DOCSLIB.ORG

Chapter 1 Anatomy of a Cyclone

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Chapter 1 Anatomy of a Cyclone Chapter 1 Anatomy of a Cyclone Extra-tropical cyclone – an area of low pressure outside of the tropics Other names for extra-tropical cyclones: Cyclone Mid-latitude cyclone Synoptic cyclone Frontal cyclone Storm system Severe weather associated with extra-tropical cyclones: Rain Floods Mudslides Tornadoes Heavy snow What are the atmospheric processes responsible for the formation and evolution of extra-tropical cyclones? This is the main topic of ATOC 4720. Describing the Atmosphere SI (Système Internationale) Units Length: meter (m) Mass: kilogram (kg) Time: second (s) Temperature: Kelvin (K) (see Appendix 2 for additional derived SI units) Atmospheric Temperature Troposphere – lowest layer of the atmosphere, where temperature normally decreases with increasing altitude Tropopause - the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere Atmospheric Pressure Horizontal and vertical variations in pressure give rise to atmospheric motions (which are the focus of ATOC 4720). What is atmospheric pressure? A molecular perspective… SI Units for pressure Pressure is a force per unit area: From Newton’s second law: F=ma Force has units of kg m s-2 (or Netwons – N) Force per unit area has units of: kg m-1 s-2 = N m-2 (or Pascals – Pa) Other commonly used units of pressure: 1 hPa = 100 Pa 1 millibar (mb) = 1 hPa In the atmosphere the observed pressure is also proportional to the weight of air above the observation point. Therefore, pressure decreases with increasing altitude in the atmosphere. What is the rate of change of pressure with height in the lower atmosphere? Surface pressure – the actual air pressure measured at the surface of the earth Mean sea-level pressure (MSLP) – surface pressure interpolated to zero elevation (sea level) Why do meteorologists use MSLP instead of surface pressure? Isobar – contour line of constant pressure What is the pressure at point A (point B) on the sea level pressure map at the left? Station Reports What are the typical weather observations made at surface weather stations around the world? Dew point temperature – the temperature to which a small volume of air must be cooled at constant pressure in order for that air parcel to become saturated Dew point temperature indicates the amount of moisture contained in the air. What units are used for temperature and dew point temperature reported on station models? Significant weather Cloud cover Wind direction – the direction the wind is coming from Why do meteorologists indicate the direction that the wind is coming from? Wind speed Units for wind speed SI: m s-1 Meteorological convention: Knots (kts) 1 kt = 0.51 m s-1 Station model wind speed plotting convention: - Wind speed symbols shown in Figure 1.4 are additive - Actual wind speed is within ±2 kts of plotted wind speed Sea level pressure Decoding sea level pressure reported on station models If coded SLP is greater than 500: Put a 9 in front of the 3 digit coded SLP Insert a decimal point between the last two digits Add units of mb Example: coded SLP = 956 Decoded SLP = 995.6 mb If coded SLP is less than 500: Put a 10 in front of the 3 digit coded SLP Insert a decimal point between the last two digits Add units of mb Example: coded SLP = 052 Decoded SLP = 1005.2 mb The normal range of sea level pressure is 950 to 1050 mb. Record high sea level pressure: 1086 mb (Tosontsengel, Mongolia) Record low sea level pressure: 870 mb (Typhoon Tip, western Pacific) Time and weather observations UTC – Universal time coordinate GMT – Greenwich Mean Time Z – Zulu time Quick facts about Universal Time Coordinate (UTC) UTC is based on a 24 hour clock (so add 12 to any times after 12:59PM) 6AM UTC would be written as 06 UTC 12 noon UTC would be written as 12UTC 6PM UTC would be written as 18UTC If UTC time is given as both hours and minutes it looks like this: 2:15AM UTC would be written as 0215 UTC 12:00 noon UTC would be written as 1200 UTC 10:20PM UTC would be written as 2220 UTC UTC never switches from standard time to daylight savings time This means we need to change how we convert between UTC and Mountain time depending on whether we are on standard time or daylight savings time How do I convert from UTC to MST or MDT? MST = UTC - 7 hours MDT = UTC - 6 hours How do I convert from MST or MDT to UTC? UTC = MST + 7 hours UTC = MDT + 6 hours Air Masses and Fronts Air mass – a large volume of the atmosphere with relatively uniform temperature and humidity What conditions favor the formation of air masses? What happens to an air mass when it moves away from its source region? Front – boundary between differing air masses Fronts are defined based on the thermodynamic differences across the front and the direction of movement of the air masses on either side of the front. Surface Weather Maps Upper Level Weather Maps Since pressure always decreases with height, and above any given spot on the earth each height has a unique pressure, we can use pressure as a vertical coordinate. Weather data on upper level weather maps are plotted on constant pressure surfaces rather than constant height surfaces. Pressure surface – an imaginary surface above the ground where the pressure has a constant value One of the key properties meteorologists are interested in when looking at a constant pressure map is the height of the constant pressure surface. The height of a constant pressure surface varies with the temperature of the column of air below the pressure surface. Lower heights correspond to a colder air column. Therefore, we expect (and do) find lower constant pressure heights near the poles and higher heights in the tropics. Commonly Used Constant Pressure Maps Pressure Approximate Approximate Level Altitude (ft) Altitude (km) 850 mb About 5,000 ft About 1.5 km 700 mb About 10,000 ft About 3.0 km 500 mb About 18,000 ft About 5.5 km 300 mb About 30,000 ft About 9.0 km 250 mb About 35,000 ft About 10.5 km 200 mb About 39,000 ft About 12.0 km Upper Air Station Model What are the differences between surface and upper air station models? Trough – region of low heights on a constant pressure map Ridge – region of high heights on a constant pressure map Shortwave – a small ripple in the height field Longwave – a large ripple in the height field How does the height of the 500 mb surface vary from south to north on this map? What is the relationship between winds and height contours on an upper level constant pressure map? Does this relationship vary between the Northern and Southern hemispheres? What wind direction should we expect to find in the mid-latitudes if lower constant pressure surface heights are found near the poles and higher heights are found in the tropics? Isotherm – contour line of constant temperature Baroclinic – temperature varies on a constant pressure surface Barotropic – temperature is constant on a constant pressure surface The Structure of a Typical Extra-Tropical Cyclone Extra-tropical cyclone characteristics: Size Pressure Winds Polar front – boundary between warm tropical and cold polar air masses Stages in the life cycle of an extra-tropical cyclone What physical process causes the surface pressure to increase or decrease? Convergence – accumulation of atmospheric mass Divergence – removal of atmospheric mass Divergence associated with the shortwave shown in Figure 1.9a leads to the formation of a low pressure center at the surface of the earth. What is the direction of circulation around this area of low pressure? How does this circulation alter the distribution of temperature? What types of fronts form in response to this circulation? Warm sector – wedge of warm air ahead of an advancing cold front and behind a warm front How does the height of the 500 mb constant pressure surface change in response to the changes in the distribution of temperature near the surface? Mature stage of a mid-latitude cyclone Where are the upper level ridge and trough located relative to the surface low pressure center during the mature stage of the cyclone’s life cycle? What determines how much the surface pressure decreases (or increases)? Where are the clouds and precipitation located relative to the fronts in this cyclone? How does the speed of movement of the cold and warm fronts differ? What happens when the cold front catches up to the warm front? Occluded front – a boundary that separates two cold air masses at the surface with warm air aloft How does the position of the upper level trough relative to the surface low pressure center change once the cyclone has occluded? What causes the cyclone to weaken and dissipate? .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • A Comparison of Precipitation from Maritime and Continental Air
    254 BULLETIN AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY A Comparison of Precipitation from Maritime and Continental Air GEORGE S. BENTON 1 and ROBERT T. BLACKBURN 2 OR many decades, knowledge of atmospheric These 123 periods of precipitation for 1946 were F movements of water vapor has lagged behind grouped as indicated below. Classifications for other phases of meteorological information. In which precipitation was necessarily from maritime recent years, however, the accumulation of upper- air are marked with an asterisk; classifications for air data has stimulated hydrometeorological re- which precipitation was necessarily from contin- search. One interesting problem considered has ental air are marked with a double asterisk. For been the source of precipitation classified accord- all other classifications, precipitation may have ing to air mass. occurred either from maritime or continental air, In 1937 Holzman [2] advanced the hypothesis depending upon the individual circumstances. that the great majority of precipitation comes from maritime air masses. Although meteorologists I. Cold front have generally been willing to accept this hypothe- A. Pre-frontal precipitation sis on the basis of their qualitative familiarity with *1. MT present throughout tropo- atmospheric phenomena, little has been done to sphere determine quantitatively the percentage of pre- **2. cP present throughout tropo- cipitation which can actually be traced to maritime sphere air. Certainly the precipitation from continental 3. MT overriding cP in warm sec- air masses must be measurable and must vary in tor importance from region to region. B. Post-frontal precipitation In the course of an analysis of the role of the 1. MT overriding cP atmosphere in the hydrologic cycle [1], the au- *a.
    [Show full text]
  • Air Masses and Fronts
    CHAPTER 4 AIR MASSES AND FRONTS Temperature, in the form of heating and cooling, contrasts and produces a homogeneous mass of air. The plays a key roll in our atmosphere’s circulation. energy supplied to Earth’s surface from the Sun is Heating and cooling is also the key in the formation of distributed to the air mass by convection, radiation, and various air masses. These air masses, because of conduction. temperature contrast, ultimately result in the formation Another condition necessary for air mass formation of frontal systems. The air masses and frontal systems, is equilibrium between ground and air. This is however, could not move significantly without the established by a combination of the following interplay of low-pressure systems (cyclones). processes: (1) turbulent-convective transport of heat Some regions of Earth have weak pressure upward into the higher levels of the air; (2) cooling of gradients at times that allow for little air movement. air by radiation loss of heat; and (3) transport of heat by Therefore, the air lying over these regions eventually evaporation and condensation processes. takes on the certain characteristics of temperature and The fastest and most effective process involved in moisture normal to that region. Ultimately, air masses establishing equilibrium is the turbulent-convective with these specific characteristics (warm, cold, moist, transport of heat upwards. The slowest and least or dry) develop. Because of the existence of cyclones effective process is radiation. and other factors aloft, these air masses are eventually subject to some movement that forces them together. During radiation and turbulent-convective When these air masses are forced together, fronts processes, evaporation and condensation contribute in develop between them.
    [Show full text]
  • ESSENTIALS of METEOROLOGY (7Th Ed.) GLOSSARY
    ESSENTIALS OF METEOROLOGY (7th ed.) GLOSSARY Chapter 1 Aerosols Tiny suspended solid particles (dust, smoke, etc.) or liquid droplets that enter the atmosphere from either natural or human (anthropogenic) sources, such as the burning of fossil fuels. Sulfur-containing fossil fuels, such as coal, produce sulfate aerosols. Air density The ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume occupied by it. Air density is usually expressed as g/cm3 or kg/m3. Also See Density. Air pressure The pressure exerted by the mass of air above a given point, usually expressed in millibars (mb), inches of (atmospheric mercury (Hg) or in hectopascals (hPa). pressure) Atmosphere The envelope of gases that surround a planet and are held to it by the planet's gravitational attraction. The earth's atmosphere is mainly nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide (CO2) A colorless, odorless gas whose concentration is about 0.039 percent (390 ppm) in a volume of air near sea level. It is a selective absorber of infrared radiation and, consequently, it is important in the earth's atmospheric greenhouse effect. Solid CO2 is called dry ice. Climate The accumulation of daily and seasonal weather events over a long period of time. Front The transition zone between two distinct air masses. Hurricane A tropical cyclone having winds in excess of 64 knots (74 mi/hr). Ionosphere An electrified region of the upper atmosphere where fairly large concentrations of ions and free electrons exist. Lapse rate The rate at which an atmospheric variable (usually temperature) decreases with height. (See Environmental lapse rate.) Mesosphere The atmospheric layer between the stratosphere and the thermosphere.
    [Show full text]
  • Air Masses, Fronts, Storm Systems, and the Jet Stream
    Air Masses, Fronts, Storm Systems, and the Jet Stream Air Masses When a large bubble of air remains over a specific area of Earth long enough to take on the temperature and humidity characteristics of that region, an air mass forms. For example, when a mass of air sits over a warm ocean it becomes warm and moist. Air masses are named for the type of surface over which they formed. Tropical = warm Polar = cold Continental = over land = dry Maritime = over ocean = moist These four basic terms are combined to describe four different types of air masses. continental polar = cool dry = cP continental tropical = warm dry = cT maritime polar = cool moist = mP maritime tropical = warm moist = mT The United States is influenced by each of these air masses. During winter, an even colder air mass occasionally enters the northern U.S. This bitterly cold continental arctic (cA) air mass is responsible for record setting cold temperatures. Notice in the central U.S. and Great Lakes region how continental polar (cP), cool dry air from central Canada, collides with maritime tropical (mT), warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico. Continental polar and maritime tropical air masses are the most dominant air masses in our area and are responsible for much of the weather we experience. Air Mass Source Regions Fronts The type of air mass sitting over your location determines the conditions of your location. By knowing the type of air mass moving into your region, you can predict the general weather conditions for your location. Meteorologists draw lines called fronts on surface weather maps to show the positions of air masses across Earth’s surface.
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture 14. Extratropical Cyclones • in Mid-Latitudes, Much of Our Weather
    Lecture 14. Extratropical Cyclones • In mid-latitudes, much of our weather is associated with a particular kind of storm, the extratropical cyclone Cyclone: circulation around low pressure center Some midwesterners call tornadoes cyclones Tropical cyclone = hurricane • Extratropical cyclones derive their energy from horizontal temperature con- trasts. • They typically form on a boundary between a warm and a cold air mass associated with an upper tropospheric jet stream • Their circulations affect the entire troposphere over a region 1000 km or more across. • Extratropical cyclones tend to develop with a particular lifecycle . • The low pressure center moves roughly with the speed of the 500 mb wind above it. • An extratropical cyclone tends to focus the temperature contrasts into ‘fron- tal zones’ of particularly rapid horizontal temperature change. The Norwegian Cyclone Model In 1922, well before routine upper air observations began, Bjerknes and Sol- berg in Bergen, Norway, codified experience from analyzing surface weather maps over Europe into the Norwegian Cyclone Model, a conceptual picture of the evolution of an ET cyclone and associated frontal zones at ground They noted that the strongest temperature gradients usually occur at the warm edge of the frontal zone, which they called the front. They classified fronts into four types, each with its own symbol: Cold front - Cold air advancing into warm air Warm front - Warm air advancing into cold air Stationary front - Neither airmass advances Occluded front - Looks like a cold front
    [Show full text]
  • PHAK Chapter 12 Weather Theory
    Chapter 12 Weather Theory Introduction Weather is an important factor that influences aircraft performance and flying safety. It is the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place with respect to variables, such as temperature (heat or cold), moisture (wetness or dryness), wind velocity (calm or storm), visibility (clearness or cloudiness), and barometric pressure (high or low). The term “weather” can also apply to adverse or destructive atmospheric conditions, such as high winds. This chapter explains basic weather theory and offers pilots background knowledge of weather principles. It is designed to help them gain a good understanding of how weather affects daily flying activities. Understanding the theories behind weather helps a pilot make sound weather decisions based on the reports and forecasts obtained from a Flight Service Station (FSS) weather specialist and other aviation weather services. Be it a local flight or a long cross-country flight, decisions based on weather can dramatically affect the safety of the flight. 12-1 Atmosphere The atmosphere is a blanket of air made up of a mixture of 1% gases that surrounds the Earth and reaches almost 350 miles from the surface of the Earth. This mixture is in constant motion. If the atmosphere were visible, it might look like 2211%% an ocean with swirls and eddies, rising and falling air, and Oxygen waves that travel for great distances. Life on Earth is supported by the atmosphere, solar energy, 77 and the planet’s magnetic fields. The atmosphere absorbs 88%% energy from the sun, recycles water and other chemicals, and Nitrogen works with the electrical and magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate.
    [Show full text]
  • Lesson 3 Predicting Weather
    LESSON 3 PREDICTING WEATHER Chapter 7, Weather and Climate OBJECTIVES • Describe high- and low- pressure systems and the weather associated with each. • Explain how technology is used to study weather. MAIN IDEA • To predict weather, scientists study air’s properties and movement. VOCABULARY • isobar - lines that connect places with equal air pressure • air mass - a large region of the atmosphere in which the air has similar properties throughout • front - the boundary between two air masses • cold front - cold air moves in under a warm air mass • warm front - warm air moves in over a cold air mass • occluded front - a weather front where a cold front catches up with a warm front and then moves underneath the warm front producing a wedge of warm air between two masses of cold air WHAT ARE HIGHS AND LOWS? • Scientists predict weather by studying how wind moves, from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. • A region’s air pressure is shown on weather maps which include isobars, measured in millibars, to show places with equal air pressure. • A low pressure system is illustrated by an (L) and has isobar readings that decrease towards the center. • A high pressure system (H) has, at its center, higher air pressure than its surroundings. • Wind speed is fastest where air pressure differences are greatest. • Closely spaced isobars show a large change over a small area, which indicates high wind speeds. • Gentle winds are shown by widely spaced isobars. AIR MOVEMENT AROUND HIGHS AND LOWS • Air flows outward from the center of a high pressure system.
    [Show full text]
  • Air Masses and Fronts
    Chapter 8 AIR MASSES AND FRONTS The day-to-day fire weather in a given area depends, to a large extent, on either the character of the prevailing air mass, or the interaction of two or more air masses. The weather within an air mass—whether cool or warm, humid or dry, clear or cloudy—depends on the temperature and humidity structure of the air mass. These elements will be altered by local conditions, to be sure, but they tend to remain overall characteristic of the air mass. As an air mass moves away from its source region, its characteristics will be modified, but these changes, and the resulting changes in fire weather, are gradual from day to day. When one air mass gives way to another in a region, fire weather may change abruptly—sometimes with violent winds—as the front, or leading edge of the new air mass, passes. If the frontal passage is accompanied by precipitation, the fire weather may ease. But if it is dry, the fire weather may become critical, if only for a short time. 127 AIR MASSES AND FRONTS In chapter 5 we learned that in the primary is called an air mass. Within horizontal layers, the and secondary circulations there are regions where temperature and humidity properties of an air mass high-pressure cells tend to form and stagnate. are fairly uniform. The depth of the region in Usually, these regions have uniform surface which this horizontal uniformity exists may vary temperature and moisture characteristics. Air from a few thousand feet in cold, winter air masses within these high-pressure cells, resting or moving to several miles in warm, tropical air masses.
    [Show full text]
  • Observational Aspects of Tropical Mesoscale Convective Systems Over Southeast India
    J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020) 129 65 Ó Indian Academy of Sciences https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-019-1300-9 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV) Observational aspects of tropical mesoscale convective systems over southeast India 1,5, 2 3 4 AMADHULATHA * ,MRAJEEVAN ,TSMOHAN and S B THAMPI 1 National Atmospheric Research Laboratory, Gadanki 517 502, India. 2 Ministry of Earth Sciences, New Delhi, India. 3 Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. 4 Doppler Weather Radar Division, India Meteorological Department, Chennai, India. 5 Present address: Korea Institute of Atmospheric Prediction Systems, Seoul, South Korea. *Corresponding author. e-mail: [email protected] MS received 17 April 2019; revised 31 August 2019; accepted 16 September 2019 To enhance the knowledge of various physical mechanisms related to the evolution of Tropical Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCSs), detailed analysis has been performed using suite of observations (weather radar, electric Beld mill, surface weather station, Cux tower, microwave radiometer and wind proBlers) available at Gadanki (13.5°N/79.2°E), located over southeast India. Analysis suggests that these systems developed in warm, moist environment associated with large scale low level convergence. Significant variations in cloud to ground (CG) lightning activity indicate the storm electriBcation. Deep (shallow) vertical extents with high (low) reCectivity and cloud liquid water; dominant upward (downward) motion reveals variant distribution in convective (stratiform) portions. Existence of both +CG and –CG Cashes in convective regions, dominant –CG in stratiform regions explains the relation between lightning polarity and rain and cloud type. Sharp changes in surface meteorological variables and variations in surface Cuxes are noticed in connection to cold pool of the system.
    [Show full text]
  • Air Masses and Fronts ‰ Air Masses Contain Uniform Temperature and Humidity Characteristics
    Chapter 9: Air Masses and Fronts Air masses Contain uniform temperature and humidity characteristics. Fronts Boundaries between unlike air What Characterize Air Masses? masses. What Define Fronts? ESS5 ESS5 Prof. Jin-Yi Yu Prof. Jin-Yi Yu Air Masses Source Regions Air masses have fairly uniform temperature and moisture content in horizontal direction (but not uniform in vertical). The areas of the globe where air masses from are Air masses are characterized by their temperature and called source regions. humidity properties. A source region must have certain temperature The properties of air masses are determined by the the and humidity properties that can remain fixed for underlying surface properties where they originate. a substantial length of time to affect air masses Once formed, air masses migrate within the general above it. circulation. Upon movement, air masses displace residual air over Air mass source regions occur only in the high or locations thus changing temperature and humidity low latitudes; middle latitudes are too variable. characteristics. ESS5 ESS5 Further, the air masses themselves moderate from Prof.surface Jin-Yi Yu Prof. Jin-Yi Yu influences. 1 Classification of Air Masses Five Types of Air Masses Air masses are classified according to the Theoretically, there should be 6 temperature and moisture characteristics of their types of air masses (2 moisture source regions. types x 3 temperature types). But mA-type (maritime Arctic) Bases on moisture content: continental (dry) and does not exist. maritime (moist) cA: continental Arctic Based on temperature: tropical (warm), polar (cold), cP: continental Polar arctic (extremely cold). cT: continental Tropical Naming convention for air masses: A small letter (c, m) indicates the moist content followed by a capital mP: maritime Polar letter (T, P, A) to represent temperature.
    [Show full text]
  • Extratropical Cyclones
    Extratropical Cyclones AT 540 What are extratropical cyclones? • Large low pressure systems • Synoptic-scale phenomena – Horizontal extent on the order of 2000 km – Life span on the order of 1 week • Named by – Cyclonic rotation – Latitude of formation: extratropics or middle- latitudes Why do extratropical cyclones exist? • Energy surplus (deficit) at tropics (poles) – Angle of solar incidence – Tilt of earth’s axis • Energy transport is required so tropics (poles) don’t continually warm (cool) • Extratropical cyclones are an atmospheric mechanism of transporting warm air poleward and cold air equatorward in the mid- latitudes Polar Front • The boundary between cold polar air and warm tropical air is the polar front • Extratropical cyclones develop on the polar front where large horizontal temperature gradients exist Polar Front Jet Stream Large horizontal temperature gradients ⇓ Large thickness gradients ⇓ Large horizontal pressure gradients aloft ⇓ Strong winds • Warm air to the south results in westerly geostrophic winds – polar jet stream Polar Front Jet Stream • The polar jet is the narrow band of meandering strong winds (~100 knots) found at the tropopause (why?) • The polar jet moves meridionally (30°-60° latitude) and vertically (10-15 km) with the seasons • At times, the polar jet will split into northern and southern branches and possibly merge with the subtropical jet Polar Jet and Extratropical Cyclones • Extratropical cyclones are low pressure centers at the surface; thus, upper-level divergence is needed to maintain the
    [Show full text]
  • A Glossary for Biometeorology
    Int J Biometeorol DOI 10.1007/s00484-013-0729-9 ICB 2011 - STUDENTS / NEW PROFESSIONALS A glossary for biometeorology Simon N. Gosling & Erin K. Bryce & P. Grady Dixon & Katharina M. A. Gabriel & Elaine Y.Gosling & Jonathan M. Hanes & David M. Hondula & Liang Liang & Priscilla Ayleen Bustos Mac Lean & Stefan Muthers & Sheila Tavares Nascimento & Martina Petralli & Jennifer K. Vanos & Eva R. Wanka Received: 30 October 2012 /Revised: 22 August 2013 /Accepted: 26 August 2013 # The Author(s) 2013. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Here we present, for the first time, a glossary of berevisitedincomingyears,updatingtermsandaddingnew biometeorological terms. The glossary aims to address the need terms, as appropriate. The glossary is intended to provide a for a reliable source of biometeorological definitions, thereby useful resource to the biometeorology community, and to this facilitating communication and mutual understanding in this end, readers are encouraged to contact the lead author to suggest rapidly expanding field. A total of 171 terms are defined, with additional terms for inclusion in later versions of the glossary as reference to 234 citations. It is anticipated that the glossary will a result of new and emerging developments in the field. S. N. Gosling (*) L. Liang School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 2RD, UK KY, USA e-mail: [email protected] E. K. Bryce P. A. Bustos Mac Lean Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Department of Animal Science, Universidade Estadual de Maringá Toronto, ON, Canada (UEM), Maringa, Paraná, Brazil P. G. Dixon S.
    [Show full text]