The dia the agreement on the presence of gr am in Figure 2 should further eluci rules, the proportion agreeing date the situation. varies only slightly between any t'No parent-adolescent com bin a t ion s The major assumption for the analysis (Table 3). of the results in that the rules wh ich parents say that they make for their 3 For courtship rules and the children a nd rules which the adoles agreement on the absence of rules, cents say that they have. can be ex any parent-son combination has a plained by assumed adult and adoles higher proportion agreeing than any cent peer group va lues as they impinge parent-daughter combination on the family. Furthermore, if we (Table 4). view the nuclear family unit as a "type of grol1p peculiarly structured around 4 For non-courtship rules and age-sex differences (Parsons & Bales the agreement on the absence of 1955: 313), then a partial explanation rules, any parent-son combination for the results may be forthcoming. has a lower proportion agreeing that the respective parent-daughter com The parent by virtue of the responsi bination (Table 4). bility encumbered in the" raising a fam ily" does so on the basis of certain peer Relevant literature indicates that there group values. As mentioned previously, are three important structural groups the daughter i s usually subjected to that need to be taken into account for more rules than the son. and that these the study of parental and child values: rules are found most prominantly in the the family; the adolescent peer group; area of dating behavior. For the daugh the adult peer group. Davis (1964). ter at least the "visibility" of norms is Hollingshead (1949). Jones (1949), Par high for both parents and daughter with sons (1964), Ramsey (1967). and Rem the result that their position in relation mers & Radler (1957) emphasize the ship to rules may be well defined. interaction which occurs among the three groups. The adult finds himself However. it may be that parental peer as a member of an adult peer group. as group norms and adolescent peer group well as the family grouping. and the norms dictate that a son should have adolescent finds himself as a member less regulation than a daughter; but the of the adolescent peer group and the situation may be ambiguous as to what family. Occasionatly we find an adoles kinds of r ules a son should have. or if cent a lUember of an adult group, such he should have any a t all. Consequently. as youth member s of a YMCA Board, or the rules that parents say that they have an adult as a member of some youth for their son in terms of dating behav group. s uch as a high school teacher as ior may not be explicit. with the conse a counselor to one of the school clubs. quence of there being less agreement but these appear to be the exception concerni ng rules. rathe r than the rule. We may, there fore. conceive of s ituations in which the Specifically, the argument is that daugh influence of pee r group values are ters a nd parents are more aware of the brought to bear in othe r interaction expectations of closer supervision with 53 TABLE 3 PROPORTION AGREEING ON THE PRESENCE OF RULES BY TYPE OF RULE & PARENT-ADOL ESCE~~ COMBINATIONS Combina t ion Courtship-Related Non-Courtship- Related Both-Son 18% 11% Both-Daughter 26 % 12% Father-Son 18% 10% Father-Daughter 25% 8% Mother-Son 16% 10% Mother-Daugh ter 29% 8% TABLE 4 PROPORTION AGREE I NG ON THE ABSENCE OF RULES BY TY PE OF RULE & PARENT - ADOLESCENT CO MB INATIONS Combination Courtship-Related Non- Cou rtship-Related Both-Son 51 % 50% Both-Daughter 32 % 58% Father-Son 50 % 56% Father-Daughter 34 % 60% Mo ther-Son 51% 56% Mo the r -Daugh ter 33% 62% 1 For courtship rules and the has a higher proportion agreeing ag,recmcnt on the presence of rules, than any par e nt- son combination any par ent-daughte r combination (Table 3). 54 FIGURE 2 Adult Adolescent Family respect to courts hip- rela ted rules while on the absence of rules the situation sons are not. We would expect, the r e may be more ambiguous. The argument fore. that in terms of the p r oportion. i s that the absence of rules involves a agreeing that da ughters would have a highly implicit situa tion. If there is higher percentage than sons (Result 1: doubt about a rule, then there may be a Page 7) . tendency on the part of both pa rents and their children to acknowledge the ir a b Thus far the discussion has been limited sence. This may be particularly true to the agreement on the presence of in families in which permi ssive child courtship-related rules. With respect rearing practices a r e used. Such a to agreement on the absence of court tendency may be r esponsible for the ship rules our findings a r e in the oppo r e latively high proportions appearing in s ite direction from agreement on the Table 4. presence of rules, i. e. agr eement is higher fo r any parent-son combination Furthermore, differences between sons tha n for any parent- daughter combina and daughters with respect to agree tion. ment on the a bsence of courtship- related rules is large as shown in Table 4. Now rules or at least the agreement of While these differences in proportion their presence is a fairly definite com are not independent of the proportions minnent; the acknowledgment of the in Table 3, we suggest the following : exis tence of rules is therefore a n ex assuming that sons a r e less r egulated plicit a ffinnation. However , for the by their parents than daughters with condition in which there is agreement r espect to courtship-re lated rules and - 55 that the absence of such rules for sons court ship related behavior. are more is more explicit than for daughters, congruent than for sons . then it may be, as our findings indica te , that there will be gr eater agreement with respect to sons than for daughters. SUMMARY In other words, the peer group norms and values of both parents and their The basic model (or this study i s based children may mean that the absence of on the concept that values and attitudes courtship rules for sons is both ex acquired in one social setting will "car pected and affirmed to a s ignifica ntly ry over" into another social setting. gr eater extent tha n for daughters. As such. given an opportunity to f 0!."ITI alize certain standa rds of conduct. the r e We turn now to a brief discussion of the i s possibility of agreement or lack of proportion agreeing on the presence and agreeme nt with r espect to certain absence of non- courtship-related rules i ssues among individuals whose peer (Results 2 & 4: Page 7) . TIle relatively group experiences may vary. Analyz slight differences bet:\veen par ent- son ing parent-adolescent responses to a a nd parent-daughter combinations in the question concerning the rules which proportion agreeing on the pr esence of parents and adolescents mayor may not non-courtship-related r III e s suggests have. we have sought to demonstrate that such rules, once they are made. that the rules perceived by both parent are explicitly recognized by both par a nd adolescent within a family context ents and their childr en; this may be due will vary with the expectations of peer in part to the fact that the content area group influences; these values and atti of these rules suggests that such r ules tudes acquired may function in both a may be applied r ela tively early in the normative manner as a s ource of values life of the child, while the courtship re and in a comparative manner as a bas is lated rules amy be applied somewhat of compar ison with other groups and in later. Thus, the expectations for sons dividuals (Cf. Merton 1957: 283). and daughter s in terms of the amount of time spent on homework or eating din The r esult s of the study seem to indi ner with the family may, through a cate that cliffe l" ent patterns of answer s longer period of r einfo r cement, r educe to specific ques tions on adolescent rules variations in termS of parent -adoles will be evident according to the type of cent agr eement. question which is a sked a nd who answer s the question within the family unit. Our r esults a lso indicate that a lthough These results , therefo re. may be con the proportion agreeing on the absence s i ste nt with the point that "youth shifts of non-courts hip rules is r elatively over time, from social control by adults high, as previously shown in Table 4, to a growing i nflue nce by peers, and there are differ ences of e i g h t , fa u r , the n once again, to a conce rn with the and s ix percent betw een the respective a ttitudes. va l u e s . and e xpectations of parent - son and parent-daughter combi the adult worlds" (Gottlieb & Ramsey nations. While these differences a r e 1964: 184). Since adolescence is a time not substantial, they do s uggest that ex in which the youth is subject to perhaps pectations of parents and daughters. in maximum control by his peers, then the the absence of fo rmalized rules for non- possibility of disagreement concerning 56 the presence or absence of parental broader theoretical framewor k. rules is perhaps a lso at a maximum. The present study, it is hoped, will be beneficial in the study of adolescent be Although tlu s pape r was limited to a few havior and parental influences. Specif variables. there are several areas of ically. the conflict observed between research which may make profitable parents and children, which has been use of the analys is technique which we demonstrated in previous s tudies, would employed. For example , since there need to be re - examined with r espect to may be social class variations in the the areas of s upposed conflict or agr ee types and kinds of parental rules (Cf. m e nt. We might find tha t under certain Jenkins 1966). our technique may • be s ituations agreement between pa r e nt and particula rly appropria te . child m ight be extremely low. Such a re-examination might r esolve the cur rent debate on the exis tence of a n ado If the r esults are valid, then it would lescent subculture, if we can disce rn the seem further research could more ade conditions unde r which we would expect quately systematize conditions and s it adolescent values to be in contrast or in uations and place the findings within a agr eement with their pa r ent s . BIBLIOGRAPHY BABER , R. E. Marriage & the Family. 2d ed. New York: Mc Graw- Hin. 1953. Chapter 8. BARNARD, 1- Teenage c ulture: an overview. Annals 338 (No- vem ber 1961) 1- 12. BETTELHEIM, B. The Problem of genera tions . Youth: Change & Challe nge, edited by E. Erikson, 64- 92. New Yor k: Basic Books, 1963. BO WE RMAN, C .• & G. ELDER, JR. Va riations in adolescent perception of family power structure. American Socio- logical Re view 29 (1964) 551 - 67. COLEMAN, J. The Adolescent Society. Gle ncoe: Free Press, 1961. DA VIS, K. The Sociology of parent- youth conflict. Family. edit ed by R. Cose r , 45 5 ~ 71 . New Y()rk: !it. Martin' s Press, 1964. 57 GOTTLIEB, D.• & C. RAMS EY. Soc i a l control: reLationships with peers & adults. The American Adolescent. Hom e wood: Dorsey Press, 1964. GOTTLIEB, D., & J. REE YES. Adolescent Behavior in Urban Areas. Glencoe: Free Press, 1963. HOLLINGSHEAD, A. Elmtown' s Youth. New York: John Wiley, 1949. JENKINS, B. An Examination of class diffe rences in the socializa tion of the adolescent as manifested th rough family rules. Master' s thesis . Emory University, 1966. JONES, H. Adolescence in our s ociety. TIle Family in a Demo- cr actic Society. edited by Community Service Society of New York. 70-84. New York: Columbia University Press, 1949. LYNN, D. A Note on sex differences in the development of mascu- line & feminine identification. Ps ychological Review 66 (1959) 126-35. MERTON, R. Social Theory & Social Structure . New York: Free Press, 1957. PARSONS, T. Age & sex in the united s tates socia l structure . American Sociological Review 7 (1942) 251- 90. PARSONS , T., & R. BALES. Family. Socialization & Interaction. Glencoe: Free Press, 1955. PARSONS , T. Social Structure & Pe r sonality. New York: Free Press, 1964. RAMSEY, C. Problems of Youth. Belmont: Dickenson, 1967. REMMERS, H., & D. RADLER. The American Teenager. lndian apolis: Bobbs- Merrill, 1957. ROGOFF, E. Parent-Child Communication During Adolescence. Cambridge: Center for Research & cevelopment on Educa tional Diffe rences, Harvant Univer s ity, 1967. SEBALD, H. Adolescence: A Sociological Analysis. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1968. SOCIO L OG I CA L SYMPOS I UM N u mber Si x (Spring 1971) MI CHAEL SCHWARTZ ' EDUCATION & .AD'JLESCENT A D J U S T ME~IT " T HE NOTION of Adjus tme nt in socio tIe for such a definition. If however we logical usage is very impreci se and in a lte r ou r notion of a djustment to take the main not terribly useful because it into account the structur e and function means too many things to too many pea of the high school as a complex organiz pIe . Adjustment may mean anything ation and the self-per ceived needs of from " being without anxiety" to "getting the s tudent within that system. we may a long well with othe r s . " It i s possible begin to understa nd adjustment from to "adjus t" or to function in a prison, a another perspective. concentration camp, a mental hospital. or a high s chool. But functioning in tha t If we begin with Cohen' s (1965) notion sense does not mean that one is com tha t the individual is engaged in an on m itted to the ins titution in a ny positively going process of finding . building. test affective way, nor does it mean that one ing and validating a c once pt of self. and i s committed to a legitimate role in the add Stryker's (1964) notion that the self institution as those roles a re defined by is composed of s ituate d identities or institutional power holders. Simple roles which vary in salience to the functioning as an index of adjustment over all conception of self, we have a will not do. although some students. start. The question that needs to be teache rs and adminis tra tors would se[- next r a i sed is : To wha t extent does the high school constrain the possibilities for identity formation seen as an on • M. SCHWARTZ (MA, PhD, Illinois) going social psychological process? i s professor and chairman, department What are ide ntity possibilities within of sociology. Florida Atlantic Unive r- high school contexts? Le t us a lso add 5ity. the following assertions: (1) the individ ual needs a conception of self. separate •• This pape r was presented a t t he and dis tinct from othe r selves ; (2) the Lunc heon Roundtable Discussion at the individual prefers that self be invested s ixty-fifth annual meeting of the Ameri with positive a ffect; and (3) the individ can Sociologica l Associa tion, 31 August ual needs to minim ize a nxiety about the 1970. Washington OC . self. FIFTY - NINE 60 If the self a c tua lization then is subs ti bIe, positive and r e inforce d conce ption tuted for Adjustment. we m ight ask: of self? To what extent does the school make such actualization possible? That i s , The options m us t be either marginal to does the school permit the individua l to or totally outs ide the s chool a s a social tryon a nd cast off. grope te ntatively system . Perhaps the delinquent s , radi a nd ultimately build a self based upon a cals and bohemians of Ma tza & Sykes' varie ty of roles composing the self, (1 961) a na lysis are appr opriate a lterna each of which is rewarding and salient tive r ole categories. Subterra nean val to the holistic self? ues e me rge in order to solve the iden tity problem, and given those three deviant youth traditions as pos sessing If I r ead current lite rature correctly identity pote ntia ls outs ide the sc hool the a nswer to that question is ., No. " s truc ture they a re like ly to become 111a t is not simply ture of schools with more popular as the school structure lower class s rudents . It is equally true becomes mor e restric tive . Which of of schools with white m idcU e class stu these tr a ditions may be chosen is again dents . Friedenber g (1963) expecia lly. a function of cost, skill and availa bility. but others as well, has noted the re Perhaps class a nd per sonality corre s trictions in varie ties of opportunities lates of c hoice exist as well. But ther e for being a nd becoming that are pr e i s one more option too often ove rlooked. sente d in most high schools . TIle data on adolescent subcultures (including my The biologically based notion of Sturm own r ecent work) indicate that legiti und Drang (a kind of s tor m and stress m a te roles to play a nd from which of bio-psychological origins) may be selves are built a r e fairly restricted r e - exam ined usefully. If one di scount s within the schools and that peer groups the s tor m a nd s tress due to biological are equally r estricting . Roles can be changes in adolescence (which is not un assumed for any number of reasons, but reasona ble s ince people grow s low ly in built into role assumptions are the prob to their bodies), one i s not magically lematics of (a ) rewards for role playing and overnight presented with pubic and ver s us cost s , (b) skills , a nd (c) the facia l ha ir. It i s nevertheless quite availability of the roles or the openness true that t he pe r iod of adolescence is of the system. If the schools provide cultura lly and legitimately defined as a the options of " scholar," "athle te," a nd time of storm and s tress. Such a defi "socialite" exclus ive ly. and the value s nition is presented a s much to a doles of teachers, adminis trators and student s ce nts as to adults through va rious gene rally legitim ate only these roles . media. I am sugge s ting here there fore then there i s s om e good probability that that one option for the adolescent in the many students will be a ble to self struggle for identity is the one tha t per actualize from these choices . It is m its him legitimate ly to be confused, e qua lly likely however that many stu upset. moody. unpre dictable and a thorn dents will find the cost s of such r ole in the s ides of pa rents , peer s and playing too high, lack the skills for teachers . Following this line then, it i s them, or find the structure of opportun possible that an a lternative definition of ities for playing them closed. Then self as "mixed- up" can be added to the what are such students to do for a s ta - li s t of delinquents, radicals and 61 bohemians; or "mixed-up" can be a self tions of rules occur in a puni shment definition that is role expr essive for the centered bureaucracy (and let us as other roles. In any case it i s clear that sume schools are punishment centered these options for self actualization do r ather than e ither mock or participa exist, and they are problem solving tory bureaucracies) these violations are options , not problems per se. In that met with (a) renewed effor ts at rule en sense I mean that solutions to the iden forcement and (b) the proliferation of tity st cuggle are available outside the new rules. Both of these are r esponses school context and are likely to be to two things: fi rst. they drain ener gies sought out, learned and adopted fully away from the education function of the when the identity options within the school and secondly, they confirm the schools a re narrowly delimited. These deviant's view that the system i s de extra -ins titutional identities ar e quite Signed to exclude him . Beyond that adjus tive in the identity solution sense. however, the system can become re pressive for both s hldents and teacher s . Neve rtheless it i s likely that those with Marginal students may be driven to opt the power to legitimate roles and s ta for the deviant life style while the devi tuses a re not going to r eward behavior ants themselves may become bette r stemming fr om such subte rranean val organized to find techniques of subver ues. That does not mean that they will sion for sabotaging the system. And as not inadvertently reinforce the behavior thi s occurs, one again may reasonably tha t they wis h to extingui sh. They may expect more energy put into rule en indeed do this by per mitting the adoles fo rcement and rule elaboration until cents to define them as a negative ref education becomes secondary to or gan e r e nce group or as aggressor s . In that i zational maintenance. sense they are r einforcers and even necessary to the maintenance of the In sum then, the consequences of na r "deviant" identity. rowed legitimate opportunities for iden tity formation within the school lead to TIle school adminis trators, teachers the development and elaboration of non and students who insis t upon narrow legitimate (from the point of view of the gates to within-school legitimate identi school) identity potentia ls as solutions ties may respond to the deviants in a to the pr oblem of need for self actual variety of ways. But in the main, puni ization. And it is al so the case that tive responses a re likely to reinforce where negative sanctions are brought to the deviant identities. Mo reover there bear upon the deviants, the adjustive are very rea l consequences for the ba lance (in functiona l terms) of the school organization itself when it must school itself may he upset. come to terms with non -legitimate styles among its clients. TIle best model to use in understanding PROSPECTS the consequences for the school ma y be Gouldner' s discussion a f manageria l A s public educational systems are succession in Patterns Of Industrial altered by changes in class, race and Bureaucracy (1954). In that book(as in ethnicity of students whethe r by court most schools) it is noted that as viola - order or not, tlley a re like ly to find that 62 approved styles for a dolescents in future adminis trators and teachers in traditional terms may lead to severe terms used in this discussion, but proble m s in system maintenance. It is rathe r in te rm s of stable organizations perfectly obvious that the adapt! ve and crite ria of productivity pe r unit mechanisms of the student s not bounded cost, add to the pr oblem. To the extent by bu['eaucracy are more fl exible than that the prime institutional goal is ins ti the adaptive mechanis ms of schoolS. tutiona l mainte nance and not meeting Moreove r. if the r e is a place for the the educationa l and psychic needs of notion of value-lag-in-time in this dis students , it is the s chools that will face cussion, it must finally be noted that the a djustment problem as serious ly as Schools of Education wh ich fail to tra in w ill students. BIBLIOGRAPHY COHEN, A. K. TIle Sociology of the deviant act: anomie theory & beyond. Amel"ican Sociological Review 30 (1965) 5-14. F RIEDENBE RG , E. Z. Coming of Age in America. New York: Random I-lou se, 1963. GOULDNER, A. W. Pa tte rns of lndustl"ial Bureaucracy. Glencoe: Free Press, 1954. MA TZA, D. , & G. M. SYKES. Juvenile delinquency & subte rran ean values. Amer ican Sociological Review 26 (1961) 71 2-19. STRYKER, S. T1e Inte ractional & situationa l appr oaches. Ln : Handbook on Marriage & the Family . edited by 1-1. T . Christiansen, 125-70. Chicago: Ra nd McNally, 1964. - SOCIOLOG ICAL SYMPOSIUM Numb e r Si x (Spring 1971) DORIS y , WILKINSON" RACIAL BELIEFS OF 'iHITE ADOLESCENTS : ftN EXPLORATORY INQUIRY MUCH OF THE WORK on adolescents thought of in maturational te r ms as has not dealt systematically with the be ranging chronologically from the years lief systems of this large aggregation in I:\ve1ve to twenty. More significantly American society but has found its basic however, are definitions which consider theoretical import and research impe it as a dynamic socia-psychological tus in socialization theory. A number process of continued socialization and of investigations have focused on areas redefinition characterized by self iden such as: peer group influences and tifica tion, behavioral, a ttitudinal and peer-parental conflict over role expec value transformations , emphasizing that ra tions, subcultural features of adoles the nature of adolescence varies with cence. and the general features of ado the environments in which youth "com lescent society (Coleman 1961; Gottlieb ing of age" find themselves (Hauser 1964). A wide array of expressions has 1966; Miel & Kiester 1967; Pettigrew been employed to characterize thi s 1959). phase of the life cycle: "vanishing ado lescent," a stage of "growing up ab However, there has not been enough surd, " a social period of "coming of meaningful r esearch on the adults of age in America." And adolescents as a tomorrow and the kinds of belief struc collectivity have been cons idered as tures (In sko & Robinson ] 967) they will "among the last social groups in the bring to the future institutions and value world to be given the (ull 19th century system s of our society. TIle problem colonial treatment (Friedenberg 1965: 4) under investigation here r epresents a Frequently th e adolescent phase is beginning attempt in the direction of discovering racial beliefs a nd an effort to tap some of the ingredients of Amer • D. WILKINSON (M A, PhD, Case ica' s major domestic problem: white Wcstern Reserve) is a n associate pr o racism. Basically the research area fessor, department of sociology & formulated for study deals with the anthropoloh'Y, Macalester College. question of how white adolesc e nts SIXTY - THREE 64 pcrCC lve the place of the black Ameri g roups a s intrins ically associated can in our social s tructur e with the prescnce or a bsence o f certain socially relevant abilities or Since the Kerne r Commission re port a charactedstics, hen c e that stich number of publications have eme rged differences a re a legitimate basis focLlsing upun this phenomenon (13.:\ r atz of invidiou s cI istinctions be twee n 1969; Tomlinson 1968). 'This trans ition g roups socia lly de fined as races from a long histol'ically rooted social (Van den I3crghe 1967 : 11,23). science over-emphasis on prejudice (Proenza 1965) hopefully will provide The pr esent s tudy (part of a much for more systematic inquir y into the largel- investigation) does not attempt to normative and s tructuml consequences touch all face ts of a racist ideology. It of the nature of a racist belief system is simply orie nted to ascertaining some (Pe ttigrew 196J). Since adolescence is of the beliefs of white adolescents in a period of changing self conceptions three areas: (1) beliefs about police and a questioning of the fundamental treatment of blacks; (2) beliefs about axioms on which American cuLture the causes of the disadvantaged posi rests , the need for viewing interre la tions of blacks in jobs, housing and edu tionships between such self i m age cation; and (3) definitions of the role of changes a nd world views or ideologies whites in the maintenance of racially appears impe rative for students of the segr egated ne ighborhoods. These three family (King J968). dimensions rank high 0 n the 1 i s t of pl-oblems encountered by black Ameri Racism i s defined as an ideology having cans. cxplicit and implicit premises about the relationships, role expectations , status Results are based on a relatively small differentiations , and the psycho-s ocia l number of white high school students c haracter s tructu res 0 f blacks and (N = 141 ) from a suburban community in whites (Brink 1967; Goldman 1962; Hy the midwestern part of the Un i ted man & Sheats ley 1964). It represe nts Si;ates and are compared with an adult an historically prescribed and cultur sample (N = 2500) from a n earlier study a lly legitimate d body of doctrine and of white beliefs about Negroes (Camp myth with concomitant symbolism . The bell & Schuman 1968). Data reported latte r compone nts are manifestations of here deal with four of the many ques the dimension of extreme ethnocentric tions asked of adult respondents in the ity relative to the assumption of the bio Campbell & Schuman study of fifteen logical and intellec tual racial s upe ri major cities in America. * ority and purity of whites over blacks . As such it is a pervasive ideological The procedure involved admini stering a network underlying the entire value and s tructured questionnaire en masse to institutional fabric of American social structure. One comparatively compre hensive definition considers racism as: * Washington DC, Saint Louis, Sa n Franci sco, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, • . . any se t of beliefs that hold Newar k, Milwaukee, Gary, De t r 0 i t, o r ganic, genetically transmitted C leveland, CinCinnati, Chicago, Brook differences .. . between human lyn, Boston, Ba ltimore. 65 students of junior status in a middle not so, or definite ly not so? class suburban school. The first sec tion of the research instrument con (3) Which 0 f these statements s isted of typical demographic items on would you agree with: First. white ethnic background, religious affiliation, people have a r ight to keep Negroes educational status of father, and so out of their neighborhoods if they forth; while the second part was com want to; or second. Negroes have a posed of a series of items dealing with right to live wherever they can a f beliefs about blacks and the white Amer ford to just like white people; or ican' s role relative to the treatment of third. Negroes have a r ight to live blacks, and a racism scale. As indi anywhere if they are of the " right cated only four of the items in the $ec kind . .. ond part of the instrument are discussed in thi s paper. Sixty-five males and (4) Do you favor or oppose laws to seventy-six females compr ised the sub prevent discr imination in job hiring sample on which results are based. and promotion? Forty- three of the group were Protes tants and ninety-five Catholics. Ninety The fo llowing responses are designated three of those sampled were sixteen as operational indicators of racist yea;--: of age, with forty-four age seven beliefs: teen, three e ighteen, and one male fif teen. More than one- half of the re (1) Having the worse jobs , educa spondents came from families where tion and housing is due to something the fa ther had at least high school grad about Negroes themselves. uate status. Thus a degree of homo geneity was achieved on the social class (2) Unnecessary roughness and variable with respect to the educational disr espect for Negroes by police is: component. The four questions re probably not so or definitely not so. ported on are aimed at examining some perceptual and definitional dimensions (3) White people have a r ight to of racism and are taken from the Camp keep Negroes ou t of their neighbor bell & Schuman s tudy: hoods; or, Negroes have a right to live anywhere if they are the " right (1) On the ave rage, Negroes in kind. " America have worse jobs, education and housing than white people. 00 (4) Opposing laws to prevent dis you think this is due mainly to Ne crimination in hiring and promoting groes having been discriminated Negroes or having a prefer e nce for against or mainly due to something whites. a bout Negroes themselves? Campbell & Schuma n found that there is (2) It is sometimes said that un a tendency for the younger age groups necessary roughness and disrespect to express a r ecognition of the r ole of by the police happen more to Ne discrimination in th e disadvantaged groes in American cities than to pos itions black Americans have in em white people. Do you think this is ployment, education and hous ing. They definite ly so, probably so, probably state tha t "the direction of the genera- 66 tional differences in our data strongly areas are due to discrimination, a large suggest s that a long-term shift is oc percentage felt that such problems rep curring in the white popula tion away resent a combination of discrimination from the traditional racial attitudes of and "Negr oes themselves." Since no an e arlie r time in this country. " But probing was done, it can only be as they a dded a r e levant qua lification: s umed that this indicates an assumption "While this· appears to be a significant of the black American's own responsi movement, it cannot be said that a dra bility for his plight without recognizing matic revers~l of the pattern of raciaL the underlying causes of the status of attitudes has occurred even among the blacks. Campbell & Schuman (1968) youngest age group." 1l1ese data tend state that those whites "who placed to confirm this asser tion. some or a ll of the res ponsibility for the de ficiences of Negr o life on Negroes Ta ble 1 s hows a s ignificant percentage the m selves te nde d to think in term s of diffe r ence between white adults and failures of m otivation among Negroes. " white adolescents' definitions of the In their study a s izeable number spoke role of discrimination ba lcks encounter of the presumed laziness or unwilling in housing , employment and e ducation. ness to take advantage of opporrunities. Despite most of the adolescents indicat It is felt from r esponses to other items ing that the problems of blacks in these in the present questionnaire tha t this TABLE 1 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ADULT & ADOLESCENT DEFINITIONS OF THE ROLE OF DISCRIMINATION IN THE DISADVANTAGED POSITIONS OF BLACKS BY SEX White Adultsa White Adolescents Males Females Males Females Mainly Due To Discrimination 18 19 37 43 Mainly Due To Negroes Themselves 56 57 9 5 A Mixture Of Both 20 17 54 49 Don ' t Know 6 7 0 3 100% 100% 100% 100% a Campbell & Schuman , op . cit . 67 same interpretation m ay be applicable so, a lthough for both the male adults her e. and adolescents forty percent stated that the notion of abuse is p robably a nd Of the ir data Campbell & Schuman point definite ly so. What is inte res ting to out tha t only a very small percentage of note are the percentage diffe r e nces (or. their sample accepted without reserva those adolescents a nd adults indicating tion the idea that blacks might be more "don't know. " 111is may represent an s ubject to unnecessary abuse a nd dis '('e u n ~iltin gne ss to make a commitment spect from police tha n whites . Over without fa ctual information. Table 3 one-half of dle ir sample indica ted that s how s that adolescents on the whole feel this was probably not .$ o and definitely 'that black Americans have a right to not so. Ln s harp contrast to the adults . h ve a nywhe r e . More of the adults in data in Ta ~ e 2 s how that the white ado the Campbell & Schuman s tudy te nde d to lescents tended to feel that it is proba think that whites have a right to keep bly true that blacks a r e m istreated by blacks out than the adolescents in the police. More than half of the female p r esent investigation. F r om data in adolescents stated that unnecessary T TABLE 2 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ADULT & ADOL ESCENT BELIEFS ABOUT POLICE BEHAVIOR TOWARD BLACKS BY SEX White Adultsb White Adolescents Ma l es Females Males Females Definitely So 11 7 8 12 Probably So 29 28 32 41 Probably Not So 27 33 25 17 Definit ely Not So 27 25 10 1 Don ' t Know 6 7 25 26 No Information 100% 100% 100% 100% b Campbell & Schuman , op. cit. 68 TABLE 3 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ADULT & ADOLESCENT DEFINITIONS OF RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION BY SEX White Adultsc White Adolesc ents Males Females Males Females Whites Have A Right To Keep Negroes Out 27 32 11 1 Negroes Have A Right To Live Anywhere 64 59 71 86 Negroes Have A Right To Live Anywhere If They Are The "Right Kind" 3 2 11 6 Other 3 3 7 6 Don ' t Know 3 4 1 100% 100% 100% 100% C Campbell & Schuman , op. cit. TABLE 4 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF ADULTS & ADOLESCENTS FAVORING & OPPOSING LAWS AGAI NST JOB DISCRIMINATION BY SEX White Ad ultsd White Adolescents Males Females Males Females Favor 68 66 62 74 Oppose 20 18 23 20 Favor Preference For Whites 8 12 12 6 Don ' t Know 4 4 No Information 3 100% 100% 100% 100% d Campbell & Schuman, op. c it. 69 discrimination. Table 4 show s that a With respect to this , Campbell & Schu s ubstantial majority of both the adults man (1968) state that: and adolescents indicated that they we r e in favor of legis lation to prevent dis As these younger cohorts move crimination against blacks in hiring and through the life cycle. replacing promotion. Yet for both samples, one their elders and being followed by respondent in five declared a n opposi generations with even la rger pro tion to such laws. portions of college-exposed people , the potential for massive change in the traditional pattern of white racial attitudes in this country Despite increasing emphasis 0 n the seems gr eat . However. this is a gene r ation ga p mys tique, these tw 0 projection based on simple assump groups of white suburbanites tended to tions of persistence and takes no ac hold views on ly s lightly at va ria nce with count of events which may intervene each other. TIle most notable dis tinc to bring about unforeseeable altera tions in beliefs are shown in Tables 1 tions in the pace and even the direc a nd 3. White adolescents tended to tion of this change. r ecognize the role of discri.mination in employment, housing and education The measurement of r acism may prove more so than the adults . On the r esi- to be one of sociology's most perplex d ::! ntial segregation item , more adoles ing methodological problems. This is cents tended to feel that blacks should due to its multidimens ional nature , con be able' to live whe r ever they choose. ceptual ambiguity, r eluct ance to employ Whether these differences represent the te rm because of its value -laden and long-term changes r elative to altering negative connotations and the emotions the structure of racisn~ will depend on it evokes, and the fa ct that it i s rela future analyses of racist thinking. Our tively new to s ocial science analysis. larger s urvey may point to further ide Perhaps future studies will ena bl e ologicaL differences between young greater understanding of the changing whites and the prevailing belief systems racia l consciousness of young white of the parents' generation. Americans. BIDLIOGRAPHY BARATZ . S. S. & J. C. BARATZ. Early childhood intervention: the social science base of ins titutionalized racism. Paper r ead at the Society for Research in Child Development. 1969, at Santa Monica. BR INK, W., & L. HARRIS. . Black & White: A Study of U. S. Racial Attitudes Today. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1967. 70 CAMPBELL. A. , & H. SCHUMAN. White beliefs about Negroes. Racial Att~tudes in Fifteen American Cities (Supplemental Studies for the National Advisory Commission on Civil Dis orders) chapter 3: 29- 38. Washington: Government Pr int ing Office. 1968. FRIEDENBERG, E. Coming of Age in America: Growth & Acqui escience. New York: Random House. 1965. GOLDMAN, M. J et a1. Residential & personal social distance toward Negroes & non- Negroes. Psychol ogical Reports 10 (1962) 421-22. GOTTLlEB, D. , & C. E. RAMSEY. The American Adolescent. Hom ewood: Dorsey Press, 1964. HAUSER, P. M. Dzmographic factors in the integration of the Negro. The Negro American, edited by T. Parsons & K. B. Clark. 71-101. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1966. HYMAN. H. H.• & P. B. SHEA TSLEY. Attitudes toward desegre gation. Scientific American 211 (1964) 16-23. INSKO, C. A . • & J. E. ROBINSON. Belief Similarity versus race as detenninants of reactions to Negroes by southern white adolescents: a further test of Rokeach's theory. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 7 (1967) 211-16. KING, M. L. The Role of the behavioral scientist in the civil r ights movement. Am e ric a n Psychologist 23 (1968) 180- 86. MIEL, A. , & E. KIESTER. The Shortchanged Chi I d r e n of Suburbia. New York: In s titute of Human Re lations Press , 1967. PETTIGREW, T. F. Regional differences in anti-Negro preju- dice. Journal of Abnormal SOCial Psychology 59 (1959) 28- 36. PETTIGREW, T. ~ Racially separate or together? Journal of Social Issues 16 (1961) 105-12. PROENZA, L. , & B. " STRICKLAND. A Su··" of pre judice in Negro & white CL I icge sa ., ,. ... . Journal of Social Psychol- ogy 67 (1965) 2',.3-81. SHEATSLEY, P. B. 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Pa per read at the 34th a nnual meeting of the Southe rn Sociological Society, May 1971. Miami Beach. PRESTON, J. Re ligios ity & adolesce nt drinking behavior . Sociological Quarte rly 10 (Summer 1969) 372- 83. PROCTOR, S. TIle Young Negro in America, 1960- 1980. New York: Association Press, 1966. RA INS , P. Becoming An Unwed Mother: The Sociological Features of a Deviant Ca- r eer. Chicago: Aldine . In Preparation. RAMSEY, C. See D. Gottlie b. RAMSEY, C. Problems Of Youth: A Social Problems Pe rspective. Belmont: Dicken son. 1967. REDCA Y, L . Adolescent reaction to a film rega rding pr emarital sex experiences. Ed. D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University. 1964. Cited in Disserta tion Abstracts 25 (October 1964) 2481. REHBERG, R., J. S[NCLAIR & W. SCHAFER. Adolesce nt achievement behaviQr, family authority struc ture & pare ntal socia lization practices. American Journal of Sociology 75 (May [970) 1012-34. REHBERG, R. , & W. SCHAFER. 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ILLI NOIS 60680 For the Introductory Sociology Course FUAD BAALI and CLI FTON BRYANT, Western Kentucky University introductory sociology: selected readings for the college scene A sociology text in the language of the college student Basic concepts are ill ustrated with specific examples from campus life 569 pages Paper order number 68-6879 $6.95 EXAMINATION COPIES: If you wish to consider adoption of Rand McNally college texts, please write for examination copies on departmental stationery. Indicate your academic position, the course title. approximate enrol/ment, and the text currently in use. NEW!. .. . Social Problems Today Dilemmas and Dissensus Edited by CLIFTON D. BRYANT Western Kentucky University This skillfully structured reader contains 1;1 judicio us mix of articl e s from professional journals a nd a ppropriate malerial from the mass media. A precise conceptual scheme binds together d isparate elements under th ree b rood heodings, Conflicts and Strains in Modern Life, Th e Eros;o n of Ihe Sociol Enterprise, Response to the Social Malaise. Each of the 5i )!; sub sections under these headings deals with (I specific problem or instil ulion, and each subsection is fur lhe r cl assifi ed a s 10 its perspectiv e: individua l, group, or societal. These classifi cations give the book on unusua l organization that is both vertical a nd horizontal. The tightness of the org tlnb:otion, to 520 Pages g ether with the editor's commenta ries, wi ll help the stu d ent to grasp more easily some of the comp lexiti e s of Paperbound social prob lems today. february, 1971 J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY College Depa rtment . East Washington Square Philadelphia, Po. 19105 SPECIAL FEATURES: Faces o includes articles and excerpts by forty seven sociologists, psychologists, psychia trists, an thropologists, lawyers, and social of workers. o offers three major innovations in delin quency reader content; sections on delin Delinquency: quency statistics, delinquency types, and methodology. A R eader, Edite d By .John P. R eed o presents textual introductions to, and a and F uad B aali, Both of Western review of the articles comprising each sec Kentucky University tion. D gives up-to-date materia ls, sequentially ar Two million young people each year get in ranged from genera l to specific, with volved with the police a nd courts in our society. secti onal questions to aid the st udent's This new co llection of readings is about tha t sec comprehension of the ,articles in each tor of our society. It deals with youth- youth in sect ion. trouble. Those youth who have been caugh t an d labelled "delinquent". TABLE OF CONTENTS: J. DEFINITIONS: Who Are the Delinquent? Faces of Delinquency examines the delinquent in II. DEliNQUEN CIES: What Did They Do? several aspects. It portrays him as a concept, a III. ATIRI8UTES AND TYPES: What Do They person with a given lega l status. It also sees him Cook like? as a type, the resultant of numerous sociopsychol IV. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES: How To Go ogieal forces and institutional relationships. Fi About Studying Delinquency nally, it approaches the delinquent as a datum for V. THEORIES AND EXPLANATIONS: Why and societal reacti on. How Did They Get ThaI Way? VI. LABELLI NG: What Shall They Be Called? VII. COMMUNITY AND GROUP RESPONSE: This volume is bound together by three key How Can This Be Changed or Prevented? themes. The first theme involves the labelling of VIII. EPILOGUE the delinquent. It exa mines the judicial system February 1972, 432 pp., 57/e" x 9", cloth (29912-3); and the role it plays in designating certain in paper (29911-5) dividuals delinquent. The second deals wi th the social science of delinquency- the viewpoints, CONTRIBUTORS: methods, and th eories of sociologists, psycholo United Nations. Specific State Statu te s: New York, gists, psychiatrists, and socia l workers. The thi rd Jll in ois, Georgia, and Cali fornia. Edward H. Stu l1- theme co nsiders the sociology of law- how laws ken. I. Richard Perlman. U.S. Department of Ju s arc made, the purposes they serve, what effects ti ce, U.C.R. U.s. Departmen t of Health, Education, laws have, who enforces them, comparative legal and Welfare-Children's Bu reau. John I. Kitsuse. systems, and legal change. Aaron V. Cicourel. E. Jackson Baur. James l. Chapel. Daniel W. Taylor. Malcolm W . Klein. Faces of DeUnquency presents an orderly progres Commission on Obscenity and Pornography. The sion of topics divided into eight sections. The sec President's Commission on Law Enforcement and tions discuss: who is delinquent, what delinquents Administration o f Ju stice. John R. Clark. Edward do, how delinquents are cla ssi fied, research meth W . Haurek. Theodore N. Ferdinand. Albert J. Rei ss, ods and theories of delinquency, divergent points Jr. AJbert l. Rhodes. Arthur Lewis Wood. Sheldon of view, labelling by agencies of control, and Glueck. Eleanor Glueck. Don C. Gibbons. Thomas delinquency prevention and control. M. Gannon. Harry M. Shulman. William C. Kvara ceus. Charles Hanley. Ca rl M. Rosenquist. Edwin L Megargee. A lbert K. Cohen. James F. Short, Jr. Walter B. Miller. Richard A. Cloward. Lloyd E. Ohlin. Lois B. DeFleur. Fred J. Shan ley. Ralph W . England, Jr. Marlin R. Haskell. Muzafer Sherif. Carolyn W. Sherif. Gerald R. Wheeler. Hervey Prentice-Hall Inskeep, Ill. Irving Piliavin. Sco tt Briar. Anthony Platt. Alan Neigher. Edwin M . Lemer!. LaMar T. Empey. Ruth S. Tefferteller. Edwin M . Schu r. Gil Englewood Cliffs. N . ...1 . 07632 bert Geis. Melvin E. Mogulof. Jacob Chwast. URBAN SOCIOLOGY mnEMPORARY READINGS EVITED BY FUAD BAALI Western Kentucky University JOSEPH S. VANDIVER Unive rsity Of Florida A Collect ion Of Care fully Selecte d &. Well Documented Essays On The Sociology Of Urban Life . Se le cted From Publications Of the 1950' s & 1960's, The Articles Are Topically Arranged & L inke d By Introductory Text Materials Which Typify & Explor e T re nds Of Thought Concerning TIle Sociology Of The City. ARTICLES BY: Ra ben C. Cook, T. Lynn Sm ith, J. S. Vandiver. Jack P. Gibbs & Kingsley Davis , Jean-Pa ul Harroy. Nels Anderson, William Ba scom , Osca r Lewis, L eo F . Schnore, William I-I. Whyte, Jr. . Will iam M. Dobrine r , Da vid Riesman. Ro la nd J. Pe lleg rin & Charles 1-1 . Coates. De lbert C. Miller, Zimmer & Amos F. Hawley, Nicholas Babchuk & Ralph V. Thomps on. Eugene Litwak. Robert F . Winch & Scott A. Greer. Rudolf Heberle , He rbe rt Gans. 1-1. E. Bracey. Marsha !! B. Chnat-d, S. Kirson We inberg . Anthony Oberschall. WHliam Pe te rsen. Pe te r Marris . Robe rt C. Weaver. a nd Nathan Glazer. APPlETON-CENTURY- CROFTS OI\' ISIO_" or M[RIDITII COR rOllA TlO:>' The Social Dimensions of Work Clifton D. Bryant Western Kentucky University contents A comprehensive anthology, this text provides an integrated view of the theoretical and conceptual foundations for the soci EDITOR'S PREFACE. ology of work. Readings explore the organization, processes, relationships, and implications of work as a social activity, and TOWARD A SOCIAL INTERPRETATION OF WORK. outline the underlying bond that exists between work and human behavior. Editor's Introduction. The Background of Work. The Nature of Work. The Meaning and Motiva Selected on the basis of interest, readab ility, and clarity, the tion of Work: A Socio-Historical View. The articles cove r a wide variety of specific occupations and occu Meaning and Motivation of Work: A Compara pational categories. Although some of the well-known "classic" tive View. The Social Assessment of Work. statements on the sociology of occupations and professions are included, the majority of the articles are more recent and treat THE STUDY OF WORK. the subject with fresh insight and new illustration. Editor'S Introduction. Approaches to the Study This book can be used as a principal text or as a supplement to of Work. The Sociology of Work. other volumes. THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF WORK. Editor's Introduction. Occupational Status and Aole : A Longitudinal Perspective. Occupational Status and Role: A Comparative Perspective. Work Systems. The Culture of Wo rk. Occupa tional Stratification. Bureaucracy. Work Associ ations. rHE SOCIAL PROCESSES OF WORK. Editor's Introduction. Occupational Selection and Recruitment. Occupational Socialization (Informal). Occupational Socialization (Formal). Occupational Ideology and Identity. Work and Social Control. Work Careers. Professionaliza tion. WORK AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS. Editor'S Introduction. COlleagues and Co-Work ers. Practitioner and Clientele. Work and the Family. Prentice-Hall THE DYS FUN CTIONS AND DISAFFECTIONS OF WORK. Editor's Introduction. Work and Physical and Englewood Cliffs Menial Illness and Injury. Work and Deviant Behavior. The Discomforts and Dilemmas of Work. N.J07632 1972 approx. 480 pp. 6"x9" (81560-5) ,"IC12()r=ICIl~ A NEW MEDIUM OF DISSEMINATI NG AND STOR IN G DOCUMENTS FOR INFORMATI ON WRITE TO THE EDITOR IAL OFFICE OF sociological abstracts 2315 Broa dway, New York , N . Y. l002 4 DECENNIAL INDEX 1953-1962 A cumulative index containing 20 ,000+ indexed a uthors 6 0 0+ indexed journ als 14 ,000+ indexed abstracts 4 9 ,500+ indexed subje cts wUh a wtoJUc. u¢ay 011 "The. F.iJt..ot Te» YeaM" 06 sociological abs tract s S~ze : 8. 5 x 11 , xlv~ + 322 pp . $SO . OO SUPSUP~LEME LEME N TSSUPP LEMENTSSUPPLEMEEMENTSSUPPLEMENTSSUPPLEMENT~SUP~LEMENTSSUPPLEMENT~SIUPFNT SSUPPLEMENT SUP LEMEN TSSUPP LEMENT SUPP SUP LEMEN TSSUPPLEMENTSSUPPLEMENTSSUPPLEMENT SUP LEMENTSSUPPLEMEN T SUPP SUP~~~MENU MENTT ~ HAVE YOU READ THE 196a ASA CONVENTION LEMENfSSUPPN U ~U~ ME NT SU PPL EME NT? WHAT ABO UT THE 196B • 196. [~R N~~U~~ SUPPL RURAL SOCIOLOG ICAL CONVEN T ION SUPPLEMENTS' SSUPP SUPP L MENMENT~T OH YES , THE SOUT HERN SOCIOLOGICAL SOCIE TY LEMLEM~N NTSSUPP SUiP~ M~~ T ALSO HAD A SUPPLEMENT PREPAR ED FOR THEIR LEM NTSSUPP U P 1'69 ANNU AL MEETING , AND OF COURSE , THE EMEN SSU P ~U P ~ +~ XXII CONGRESS OF THE 1"~t U u t lut«" at-i0'u t tEMENfssu~p ~U P ~EN t ~ d. Soc-io l og-i. W, LL RECEIVE A SUP PLEMENT LEMEN SSU~P SU~P ~~M~NT ~ FOR OISTR'BUTION IN ROME , IN SEPTEMBER OF LEMEN SSUPP SU P MNT 196' . ASA SUPPLEMENTS ARE $2 eo • $3 TO LEM~NTSSUP~ SU P MNT LIBRARIES . ALL OTHER SUP PLEMENTS AR E LEM NTSSUP SUPP EMENTS $1. 50 eo & $2 TO LIBRAR I ES . LEM NTSSUP SUPP LEMENT ~ LEM NTSSUPP SUPP LEMEN T UPPLEMENTSSUPPLEMENTSSUPP LEMEtHSSUPPLEMENTSSUPPLEMENTSSUPP SUPP LEMENT UPPLEMENTSSUPPLEMENT SSUPPLEMENTSSUPPLEMEN TSSUPPLEMENTSSUPP SOC IOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM is a modest r esponse to the know ledg-e ex plosion & purports to accomodate the publishing pressures obligating rhe working scholar on any status level & prom ises to increase opportunities for the exploration & promotion of social thought & reseal-eh. SOCIOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM is desig ned, as th e te nll Symposium d<: notes, to devote each issue to one subject. TIlOugh the Symposiulll is captioned Sodologica! , the Journal supports & promotes the multi-per spective of behavioral scie nce. SOC IOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM inviCes definitive & working papers frOIll the authorities, ranked & rot..ed. SOCIO LOGICAL SYMPOSIUM equally invites research notes &. papers from doctoral aspirants & self-adjudged lesser authorities. SOC IOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM will a lso reprint papers when ever their reassessment is pertinent to a fuller documentatio n of the Symposium . The Editor WESTERN KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY Bowling Green Kentucky 42101