DOCSLIB.ORG

CLAIMING the EASTERN BORDERLANDS After the 1997

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
CLAIMING the EASTERN BORDERLANDS After the 1997 CHAPTER SEVEN CLAIMING THE EASTERN BORDERLANDS After the 1997 Hargeysa Conference, the Somaliland state apparatus consolidated. It deepened, as the state realm displaced governance arrangements overseen by clan elders. And it broadened, as central government control extended geographically from the capital into urban centres such as Borama in the west and Bur’o in the east. In the areas east of Bur’o government was far less present or efffective, especially where non-Isaaq clans traditionally lived. Erigavo, the capital of Sanaag Region, which was shared by the Habar Yunis, the Habar Ja’lo, the Warsengeli and the Dhulbahante, was fijinally brought under formal government control in 1997, after Egal sent a delegation of nine govern- ment ministers originating from the area to sort out local government with the elders and political actors on the ground. After fijive months of negotiations, the president was able to appoint a Mayor for Erigavo and a Governor for Sanaag.1 But east of Erigavo, in the area inhabited by the Warsengeli, any claim to governance from Hargeysa was just nominal.2 The same was true for most of Sool Region inhabited by the Dhulbahante. Eastern Sanaag and Sool had not been Egal’s priority. The president did not strictly need these regions to be under his military control in order to preserve and consolidate his position politically or in terms of resources. The port of Berbera was vital for the economic survival of the Somaliland government. Erigavo and Las Anod were not. However, because the Somaliland government claimed the borders of the former British protec- torate as the borders of Somaliland, Sanaag and Sool had to be seen as under government control. This chapter will look at how president Egal has tried to create that semblance in the case of Sool region by attempting to get Dhulbahante clan elders and other Dhulbahante political actors on his side and under his control. 1 Mohammed Said ‘Gees,’ interview, Hargeysa 06/06/2002. 2 For a more elaborate discussion of the Sanaag case, investigated by Terlinden, see Renders and Terlinden (2010: 741). The discussion in this chapter will be focused mostly on Sool region where I carried out my fijield research. 178 chapter seven A. The Dhulbahante and Somaliland In Sool, popular support for an independent Somaliland has certainly not been unanimous. In part this is due to political tensions that have lin- gered since the war between the SNM and the Dhulbahante militia, which had sided with Siyyad Barre’s national army. While clan conflicts could be resolved by the elders of the concerned clans and without the interfer- ence of any state authority, conflicts like this, on the level of state politics, were not so easily resolved. The political relation between the SNM and the Dhulbahante became mediated by one of their most senior elders, but lacking the popular Dhulbahante mandate and the necessary leverage on the ground, his involvement did not bring the Dhulbahante in. 1.1. The Secession Visiting Sool in the Spring of 2002, I was told that the driver who would help me get around in Las Anod was actually one of Siyyad Barre’s former drivers. He was probably not the only one. As the clan of one of Barre’s sons-in-law, the Dhulbahante had been part of the MOD-alliance, the clan-based political stronghold of the former military regime. Some Dhulbahante had been part of the president’s inner power circle. For example, the head of the National Security Service, one of the most pow- erful men during the military regime, had been a Dhulbahante (Höhne 2006: 405). Sool region also boasted quite an impressive number of Barre’s ex-ministers, ex-ambassadors, ex-generals, ex-security service personnel and other former employees of the Barre regime who had had to flee Mogadishu under pressure of the Hawiye militia in 1991. During the war between SNM and Siyyad Barre, the Dhulbahante mili- tia fought alongside the SNM-aligned Isaaq militia. However, there was only one Dhulbahante national fijigure who joined SNM and gained some prominence within the guerrilla force: Yasiin Ahmed Hadji Nur, who, like the Gadabursi’s Abdirahman Aw Ali, became one of the rare non-Isaaq SNM leaders.3 When the SNM took over most of the northwest of Somalia, the representatives of the Dhulbahante agreed to maintain peaceful relations with the Isaaq. A particularly important role in this entente was played by the Dhulbahante paramount elder4, Garaad Abdiqani. 3 Matt Bryden, interview, Bur’o 07/04/2003. 4 The most senior of the ‘titled’ elders, (called garaad as is mostly the case in Sool or ugaas, sultaan or bokor)..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • An Analysis of the Afar-Somali Conflict in Ethiopia and Djibouti
    Regional Dynamics of Inter-ethnic Conflicts in the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Afar-Somali Conflict in Ethiopia and Djibouti DISSERTATION ZUR ERLANGUNG DER GRADES DES DOKTORS DER PHILOSOPHIE DER UNIVERSTÄT HAMBURG VORGELEGT VON YASIN MOHAMMED YASIN from Assab, Ethiopia HAMBURG 2010 ii Regional Dynamics of Inter-ethnic Conflicts in the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Afar-Somali Conflict in Ethiopia and Djibouti by Yasin Mohammed Yasin Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR (POLITICAL SCIENCE) in the FACULITY OF BUSINESS, ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES at the UNIVERSITY OF HAMBURG Supervisors Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit Prof. Dr. Rainer Tetzlaff HAMBURG 15 December 2010 iii Acknowledgments First and foremost, I would like to thank my doctoral fathers Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit and Prof. Dr. Rainer Tetzlaff for their critical comments and kindly encouragement that made it possible for me to complete this PhD project. Particularly, Prof. Jakobeit’s invaluable assistance whenever I needed and his academic follow-up enabled me to carry out the work successfully. I therefore ask Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit to accept my sincere thanks. I am also grateful to Prof. Dr. Klaus Mummenhoff and the association, Verein zur Förderung äthiopischer Schüler und Studenten e. V., Osnabruck , for the enthusiastic morale and financial support offered to me in my stay in Hamburg as well as during routine travels between Addis and Hamburg. I also owe much to Dr. Wolbert Smidt for his friendly and academic guidance throughout the research and writing of this dissertation. Special thanks are reserved to the Department of Social Sciences at the University of Hamburg and the German Institute for Global and Area Studies (GIGA) that provided me comfortable environment during my research work in Hamburg.
    [Show full text]
  • SOMALILAND GENDER GAP ASSESSMENT March 2019 Acknowledgements
    SOMALILAND GENDER GAP ASSESSMENT March 2019 Acknowledgements Many organisations and individuals gave crucial cooperation in the implementation of this research. The research team would like to extend their appreciation to those who volunteered their time to participate in various capacities, particularly interviewees and focus group discussion participants. This report is a production of and attributable to NAGAAD, with Oxfam providing funding and technical support and Forcier Consulting implementing the research. Thank you to the staff from each organisation involved in the production of this report. Contact: NAGAAD, Hargeisa, Somaliland. [email protected] www.nagaad.org This report is not a legally binding document. It is a collaborative informational and assessment document and does not necessarily reflect the views of any of the contributing organisations or funding agencies in all of its contents. Any errors are the sole responsibility of the authors. Supported by: CONTENTS Acronyms 4 1. Executive Summary: The Gender Gap at a Glance 5 2. Recommendations 9 3. Introduction 11 4. Indicators for Composite Gender Gap Index 12 5. Limitations 13 6. Research Findings 14 6.1 Economic Participation 14 6.2 Economic Opportunity 19 6.3 Political Empowerment 31 6.4 Educational Attainment 37 7. Conclusion 50 8. Technical Annex 51 8.1 Methodological Framework 51 8.2 Index Calculation 52 ACRONYMS ABE Alternative Basic Education CATI Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews FGD Focus Group Discussion HAVOYOCO Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee
    [Show full text]
  • Briefing Paper
    NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 - 2000 Guido Ambroso UNHCR Brussels E-mail : [email protected] August 2002 Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees CP 2500, 1211 Geneva 2 Switzerland E-mail: [email protected] Web Site: www.unhcr.org These working papers provide a means for UNHCR staff, consultants, interns and associates to publish the preliminary results of their research on refugee-related issues. The papers do not represent the official views of UNHCR. They are also available online under ‘publications’ at <www.unhcr.org>. ISSN 1020-7473 Introduction The classical definition of refugee contained in the 1951 Refugee Convention was ill- suited to the majority of African refugees, who started fleeing in large numbers in the 1960s and 1970s. These refugees were by and large not the victims of state persecution, but of civil wars and the collapse of law and order. Hence the 1969 OAU Refugee Convention expanded the definition of “refugee” to include these reasons for flight. Furthermore, the refugee-dissidents of the 1950s fled mainly as individuals or in small family groups and underwent individual refugee status determination: in-depth interviews to determine their eligibility to refugee status according to the criteria set out in the Convention. The mass refugee movements that took place in Africa made this approach impractical. As a result, refugee status was granted on a prima facie basis, that is with only a very summary interview or often simply with registration - in its most basic form just the name of the head of family and the family size.1 In the Somali context the implementation of this approach has proved problematic.
    [Show full text]
  • Somaliland – a Walk on Thin Ice 1
    7|2011 KAS INTERNATIONAL REPORTS 79 SOMALILAND – A WALK ON THIN ICE 1 Harriet Gorka “Northerners can in no way claim that the 1960 merger with the South was a shotgun wedding – by all accounts unification was wildly popular. Northerners could argue, however, that they asked for an annulment of the union prior to the honeymoon and that their request was unjustly denied.”2 This statement by a legal scholar reflects the prevailing balancing act of the conflict in Somaliland, which some might say started with the voluntary unification of Harriet Gorka worked Somaliland and the Italian Trust Territory of Somalia. Yet from February to April 2011 at the Konrad- the conflict goes deeper and is more far reaching than Adenauer-Stiftung in “just” the desire to secede from the Somali state. It is Windhoek, Namibia. an ongoing debate whether the right to self-determination should prevail over the notions of territorial integrity and sovereignty. May 2011 marked the 20-year anniversary of Somaliland’s proclamation of independence. However, its status has not officially been recognised by any state, even though it has a working constitutional government, an army, a national flag and its own currency, which should make Somaliland a stand out example for other entities seeking independence. The territory also sets itself apart from the rest of Somalia because it is stable and peaceful, which has been achieved by integrating clan culture into its government. The accom- plishments of the past two decades are impressive, despite 1 | The opinion expressed by the author is not in all points similar to the opinion of the editors.
    [Show full text]
  • Rethinking the Somali State
    Rethinking the Somali State MPP Professional Paper In Partial Fulfillment of the Master of Public Policy Degree Requirements The Hubert H. Humphrey School of Public Affairs The University of Minnesota Aman H.D. Obsiye May 2017 Signature below of Paper Supervisor certifies successful completion of oral presentation and completion of final written version: _________________________________ ____________________ ___________________ Dr. Mary Curtin, Diplomat in Residence Date, oral presentation Date, paper completion Paper Supervisor ________________________________________ ___________________ Steven Andreasen, Lecturer Date Second Committee Member Signature of Second Committee Member, certifying successful completion of professional paper Table of Contents Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 3 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 5 The Somali Clan System .......................................................................................................... 6 The Colonial Era ..................................................................................................................... 9 British Somaliland Protectorate ................................................................................................. 9 Somalia Italiana and the United Nations Trusteeship .............................................................. 14 Colonial
    [Show full text]
  • Clanship, Conflict and Refugees: an Introduction to Somalis in the Horn of Africa
    CLANSHIP, CONFLICT AND REFUGEES: AN INTRODUCTION TO SOMALIS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA Guido Ambroso TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I: THE CLAN SYSTEM p. 2 The People, Language and Religion p. 2 The Economic and Socials Systems p. 3 The Dir p. 5 The Darod p. 8 The Hawiye p. 10 Non-Pastoral Clans p. 11 PART II: A HISTORICAL SUMMARY FROM COLONIALISM TO DISINTEGRATION p. 14 The Colonial Scramble for the Horn of Africa and the Darwish Reaction (1880-1935) p. 14 The Boundaries Question p. 16 From the Italian East Africa Empire to Independence (1936-60) p. 18 Democracy and Dictatorship (1960-77) p. 20 The Ogaden War and the Decline of Siyad Barre’s Regime (1977-87) p. 22 Civil War and the Disintegration of Somalia (1988-91) p. 24 From Hope to Despair (1992-99) p. 27 Conflict and Progress in Somaliland (1991-99) p. 31 Eastern Ethiopia from Menelik’s Conquest to Ethnic Federalism (1887-1995) p. 35 The Impact of the Arta Conference and of September the 11th p. 37 PART III: REFUGEES AND RETURNEES IN EASTERN ETHIOPIA AND SOMALILAND p. 42 Refugee Influxes and Camps p. 41 Patterns of Repatriation (1991-99) p. 46 Patterns of Reintegration in the Waqoyi Galbeed and Awdal Regions of Somaliland p. 52 Bibliography p. 62 ANNEXES: CLAN GENEALOGICAL CHARTS Samaal (General/Overview) A. 1 Dir A. 2 Issa A. 2.1 Gadabursi A. 2.2 Isaq A. 2.3 Habar Awal / Isaq A.2.3.1 Garhajis / Isaq A. 2.3.2 Darod (General/ Simplified) A. 3 Ogaden and Marrahan Darod A.
    [Show full text]
  • In Mogadishu, Most of the Violence Appeared to Pensatio Conflict W
    GLOBAL STUDY on Homicide A snapshot of violence in shelter from violence, as most sexual violence was a situation of entrenched reported to have occurred in homes, with over half of reported cases being perpetrated by armed conflict: Somalia groups, a quarter by individual criminals and 10 Afflicted by armed conflict for over 20 years, per cent by government agents. The level of fire- Somalia has seen the nature of violence change arm-related assault in Mogadishu was also reported over time. There is no official data on crime to be high: two-thirds of all assaults were commit- and violence in Somalia, but some surveysa ted with a firearm. conducted throughout the country in 2010 In other cities, the population experienced differ- provide valuable information on perceptions of ent levels and patterns of violence. In Las Anod, public safety and security, as well as on the extent for example, most respondents perceived that of killings, in a context of ongoing sectarian their district had become safer in the past year and violence. The surveys were conducted during one that most of the violence was interpersonal in of the final years of Somalia’s Transitional Federal nature. The survey respondents described homi- Government, prior to the establishment of the cides as being largely revenge killings and com- new constitution in 2012. pensation-related disputes, and land-related conflict was deemed the primary source of vio- lence in the district. Similarly, in Burao, there was Map 4.1: Cities surveyed, Somalia an overwhelming perception of safety, and much (2010) of the violence appeared to be of the interpersonal type, with little of it triggered by crime or involv- ing organized armed groups.
    [Show full text]
  • Between Somaliland and Puntland Marginalization, Militarization and Conflicting Political Visions
    rift valley institute | Contested Borderlands Between Somaliland and Puntland Marginalization, militarization and conflicting political visions MARKUS VIRGIL HOEHNE rift VALLEY institute | Contested Borderlands Between Somaliland and Puntland Marginalization, militarization and conflicting political visions MarKus virGil HoeHne Published in 2015 by the Rift Valley Institute 26 St Luke’s Mews, London W11 1DF, United Kingdom PO Box 52771 GPO, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya tHe rift VALLEY institute (RVI) The Rift Valley Institute (www.riftvalley.net) works in Eastern and Central Africa to bring local knowledge to bear on social, political and economic development. tHe autHor Markus Virgil Hoehne is a lecturer in social anthropology at the University of Leipzig. This work is based on research he carried out during his time at the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology in Halle/Saale, Germany. Between soMaliland and puntland The Rift Valley Institute takes no position on the status of Somaliland or Puntland. Views expressed in Between Somaliland and Puntland are those of the author. Boundaries shown on maps in this book are endorsed neither by the Rift Valley Institute, nor by the author. RVI exeCutive direCtor: John Ryle RVI Horn of afriCa and east afriCa reGional direCtor: Mark Bradbury RVI inforMation and proGraMMes adMINISTRATOR: Tymon Kiepe editorial ManaGeMent: Catherine Bond editors: Peter Fry and Fergus Nicoll report desiGn: Lindsay Nash Maps: Jillian Luff, MAPgrafix isBn 978-1-907431-13-5 Cover: Amina Abdulkadir The painting depicts the complexities of political belonging since the collapse of the Somali state in 1991. The yellow lines indicate the frontiers claimed by Somaliland and Puntland. The colour closest to gold portrays the contest for resources.
    [Show full text]
  • Editorial: the Mad Mullah Revisited
    Home | Contact us | Links | Archives | Search Issue 570-- 29th Dec 2012 - 4th Jan, 2013 Editorial: The Mad Mullah Revisited Abdirahman Farah ‘Barwaqo’s latest book “Sooyaal: Ina Cabdalla Xasan Ma Sheekh Bu Ahaa Mise…?” is on Muhammad Abdille Hassan and starts with an intriguing title. It asks the question whether Muhammad Abdille Hassan was a religious sheikh or something else. That something else is not spelled out in the title and is left to the reader to guess. The implication is that by reading the book one will find the answer. One however, does not have to get too far into reading the book to know the answer which is that Muhammad Abdille was far from being a sheikh, and was in fact a ruthless killer who consistently violated Islamic principles as well as basic human morality. Mr. Barwaaqo builds the case against Muhammad Abdille Hassan in a very methodical fashion beginning with showing how the people of Berbera initially welcomed him and helped him settle there but when he started making provocative claims and they found out that his religious knowledge was deficient they rejected him and that was why he left Berbera. Mr. Barwaqo also compares Muhammad Abdille Hassan with other Somali religious leaders and finds him wanting by showing that while Sheikh Madar and his fellow members of the Qadiriya Sufi order at Jameecoweyn laid the basis of the city of Hargeysa and established the first Somali city that was governed according to Islamic law, and while other religious leaders such as Yusuf al- Kawnayn, Sheikh Ibrahim Abdalle Mayal, Sheikh Muhammad Abdi Makahil, Sheikh Abdirahman Sheikh Nur, and Sheikh Uweys Bin Muhammad al-Barawi contributed to Somali knowledge by devising orthographies, Muhammad Abdille Hassan was busy bringing death and destruction to Somalis.
    [Show full text]
  • Satellite Imagery Interpretation Guide of Landscape Features in Somaliland
    Satellite Imagery Interpretation Guide of Landscape Features in Somaliland November 20, 2019 This project, “Children on the Move: Using Satellite Data Analysis in Conflict/Famine-Affected Areas”, was submitted in response to the 2017 call for proposals by the World Bank’s Development Data Group (DECDG) and the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development Data (GPSDD), is supported by the World Bank’s Trust Fund for Statistical Capacity Building (TFSCB) with financing from the United Kingdom's Department for International Development (DFID), the Government of Korea, and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland. Table of Contents I N T R O D U C T I O N ................................................................................................................................. 3 W H Y S A T E L L I T E I M A G E R Y ?......................................................................................................... 4 I N T E N D E D P U R P O S E & A U D I E N C E .......................................................................................... 4 A R E A S O F I N T E R E S T ........................................................................................................................ 5 I M A G E R Y & S O F T W A R E U S E D .................................................................................................... 5 G E T T I N G S T A R T E D ........................................................................................................................... 7 F E A T U R E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S ..................................................................................................... 8 U S I N G G O O G L E E A R T H P R O T O O L S ..................................................................................... 11 S O M A L I L A N D F E A T U R E S ...........................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Bajuni Clan.Pdf
    Somalia - Researched and compiled by the Refugee Documentation Centre of Ireland on 13 November 2009 Information regarding the treatment of the Bajuni clan in Somalia The United Kingdom Home Office Operational Guidance Note for Somalia states: “Somalis with no clan affiliation are the most vulnerable to serious human rights violations, including predatory acts by criminal and militias, as well economic, political, cultural and social discrimination. These groups comprise an estimated 22% of the Somali population and include the Bajuni. The Bajuni are a small independent ethnic community of perhaps 3,000 or 4,000 who are predominantly sailors and fishermen. They live in small communities along the Indian Ocean coastline (including Somalia and Kenya) and on some of the larger offshore islands between Kismayo and Mombasa, Kenya. The small Bajuni population in Somalia suffered considerably at the hands of Somali militia, principally Marehan militia who tried to force them off the islands. Though Marehan settlers still have effective control of the islands, Bajuni can work for the Marehan as paid labourers. This is an improvement on the period during the 1990s when General Morgan’s forces controlled Kismayo and the islands, when the Bajuni were treated by the occupying Somali clans as little more than slave labour. Essentially the plight of the Bajuni is based on the denial of economic access by Somali clans, rather than outright abuse. Information provided by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in May 2008 about the fluid country situation following the ousting of the UIC indicates that the risk to personal safety for the vast majority of Somalis, whether affiliated to majority or minority clans, is the same and that there is little detectable difference between some individual circumstances.
    [Show full text]
  • Somalia: Researched and Compiled by the Refugee Documentation Centre of Ireland on 5 July 2010
    Somalia: Researched and compiled by the Refugee Documentation Centre of Ireland on 5 July 2010 Information required on the Somali clans/tribes Marehan and Marjeteen, particularly their relations with the Bajuni Noufail Are the Bajuni Noufail being discriminated against by the other two clans? Information on the Somali clans/tribes Marehan and Marjeteen and their relations with the Bajuni was scarce among the sources consulted by the Refugee Documentation Centre within time constraints. Dr Joakim Gundel is quoted in an Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation (ACCORD) COI Workshop as follows: “The Darood are commonly divided into three major groups referred to as Ogaden, Marehan, and Harti. The Harti are composed of the Majerteen who now are found in Puntland mainly, and the Dulbahante and Warsangeli who mainly live within the borders of Somaliland. Puntland almost entirely overlaps with the Majerteen clan family.14 The Marehan inhabit South-Central Somalia, where they are dominant in Gedo region.” (Austrian Centre for Country of Origin and Asylum Research and Documentation (ACCORD) (15 May 2009) Clans in Somalia - Report on a Lecture by Joakim Gundel, COI Workshop Vienna, p. 12) A document from the Danish Refugee Council/Novib-Oxfam states: “Luuq, which is located in the Southern region of Gedo, shares much of the history of the Raxanweyn and the Geledi Sultanate as their Gasargude Sultanate was closely linked with the Geledi. Here too, you find that nomadic clans have settled and mixed with the sedentary people, however here the nomadic element was primarily represented by the Marehan from the Darood clan family.
    [Show full text]