Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-41822-5 — Seeing the Light: the Case for Nuclear Power in the 21St Century Scott L

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-41822-5 — Seeing the Light: The Case for Nuclear Power in the 21st Century Scott L. Montgomery , Thomas Graham, Jr Index More Information

Index

Abalone Alliance, 191 in US, 190–193 acid mine drainage (AMD), 214 Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository acute radiation syndrome (ARS), 156–157 and, 216–217 AEC. See Atomic Energy Commission anxiety. See nuclear anxiety Africa. See also Ghana; South Africa; arms treaties. See Nuclear Non-Proliferation sub-Saharan Africa Treaty; nuclear weapons nuclear reactor construction in, 25 ARS. See acute radiation syndrome Agreed Framework Agreement, 330 Aston, Francis, 34–35 air pollution, 16–20. See also clean air laws atomic bombs. See nuclear weapons in China, 16–17, 263 atomic energy, 66. See also nuclear energy and WHO statistics on, 16–17 power under Clean Air Act, 17–18 Atomic Energy Act, 97, 104, 107–108, under clean air laws, 18 112–113, 301 from coal use, 4 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 38, 101–104 in developing countries, 17, 18–19 establishment history of, 104–107 from fossil fuels, 2 nuclear reactor design guidelines, 105–106 Great Killer Smog of 1952, 4 scientific community’s loss of confidence health risks from, 2 in, 104 in India, 17 Atomic Energy Research Establishment, 45 in Turkey, 266 atomic theory. See also radiation Akhromeyev, Sergei, 318 critical mass, 73 Alexievich, Svetlana, 159 half-life period in, 66 alpha radiation, 65, 119 isotopes in, 68 AMD. See acid mine drainage in nuclear weapons, 72–73 anti-nuclear movement neutrons in, 68, 69 in Bodega Bay, 187–190 nuclear energy through, 64–68 in China, 201–202 nuclear fission in, 70–71 early manifesto of, 192 protons in, 67 in Europe, 193–196 radioactivity and, 64, 66 in France, 194–195 definitions of, 71 in Germany, 194–195 Rutherford and, 32–33, 64–68 in Great Britain, 195 uranium radiation and, 65 media coverage of, 193 Atoms for Peace (Woodbury), 101–103 national organizations in, 191, 193 Atoms for Peace program, 46, 102–103 nuclear anxiety as foundation of, 181–187 Atoms for Peace speech, 107 societal influences on, 209–210 Attlee, Clement, 44

363

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-41822-5 — Seeing the Light: The Case for Nuclear Power in the 21st Century Scott L. Montgomery , Thomas Graham, Jr Index More Information

364 Index

Baker, Carolyn, 293–294 CEFR. See China Experimental Fast Reactor El Baradei, Mohamed, 344–345 Central and South Asia, nuclear reactor Baruch, Bernard, 38–39 construction in, 25 Baruch Plan, 38–39 Cesium, 129–130 BEAR 1. See Biological Effects of Atomic Chadwick, James, 68 Radiation: A Report to the Public Charles (Prince of Wales), 288–289 Becquerel, Henri, 64 Chernobyl nuclear accident, 145–149 becquerels, as radiation measurement, 123–126 cause of, 146 Ben-Gurion, David, 46 human error as, 148–149 Bessmertnykh, Alexander, 318 contamination area after, size of, 213 beta radiation, 65, 120 European radiation levels as result of, Bhabha, Homi, 323–324 158–159 Bhopal accident, 211–212 fatalities as result of, 156–158 Bhutto, Benazir, 330 Fukushima accident compared to, 149–150 Bhutto, Zulﬁkar Ali, 328–329 international evaluation of, 146 bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Mohammed (Sheik), lessons learned from, 166–167 299–300 nuclear anxiety as result of, 199 bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Abdullah, 302 public health risks from, 156–160 Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation: for ARS, 156–157 A Report to the Public (BEAR 1), for mental health, 159–160 182–184, 197 public perceptions about, 144–145 limitations of, 185–187 RBMK reactor design, 147–148 birth defects, from radiation, 132, 185–186 Soviet propaganda about, 147 Blix, Hans, 312 Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1) reactor, 96–97 Bodega Bay protests, 187–190 China boiling water reactor (BWR) design, for air pollution in, 16–17, 263 nuclear reactors, 91–92 WHO statistics on, 16–17 water contamination in, 224 clean air laws in, 19 BOO approach. See build-own-operate coal use in, 2, 12–13 approach nuclear energy and power in, 13–14, Brandt, Willy, 341 263–265, 357 Brangham, William, 292–293 long-term power generation goals for, 265 Brezinski, Zbigniew, 57 public protests against, 201–202 Bromet, Evelyn, 160 nuclear reactor design in, 263–264 Brown, Edmund (Pat), 189 CEFR reactors, 264 Buck, Ken, 287 SCR reactors, 264 build-own-operate (BOO) approach, 262 SMR reactors, 264 Bush, Vannevar, 35 nuclear weapons program in, 47–48, 50 BWR design. See boiling water reactor design China Experimental Fast Reactor (CEFR), 264 Byrnes, James, 35 China Syndrome (ﬁlm), 193 “China Syndrome” (term), 193 Canada Natural Uranium Deuterium cities. See urbanization (CANDU), 89 Clamshell Alliance, 191–193 cancer, radiation and, 177–178 Clean Air Act, 17–18 CANDU. See Canada Natural Uranium clean air laws, 18 Deuterium in China, 19 carbon energy, sources of, 1–2. See also coal in India, 19 use; oil production; petroleum clean coal, 19–20 climate change from, 5–6, 282–285 climate change, 20–23 Carson, Rachel, 176–177 from carbon energy use, 5–6, 282–285 Carter, Jimmy, 260 from coal use, 23

Index 365

destructive storms as result of, 287–288 comprehensive test ban treaty (CTBT), 337 energy crisis and, 2 Compton, Karl, 35 as existential crisis, 288 Conant, James, 35 ﬂoods and droughts from, 286 cosmic radiation, 126 forest loss as result of, 287–288 CP-1. See Chicago Pile-1 reactor from GHGs, 22 critical mass, 73 glacial melt from, 287 CTBT. See comprehensive test ban treaty as global threat, 6 Cuban Missile Crisis, 46, 50–51, 55 global warming from, 285–286, 291 Curie, Marie, 64, 66 speed of, 292 Curie, Pierre, 66 historical timeline for, 280–282 curtailment approach, to renewable human survival inﬂuenced by, 21–22 energy, 250 IPCC and, 20–21, 290–291 long-term impact of, 285–288 Daghlian, Harry, Jr., 187 under Paris Agreement on Climate Change Dalton, John, 64 6, 288–289 dams. See also hydroelectric power sea level rise from, 287, 291–292 lifespan of, 219–220 World Bank on Climate Change, 289 structural failure of, 220 Clinton, Bill, 116, 322 Davenport, Coral, 292–293 closed-loop systems, water contamination de Gaulle, Charles, 339 from, 226 de Klerk, F. W., 327 coal use. See also clean coal Deng Xiaoping, 263 air pollution from, 4 destructive storms, climate change as factor in, in China, 2, 12–13 287–288 under clean air laws, 18 developing countries, air pollution in, 17, climate change from, 23 18–19 electricity production and Dhanapala, Jayantha, 335–337 as default energy source after, 254–255 disposal, of nuclear waste, 86–89 as energy source in, 3–4 in commercial international site, 88 GHGs from, 23 geologic, 86 global fatalities from, 178–179 doses of radiation, 125–126 Great Killer Smog of 1952 from, 4 after Chernobyl nuclear accident, in Europe, health risks from, 4, 359 158–159 nuclear anxiety in comparison to, 178–180 EPA guidelines for, 130–131 historical development of, 3, 280–281 after Fukushima nuclear accident, 162–163 increased consumption of, 4–5 hormesis hypothesis for, 135 long-term negative effects of, 26–27 LNT hypothesis for, 133–136, 139–140 during Industrial Revolution, 3 BEAR 1 report and, 182–184, 185–187, “return to coal” movement, 272–273 197 smog from, 4, 17 LSS for, 131–132 in US, 282–283 droughts, from climate change, 286 Cold War. See also nuclear arms race; nuclear dry cooling, 226 weapons Cuban Missile Crisis and, 46, 50–51, 55 earthquakes end of, 321–323 Fukushima nuclear accident and, 150–151, nuclear weapons problem after, 322–323 152 during Kennedy administration, 50 nuclear power plant construction and, Limited Test Ban Treaty during, 54–56, 58 188–189 historical development of, 55–56 EBR-1. See Experimental Breeder Reactor-1 nuclear arms race during, 43–44, 50 Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament post-war legacy, 56–58 (ENCD), 51–52

366 Index

Einstein, Albert, 33, 358–362 fear of corporate greed as factor in, 191–192 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 107 national organizations in, 191, 193 nuclear energy development under, 108–109 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), electricity production 130–131 coal use Yucca Mountain nuclear waste guidelines, as default energy source after electricity, 216–217 254–255 Europe. See also United Kingdom in generation of, 3–4 anti-nuclear movement in, 193–196 global demand for, 253–255 nuclear energy in, early development of, 100 historical development of, 3–4 nuclear reactor construction in, 25 through hydropower structures, 219–220 radiation levels in, from Chernobyl nuclear through liquid petroleum, 106 accident, 158–159 through nuclear energy, 104–110 Experimental Breeder Reactor-1 (EBR-1), in UAE, 298–299 107–108, 116 Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation (ENEC), 303, 309–314 FANR. See Federal Authority for Nuclear emissions reductions Regulation Energiewende plan, 251–252 FAO. See Food and Agricultural Organization with nuclear energy, 232–233 fast electrons, 120 ENCD. See Eighteen Nation Committee on fast neutron reactor (FNR) design, for nuclear Disarmament reactors, 92–93 ENEC. See Emirates Nuclear Energy Fat Man bomb, 74 Corporation The Fate of the Earth (Schell), 198–199 Energiewende (Energy Shift) plan, 251–252 Federal Authority for Nuclear Regulation energy crisis (FANR), 303, 309–314 climate change and, 2 Fermi, Enrico, 33, 69, 74–75 existential nature of, 1–2 early nuclear reactor designed by, 96–97 fossil fuels and, 1–2 Finland, nuclear waste repository in, political responses to, 260 86–87 energy policies fission. See nuclear fission economic policies as factor in, 232–233, 234 floods, from climate change, 286 energy sources and, absolutist perceptions FNR design. See fast neutron reactor design of, 238–239 FOE. See Friends of the Earth for renewable energies, 238 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), in Germany, 251–252 124–125 energy poverty, 253 Ford, Henry, 281 energy production, historical development of, forest loss, climate change as factor in, 3–7 287–288 coal use, 3 fossil fuels. See also coal use; oil production; for electricity, 3–4 petroleum for nuclear power, 6–7 energy crisis and, 1–2 for oil production, 3 health risks from, 2 energy realism, 246 France energy security, 259–262 anti-nuclear movement in, 194–195 in Turkey, 266 nuclear reactors in, 114 Energy Shift plan. See Energiewende plan reduction of, as national policy, 259 energy trends, 244–246. See also renewable nuclear weapons program in, 45 energies Friedman, Thomas L., 293 forecasts of, 245–246 Friends of the Earth (FOE), 191 ensemble forecasting, 249 Frisch, Otto, 70–71, 94. See also atomic theory environmental movement, 176–177 nuclear fission and, 70–71

Index 367

fuel cycle, for nuclear reactors, 81–84 Grae, Seth, 303 closing of, 81 Great Britain decay heat in, 83 anti-nuclear movement in, 195 once-through, 81 nuclear energy in, early years of, 98 recycling in, 81–83 nuclear power plants in, 98 reprocessing in, 81–83 Great Killer Smog of 1952, 4, 17 Fukushima nuclear accident, 9, 149–156 green energy revolution, 252 assessment studies of, 160–161 greenhouse gases (GHGs), 22, 23 causes of, 150–153 Greenpeace, 191 earthquake as, 150–151, 152 Groves, Leslie, 35 tsunami as, 152–153 Chernobyl accident compared to, 149–150 Hahn, Otto, 33, 66–67, 69–71, 72. See also contamination area after, size of, 213 atomic theory decommissioning of nuclear reactors after, half-life period, 66 11–12 Al Hammadi, Mohamed, 307 government response to, 154–156, 164–165 Harmony (Prince Charles), 288–289 health risks after, 160–166 health risks mental, 165–166 air pollution as, 2 industries affected by, 164 from coal use, 4, 359 lessons learned from, 166–167 nuclear anxiety in comparison to, 178–180 media coverage of, 166 from fossil fuels, 2 public perceptions about, 144–145 health risks, from radiation radiation doses after, 162 birth defects and, 132, 185–186 Fuller, R. Buckminster, 140 cancer and, 177–178 after Chernobyl nuclear accident, 156–160 gamma radiation, 65, 120 for ARS, 156–157 Gandhi, Indira, 324–325 for mental health, 159–160 Gandhi, Rajiv, 325 effective doses of, measurement of, gas-cooled reactor (GCR) design, for nuclear 125–126, 130–132 reactors, 92 after Fukushima nuclear accident, 160–166 Geiger, Hans, 67 mental health assessments, 165–166 geologic disposal, of nuclear waste, 86 in LSS, 131–132 geothermal energy, 254 nuclear anxiety as result of, 177–178 Germany from radium exposure, 34 anti-nuclear movement in, 194–195 from radon, 130–131 renewable energy policies in, 251–252 sterility, in males, 185–186 Ghana heavy water reactor (HWR) design, for nuclear energy needs in, 269–272 reactors, 89 energy resources in, 270 Herter, Christian, 50 hydroelectric power in, 270 highly enriched uranium (HEU) shortages of, 270–271 in LWR reactors, 112 natural gas reserves in, 270–271 in nuclear reactors, 79 nuclear energy and power in, 271–272 in nuclear weapons, 72–73 renewable energy use goals in, 271 in South Africa, 327 GHGs. See greenhouse gases Hiroshima, bombing of, 42–43 glacial melt, from climate change, 287 Little Boy bomb and, 74 global warming, from climate change, Hoover, J. Edgar, 104 285–286, 291 hormesis hypothesis, 135 speed of, 292 Hungarian Revolution, 46 Goldschmidt, Bertrand, 323–324 Hussein, Saddam, 328, 331 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 316–321 HWR design. See heavy water reactor design

368 Index

hydroelectric power International Energy Agency (IEA), 11–12 through dams International System of Units (SI), 123 lifespan of, 219–220 inverse square law, 120–121 structural failure of, 220 iodine. See radioactive iodine in Ghana, 270 ionizing radiation, 119 as renewable energy source, 247 IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate efficiency of, 248 Change Iran, nuclear weapons program in, 331 IAB. See International Advisory Board Iraq, nuclear weapons program in, 328 IAEA. See International Atomic Energy Irish Resolution, 51 Agency ISL. See In-Situ Leaching Ickes, Harold, 100 isotopes ICRP. See International Commission on in atomic theory, 68 Radiological Protection in nuclear weapons, 72–73 IEA. See International Energy Agency radiation and, 128 ILW. See intermediate-level waste Israel implosion design, in nuclear weapons, 74 nuclear weapons program in, 46–47 India Six-Day War and, 47 air pollution in, 17 “Ivy Mike” test, 39–40 clean air laws in, 19 nuclear energy in, 357 Japan. See also Fukushima nuclear accident nuclear weapons program in, 49, 53, Hiroshima, bombing of, 42–43 323–326 Little Boy bomb and, 74 political parties as influence on, 325 Nagasaki, bombing of, 42–43 secrecy of, 324 Fat Man bomb, 74 radiation dangers, in Kerala, 136–139 Joliot-Curie, Frederick, 69 industrial accidents Joliot-Curie, Irene, 69 Bhopal accident, 211–212 Jungk, Robert, 195–196 nuclear plant accidents compared to, 211–212 Al Kaabi, Hamad, 302–303, 308 Piper Alpha accident, 211–212 Keeling, Charles, 284–285 Texas City accident, 170–171, 211–212 Kennedy, Ernie, 303 Industrial Revolution, coal use during, 3 Kennedy, John F., 50–51, 54–56 industrial waste, nuclear waste compared to, Cold War under, 50 217–218 Cuban Missile Crisis and, 46, 50–51, 55 INF Treaty. See Intermediate Range Nuclear Kerala, radiation levels in, 136–139 Forces Treaty Khan, Abdul Qadeer, 54, 328, 329–330 In-Situ Leaching (ISL), 222–223 Khan, Feroz, 329 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Khan, Munir, 329 (IPCC), 20–21, 290–291 killer smogs, 4, 17 Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Kim Il Sung, 330 Treaty, 318 Korean War, 182 intermediate-level waste (ILW), 85 Kovalenko, Zinaida, 159 International Advisory Board (IAB), 304–309 Krepon, Michael, 316–317 international members of, 305–306 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Lawrence, Ernest, 69 25 LCOE. See levelized cost of electricity NPT and, 332–333 LEU. See low enriched uranium nuclear reactors and, 79 levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), 228 International Commission on Radiological LFTR design. See liquid fluoride thorium Protection (ICRP), 135, 164 reactor design

Index 369

Libya, nuclear weapons program in, 328 after Chernobyl nuclear accident, 159–160 Life Span Study (LSS), 131–132 after Fukushima nuclear accident, 165–166 light water reactor (LWR) design, for nuclear Messmer, Pierre, 114 reactors, 77–78, 89, 95–96, 111–115 Messmer Plan, 114 fuel sources for, 115 Middle East, nuclear reactor construction in, 25 as global standard, 114 mining HEU in, 112 nickel, 223 limitations of, 115 uranium nuclear waste from, 215 methods of, 221–222 Lilienthal, David, 101 nuclear waste from, 220–224 Limited Test Ban Treaty, 54–56, 58 molten salt reactor (MSR) design, for nuclear historical development of, 55–56 reactors, 93–94 linear no-threshold (LNT) hypothesis, LFTR type of, 93–94 133–136, 139–140 Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE), BEAR 1 report and, 182–184, 197 116–117 limitations of, 185–187 Mooney, Chris, 292 liquid ﬂuoride thorium reactor (LFTR) design, MSR design. See molten salt reactor design for nuclear reactors, 93–94 MSRE. See Molten Salt Reactor Experiment liquid metal fast breeder, 93 mSv. See Sievert measuring system liquid petroleum. See petroleum MTR. See megawatt materials testing reactor Little Boy bomb, 74 Muller, Hermann, 133–136, 183 LLW. See low-level waste LNT hypothesis. See linear no-threshold Nagasaki, bombing of, 42–43 hypothesis Fat Man bomb, 74 Lovins, Amory, 192 Nasser, Gamal, 46–47 low enriched uranium (LEU), in nuclear National Cancer Act of 1971, 177 reactors, 79 National Renewable Energy Laboratory Lowe, William Web, II, 284–285 (NREL), 249 low-level waste (LLW), 84 national repositories, for nuclear LSS. See Life Span Study waste, 86–89 Lucky Dragon incident, 39–40, 54, 181, natural gas 182–183 in Ghana, 270–271 LWR design. See light water reactor design as low-carbon fuel source, 27–28 nuclear power and, 8, 231 MacMillan, Harold, 55 in Turkey, 266 Mainau Declaration, 1, 7 Natural Resources Defense Council, 193 The Making of the Atomic Bomb (Rhodes), 32 Nautilus nuclear submarine, 109–110 Manhattan Project, 32, 35–37 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 323–324 Mao Tse-Tung, 47–48 neutrons, 68, 69 Mao Zedong, 50 in radiation, 120 Marine, Gene, 103 nickel mining, 223 Marsden, Ernest, 67 Nitze, Paul, 318 Maslin, Mark, 293–294 Nkrumah, Kwame, 270 McPherson, Guy, 293–294 noncarbon energy, 272–273. See also nuclear Medvedev, Dmitry, 286 energy and power; renewable energies megawatt materials testing reactor (MTR), 328 future applications of, 358–362 Meitner, Lise, 33, 69, 70–71, 72, 94. See also non-ionizing radiation, 119 atomic theory NORAD. See North American Aerospace nuclear ﬁssion and, 70–71 Defense Mendès-France, Pierre, 45 Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk mental health, assessment of Technologies (Perrow), 168–170

370 Index

North American Aerospace Defense historical development of, 55–56 (NORAD), 57 post-war legacy of, 56–58 North Korea, nuclear weapons program in, 49, under Reagan, 316–321 330–331 under START, 318 NPT. See Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty nuclear energy and power. See also nuclear NREL. See National Renewable Energy power plants; nuclear waste Laboratory absolutist perceptions of, as negative type, NSG. See Nuclear Suppliers Group 238–239 nuclear anxiety. See also Chernobyl nuclear under Atomic Energy Act, 97 accident; Fukushima nuclear accident; through atomic theory, 64–68 Hiroshima; Nagasaki Baruch Plan and, 38–39 BEAR 1 report and, 182–184, 197 BEAR 1 report and, 182–184, 197 limitations of, 185–187 limitations of, 185–187 in China, 201–202 in China, 13–14, 263–265, 357 “China Syndrome” and, 193 long-term power generation goals for, 265 common terms for, 176 public protests against, 201–202 environmental movement and, 176–177 complexity of, 10 as global phenomenon, 200–202 corporate greed and, 191–192 health risks from radiation as part of, costs of, 227–235 177–178 cost of capital, 228–229 historical context for, 174–178 historical records for, 227–230 historical development of, 174–178 LCOE in, 228 from institutional mistrust, 202–203 early years of, 97–104 in literature, 175, 176–177 public support during, 101–104 long-term consequences of, 202–205 in Soviet Union, 98 misinformation as factor for, 204–205 in UK, 98 in modern era, 196–200 in United States, 108–109 nuclear risks and, proportionality of, electricity generation through, 104–110 178–181 emissions reduction for, 232–233 coal use and, health risks from, 178–180 environmental groups against, 191 myths about, 237–238 in Europe, 100 public perception as inﬂuence on, ﬂexibility of, 10 175–176 in Ghana, 271–272 over nuclear energy, 356–357 as growth industry, 8, 24–26 over nuclear waste, 180 through increased plant construction, political implications of, 191–192 10–11, 24–25 public perception of, 178–181 in new era, 10–15 public protests as result of, 181–187 Hahn and, 69–71 radiophobia and, 140, 175, 203–204 historical development of, 6–7, 69–71 as rational fear, 177 historical economic trends for, 230–235 terrorism and, 198 deregulation of industry, 231–232 after TMI nuclear accident, 168–170, national economic policies, 232–233, 234 196–197 in India, 357 nuclear arms race, 43–49 licensing processes for, 15 during Cold War, 43–44, 50 limitations of Cuban Missile Crisis and, 46, 50–51, 55 cost as, 355 false alarms during, 57 public anxiety fears as, 356–357 global expansion of, 44–48 in literature, 101–103 under Gorbachev, 316–321 under Mainau Declaration, 7 under INF Treaty, 318 military applications of, 100–101. See also Limited Test Ban Treaty during, 54–56, 58 nuclear weapons

Index 371

in modern era, 255–259 CTBT elements of, 337 as essential source of energy, 10, 354–355, destabilization of, 349 358–362 ENCD and, 51–52 national economic policies for, 232–233, 234 establishment of, 332–333 national share of power generation, 257–258 future issues with, 340–348 natural gas and, 8, 231 goals of, 52–53 nuclear weapons and, 32–33 historical development of, 50–54, 197–198 123 Agreements on, 25–26, 301 IAEA and, 332–333 political implications of, 191–192 international advisory committee for, public perception of, 59, 60 335–336 public protests over, 181–187 Irish Resolution, 51 in Bodega Bay, 187–190 NSG and, 53–54, 344–345, 346, 347–348 reduction policies for, national strategies for, nuclear reactors under, 79 258–259 nuclear weapons and, 25, 45, 49–56 in France, 259 Review Conferences for, 333–337 risk perception of, nuclear anxiety from, rights under, 342–343 175–176 Trigger List and, 345, 347 in Russia, as monopoly, 261–262, 357 UAE under, 308 BOO approach, 262 nuclear physics, 32–33 as technological authoritarianism, 192–193 nuclear plant accidents. See also Chernobyl technological issues with, 350–351 nuclear accident; Fukushima nuclear in Turkey, 267–269 accident; Three Mile Island nuclear in UAE, 299, 350 accident international cooperation agreement for, brown-out phase for new plant construction 302–305 after, 255–256 political implications of, 299–301 contamination areas, 212–214 safety policies for, 309–314 historical record of, 211 state rationale for, 297–299 industrial accidents compared to, 211–212 US involvement in, 300–301 contamination areas of, 213–214 in United States “normal,” 168–170 early years of, 108–109 nuclear power plants. See also Chernobyl under Eisenhower, 108–109 nuclear accident; Fukushima nuclear variety of technologies for, 10 accident; nuclear waste Nuclear Era, 35–37 brown-out phase in construction of, 255–256 nuclear ﬁssion, 70–71 earthquake risks for, 188–189 in nuclear reactors, 74–77, 235–237 Fukushima nuclear accident and, in nuclear weapons, 235–237 150–151, 152 nuclear fuel, 75, 78–84. See also nuclear waste expanded construction of, 256–257 assembly for, 80–81 in Great Britain, 98–99 cladding of, 79–80 life span of, 218–220 HEU, 79 normal accidents at, 168–170 LEU, 79 public protests against, 187–190 recycling of, 81–83 in Soviet Union, 98 reprocessing of, 81–83 in United States, 99–100 rods, 79–80 nuclear reactor design, 89–94 yellowcake, 78–79 under AEC, 105–106 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), BWR type, 91–92 332–348 water contamination in, 224 afﬁrmation of, 347 Chernobyl nuclear accident caused by, Articles of, treaty obligations under, 147–148 333–335 in China, 263–264

372 Index

nuclear reactor design (cont.) under NPT, 79 CEFR reactors, 264 nuclear weapons and, public perception of SCR reactors, 264 links between, 235–237 SMR reactors, 264 physics of, 74–78 EBR-1, 107–108, 116 control of ﬁssion, 74–77 expanded construction of, 256–257 through controlled reactions, 72 FNR type, 92–93 moderators, 76–77 GCR type, 92 in modern reactors, 77–78 HWR type, 89 plutonium in, 236–237 liquid metal fast breeder in, 93 under Price-Anderson Act, 112–113 LWR type, 77–78, 89, 95–96, 111–115 RPV in, 80–81 fuel sources for, 115 technology improvements in, 28 as global standard, 114 in UAE, 304 HEU in, 112 The Nuclear State: Progress in Inhumanity limitations of, 115 (Jungk), 195–196 waste disposal with, 215 Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), 53–54, MSR type, 93–94 344–345, 346, 347–348 LFTR type of, 93–94 nuclear waste, 84–89, 214–218 MSRE type, 116–117 BEAR 1 report and, 182–184, 197 MTR type, 328 limitations of, 185–187 PRDP for, 106, 109, 112–113 disposal of, 86–89 PWR type, 91–92, 109–110, 113 in commercial international site, 88 under Messmer Plan, 114 geologic, 86 water contamination in, 226 in national repositories, 86–89 RBMK type, 147–148 historical record of, 214–215 SCR type, 93, 264 from HLW reactors, 85 SMR type, 91 from ILW reactors, 85 technology for, global leaders in, 258 industrial waste compared to, 217–218 nuclear reactors. See also atomic theory; from LLW reactors, 84 nuclear fuel; nuclear waste from LWR reactors, 215 construction costs for, 113–114 public anxiety of, 180 decommissioning of, 11–12 from uranium mining, 220–224 after Fukushima accident, 11–12 historical record for, 221–223 early, 95–97 ISL and, 222–223 CP-1, 96–97 mining waste from industries compared Fermi and, 96–97 to, 223–224 at Oklo uranium mine, 95 water contamination from, 224–227 EBR-1, 107–108, 116 in BWR systems, 224 ﬁssion process in, 235–237 in closed-loop systems, 226 in France, 114 dry cooling and, 226 reduction of, as national policy, 259 in once-through systems, 226 fuel cycle for, 81–84 in PWR systems, 225 closing of, 81 Yucca Mountain waste repository, 88–89, decay heat in, 83 215–217 once-through, 81 EPA radiation standards for, 216–217 recycling in, 81–83 public protests against, 216–217 reprocessing in, 81–83 Nuclear Waste Policy Act, 216 IAEA and, 79 nuclear weapons. See also atomic theory; increased construction of, 10–11, 24–25 nuclear arms race by region, 25 bans on, 49–56. See also Intermediate Range MSRE, 116–117 Nuclear Forces Treaty; Limited Test

Index 373

Ban Treaty; Nuclear Non-Proliferation fallout from, 42–43 Treaty; Strategic Arms Reduction “Ivy Mike,” 39–40 Treaty Trinity test, 38 BEAR 1 report and, 182–184, 197 Trinity test, 38 limitations of, 185–187 in UK, 44–45 in China, 47–48, 50 uranium and, 35 after Cold War, 322–323 HEU, 72–73 under CTBT, 337 in US Fat Man bomb, 74 after Cold War, 322–323 ﬁssion process in, 235–237 during Cold War, 43–44, 50 in France, 45 “Ivy Mike” test, 39–40 global security issues over, 360 Manhattan Project, 32, 35–37 Hiroshima bombing, 42–43 historical development of, 32–37 oil production, historical development of, 3 political motivations in, 48–49 Oklo uranium mine, 95 implosion design in, 74 once-through fuel cycle, 81 in India, 49, 53, 323–326 water contamination from, 226 political parties as inﬂuence on, 325 123 Agreements, on nuclear power, 25–26, 301 secrecy of weapons program, 324 Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 32, 35, 103, 182–183 in Iran, 331 Oppenheimer, Michael, 292 in Iraq, 328 Otaiba, Yusuf, 301 in Israel, 46–47 in Libya, 328 Pachauri, Rajendra, 290 Little Boy bomb, 74 Pakistan, nuclear weapons program in, 49, 54, Manhattan Project, 32, 35–37 328–330 as moral necessity, 36 Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Nagasaki bombing, 42–43 (PETM), 22 Nautilus nuclear submarine and, 109–110 Paris Agreement on Climate Change, 6, 286, in North Korea, 49, 330–331 288–289 NPT and, 25, 45, 49–56 Pauling, Linus, 185 nuclear power and, 32–33 Perle, Richard, 318–319 nuclear reactors and, public perception of Perrow, Charles, 168–170 links between, 235–237 Pesonen, David, 189 in Pakistan, 49, 54, 328–330 PETM. See Paleocene–Eocene Thermal physics of, 71–74 Maximum critical mass, 73 petroleum, liquid. See also oil production HEU, 72–73 electricity production through, 106 isotopes, 72–73 historical development of, as energy source, plutonium in, 236–237 281 proliferation of, 37–43 Petrov, Stanislav, 57 radium dangers with, 34 photons, 67 Smyth Report on, 37–38 Piper Alpha accident, 211–212 in South Africa, 49, 326–327 plutonium, 236–237 with HEU, 327 as terrorist tool, 237 in Soviet Union, 40–41 Power Reactor Development Program (PRDP), after Cold War, 322–323 106, 109, 112–113 during Cold War, 43–44, 50 pressurized water reactor (PWR) design, for in Sweden, 45 nuclear reactors, 91–92, 109–110, 113 in Switzerland, 46 Messmer Plan for, 114 in Syria, 328 water contamination in, 226 testing of, 41–43 Price-Anderson Act, 112–113

374 Index

protests. See anti-nuclear movement radioactive iodine, 129 protons, 67 radioactivity Putin, Vladimir, 316–317 in atomic theory, 64, 66 PWR design. See pressurized water reactor definitions of, 71 design decay heat and, 83 radiophobia, 140, 175, 203–204 radiation, 65–67. See also health risks, from radium, 34 radiation radon, 130–131 alpha particles, 65, 119 reactor bolshoy moshchnosty kanalny (RBMK) beta particles, 65, 120 reactor design, 147–148 biological risks from, 139–140 reactor pressure vessel (RPV), 80–81 Cesium and, 129–130 reactors. See nuclear reactors cosmic, 126 READ system, for radiation measurement, defined, 119–121 122–123 effects of, variability in, 127–130 Reagan, Ronald, 316–321 by isotope type, 128 SDI and, 317, 318 fast electrons, 120 recycling nuclear fuel, 81–83 food and, limit guidelines for, 124–125 Reid, Harry, 88, 216–217 gamma rays, 65, 120 renewable energies, 238, 247–253 in humans, effective doses of, 125–126 absolutist perceptions of, as beneficial type, EPA guidelines for, 130–131 238–239 hormesis hypothesis for, 135 capital costs for, 250–251 LNT hypothesis for, 133–136, 139–140, curtailment approach to, 250 182–184 development issues for, 250–251 LSS for, 131–132 in Germany, 251–252 inverse square law for, 120–121 in Ghana, future goals for, 271 iodine and, 129 green energy revolution and, 252 ionizing, 119 hydroelectric power as, 247 after Lucky Dragon incident, 39–40, 54, 181, efficiency of, 248 182–183 integration of, 250–251 from man-made backgrounds, 127 solar and wind power measurement of, 122–127 energy production predictability with, 249 with becquerels, 123–126 equipment degradation with, 248–249 with mSv, 123–126 reprocessing of nuclear fuel, 81–83 READ system, 122–123 “return to coal” movement, 272–273 with SI, 123 Rhodes, Richard, 32, 321 from natural backgrounds, 121–122, 126–127 Rice, Condoleezza, 302 in Kerala, 136–139 Rickover, Hyman, 99, 100. See also Nautilus neutrons and, 120 nuclear submarine non-ionizing, 119 Ridgway, Rozanne, 318 photons and, 67 The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Weart), 175 radiophobia and, 140, 175, 203–204 RBMK reactor design. See reactor bolshoy sources of, 121–122 moshchnosty kanalny reactor design from man-made backgrounds, 127 Ros-Lehtinen, Ileana, 302 from natural backgrounds, 121–122, RPV. See reactor pressure vessel 126–127 Russia. See also Soviet Union Strontium and, 130 extreme heat waves in, 286 uranium and, 65 nuclear energy monopoly in, 261–262, 357 x-rays, 120 BOO approach, 262 Radiation Exposure Compensation Act, 186 Rutherford, Ernest, 32–33, 64–68, 94. See also radiation studies, 131–132 atomic theory

Index 375

Sachs, Alexander, 33 nuclear energy in, early years of, 98 Sakharov, Andrei, 41 nuclear power plants in, 98 Schell, Jonathan, 198–199 nuclear weapons program in, 40–41 Scherer, Glenn, 292 after Cold War, 322–323 SFR design. See sodium-cooled fast reactor during Cold War, 43–44, 50 design uranium resources, 35 SDI. See Strategic Defense Initiative START. See Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty sea level rise, from climate change, 287, sterility, from radiation, 185–186 291–292 Stimson, Henry, 35 Seaborg, Glenn, 343 Strassmann, Fritz, 69 Shaker, Mohamed I., 52 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), 318 Shastri, Bahadur, 324 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 317, 318 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 318 Strauss, Lewis, 104, 106–107, 182–183, 185 Shippingport nuclear reactor, 99–100 Strontium, 130 Shultz, George, 317 sub-Saharan Africa. See also Ghana SI. See International System of Units energy deﬁcits in, 269 Sierra Club, 193 energy sources in, 269–270 Sievert (mSv) measuring system, 123–126 Sweden Silent Spring (Carson), 176–177 nuclear waste repository in, 87 Six-Day War, 47 nuclear weapons program in, 45 Slotin, Louis, 187 Switzerland, nuclear weapons program in, 46 Slovic, Paul, 175–176 Syria, nuclear weapons program in, 328 slow neutrons, 69 Szilárd, Leó, 33–34 small modular reactors (SMRs), 264 smog, from coal use, 4, 17 technological authoritarianism, 192–193 SMRs. See small modular reactors Teller, Edward, 33, 182 Smyth, Henry D., 37–38 temperature increases. See global warming Soddy, Frederick, 65–66, 68 Tenet, George, 330 sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) design, for terrorism nuclear reactors, 93 nuclear anxiety and, 198 in China, 264 plutonium possession and, 237 solar power Texas City accident, 170–171, 211–212 energy production predictability with, 249 thermal neutrons, 69 equipment degradation with, 248–249 Thorsson, Inga, 333–334 Sorensen, Ted, 55–56 Three Mile Island (TMI) nuclear accident, South Africa, nuclear weapons program in, 49, 168–170, 196–197 326–327 3/11. See Fukushima nuclear accident with HEU, 327 TMI nuclear accident. See Three Mile Island South America, nuclear reactor construction in, nuclear accident 25 Travers, Williams, 306 South Korea, nuclear waste repository in, Trigger List, NPT and, 345, 347 87–88 Trinity test, 38 Soviet Union Turkey Chernobyl nuclear accident and, propaganda air pollution in, 266 about, 147 energy consumption in, 265–269 Cuban Missile Crisis and, 46, 50–51, 55 energy resources in, 265–266 false alarms about nuclear attacks against, 57 natural gas reserves, 266 INF Treaty and, 318 uranium, 267 Limited Test Ban Treaty and, 54–56, 58 energy security in, 266 historical development of, 55–56 nuclear energy and power in, development Lucky Dragon incident, 39–40, 54 of, 267–269

376 Index

UAE. See United Arab Emirates nuclear power plants in, 99–100 UCS. See Union of Concerned Scientists Nuclear Waste Policy Act in, 216 Udall, Stewart, 189 nuclear waste repository in, 88–89 UK. See United Kingdom nuclear weapons program in Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), 193 after Cold War, 322–323 United Arab Emirates (UAE) during Cold War, 43–44, 50 electricity production in, 298–299 “Ivy Mike” test, 39–40 ENEC in, 303, 309–314 Manhattan Project, 32, 35–37 energy needs in, 298–299 123 Agreements, for nuclear power, 25–26, FANR in, 303, 309–314 301 IAB in, 304–309 Radiation Exposure Compensation Act in, international members of, 305–306 186 under NPT, 308 UAE nuclear energy development nuclear energy and power in, 299, 350 influenced by, 300–301 international cooperation agreement for, Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository, 302–305 88–89, 215–217 political implications of, 299–301 EPA radiation standards for, 216–217 safety policies for, 309–314 public protests against, 216–217 state rationale for, 297–299 UNSCEAR. See United Nations Scientific US involvement in, 300–301 Committee on the Effects of Atomic nuclear reactors in, 304 Radiation United Kingdom (UK). See also Great Britain uranium Atomic Energy Research Establishment in, 45 in atomic theory, 65 Limited Test Ban Treaty and, 54–56, 58 isotopes in, 68 historical development of, 55–56 as national resource, 35, 261 national energy plans in, 232 in nuclear weapons, 35 nuclear weapons in, 44–45 HEU, 72–73 United Nations Scientific Committee on the ocean as source of, 261 Effects of Atomic Radiation in Turkey, 267 (UNSCEAR), 135 uranium mining United States (US) methods of, 221–222 AEC in, 38, 101–104 nuclear waste from, 220–224 establishment history of, 104–107 historical record for, 221–223 nuclear reactor design guidelines, ISL and, 222–223 105–106 mining waste from industries compared scientific community’s loss of confidence to, 223–224 in, 104 urbanization anti-nuclear movement in, 190–193 energy use trends as result of, 255 Atomic Energy Act in, 97, 104, 107–108, global trends toward, 15 112–113, 301 US. See United States Clean Air Act in, 17–18 coal use in, 282–283 Vanunu, Mordechai, 327 Cuban Missile Crisis and, 46, 50–51, 55 Viktorsson, Christer, 312 false alarms about nuclear attacks against, 57 Villard, Paul, 65 INF Treaty and, 318 Voices from Chernobyl (Alexievich), 159 Limited Test Ban Treaty and, 54–56, 58 historical development of, 55–56 Warsaw Pact, 46 National Cancer Act of 1971 in, 177 waste disposal. See nuclear waste nuclear energy in water contamination, from nuclear waste, early years of, 108–109 224–227 under Eisenhower, 108–109 in BWR systems, 224

Index 377

in closed-loop systems, 226 World Bank on Climate Change, 289 dry cooling and, 226 World Health Organization (WHO), on air in once-through systems, 226 pollution, 16–17 in PWR systems, 225 World Nuclear Association (WNA), 12 weapons. See nuclear weapons The World Set Free (Wells), 32–33, 100 Weart, Spencer, 175 Weinberg, Alvin, 84, 116–117, 205 x-rays, 120 Wells, H. G., 32–33, 100 Wesdahl, Chris, 335–336 Yankee Rowe reactor, 109–110. See also WHO. See World Health Organization Shippingport nuclear reactor Wigner, Eugene, 33 Yeltsin, Boris, 57 wind power Yucca Mountain, as nuclear waste repository, energy production predictability with, 249 88–89, 215–217 equipment degradation with, 248–249 EPA radiation standards for, 216–217 WNA. See World Nuclear Association public protests against, 216–217 Woodbury, David O., 101–103 Woodruff, Judy, 292 Zhou Enlai, 47–48, 328