Projections No 2 (2013) 1

An aesthetic approach to the of Wei’s landscape poetry

CHEN Xi, University of Macau

Abstract

Chinese landscape poetry is not only the concentration and embodiment of the unique

Chinese landscape culture, but also demonstrates the harmonious integration of poetry and painting. The key question in translating Chinese landscape poetry into English is how to keep the aesthetic quality of an image. Through analysis of different English versions of ’s landscape poems from the perspective of theory, this paper argues that aesthetic concepts in Chinese painting theory provide significant new perspectives for the translation of Chinese landscape poetry. An understanding of the method of creating “artistic conception” (Yi Jing) in Chinese painting and of composition skills such as “blank-leaving” (Liu Bai) and “cavalier perspective” (San Dian Tou ) might help to retain the beauty of artistic conception, beauty of blankness, and beauty of pictorial composition, representing the harmonious fusion of poetry and painting in the original poem.

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Key Words

Chinese landscape poetry; Chinese painting theory; artistic conception; blank-leaving; cavalier perspective

摘要

中国山水诗歌是中国山水文化的浓缩和体现，也是诗画融合的绝佳诠释。在中国

山水诗的英译中，使译作保留原诗的画面美是翻译的关键。本文通过中国画论的

视角对王维山水诗的不同英译本进行分析，发现中国画论可以为中国山水诗的翻

译提供崭新的视角，借鉴中国画论中的意境营造和“留白”、“散点透视”等构图技

巧，可以使译文保留原诗的意境美、留白美和构图美，再现原诗中诗画融合的艺

术特色。

关键词

中国山水诗；中国画论；意境；留白；散点透视

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1. Introduction

China has been a country of poetry since ancient times and Chinese classical poetry has marked its significant place in the realm of world poetry by its melodious rhythms, refined language, profound cultural backgrounds, and the pursuit of artistic conception. As a notable part of Chinese classical poetry, landscape poetry is characterized by its harmonious combination of affective states and poetic imagery, which can be explained by Wang Guowei’s idea that “all the scenes are the expressions of feelings” (Wang, 2007: 42). Landscape poetry presents landscape as an aesthetic object and brings landscape into poetry as the main source of poetic imagery

(Li, 2004: 214). In Chinese landscape poetry, the sensibilities conveyed by the poems are produced through the description of the landscapes; the sensibilities and landscapes blend and interact with each other and constitute a verbal picture filled with sensibilities. The idea of shi hua tong yuan (poetry and painting sharing the same origin) has arisen since ancient times as poetry and painting are always closely connected. Meanwhile, some landscape poets were also talented landscape painters; the renowned landscape poet Wang Wei of the (618 CE - 907 CE) is a representative among them.

This paper argues that Chinese painting theory has had a significant influence on the creation and practice of Chinese landscape poetry. Elements of Chinese painting

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theory, such as composition skills and ink drawing techniques, play a significant role in the creation of visual effect and the construction of artistic conception in poetry.

Artistic conception is a unique term in China, which refers to not only the soul of

Chinese classical poetry, but also the essence of Chinese classical aesthetics. Artistic conception in Chinese classical poetry means an artistic sphere produced by the fusion of a poet’s emotions and the scenes described by him or her (Gu, 2006: 18).

Consequently, retaining the quality of an image in the original poem is the key to the translation of Chinese landscape poetry. As such, aesthetic concepts in Chinese painting theory may provide significant new perspectives for the translation of

Chinese landscape poetry. Focusing on the poetry and painting of Wang Wei, this paper analyses the transfer and the reconstruction of the aesthetic qualities of images in the translation of Chinese landscape poetry from the perspective of Chinese painting theory.

2. Wang Wei’s Landscape Poetry and his Painting Theory

In The Literature Mind and the Carving of Dragons, considered China’s foremost aesthetic treatise dating from the fifth century, the acknowledgement that “with

Daoism receding into the background, nature poems came to the fore” is regarded as the starting point of research on landscape poetry (Wu, 2010: 20). According to the

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Landscape Poetry Appreciation Dictionary, “landscape poetry takes mountains and rivers as aesthetic objects, illustrating an expansive world of natural scenery rather than simply describing flowers, grass, trees or stones. Meanwhile, what is represented in landscape poetry are not the simple mountains and rivers, but rather ‘poetic’ natural scenes” (Zhang, 1989: 2).

Landscape was used as a medium to convey emotions in the Book of Songs and

Songs of Chu. During the Jian-An Period (196 CE - 220 CE) of the Han Dynasty (206

BCE - 220 CE), landscape description was widely used to express the turbulent but dynamic social atmosphere of that time. In the Tang Dynasty, China achieved national strength through a prosperous economy, a stable social atmosphere and wide-ranging development. The philosophical doctrines of , , and Taoism coexisted and people enjoyed freedom of thought and faith, the phenomenon of the hermitage was prevalent in society and poets were fond of sightseeing in the mountains and rivers. Landscape poetry reached its artistic peak during this time and became a significant sub-genre of Chinese classical poetry. A large number of landscape poets emerged, such as Wang Wei, , , and Liu

Zongyuan. Known collectively as the School of Wang Wei, their landscape poems convey an appreciation of the beauty of nature with a peaceful and elegant style.

Wang Wei (701 CE – 761 CE), an outstanding poet and painter in the Tang

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Dynasty, is regarded as the master of poetry, calligraphy, and painting. He created his own style of from his understanding of poetry—pure ink drawing composed in the pursuit of an elegant artistic state. He infused his landscape painting with the poetic flavor of his poems and was regarded as the predecessor of the South

School of Literati Painting. Wang Wei produced more than four hundred poems throughout his lifetime, most of which describe his secluded leisure life and the landscape scenery he saw during his travels. The description of natural scenery and landscape in his poems reveal his keen insight and his poems are full of beautiful imagery. Wang Wei’s landscape poetry presents a harmonious fusion of poetry and painting; the beautiful artistic conception and visual effect in his poems have been appreciated by many scholars. Just as Su Shih commented, “Reading Mojie’s poem, one can sense the beauty of a picture; appreciating Mojie’s painting, one can taste the flavor of his poetry” (, Shu Mojie Lan Tian Yan Yu Tu《书摩诘蓝田烟雨图》).

Chinese painting theory has had a profound and extensive influence on the creation and practice of Chinese landscape poetry; the composition skills and ink drawing techniques play a significant role in the creation of visual effect and the construction of artistic conception. As a landscape painter, Wang Wei wrote two articles on Chinese painting theory, “ Jue” and “Shan Shui Lun,” in which he briefly put forward the techniques of landscape painting:

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When painting landscapes, one should conceive before painting. Mountains, trees, horses and people should appear in corresponding size in the painting. When painting people or trees in the distance, details such as people’s eyes or branches of trees should be omitted; when painting mountains in the distance, stones should not be drawn and the mountains seem like eyebrows; when painting water in the distance, waves should be omitted and water can be the same height as clouds. These are the painting techniques. (Yu, 1986: 592)

Wang Wei’s painting techniques emphasise that landscapes should present different forms of mountains and rivers with the change of seasons and time. The arrangement of distant and close images as well as the techniques of ink drawing should all be taken into consideration when composing a painting. Wang Wei’s painting theory is fully demonstrated in his landscape poetry and his poetry and painting are a good example of poetry composition under the influence of painting theory.

3. An Aesthetic Approach to the Translation of Wang Wei’s

Landscape Poetry

It is useful to explore the transfer or reconstruction of aesthetic qualities and sensibilities in the translation of Chinese landscape poetry in relation to three aesthetic concepts in Chinese painting theory: artistic conception, blank-leaving, and cavalier perspective.

3.1 Artistic Conception

In the Dictionary of Chinese Ancient Literary Theories (1985: 640), the concept of

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“artistic conception” (Yi Jing) refers to “an artistic realm that can lead the readers to an imaginary space through vivid artistic description with the fusion of emotion and scene.” Artistic conception is not only an indispensable aesthetic concept in Chinese classical aesthetics, but also the essence of Chinese painting theory. It has been widely used in , painting, and calligraphy, becoming a significant element of aesthetic creation, particularly in landscape poetry and painting.

Artistic conception also plays a role in the English translation of Chinese landscape poetry. Poetry translation is a controversial topic with many scholars and translators insisting on the idea that poetry cannot be translated. However, in the field of poetry translation, noteworthy translated works by many Chinese and western translators have proved that poems can not only be translated, but also translated well.

Susan Bassnett (2001: 74) points out that “poetry is not what is lost in translation; it is rather what we gain through and translators.” She confirms the translatability of poetry by proposing the “transplanting” method of poetry translation.

In her essay “Transplanting the Seed: Poetry and Translation” (1998), the “seed” that

Bassnett refers to represents the spiritual essence of the poem. In my view, the transmission of internal spiritual essence helps to restore and represent the quintessence of the original poem in the translation. Chinese landscape poetry, which is characterised by the notion of artistic conception, has strong visual effects.

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Therefore, in the translation of Chinese landscape poetry, how to successfully reconstruct artistic conception and represent the aesthetic qualities and sensibilities of the original poem, becomes the critical concern of translation.

A landscape poem of Wang Wei can be used to analyze the reconstruction of artistic conception in translation. Visiting the Temple of Accumulated Fragrance (《过

香积寺》) embodies the concept of “painting in poetry and poetry in painting”.

不知香积寺，数里入云峰。 古木无人径，深山何处钟？ 泉声咽危石，日色冷青松。 薄暮空潭曲，安禅制毒龙。

I didn’t know where the temple was, pushing mile on mile among cloudy peaks; old trees, peopleless paths, deep mountains, somewhere a bell. Brook voices choke over craggy boulders, Sun rays turn cold in the green pines. At dusk by the bend of a deserted pond, a monk in meditation, taming poison dragons. (Tr. Burton Watson)

For the convenience of analysis, I have added emphasis to different key elements in the translation of this poem. In the original poem, the static images of cloudy peaks, old trees, deep mountains, and green pines correspond to the quiet environment of the ancient temple in the mountains, rendering a tranquil and graceful atmosphere. The most noteworthy point in this landscape poem is the tactful use of “咽” and “冷”. The

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character “咽” (whimper) is personified as the sound of the spring when it flows through rugged boulders; thus “咽” forms a dynamic image, appropriately showing the scene of the spring flowing through rugged rocks with great difficulty. The character “冷” (feel cold) combines the senses of sight and touch, vividly depicting the scene of a ray of the setting sun shining through the thick forests. The quiet environment and dim light complement each other and create a splendid artistic conception and visual effect. In the translation, Watson uses “choke” to personify the spring flowing through rugged rocks and to reconstruct the dynamic image in translation. Moreover, in “old trees, peopleless paths,/ deep mountains, somewhere a bell” a complete grammatical structure is abandoned and a simple arrangement of images is used to create the artistic conception of the deep mountains as mysterious and tranquil.

Another landscape poem by Wang Wei, “Rainy Days in My Riverside

Hermitage” (《积雨辋川庄作》), provides a further example of artistic conception and its associated aesthetic qualities and sensibilities:

积雨空林烟火迟，蒸藜炊黍饷东菑。 漠漠水田飞白鹭，阴阴夏木啭黄鹂。 山中习静观朝槿，松下清斋折露葵。 野老与人争席罢，海鸥何事更相疑？

After long rain cooking fire’s made late in the village;

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Millet and greens are cooked for those doing tillage. Over the boundless paddy fields white egrets fly; In gloomy summer forest golden orioles cry. In quiet hills I watch short-lived blooms as I please, And eat sunflower seeds under the green pine trees. With other villagers I would not disagree; Even sea gulls from far away would come near me. (Tr. Xu Yuanzhong)

The original poem describes a vivid picture of joyful country life with rich vitality, expressing the poet’s great love of nature. In particular, the two lines “漠漠水田飞白

鹭, 阴阴夏木啭黄鹂” (“Over the boundless paddy fields white egrets fly;/ In gloomy summer forest golden orioles cry”) present a beautiful landscape picture. The scenes set off and complement each other, depicting the poet’s riverside hermitage with strong pictorial quality, which can be regarded as “painting in poetry.” Xu

Yuanzhong’s translation focuses on the translation of major images, especially the color images in the poem. Xu once proposed the “Triple Beauty” theory for poetry translation, which emphasizes the importance of “Message Beauty” (Beauty in Sense),

“Prosodic Beauty” (Beauty in Sound), and “Image Beauty” (Beauty in Form) in translation. In his translation of Wang’s poem the “Triple Beauty” theory is expressed well: “boundless paddy fields” and “gloomy summer forest” are juxtaposed with each other, similar to the antithesis in the original Chinese poem, creating a sense of contrast in the artistic conception; “white egrets” and “golden orioles” present the visual difference of color shades; “fly” and “cry” correspond through rhyme, while

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the dynamic state of egrets flying is augmented by their melodious twitter. With the successful translation of color images, this translation renders a vibrant picture of the riverside hermitage in spring, with the aesthetic qualities of the image and the fusion of emotion and scene preserved.

3.2 Blank-Leaving and the Beauty of Blankness

“Blank-leaving” (Liu Bai) is an important technique and principle in Chinese traditional aesthetics, which originates from Lao Tzu’s (571 BCE – 471 BCE) Taoist philosophical notion of “interaction between being and non-being.” On the basis of

Lao Tzu’s philosophical thoughts, Chuang Tzu (286 BCE - 369 BCE) proposed the idea of “Xiang Wang,” the combination of the real realm and the virtual realm.

Combined together, these ideas have had a profound impact on Chinese traditional aesthetics by emphasizing not only images (being and the real realm), but also the blankness beyond images (non-being and the virtual realm). Therefore, as a method of creating artistic conception, blankness and blank-leaving have played a significant role in the theory and composition of traditional artistic forms such as calligraphy, poetry, and painting.

“Blank-leaving” in poetry is not absolute emptiness, but rather a blankness full of rich implications and philosophical thought. “Blank-leaving” allows readers the space

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to create their own imaginative interpretations of the poems. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese landscape poetry, blank-leaving in the original poem should be preserved as much as possible in order to retain the quality of artistic conception and aesthetic sensibilities derived from the interaction between the real and the virtual.

Wang Wei’s poems provide illuminating examples of the use of blank-leaving in landscape poems, for example in his poem “Hsin-i Village” (《辛夷坞》):

木末芙蓉花，山中发红萼。 涧户寂无人，纷纷开且落。

High on the tree-tips, the hibiscus. Sets forth red calyces in the mountain. A stream hut, quiet. No one around. It blooms and falls, blooms and falls. (Tr. Wai-lim Yip)

This poem is composed of plain language and depicts a natural scene to readers, drawing upon the natural picturesque beauty to suggest an artistic conception of

(Chán). In Buddhist teachings, Zen usually refers to the attainment of enlightenment and the personal expression of direct insight. The Zen realm in poetry thus implies the peaceful internal world. As Wu Sheng argues, “[t]he poem has not contained allusions or words of Zen, but in the depiction of landscape and real life, it unconsciously leads the readers into a Zen realm with a sort of Zen flavor spreading

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around” (Wu, 2000: 195). Thus, in translation, the question of how to retain this impression of a Zen realm is key.

Wai-lim Yip’s translation achieves the reconstruction of a Zen realm to a great extent. Yip abandons subjects and conjunctions, arranges and enumerates the major images with independent words or phrases, and thereby produces blank-leaving between the lines and provides a space for the reader’s imagination. Above all, the use of the article “the” before “hibiscus” is particularly effective. In Chinese classical poetry, the quantity of nouns is often “fuzzy” and the plural or singular form of a noun cannot be identified in grammar; it is not clearly indicated whether “芙蓉花”

(hibiscus) in the original poem refers to one hibiscus or a cluster of hibiscuses.

However, as the main image in the poem, the singular or plural form of a noun might result in subtle but profound differences in the construction of artistic conception in poetry (Zhu, 2012: 57). Establishing a main image in a poem and using the singular form to express its distinction is called “imagery focalization” (Zhu, 2012: 57). As

Gaston Bachelard (1964: 134) suggests, “with a single poetic detail, the imagination confronts us with a new world. From then on, the detail takes precedence over the panorama, and a simple image, if it is new, will open up an entire world.” Thus, Yip uses a single image—“the hibiscus”—to highlight the artistic conception created by this image: against the backdrop of remote mountains and quiet valleys, a single

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hibiscus is in bloom, blossoming quietly and falling in silence. Large blank-leaving is created with the highlighting of this single image, which deepens the implied Zen realm. Meanwhile, the last line in the translation—“It blooms and falls, blooms and falls”—uses an unconventional repetitive structure to express an unconventional effect of passing time. Two paratactic expressions “blooms and falls” illustrate the artistic conception of the reiterative word “纷纷” (fen fen), expressing the dynamic state of the hibiscus blooming and falling at the same time, as well as the state of endless recycling of everything in the universe. With the retaining of blank-leaving in the translation, the sense of a Zen realm and the depth hidden beneath the simple language are subtly reconstructed.

3.3 Cavalier Perspective and Picture Composition

“Cavalier perspective” (San Dian Tou Shi) is a composition technique in Chinese painting. It refers to the representation of landscapes of different levels and different perspectives in the same picture without a limitation of the field of vision. The effect of cavalier perspective is to make the space of the picture extend in any dimension and to break the boundary of time and space.

The syntax differences between English and Chinese have significant influences on the English translation of Chinese poetry. In landscape poetry, the differences

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between the syntax of languages such as English and Chinese can be used to convey the differences in the field of vision implied by cavalier perspective. In English, appropriate conjunctions are usually used to connect different components in sentences and to show structural relationships. By contrast, in Chinese writing, components are connected with semantic meanings instead of conjunctions. Thus,

Chinese syntactic structure is more flexible than its English counterpart, lending a relatively less restricted syntactic arrangement and expression to Chinese poetry.

Wai-lim Yip (2005: 2) states, “[t]he flexibility of grammar in Chinese classical poetry—the uncertain location, indefinite relationship, ambiguous parts of speech, and multiple functions—allows the readers to regain the freedom similar to the free space consciousness in the landscape painting, and to let them observe, appreciate and understand objects.” Chinese landscape poetry borrows ideas from “cavalier perspective” in Chinese painting theory for image arrangement; translators of Chinese landscape poetry can also learn to arrange images under the influence of “cavalier perspective” in Chinese painting theory so as to strengthen the pictorial sense and aesthetic qualities of the translation.

Using “cavalier perspective,” Chinese landscape poems include both the scenes in the distance and those nearby in the same spatial dimension; for example, through the artistic choice of the poet, images are juxtaposed using rhetorical devices such as

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antithesis, through which opposite and complementary image groups are formed. In the translation of Chinese landscape poetry, the “cavalier perspective” in Chinese painting theory may provide new inspiration for translators: they may escape the bondage of grammar by arranging and enumerating images in poetry using the same method. As such, they may better reflect the structure of classical poetry in which the logical relations between different images is uncertain; images can be directly united without intermediates and function words for connection, such as conjunctions and prepositions may be omitted. Yuan Xingpei (2009: 58) has compared the connection of images in classical painting to the ‘montage’ technique in film in which a series of short shots are edited into a sequence to condense time, space and information.

The “cavalier perspective” has been used in Chinese landscape poetry to create blankness through tactful image arrangement according to Chinese syntactic features; the void between the lines provides an imaginative space for readers and evokes the readers’ response to an interaction between the real and the virtual. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese landscape poetry, translators may selectively retain Chinese syntactic features and arrange images correspondingly. Wang Wei’s landscape poem

“Bird–Singing Stream” (《鸟鸣涧》) provides a fine example:

人闲桂花落，夜静青山空。 月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中。

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Version One: I hear osmanthus blooms fall unemployed; When night comes, hills dissolve into the void. The rising moon arouses birds to sing; Their fitful twitters fill the dale with spring. (Tr. Xu Yuanzhong)

Version Two: Man at leisure. Cassia flowers fall. Quiet night. Spring mountain is empty. Moon rises. Startles–a mountain bird. It sings at times in the spring stream. (Tr. Wai-lim Yip)

Wang uses synaesthesia to combine the dynamic scene of falling blooms, rising moon, and twittering birds with the static scene of his internal state of leisure. Synaesthesia refers to the “phenomenon wherein one sense modality is felt, perceived, or described in terms of another” (Preminger and Brogan, 1993: 1259) The poem shows a quiet and beautiful spring night with vivid detail and reflects the inner silence of the poet.

The above two translations possess different features and produce different aesthetic effects and sensibilities. In Version One, Xu Yuanzhong adds subjects and conjunctions in his translation according to English grammar usage to make the structure more comprehensive. In this translation, the basic images of “osmanthus blooms,” “hills,” “rising moon,” “birds,” and “twitters” are accurately translated and the artistic conception is well reconstructed, yet it fails to reconstruct the realm of emptiness. In contrast, Version Two contains minor mistakes in the translation of “桂

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花” (Gui Hua) as “cassia flowers” and “惊” (Jing) as “startles,” but it achieves the effect of reconstructing the realm of emptiness. The translation escapes grammatical bondage, abandons the rules of coherence and cohesion in English grammar, and dispenses with subjects and conjunctions. With such arrangement and enumeration, the major images are expressed by independent nouns and phrases in English, such as

“Man at leisure,” “Quiet night,” and “Startles–a mountain bird” in the translation. The emptiness between these words and phrases creates a realm of emptiness that may evoke the readers’ imagination. Meanwhile, the juxtaposition of different images constitutes different groups of images, which produce visual effect. This kind of image arrangement is similar to “cavalier perspective” in Chinese painting or

“montage” in western art, that can produce direct visual aesthetic responses in the readers and represent the style of “painting in poetry” in Chinese landscape poetry.

4. Conclusion

Chinese landscape poetry, with artistic conception at its core, typically integrates poetry and painting. In the English translation of Chinese landscape poetry, aesthetic concepts in Chinese painting theory can provide different perspectives for the translation of Chinese landscape poetry. The method of creating artistic conception in

Chinese painting, and composition skills in Chinese painting such as “blank-leaving”

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and “cavalier perspective,” may help to retain the beauty of artistic conception, beauty of blankness, and beauty of picture composition, representing the harmonious fusion of poetry and painting in the original poem. The unique techniques and aesthetic principles of Chinese landscape poetry should be given greater significance in the translation process. Chinese painting theory may also help translators preserve original aesthetic qualities and sensibilities in the translation. Therefore, Chinese painting theory can provide valuable aesthetic references for the appreciation and translation of Chinese classical poetry.

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