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This Thesis Has Been Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Postgraduate Degree (E.G This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Iconography analysis of the representations of the Last Judgement in late medieval France S.F Ho Master of Philosophy in History of Art 2011 Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification except as specified. Abstract The aim of this thesis is to analyse the iconographic elements in large-scale representations of the Last Judgement in late medieval France, c. 1380 – c. 1520. The study begins by examining the sudden surge of the subject in question that occurred in the second half of the fifteenth century and its iconographic evolution across geographical regions in France. Numerous depictions of the Last Judgement and iconographic differences have prompted speculation concerning its role in society. The basis of the study is grounded on the findings from the comparative and functional analysis on different decorative cycles and the placement of a painting within a religious building gathered in the catalogue. Special attention is given to the interrelationship between patronage and the subject of devotion, providing background to the study. As such, small- scale Last Judgement images including illuminated manuscripts, decorative artwork and collectible items dated within and around the period in question are included in the study in order to provide an overview of the visual context. New observations and interpretations are made with reference to available textual sources, both religious and pseudo-religious, medieval chronicles, historical documents and eyewitness accounts. Placed against the religious and historical backdrop, these visual differences in the Last Judgement provide evidence of a twofold purpose. On the one hand, it served as an instructive purpose for believers in affecting salvation, and, on the other, it also functions as demonstrative proof to enunciate the Church’s spiritual authority. The thesis contributes to current scholarship by providing new insights into religious expression associated with the devotion of Christian believers in medieval life. Acknowledgements Thank you to everyone who helped make this thesis possible. Table of Contents Declaration Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Research Questions 7 1.3 Research Objectives 8 1.4 Thesis Overview 9 1.5 Definitions and limitations 10 1.5.1 Visual and textual limitations 10 1.5.2 Geographical limitations 11 1.6 Methodology 12 1.7 Definition of key terms and concepts 14 1.8 Definition of terminology used 16 1.9 Other notes 17 Chapter Two: Literary Sources for the Last Judgement in France in the Late Middle Ages 18 2.1 City of God 20 2.2 Dominican Texts La Somme le Roi 35 2.3 Sermons L’Horloge de Sapience 39 2.4 Popular texts 2.4.1 Les Sept Articles de la Foi 46 2.4.2 Le Livres de Bonnes Mœurs 49 2.4.3 Le Voie de Povreté ou de Richesse 55 Conclusions 57 Chapter Three: Mystery Plays 59 3.1 Le Jour du Jugement 60 3.2 Lo Jutgamen Dernier 69 Comparison between the text of the Jutgamen General and 75 representational art Conclusions 86 Chapter Four: Iconography Analysis 88 4.1 Deisis 4.1.1 Christ 90 4.1.2 Virgin Mary 103 4.1.3 St John the Baptist 111 Conclusions 117 4.2 St Michael 119 Conclusions 138 4.3 Heaven 141 Conclusions 158 4.4 Hell 160 Conclusions 178 4.5 Purgatory 180 Conclusions 200 4.6 Seven Deadly Sins 205 4.6.1 Seven Virtues and Vices 219 Conclusions 231 Chapter conclusions 234 Chapter Five: Conclusions 237 Bibliography List of Figures Figures Maps Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Background The image of the Last Judgement in France in the Middle Ages The subject of the Last Judgement and representations of it was well known throughout the Middle Ages and its study may be traced back to the nineteenth century. The representations of the Last Judgement are found in many different media, from large- scale depictions, including wall paintings, altarpieces, stained glass windows, retables and tapestries, to small-scale images, such as those found in manuscripts (including breviaries and books of hours), woodcuts, engravings, medallions and in the decorative arts. The French online catalogue Architecture et Patrimoine, which includes a survey of large-scale representations of the Last Judgement, lists 212 depictions of this subject in France datable between the twelfth and twentieth centuries.1 Approximately half of the entries (117 cases) belong to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; 42 entries are datable from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries; and 53 entries date from after the seventeenth century. This is not a comprehensive list of surviving large-scale representations of the Last Judgement. This database does not include tympana on church façades or images that no longer survive but which are documented. However, this data makes it abundantly clear that there was a huge preponderance of Last Judgement representations during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. There are 17 examples from the fourteenth century, but there are 54 examples from the fifteenth century. There was a considerable increase in depictions of the Last Judgement in France in the second half of the fifteenth century. 1 This figure counting was merely based on the information from the French database with no systematic study. In addition, this number excludes other forms of portrayals listed in the database, namely, statue carving, manuscripts and engravings. 1 Among the 110 examples studied in this thesis within the period c. 1380 – c. 1520, thirteen were produced before the first half of the fifteenth century (see Map I).2 The majority of representations were produced in a relatively short time span of approximately seventy years. This finding raises the following key question: why did the subject of the Last Judgement apparently become so popular at this time? What specific message was intended and to whom it was directed? Previous studies of the Last Judgement iconography in France No study has hitherto addressed the question of the rise in popularity of the Last Judgement subject in France in the fifteenth century, or outlined the regional differences. Most studies of the Last Judgement iconography tend either to be unhelpfully broad, featuring only selected examples, or narrowly focused on a particular painting or documented artist. The earliest study featuring a selection of representations of the Last Judgement in France is that by Auguste Bouillet in the late nineteenth century. 3 This contribution made little impact on the understanding of the theme, such as cultural and social aspects, political conditions or religious beliefs. This was followed by A. M. Cocagnac’s, which appeared in 1955. This book examined selected churches by examining their sources and stylistic trends.4 In the twentieth century, much scholarship was devoted to the great Romanesque and Gothic tympanums such as the study by Yves Christe.5 These are largely concerned with monuments predating the focus of this thesis. 2 This number of cases excludes paintings belong to neighbouring countries that are iconographically and stylistically similar to that of the French. This is particularly referring to a few cases in Piedmont, which once belonged to the County of Savoy, which had a close alliance with the French court. 3 Auguste Bouillet, (Paris: J. Mersch, 1894). 4 A. Maurice Cocagnac, (Paris: Cerf, 1955). 5 Yves Christe, Jugements Derniers (Vauban: Zodiac, 1999). 2 Other contributions include chapters on the Last Judgement iconography with broad coverage, such as the account by Emile Mâle 6 s .7 More often than not, the study of representations of the Last Judgement is found as a feature of accounts of wall paintings or stained glass with a regional emphasis. Examples include: the south-west, studied by Robert Mesuret; the south-east, studied by Marguerite Roques; the Auvergne, covered by Anne Courtille 8; Michelle Gaborit and the Aquitaine9; and Christine Leduc-Gueye on the Anjou10. There are also collective studies by scholars attached to French heritage centres on other regions such as Burgundy and the Alps. 11 These works examine the style and developments of iconography within regional and local settings and do not focus on any particular iconographic theme; the Last Judgement is only noted in passing. There are other studies on the subject of the Last Judgement; but these are only local dossiers, guidebooks and even brochures intended for tourists. The subject of the Last Judgement has often been addressed; but what has been hitherto unrecognised is the preponderance of representations. The lack of concern regarding the iconographic study of this subject in a larger geographical scale may constitute a hindrance to our understanding of its role to medieval society as a whole. This requires examination and analysis, which is the principle aim of this thesis. 6 Emile Mâle, Religious Art in France: the Late Middle Ages: A Study of Medieval Iconography and Its Sources, trans. Marthiel Mathews (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986).
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