: The Great War (Chapter 11) I. World War I Begins (Chapter 11, Section 1) a. Causes of World War I (M.A.I.N) i. Militarism 1. Militarism— development of armed forces (weapons and standing army) and their use in diplomacy (deterrent) a. Cost of building and defending empires led to more military spending b. By 1890, Germany had strongest army on European continent i. competed with Britain for sea power ii. led other powers to join naval arms race—Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, and the U.S. ii. Alliances 1. Alliance System—a union between one or more nations with each promising to aid the other in case of attack by a third power a. Alliances gave security as a deterrent—nations unwilling to tip balance of power b. Alliances, while helping to avoid war, can create the risk that a minor incident could trigger a major war c. Allies or Triple Entente—United Kingdom, France, Russia (to 1917), (from 1917) d. Central Powers (Triple Alliance)—Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire iii. Imperialism 1. Imperialism—the policy in which stronger nations extend their economic, political, or military control over weaker territories a. Germany industrializes, competes with France, Britain for colonies iv. Nationalism 1. Nationalism—devotion to interests, culture of one‘s nation; (i.e. U.S.—patriotism) a. Nationalism leads to competition (land, military, etc.), antagonism between nations b. Many feared Germany‘s growing power in Europe c. Various ethnic groups resented domination and wanted independence d. Russia saw itself as the protector of all Slavic peoples

b. Crisis in the Balkans i. Balkan Peninsula known as ―the powder keg of Europe‖ because: 1. ethnic rivalries among Balkan peoples 2. leading powers have economic, political interests ii. Many Balkan groups struggled for independence form Ottoman Turks, many succeeded (Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia) iii. With growing sense of nationalism, each group sought to extend its borders 1. Example: Serbia wanted to absorb all the Slavs on the peninsula iv. 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina which upset Serbia 1. Serbia vowed to take Bosnia and Herzegovina away while Austria-Hungary vowed to crush any Serbian efforts c. An Assassination i. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, of Austria-Hungary, and his wife Sophi visited Bosnia ii. As his royal entourage drove through the city, the Archduke was shot by Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip 1. Princip was a member of the Black Hand, an organization promoting Serbian nationalism iii. As punishment, Austria presented Serbia with an ultimatum containing numerous demands 1. Despite Serbia‘s efforts, the wheels had been greased for war d. War Erupts i. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia—they expected a short war ii. Alliance system pulls one nation after another into war 1. Russia supports Serbia 2. Germany supported Austria-Hungary 3. Ottoman empire supports Germany and Austria-Hungary (Central Powers) 4. France supports Russia and Serbia (Allies) 5. Britain supports Allies after Germany invaded France through Belgium e. i. Schlieffen Plan—Germany‘s plan to quickly win the war 1. Called for a holding action against Russia, combined with a quick drive through Belgium to Paris and then after France had fallen the two German armies would defeat Russia 2. Outcome: Belgium held stronger than expected; Britain entered the war; Russia mobilized quickly f. War Reaches a Stalemate i. First Battle of Marne— German invasion pushed Allies back to the Marne Rive in Northeastern France before Allies pushed the German lines back 40 miles ii. : the worst battle of WWI; began in February 1916 and lasted over 300 days 1. Germans launch a huge offensive designed to ―bleed the French army white‖ by causing unsustainable casualties 2. Almost 2 million casualties – half were deaths. Although an accurate figure will never be known 3. Both sides thought it would be a quick war but by Spring 1915, 2 sides were at a stalemate g. The —December 24, 1914 i. Moral on both sides was down realizing they would not be home for holiday ii. Started with singing and turned into informal truce as soldiers on both sides laid down their weapons to celebrate Christmas together iii. They celebrated and played soccer together iv. Fighting only resumed after vicious acts by superior commanders h. Trench Warfare Begins i. It was not long before both sides realized that traditional warfare would not win this war ii. Armies equipped with new weapons—tanks, machine guns, poison gas, new , submarines, planes– forced a new type of fighting—Trench Warfare iii. Machine Guns 1. These weapons were first used in the American Civil War to devastating effect 2. But with World War One their effectiveness reached frightening new levels 3. Firing up to 600 bullets a minute (the equivalent of 250 men with rifles), Machine Guns were then deemed to be ‗weapons of mass destruction‘ iv. Airships and Planes 1. They had everything from mini scout planes to huge blimp like bombers called Zeppelins 2. Air warfare was not seen as important as any other type so it did not have its own category 3. Initial airplanes flimsy and just used for scouting 4. Initial dogfights—individual air combats involved pilots shooting pistols 5. Was not until mounted machine guns powered by the propeller belt (interrupter gear) that plains became a lethal device 6. Skilled pilots were known as aces a. Most successful was the German Baron Manfred von Richthofen, known as the Red Baron—he reported 80 kills (enemy aircraft shot down) b. Top American ace was Edward Richenbacker with 26 kills v. Artillery 1. These were the new and upgraded versions of cannons a. Never in the history of man, where there so many cannons used in one war alone 2. But Germany had a plan up their sleeve a. For years, German scientists were developing the biggest artillery ever known b. It was call the ‗Big Bertha‘—it could fire at the heart of Paris from 120 kilometers away 3. Shells were upgraded as well a. Instead of ordinary shells, new High-explosive shells were developed b. The Shells were thin casings and were filled with tiny lead pellets—artillery fire killed hundreds and thousands of men vi. Tanks 1. Tanks were used to used to ―mow down‖ barbed wire and soldier 2. Based on the caterpillar track (first invented in 1770 and perfected in the early 1900s), early tanks were fitted with: a. Maxim type guns or Lewis guns b. amour plating c. their caterpillar tracks were configured to allow crossing of an eight-foot wide trench. 3. Although these beasts were powerful, they were not so reliable. Most broke down and a good example is the battle of a. The British sent 525 tanks, and after four days, only 25 were left in working order vii. Gas Grenades 1. These were highly toxic, and very effective weapons 2. The Germans had invented 3 main gas grenades. a. 1st—Chlorine gas, which was used at the battle of in 1915, killing thousands. b. 2nd—Phosgene gas c. 3rd—Mustard gas—this burned the lungs of the inhaler leaving them to die in agony. 3. Gas masks were issued to everyone in the country, but they weren‘t so useful and many people died i. Trench Layout i. To protect themselves from the constant of automatic gunfire and heavy-duty artillery, each side dug a series of trenches that extended for over 475 miles from Switzerland to the North Sea ii. The rival trenches were typically about 250 yards apart, although in some places the trenches were so close that a soldier could practically touch his enemy in the opposing trench. 1. The space between the trenches was referred to as ―no man‘s land‖ 2. No man‘s land was typically gutted by bombs, crossed by tons of barbed wire, and dotted with land mines iii. Trench warfare consisted of long artillery bombardments followed by charges from infantrymen across no man‘s land toward enemy lines—‖Going over the Top‖ iv. Between battles, soldiers lived in rear trenches called dugouts—tiny rooms sunken into the seemingly endless cycle of disease, mud, fear, hunger, and death j. The Battle on the Eastern Front i. Early Fighting 1. Eastern Front—site of main fighting along the German-Russian border 2. Russians pushed into Austria and Germany, but was soon forced to retreat ii. Russia Struggles 1. Russia‘s war effort suffering by 1916; they had many casualties and too few supplies 2. However, the huge size of Russian army kept it a formidable force a. prevented Germany from sending more troops to the Western Front k. War Affects the World i. The Gallipoli Campaign 1. Allies moved to capture Ottoman Dardanelles strait in February 1915 2. Hoped to defeat Ottoman Empire, a Central Powers ally 3. Also wanted to open a supply line through region to Russia 4. Effort ended in costly Allied defeat ii. Battles in Africa and Asia 1. Allies took control of German holdings in Asia and Africa 2. Britain and France used their colonial subjects to help in war effort l. Question Neutrality i. Divided Loyalties 1. Socialists, pacifists and many ordinary people against U.S. in war 2. Naturalized citizens concerned about effects on country of birth 3. Many feel ties to British ancestry, language, democracy, and legal system 4. U.S. has stronger economic ties with Allies than with Central Powers a. By 1917, U.S. banks had loaned $2.3 billion to the Allies and only $27 million to the Central Powers 5. ii. U.S.: The War Hits Home 1. The U.S. Prepares a. By 1917, U.S. had mobilized for war against Central Powers i. National Defense Act increased the number of soldiers from 90,000 to about 175,000 ii. Congress passed another bill appropriating $313 million to build up the Army iii. Being prepared to go against Central Powers to: 1. ensure Allied repayment of debts 2. prevent Germans threat to U.S. shipping m. British Blockade i. British blockade and mine North Sea to stop war supplies from reaching Germany 1. also stop food, fertilizer ii. U. S. merchant ships seldom reach Germany iii. Germany has difficulty importing food, fertilizer and by 1917 are affected by a famine n. German U-Boat Response i. In response, Germany created a ―war zone‖ around Britain declaring any ship – even from a neutral nation – subject to attack by German submarines (U-boats). 1. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare—sinking ships without warning rather than stopping them, searching them and if weapons found—allowing passengers to get into life boats prior to sinking ii. U-boat sinks an ocean liner in the Irish Sea—killing 100 people (1 American) 1. Wilson warns Germany that in accordance with international laws of neutrality, neutral nations were not to be attacked and they would be responsible for loss of life o. Sinking of the Lusitania i. U-boat sunk British liner Lusitania; 128 Americans among the dead 1. Germany defended the sinking a. Germany claimed Lusitania contained armaments for Britain—an accusation denied by but later proved true b. German leaders point out they had placed advertisements in American newspapers warning against sailing into the war zone 2. U.S. public opinion turns against Germany a. New York Times called the Germans ―savages drunk with blood‖ 3. President Wilson protests, but Germany continues to sink ships 4. Germany asks U.S. to get Britain to end food blockade a. otherwise will renew unrestricted submarine war p. Sussex Pledge i. On May 4th, 1916, Germany issued the Sussex Pledge, declaring it would not attack passenger ships, and that it would search merchant ships before sinking them 1. In exchange, Germany demanded that the United States get other belligerent nations to honor "the rules of international law" a. (a reference to the British starvation blockade), a condition which Wilson rejected 2. Germany honored the pledge until February of 1917, when it resumed unrestricted submarine warfare q. Zimmerman Note i. Proposals for a German alliance with Mexico, suggesting the Mexican government should make common cause with Germany, try to persuade the Japanese government to join the new alliance, and attack the US 1. Germany, for its part, would promise financial assistance and the restoration of former territories of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona to Mexico r. Russia Pulls Out i. In March 1917, demonstrations in St. Petersburg culminated in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power with the socialists of the Petrograd Soviet ii. The war, and the government, became more and more unpopular, and the discontent led to a rise in popularity of the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, who promised pulling Russia out of the war and were able to gain power iii. The triumph of the Bolsheviks in November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany iv. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918, which took Russia out of the war and ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers s. The United States Declares War i. Final step was when Russian pulled out—U.S. fear losing billions of dollars if the allies lost ii. April 2, 1917—President Woodrow Wilson delivered his war resolution 1. “Property can be paid for; the lives of peaceful and innocent people cannot be. The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind. . . . Ware glad . . . To fight thus for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its peoples, . . . For the rights of nations—great and small—and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of life. . . . The world must be made safe for democracy.” iii. The Senate declared war on April 4 and the House followed two days later

II. World War I: American Power Tips the Balance (Chapter 11, Section 2) a. America Mobilizes: Raising an Army i. Selective Service Act—required men between the ages of 21 and 30 (later changed to ages 18 to 45) to register with local draft boards 1. By 1918, 24 million registered under the act, 3 million were called up, 2 million reached Europe, 1.5 million saw actual combat ii. African Americans in segregated units, excluded from the marines and limited to kitchen duties in the navy iii. Soldiers train for 8 months (usually 17-hour days), often drill with fake weapons—rocks for grenades and wooden poles for rifles iv. Women in army, navy, marines as nurses secretaries, phone operators b. Mass Production i. To expand fleet to transport men, food, equipment to Europe, U.S.: 1. gives special status to shipyard workers 2. uses fabrication techniques 3. takes over commercial, private ships c. America Mobilizes: Convoy System i. Convoy System—was heavy guard of destroyers escorted merchant ships back and forth across the Atlantic in groups protecting them against German vessels (especially U-boats) ii. To further protect the convoy from U-boats, the US also laid some 70,000 mines in a lethal 240- mile necklace across the North Sea form Norway to the Orkeny Island off Britain 1. Of the more than 2 million US soldiers who crossed the Atlantic, not one dies as the result of an enemy on attack at sea d. Fighting in Europe i. After 2 1/2 years fighting, Allied forces are exhausted, demoralized ii. American troops bring numbers, freshness, enthusiasm e. Initial U.S. Forces: AEF i. US sent initial force (American Expeditionary Force [AEF]) to France under the command of General John J. Pershing ii. On July 4, 1917, thousands of ―Yanks‖ or ―Dough Boys‖ arrived in Paris, France to a cheering crowd 1. They stopped at the tomb of the Marquis de Lafayette and declared ―Lafayette, we are here‖ f. Allies Stop German Advance i. With Russia out, Germany shifts all of their resources (armies, supplies, food, etc.) to the western front 1. Germany comes within 50 miles of Paris ii. Americans arrive just in time, helping stop the German advance iii. Within four months, the Allies had stopped the Germans and had began to go on the offensive g. American War Hero i. Conscientious objector—person who opposes war on moral grounds (Bible: ―Thou shalt not kill‖ ii. Originally a conscientious objector, Alvin York decides WWI is just 1. Alone kills 25 Germans; with 6 others, captures 132 prisoners 2. Promoted to sergeant; becomes U.S. celebrity upon his return h. The Collapse of Germany i. November 3, 1918, Austria-Hungary surrenders to Allies ii. German sailors, soldiers rebel and organize revolutionary councils 1. socialists establish German republic iii. On November 9, socialist leaders in Berlin establish a German republic 1. Kaiser gives up throne iv. ON the eleventh hour, on the eleventh day, in the eleventh month of 1918—Germany agreed to a cease-fire and signed the armistice (truce) thus ending the ―Great War‖ v. Germans exhausted; armistice, or truce, signed November 11, 1918 1. Veteran‘s Day a. Veterans Day is the American name for the international day of remembrance called Armistice Day b. It falls on 11 November, the anniversary of the signing of the Armistice that ended World War One c. It is a federal holiday and a state holiday in all 50 states d. The same day is observed elsewhere around many parts of the world as Remembrance Day or Armistice Day. i. The Final Toll i. World War I bloodiest war in history to date 1. more than half of 22 million dead are civilians 2. 20 million more are wounded 3. 10 million people become refugees 4. war devastates European economies, drain 5. many acres of land and homes, villages, towns destroyed 6. survivors suffer disillusionment and despair

III. World War I: The War at Home (Chapter 11, Section 3) a. The War at Home: WIB i. Economy shifts from producing consumer goods to war supplies (―Butter to Guns‖) ii. Congress gives president direct control of much of the economy iii. War Industries Board (WIB) is main regulatory body 1. urges mass-production, standardizing products (assigns who will build what and what each product will cost) 2. Bernard M. Baruch, prosperous businessman, is head of the WIB 3. Railroad Administration, Fuel Administration also control industries 4. Conservation measures adopted by public, nation iv. Food Administration 1. Food Administration under Herbert Hoover works to produce, save food—‖Food will win the war‖ 2. Encourages public conservation, increase of farm production a. Victory Gardens—gardens planted to grow food (tomatoes, cucumbers, etc.) to conserve so farm goods could be shipped overseas b. Mondays & Wednesdays were wheatless days, Tuesday were a meatless day (one meal a day was to be meatless)—(breakfast was to be meatless), & consumption of sugar was limited to two pounds per person v. Fuel Administration 1. Harry Garfield, son of former president James A. Garfield, was the director a. Heatless Mondays b. When the nation ran short of coal in early 1918, he closed all factories west of the Mississippi River for several days b. The War at Home: Financing i. U.S. spends $35.5 billion on war effort 1. 1/3 paid through taxes, 2/3 borrowed through sale of war bonds ii. Increase taxes 1. Congress passed a new tax on business income and large personal incomes that produced about $10 billion for the war iii. War Bonds 1. Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo (Wilson‘s son-in-law) said, ―Every person who refuses to subscribe [buy a war bond] . . . Is a friend of Germany,‖ and ―is not entitled to be an American citizen‖ 2. Four issues of ―Liberty Loan‖ bonds 3. One issue of ―Victory Loan‖ bonds c. The War at Home: CPI i. Committee on Public Information 1. George Creel, a former muckraker, heads Committee on Public Information a. Creel produces visual works, printed matter to promote war b. Gets volunteers (―Four-Minute Men‖) to speak about war, distribute materials ii. Propaganda—A biased message designed to promote a product, service, or an idea through the use of influence or persuasion 1. As generally understood, propaganda is opinion expressed for the purpose of influencing actions of individuals or groups... 2. Propaganda thus differs fundamentally from scientific analysis 3. The propagandist tries to "put something across," good or bad 4. The propagandist seldom wants careful scrutiny and criticism; his object is to bring about a specific action 5. In our everyday life we are exposed to different forms of Propaganda: a. Printed Materials (Newspapers, Magazines, etc.) b. Posters c. Neon signs d. Billboards e. Commercials f. Direct Mail g. Window Displays h. Point of Purchase Displays i. Telephone Directories j. Cold Calls d. Anti-Immigrant Hysteria i. Attacks against immigrants, especially from Germany, Austria-Hungary 1. Example: mob in Collinsville, Illinois wrapped a German flag around a German-born American miner and lynched him (jury cleared the mob‘s leader) 2. Many Americans with German names lost their jobs ii. Suppression of German culture 1. Music: orchestras stop performing Mozart, Beethoven, Bach, etc. 2. Language: schools stopped teaching German 3. Literature: schools removed books by German authors 4. Food: Hamburger became Salisbury steak or liberty burger; sauerkraut became liberty cabbage 5. Animals: dachshunds (wiener dogs) became liberty pups e. Suppressing Opposition i. Quakers and Mennonites—committed by their faith to pacifism—were outspoken against the war and experienced violence and abuse ii. Other prominent people in society were also against the war iii. Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) were against the war and led strikes in a number of war-related industries iv. Congress believed they needed to do something to suppress the anti-war rhetoric f. Espionage and Sedition Acts i. Espionage Act (June 1917) and Sedition Act (June 1918)—outlawed acts of treason and made it a crime to ―utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal . . . Or abusive langue‖ criticizing the government, the flag, or the military 1. Clearly violate 1st amendment and led to over 2,000 prosecutions of loosely defined antiwar activities ii. targeted socialists, labor leaders 1. Eugene V. Debs given ten-year prison sentence for speaking out against the war 2. Anarchist Emma Goldman given two years prison sentence for organizing the No Conscription League 3. ―Big Bill‖ Haywood (IWW) was given a long prison sentence for provoking strikes iii. SCHENCK v. UNITED STATES (1919) 1. ORIGINS OF THE CASE: a. Charles Schenck, an official of the U.S. Socialist Party, distributed leaflets that called the draft a "deed against humanity" and compared conscription to slavery, urging conscripts to ―assert your rights‖ b. Schenck was convicted of sedition and sentenced to prison, but he argued that the conviction, punishment, and even the law itself violated his right to free speech c. The Supreme Court agreed to hear his appeal 2. THE RULING: a. A unanimous court upheld Schenck's conviction, stating that under wartime conditions, the words in the leaflets were not protected by the right to free speech. g. African Americans and the War i. Black public opinion about the war was divided—but most backed the war 1. Pro: W.E.B. Du Bois and others believed in the cause and also believed support of the war would strengthen calls for racial justice 2. Con: William Monroe Trotter (founder of the Boston Guardian) and others believed that victims of racism should not support a racist government ii. The Great Migration 1. Great Migration—large-scale movement of Southern African Americans to the North 2. Reasons to Migrate to the North: a. Escape racial discrimination in the South b. Most of Southern Cotton Fields ruined due to a boll weevil infestation as well as droughts and floods c. The enormous growth of war industries created new job openings for blacks—not in the factories but in the service jobs that new factory workers vacated d. World War I effectively put a halt to the flow of European immigrants to the emerging industrial centers Northeast and Midwest, causing shortages of workers in the factories e. Anti-immigration legislation after the war similarly resulted in a shortage of workers f. The postwar economic boom offered additional opportunities for black workers in northern cities 3. The new migrants were met with racial prejudice and intensified racial tensions in the North too 4. iii. Race Riots 1. Racial prejudice against African Americans in the North sometimes took violent forms 2. St. Louis, Illinois a. In July 1917—White workers, furious over the hiring of African Americans as strikebreakers at a munitions plant, rampaged through the streets b. Forty blacks and nine whites died 3. Red Summer a. the summer and autumn of 1919 race riots erupted in several cities in both the North and South of the United States b. The three most violent episodes happened in Chicago, Washington, D.C., and Elaine, Arkansas—these were part of a series of 20 or more race riots occurring in the U.S. where African Americans were the victims of hostile attacks c. Chicago, Illinois i. In July 1919—A 17-year-old African American swam from the water off a "black beach" to the water off a "white beach" ii. There, white bathers threw rocks at him until he drowned iii. African Americans retaliated, and several riots broke out in the city— Order was restored after several days of violence that involved about 10,000 people h. Women and the War i. Many women take jobs in heavy industry previously held by men (who were now fighting in the war) 1. Railroad workers, cooks, dockworkers, bricklayers, miners, etc. ii. Many do volunteer work for war effort 1. Red Cross workers, advocates of war/victory bonds, planting of victory gardens iii. Women did equal work to what the men had done but did not receive equal pay iv. Some active in peace movement; Women‘s Peace Party founded 1915—which Jane Addams help found v. Women‘s effort bolsters support for suffrage and has been identified as the single biggest reason for the passage of the 19th Amendment i. 1918 Flu Pandemic i. In the 18 months of the pandemic, 50 million to 100 million people worldwide were killed ii. Despite not having originated in Spain, the Allies of World War I came to call it the ―Spanish Flu‖ 1. This was mainly because the pandemic received greater press attention in Spain than in the rest of the world, as Spain was not involved in the war and there was no wartime censorship in Spain

IV. World War I: Wilson Fights for peace (Chapter 11, Section 4) a. Wilson‘s 14 Points i. Fourteen Points—Wilson‘s program for world peace presented to Congress January 8, 1918. ii. Points 1-5 were issues that Wilson believed had to be addressed to prevent war 1. There should be no secret treaties among nations 2. Freedom of the seas should be maintained for all 3. Tariffs and other economic barriers among nations should be lowered or abolished 4. Arms should be reduced ―to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety‖ thus eliminating arms races 5. Colonial policies should consider the interests of the colonial peoples as well as the interests of the imperialist powers iii. Points 6-13 were issues that with boundaries and addressed how ethnic groups can form own nations or join others iv. The final point: League of Nations: international group designed to prevent offensive wars by discussing and settling disputes without war b. The Allies Reject Wilson‘s Plan i. Wilson fails to grasp anger of Allied leaders against Germany ii. French premier Georges Clemenceau wants to prevent German invasion 1. Had lived through two German invasions of France iii. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George had just won re-election on the slogan ―Make Germany Pay‖ iv. Italian Vittorio Orlando wants Austrian-held territory v. Contrary to custom, the peace conference excludes Central Powers, Russia, small Allied nations 1. The ―Big Four‖ negotiated the treaty‘s details a. (U.S.—Wilson; France—Georges Clemenceau; Britain—David Lloyed George; and Italy—Vittorio Orlando) vi. Wilson gives up most of his points in return for League of Nations c. The Treaty of Versailles i. Provisions 1. Creates 9 new nations (including Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia) and shifts boundaries of others, British, French mandates 2. Carved five areas out of the Ottoman Empire and given to France as mandates— temporary colonies 3. Places various conditions on Germany: a. must admit guilt—War-guilt clause b. disarmed and cannot have an army c. region of Alsace-Lorraine returned to France d. pay reparations, or war damages—$33 billion ii. The Treaty‘s Weaknesses 1. War-guilt clause—Germany must accept sole responsibility for war 2. Germany cannot pay $33 billion in reparations that Allies want 3. Russia loses more land than Germany; territorial claims ignored 4. Colonized people‘s claims for self-determination ignored iii. Opposition to the Treaty 1. Strong opposition to treaty in U.S. a. Many politicians did not like that Wilson negotiated treaty without consulting Congress b. Some, like Hoover, think treaty too harsh, fear economic effects c. Some feel treaty exchanged one group of colonial rulers for another d. Some ethnic groups not satisfied with new national borders e. League of Nations i. Some think League threatens U.S. foreign policy of isolation ii. Senators like Henry Cabot Lodge mistrust provision for joint action 2. Wilson needed the Democrats‘ votes and some Republicans to gain 2/3 passing vote a. But 14 Republican senators, called irreconcilables, wanted nothing to do with the League of Nations b. Others disagreed because the treaty committed the US to war in defense of League members iv. Wilson Refuses to Compromise 1. Wilson ignores Republicans in Senate when choosing U. S. delegation 2. Goes on speaking tour to convince nation to support League a. 8,000-miles, 34 speeches in about 3 weeks b. has stroke (a ruptured blood vessel to the brain) and is partially paralyzed 3. November 1919, Senator Lodge introduces amendments to treaty a. Senate rejects the treaty b. Wilson refuses to compromise 4. March 1920, 2nd vote: neither amendments nor treaty approved 5. U.S. and Germany sign separate treaty 6. U.S. never joins the league of Nations 7. Treaty was signed without the U.S. and the League of Nations established without the US. d. Global Impact of the War i. 8.5 million + died in battle; 21 million wounded ii. U.S. 1. war strengthens military, increases power of government 2. Accelerates social change for African Americans, women 3. Fears, antagonisms provoked by propaganda remain iii. Industry and agriculture of Europe in ruins 1. Northern France completely destroyed 2. Remaining industries couldn‘t produce enough to meet demand = rapid inflation iv. In Europe, destruction, loss of life damage social, political systems 1. Communist, fascist governments form v. Treaty of Versailles does not settle conflicts in Europe 1. nations competed with one another for territories they thought the treaty should have granted them vi. The Arabs in the Middle East sided with the Allies thinking they would win independence from the Ottoman Turks; now they were living under French and British authority instead