ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 Journal of Biological Diversity V o l u m e 1 3 – N u m b e r 4 – O c t o b e r 2 0 1 2

ISSN/E-ISSN: 1412-033X (printed edition) 2085-4722 (electronic)

EDITORIAL BOARD (COMMUNICATING EDITORS): Abdel Fattah N.A. Rabou (Palestine), Alan J. Lymbery (Australia), Bambang H. Saharjo (Indonesia), Daiane H. Nunes (Brazil), Edi Rudi (Indonesia), Guofan Shao (USA), Hassan Pourbabaei (Iran), Hwan Su Yoon (USA), I Made Sudiana (Indonesia), Joko R. Witono (Indonesia), Katsuhiko Kondo (Japan), Livia Wanntorp (Sweden), Mahendra K. Rai (India), María La Torre Cuadros (Peru), Mochamad A. Soendjoto (Indonesia), Shahabuddin (Indonesia), Sugiyarto (Indonesia)

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF: S u t a r n o

EDITORIAL MEMBERS: English Editors: Suranto, Wiryono ([email protected]); Technical Editor & Banking: Solichatun ([email protected]) Distribution & Marketing: Rita Rakhmawati ([email protected]); Webmaster: Ari Pitoyo ([email protected])

MANAGING EDITORS: Ahmad Dwi Setyawan ([email protected])

PUBLISHER: The Society for Indonesian Biodiversity

CO-PUBLISHER: Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta

ADDRESS: Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A Surakarta 57126. Tel. +62-271-7994097, Tel. & Fax.: +62-271-663375, Email: [email protected]

BANKING: Solichatun, BNI KC Sebelas Maret, Acc. No. 0033691646

ONLINE: biodiversitas.mipa.uns.ac.id

EXPERTISE AND CORRESPONDING EMAIL OF THE COMMUNICATING EDITORS: GENETIC DIVERSITY: Alan J. Lymbery ([email protected]), Hwan Su Yoon ([email protected]), Mahendra K. Rai ([email protected]). SPECIES DIVERSITY: Joko R. Witono ([email protected]), Katsuhiko Kondo ([email protected]), Livia Wanntorp ([email protected]). ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY: Abdel Fattah N.A. Rabou ([email protected]), Bambang H. Saharjo ([email protected]), Daiane H. Nunes ([email protected]), Edi Rudi ([email protected]), Guofan Shao ([email protected]), Hassan Pourbabaei ([email protected]), I Made Sudiana ([email protected]), Mochamad A. Soendjoto ([email protected]), Shahabuddin ([email protected]), Sugiyarto ([email protected]). ETHNOBIOLOGY: María La Torre Cuadros ([email protected]).

Society for Indonesia Sebelas Maret University Biodiversity Surakarta BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722 Pages: 161-171 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130401

Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (Malay Archipelago)

SUTARNO1, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN1,♥, IWAN SUYATNA2 1Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A 57 126 Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia. Tel./Fax. +62-271-663375, email: [email protected] 2Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Mulawarman University, Kampus Gunung Kelua, Samarinda 75116, East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 20 August 2011. Revision accepted: 20 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Sutarno, Setyawan AD, Suyatna I. 2012. Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (Malay Archipelago). Biodiversitas 13: 161-171. The pristid sawfishes (Pristidae) are notable because of their saw- like rostrum and large body size (up to seven meters). All pristids are listed as critically endangered by IUCN, since decreasing population; Nusantara is home for five pristid species, namely: Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794, Pristis clavata Garman, 1906, Pristis microdon Latham, 1794, Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851, and Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794. A. cuspidata differ from Pristid spp. by the presence of a very narrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of teeth except for the part along the quarter of the rostral saw near the head. P. microdon has a highly defined groove that runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth into and beyond its confluence with the rostrum. This groove is absent in juvenile of P. clavata and whilst it develops in larger individuals it rarely runs along the entire posterior edge of the tooth or reach its confluence with the rostrum. P. clavata possibly have been misidentified as P. pectinata, whose distribution in the Indo-West Pacific is uncertain. P. clavata can be distinguished from P. pectinata and P. zijsron by the possession of fewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 in P. clavata cf. 24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P. pectinata), and by its smaller body size (i.e. less than 250 cm TL in P. clavata). P. microdon indicates different sexes of the number of rostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23 in male, but in P. clavata, it can not be used to differentiate male from female, with both sexes possessing an average of 42 rostral teeth. In P. clavata the dorsal fin origin is opposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin, the rostum is relatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lower cauda fin lobe is smaller.

Key words: Anoxypristis, pristid, Pristis, sawfish, Nusantara, Malay Archipelago.

INTRODUCTION sawfish) and Pristis perotteti Muller & Henle, 1841 (Large- tooth sawfish); three species are distributed in the Indo West The pristids sawfishes (Family Pristidae Bonaparte, 1838; Pacific (IWP), i.e. Pristis clavata Garman, 1906 (Dwarf Greek: pristēs meaning a sawyer or a saw) are a group of sawfish), Pristis microdon Latham, 1794 (Freshwater iconic-benthic species of elasmobranchs that are notable sawfish), and Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851 (Green because of their large body size (up to seven meters) and sawfish); and one species Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794 saw-like projection of the upper jaw bearing lateral teeth- (Smalltooth sawfish) is distributed worldwide, although like denticles, termed as rostrum (Bigelow and Schroeder AEP is the main distribution area. The genus Anoxypristis 1953; Last and Stevens 2009), that is used to hunt and stun is represented by a single IWP species, Anoxypristis prey (Compagno 1977; Last and Stevens 2009). The rostral cuspidata Latham, 1794 (Knifetooth sawfish) (Compagno teeth grow continuously from the base and attach to the 1999; Compagno and Last 1999; McEachran and de rostrum via alveoli (Slaughter and Springer 1968; Compagno Cavarlho 2002). All IWP pristids have been identified in and Last 1999). The peduncle is not expanded and the Nusantara, although it is rarely found. dentine cap is easily worn off (Slaughter and Springer 1968). Pistids are rarely found and the whole body rarely The taxonomy of the pristid family is chaotic and one collected completely, since they have large body size, then of the most problematic in the elasmobranch families a few description is based on parts of speciment. Species (Ishihara et al. 1991; Compagno and Cook 1995; van Oijen descriptions of pristids based on isolated body parts have et al. 2007; Wiley et al. 2008), with uncertainty regarding caused confusion and often misidentification. P. zijsron the true number of species (Ishihara et al. 1991; Deynat was described solely on the basis of its rostrum; Pristis 2005). The single family Pristidae is divided into two dubius Bleeker 1852 (syn. P. zijsron) was described solely genera, Pristis Linck 1790 and Anoxypristis White & Moy- on the basis of its caudal fin; and Pristis leichardti Whitley Thomas, 1941. The genus Pristis comprises six putative 1945 (syn. P. microdon) was described only from a single species; two species are distributed in the Atlantic East photograph (Thorburn et al. 2003; van Oijen et al. 2007). Pacific (AEP), i.e. Pristis pristis L, 1758 (Common The problems associated with the systematics of pristids 162 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 161-171, October 2012 may only be solved with genetic analyses, for some species mature, while a 3.7 m male specimen in a Paris aquarium may be morphologically identical (Thorburn et al. 2003). was immature (Stevens et al. 2005). Resolving this taxonomic uncertainty has been a major Sawfish populations have been declining worldwide problem, since it is difficult to obtain tissue samples from (Stevens et al. 2000; Cavanagh et al. 2003), especially in these increasingly rare animals for taxonomic research. the Indo-West Pacific (Compagno and Cook 1995) and the Pristids have a large body size and are thought to have southern hemisphere (Cavanagh et al. 2003). All pristid high longevity, late maturity, viviparous reproduction, and species have undergone dramatic declines in range and low fecundity (Thorburn et al. 2007; Peverell 2008). On the abundance in recent times. A range of factors contributes to basis that they are large, mobile, and marine, adult pristids this vulnerability, including that pristids (i) have a relatively seemingly have the potential to distribute over vast slow rate of population growth (K-selected life history) distances. However, virtually all of the available data on (Simpfendorfer 2000; Compagno et al. 2006); (ii) are pristid movements pertain to juveniles and sub-adults actively exploited for a range of reasons, including as found in coastal or riverine nursery areas (e.g. Peverell trophies and decorations (Peverell 2005; Thorburn et al. 2005; Thorburn et al. 2007; Whitty et al. 2009). There is a 2007; Siriraksophon 2012), aquarium and museum collections suggestion that the dispersal in elasmobranchs is often (Cook et al. 1995), cultural and spiritual purposes (Peverell dictated by individual or social behavior, and female 2005; Berra 2006) as well as sport/ recreational fishing philopatry appears to be common in species where adult (Seitz and Poulakis 2002; Peverell 2005); (iii) are feature in and juvenile habitats are spatially removed (Feldheim et al. the by-catch of several fisheries and as a consequence 2001; Keeney et al. 2005). suffers significant amounts of mortality (Simpfendorfer Pristids occur inshore, in freshwater and in marine 2000; 2002; Pogonoski et al. 2002; Stobutzki et al. 2002; environments to a maximum depth of 122 m (McEachran Gribble 2004), and (iv) have habitat degradation and de Cavarlho 2002; Simpfendorfer 2006). P. microdon (Simpfendorfer 2000; 2002). Since the juveniles likely has habitat partitioning in different life stages, with depend on rivers for their survival, pristids are vulnerable juveniles utilising freshwaters as nursery grounds and to the effects of the degradation of freshwater systems, as penetrating long distances into freshwater while adults use well as to the effects of coastal influences, and they are marine waters (Taniuchi et al. 1991; Thorburn et al. 2003, more susceptible to be captured in rivers (Saunders et al. 2007; Peverell 2005). While P. clavata may adopt a 2002). A combination of their coastal shallow water strategy similar to that of P. microdon, where juveniles distribution and their heavily toothed rostrum make all remain within rivers and move offshore upon maturation classes of pristid vulnerable to be captured by net and long (Thorburn et al. 2007). The juvenile of P. clavata appear to line fisheries (Peverell 2005). P. microdon, P. zijsron, and utilise estuarine waters only (Thorburn et al. 2008), and P. clavata were once broadly distributed in the Indo-West was not encountered in freshwaters above the tidal limit Pacific region (Last and Stevens 2009); but, these species (Morgan et al. 2004; Thorburn et al. 2004). Female are now restricted to northern Australia (Pogonoski et al. philopatry coupled with male-dispersal is common in 2002; Thorburn et al. 2003; Stevens et al. 2005; Last and elasmobranch species in which adult and juvenile habitat is Stevens 2009). Although the number of pristids in spatially removed (Springer 1967; Ebert 1996; Feldheim et Australian have declined in recent times, these declines are al. 2001, 2004; Keeney et al. 2005). probably not as extreme as those happened in other regions, The biology of P. zijsron, P. clavata, and P. microdon such as Indonesia (Thorson 1982; Simpfendorfer 2000). is generally believed to be similar with the exceptions of All pristids are currently listed as critically endangered adult size and juvenile habitat use. The adults of P. zijsron worldwide by the World Conservation Union (IUCN 2010) and P. microdon are both relatively large (up to seven and some of them are among the most endangered fishes meters) (Last and Stevens 2009), while those of P. clavata (Stevens et al. 2000; Cavanagh et al. 2003). In the end of are smaller (up to at least three meters) (Peverell 2005; Last this year only four pristids species are listed in the Red and Stevens 2009). This size difference is potentially List, namely A. cuspidata, P. clavata, P. pectinata and P. relevant as it might influence the potential dispersal of the zijron (IUCN 2012). The taxonomic problem is the main species (assuming that larger adults can traverse greater reason for deleting the list of other species (Scott J, IUCN distances) and therefore the amount of metapopulation Red List Unit, pers. com. 2012). Trading of pristid (Jenkins et al. 2007). The life cycles of P. zijsron and P. sawfishes are also banned. In June 2007, all pristids were clavata are fairly typical of pristids because they are listed in Appendix I of CITES, except for P. microdon, completed entirely in marine waters; the juveniles are which was listed in Appendix II; and has been annotated as predominantly found in inshore waters and mangrove areas follows: “for the exclusive purpose of allowing (Peverell 2005). In contrast, P. microdon are marine- international trade in live animals to appropriate and estuarine as adults, but spend the juveniles in the upper acceptable aquaria for primary conservation purposes” reaches of estuaries and freshwater rivers (Thorburn et al. (CITES 2008). Long before that, in 1999, the Indonesian 2007; Whitty et al. 2009). This life history strategy would government established that all species of pristid sawfishes make them especially vulnerable to over-exploitation are protected animals, then it is prohibited to hunt, to kill, (Stobutzki et al. 2002). There is disparity in the size at to trade, and to consume (PP 7/1999). P. microdon maturity of P. microdon suggesting there may be more than breeding efforts has been attempted in Indonesia, but did one species. A two meters male P. microdon in a Hong not succeed due to lack of live fish as broodstock (Fahmi Kong aquarium (collected from Australia) was sexually and Dharmadi 2005). SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara 163

Pristids have been studied for a long time in Nusantara. very valuable, i.e. Compagno and Last (1999), Deynat (2005), One species, P. zijsron, was named and described after a van Oijen et al. (2007), and Last and Stevens (2009). specimen collected from Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan. Unfortunately, this research was not continued due to rarity of the specimen collection (large body size is the reason). The main objective of this study was to assess taxonomic RESULTS AND DISCUSSION diversity of Pristidae in Nusantara waters (Islands of Southeast Asia or Malay Archipelago, Malesia). Pristidae Bonaparte, 1838 Large to gigantic shark-like batoids (adults reaching 2.4 to 7 m total length (TL), placoid scales; no enlarged denticles, thorns, or spines on dorsal surface of trunk or MATERIALS AND METHODS tail. Moderately depressed trunk, thick and shark-like. Moderately depressed precaudal tail, with lateral ridges on The research materials are preserved specimens of sides, tail which is not abruptly narrower than trunk, with pristid sawfishes (Pristidae) and data from previous no barbed sting (stinger or stinging spine) and no electric research by literature review. Previous field studies have organs in tail. Head narrow, but moderately depressed; been conducted to trace the existence of pristids in snout supported by a stout rostral cartilage, greatly Nusantara. As we know, Nusantara (Malay Archipelago) elongated into a flat, rostral saw with a single row of includes all Indonesian Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, large, transverse teeth on each side that grow continuously the Philippines, and New Guinea. The study was conducted from their bases; saw is without small teeth or paired by interviewing the fishermen, fish traders, coastal dermal barbels on its underside and without smaller teeth communities, government officials and local officials of the between the large ones on its sides; posteriormost rostral Marine and Fisheries Department, and also the interviews teeth well anterior to nostrils. Five small gill slits are on with fisheries experts, and did field surveys to sites known underside of front half of pectoral-fin bases, not visible in as a pristids habitat. lateral view; no gill sieves or rakers on internal gill slits. The previous study was conducted on the western coast Eyes are dorsolateral on head and well anterior to of West Sumatra and Mentawai Islands, the northern coast spiracles. Mouth is transverse and straight, without knobs of Sumatra (Aceh), the eastern coast of Jambi, the western and depressions. Nostrils are well anterior and completely coast of West Kalimantan (Peniti River estuary and separated from mouth, far apart from each other and not surroundings), Barito River estuary and surroundings in connected to the mouth by nasoral grooves; short anterior South- and Central Kalimantan, Mahakam River estuary in nasal flaps, not connected with each other and not East Kalimantan, Lake Sentani in Papua, and the river reaching mouth. Very small oral teeth, rounded-oval in estuaries and coastal area of Merauke, South Papua. shape and without cusps on their crowns, not laterally Information about the existence of pristids also be traced in expanded and plate-like, similar in shape and in 60 or more some Fish Auction Place (TPI) in Java, particularly in rows in either jaw. Pectoral fins are small, starting from Juwana and Pekalongan. Field studies show that pristids behind mouth, attached to posterior part of head over gills, ever present at all of those sites. Around 20-25 years ago, and ending with well anterior to pelvic-fin bases. No large fishermen still caught and sold. But, in mid 2012, when the electric organs at bases of pectoral fins. Pelvic fins are study was conducted, the live pristids or fresh specimens angular, and not divided into anterior and posterior lobes. were not found anymore. Two large equal-size and widely separated dorsal fins In this study, we successfully collected two pristids present. These have similar angular or rounded-angular rostrum, which is one of P. microdon of Lake Sentani, shape with distinct apices, anterior, posterior, and inner Papua (caught 6 years before), and one of Pristis sp. of margins, and well-developed free rear tips, varying in Merauke water, South Papua (caught one year before). The shape from triangular to strongly falcate. First dorsal-fin only information about the living pristids in the wild is in base is anterior and over junction between trunk and tail, the south coast of Merauke, but in this study the live over or partially in front of the pelvic fins. Caudal fin is specimens were not captured. Information about the large, shark-like, strongly asymmetrical, with vertebral preserved pristids specimen also be traced to the various axis raised above body axis; lower caudal lobe is strong to research centers and universities, but found only three weak, or absent. Dorsal surface is yellowish, brownish or specimen of pristids, i.e. a juvenile P. microdon collected grey-brown, or greenish above and on flanks, and white by Bogor Zoological Museum (MZB) Cibinong, Bogor in below. there are no prominent markings on body or fins 1970s from Lake Sentani, Papua; and one pristid specimen though fins may be darker than body (Compagno and Last collected by Office of Marine and Fisheries, Kutai 1999). Kartanegara District in 1975/1976 from Mahakam River Delta, i.e. Sungai Meriam, Anggana, Kutai Kartanegara, Keys of identification East Kalimantan (similar specimen caught from Muara Key to the species of sawfishes (Pristidae) occuring in Badak, Mahakan Delta has been lost). Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago (Compagno and Given the limited pristids specimen, the literature was Last 1999; Figure 1). very important in knowing taxonomy of Pristidae from Nusantara (Malay Archipelago). Some manuscripts were 164 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 161-171, October 2012

1a Posteriormost teeth on rostral saw well anterior to base of groove along posterior margins; no teeth on basal of saw; rostral teeth greatly flattened, blade-like, and quarter of blade. Adults are with widely spaced denticles, triangular, with single sharp anterior and posterior edges whilest young with naked skin (Compagno and Last 1999). in adults and a posterior barb in young; broad incurrent Ecology: A marine, euryhaline (moving between fresh apertures; long nostrils, narrow, and between edges of and salt water) or marginal (brackish water), these species head and nostril incurrent apertures; long nostrils, narrow, and diagonal, small and narrow anterior nasal are found from inshore in the intertidal waters to a depth of flaps; narrow-based, high and short pectoral fins; first 40 m, frequents river deltas and estuaries, and may go dorsal fin with origin over or slightly posterior to pelvic- upstream in rivers. They are common in sheltered bays fin insertions; a secondary caudal keel below the first with sandy bottoms. Feeds on small fish and cuttlefish one on the caudal-fin base; caudal fin with a shallow (Compagno and Last 1999; Riede 2004). Though details of subterminal notch and a long, prominent ventral lobe its ecology are not precisely known, it probably spends ………………..……………………… Anoxypristis cuspidata most of its time on or near the bottom in the shallow 1b Posteriormost tooth on rostral saw just anterior to base coastal waters and estuaries it inhabits. The sawfishes are of saw; elongated, and peg or awl-like, moderately all ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). Females of flattened rostral teeth, with rounded anterior edge and double posterior edges with a groove between them in this species can be pregnant at 246 to 282 cm. Litters range adults of all species and in young of some species from 6 to 23 young. Age at maturity, longevity and average (Pristis microdon); no incurrent grooves on underside of generation time are unknown (Compagno et al. 2005, 2006, snout between edges of head and nostril incurrent Last and Stevens 2009). Generally harmless but its saw- apertures; short, broad, and transverse nostrils, large and like snout may cause serious injury when it is caught: it is broad anterior nasal flaps; broad-based, low, and long known to thrash violently and vigorously (Compagno and pectoral fins; first dorsal fin with anterior base, over of Last 1999). somewhat posterior to pelvic-fin bases but ahead of Distribution: This large sawfish was formerly distributed pelvic-fin insertions; no secondary caudal keel below the through much of the Indo-West Pacific region in shallow main one on the caudal-fin base; caudal fin without a subterminal notch and with short ventral lobe or none. inshore coastal waters and estuaries, apparently declining ………………….. ………………………………… 2 (Pristis) in some areas (Compagno et al. 2005). Historically, it is a 2a Caudal fin with a short but conspicuous ventral lobe; relatively common euryhaline or marginal of the Indo-West base of first dorsal fin considerably anterior to pelvic- Pacific. It has been reported in inshore and estuarine fin.……………………………….... ….…… Pristis microdon environments from the mouth of the Suez Canal, 2b Caudal fin without definite ventral lobe; base of first throughout the Red Sea, the Persian (Arabian) Gulf, the dorsal fin varies from over or slightly anterior to pelvic- northern Indian Ocean, the Malay Archipelago to the fin, to slightly behind midbases of pelvic fins ……….. 3 northern Australia. In mainland Asia it was reported from 3a Base of first dorsal fin over or anterior to pelvic-fin (20 the Gulf of Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, China to Korea to 32, usually 25 or more, pairs of rostral teeth)...…… and out to the southern portion of Japan (Honshu), as well ………………………………………………. Pristis pectinata as the north west of Taiwan (Compagno and Cook 1995a; 3b Base of first dorsal fin behind pelvic-fin …………….… 4 Compagno and Last 1999; Compagno et al. 2006; Last and 4a First dorsal-fin base posterior to midbases of pelvic fins; Stevens 2009). Brackish water records have been reported 23 to 34 pairs to rostral teeth; size to 610 cm or more.. … from the Oriomo River estuary, Papua-New Guinea ………………… …………………………..… Pristis zijsron (Taniuchi et al. 1991). 4b First dorsal-fin base anterior to the midbases of pelvic fins; 18 to 22 pairs of rostral teeth; size possibly to about In Nusantara, it has been reported from Kalimantan: 140 cm. …………… ………………………… Pristis clavata Kinabatangan River of Sabah (Fowler 2002), estuaries and inshore coastal waters of Sabah and Brunei (Manjaji 2002; Siriraksophon 2012); the Philippines; Malay Peninsula: Description Malacca, Pinang, and Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012; van Oijen et al. 2007); Java: Jakarta (Batavia) and Semarang in Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794 sea waters (van Oijen et al. 2007); New Guinea: Oriomo Synonym: *Pristis cuspidatus Latham, 1794; River of Papua New Guinea (Compagno 2002; Taniuchi *Anoxypristis cuspidate Latham, 1794; *Anoxypristis 2002; Fowler 2002), and somewhere in Indonesia cuspidatus Latham, 1794; *Pristis cuspidate Latham, 1794; (Siriraksophon 2012) (Figure 2A). Squalus semisagittatus Shaw, 1804; Pristis semisagittatus Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) Shaw, 1804. Note: * = misspellings (Froese and Pauly 2011). (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I (CITES Common name: Knifetooth sawfish (Aust.), Narrow 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999). sawfish (FAO), Pointed sawfish. Human uses: Commercial fisheries, caught for its flesh Description: Maximum length 470 cm TL (max. and liver (Last and Stevens 2009), gamefish. lengths of up to 610 cm TL are based on unconfirmed Taxonomic note: A. cuspidata is distinguished from reports). Length at first maturity 246-282 cm. Greyish sawfish of the genus Pristis by the presence of a very above, pale below; fins usually pale. shark-like body, narrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of distinctive distinct pectoral fins; flattened head, with a blade-like dagger-shaped teeth on the rostrum but no teeth along the snout bearing 18-22 pairs of lateral teeth; slender blade, not quarter of the rostral saw nearest to the head . It has a tapering distally. Nostrils are very narrow with small nasal distinct lower caudal lobe (Compagno et al. 2006). flaps. Short rostral teeth, flattened, broadly triangular, lack SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara 165

PRISTID SAWFISHES SPECIES IDENTIFICATION

Snout has 24-34 pairs of teeth Snout has less than 24 pairs of teeth

First dorsal fin First dorsal 18-22 pairs of over or anterior begins behind teeth beginning to pelvic-fin pelvic fin Some distance from the head Dark gray to Olive green blackish brown Greyish

Pristis pectinata Pristis zijsron Anoxypristic cuspidata

Teeth starting close to the head and spaced evenly or close to evenly

Lacking of a Strong groove groove or it is not present along the present along the posterior edge of entire length of the rostral teeth the tooth

First dorsal fin First dorsal fin slightly behind begins in front of pelvic fins pelvic fins

Green/brown Yellowish Pristis clavata Pristis microdon

Figure 1. The key identification of pristid sawfishes in Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago (after Daley et al. 2002; McAuley et al. 2002; Thorburn 2006). 166 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 161-171, October 2012

A B C

D E

Figure 2. Species distribution of pristid sawfishes in Nusantara waters, the Malay Archipelago. A. A. cuspidata, B. P. clavata, C. P. microdon, D. P. pectinata and E. P. zijron. Note: grey area = formerly or potential area distribution of pristids (Compagno and Last 1999); = pristids record.

Pristis clavata Garman, 1906 Distribution: Confirmation comes from tropical coastal Synonym: Misapplied name: Pristis pectinata (non and estuarine habitats in Northern and Northwestern Latham, 1794) (Froese and Pauly 2011). Australia. Other records are unconfirmed, but it may occur Common name: Dwarf sawfish (Aust.), Queensland or have occurred more widely in Indo-West Pacific areas sawfish (IUCN 2012). A record of the occurence of P. clavata in Description: Maximum length is 140 cm TL. Greenish the Canary Islands may not be this species. The species is brown, rarely yellowish; ventrally white; paler fins. shark- likely P. pristis that naturally spread in the eastern Atlantic. like body, distinct pectoral fins; flattened head, with a Both species are known similar and needs further research blade-like snout bearing 18-22 pairs of lateral teeth; broad to determine if the two species are distinct (Compagno and blade, not tapering distally. Broad nostrils with large nasal Last 1999). flaps. Slender rostral teeth, with a groove along posterior In Nusantara, it was recorded from New Guinea: south margins; teeth reaching basal quarter of blade. Skin with coast of Papua New Guinea (e.g. Macaraeg RA, 2002, denticles (Compagno and Last 1999). Biology little known blogroll/pers. com; need more confirmation) (Figure 2B). (Compagno and Last 1999). Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species found in (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I estuaries and on tidal mudflats. Ascends brackish areas of (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999) rivers (Compagno and Last 1999). Coastal and estuarine Human uses: Flesh may be good to eat (Last and habitats in tropical Australia, particularly over mudflats in Stevens 2009). the Gulf of Carpentaria (Pogonoski et al. 2002). It occurs Taxonomic note: On the basis of rostral tooth some distance upriver, almost into freshwater (Last and morphology, P. clavata may be different from P. microdon, Stevens 2009). This relatively small sawfish may be which possesses a similar number of rostral teeth. In P. restricted to the tropical coasts and estuaries of north and microdon, a highly defined groove runs along the entire north-western Australia, or more widely distributed posterior edge of the tooth into and beyond its confluence through the Indo-Pacific. Australian populations have with the blade of the rostrum (Thorburn et al. 2007). In declined significantly as a result of bycatch in commercial contrast, this groove is absent in juvenile of P. clavata and gillnet and trawl fisheries throughout this limited range and whilst it develops in larger individuals. It rarely runs along this bycatch continues, in commercial and recreational the entire posterior edge of the tooth or reachs its fisheries. When this sawfish occurs outside Australian confluence with the rostrum. Furthermore, P. clavata can waters, these areas are fished even more intensive and be distinguished from P. pectinata and P. zijsron by the populations over there are likely to be nearing extirpation possession of fewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 in P. clavata cf. (IUCN 2012). Ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). 24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P. pectinata) (Thorburn et al. 2007; Last and Stevens 2009), and by its SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara 167 smaller size (i.e. less than 250 cm TL in P. clavata). In P. Distribution: Indo-West Pacific, from East Africa to microdon different sexes can be indicated by the number of New Guinea, north to the Philippines and Vietnam, south rostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23 in male, but in to Australia. Also Atlantic East Pacific, if Pristis perotteti P. clavata, it can not be used to differentiate male from and Pristis zephyreus are synonymized with P. microdon. female, for both sexes possesses an average of 42 rostral The original description of P. microdon did not give further teeth (Thorburn et al. 2008). In P. clavata the dorsal fin explaination, but most authors have used the name Pristis origin is opposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin, microdon for the Indo-West Pacific sawfishes of this the rostum is relatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lower species group as contrasted from the Atlantic P. perotteti cauda fin lobe is smaller (Compagno and Last 1998). and the eastern Pacific P. zephyreus (Compagno and Last 1999). Pristis microdon Latham, 1794 In Nusantara, its occurence has been reported from Synonym: Misapplied name: Pristis antiquorum (non Sumatra: Indragiri River, Riau (Taniuchi 1979, 2002), Latham, 1794); Pristis perotteti (non Müller & Henle, Batanghari River, Jambi (Tan and Lim 1998); Kalimantan: 1841); Pristis pristis (non Linneaus, 1758). Ambiguous Kinabatangan River, Sabah (Fowler 2002; Compagno synonym: Pristiopsis leichhardti Whitley, 1945; Pristis 2002), Kampong Batu Putih in Kinabatangan River, zephyreus Jordan & Starks, 1895 (Froese and Pauly 2011), Kampong Tetabuan in Labuk Bay, Kampong Tomanggong Pristis leichardti Whitley 1945. in Segama, Sabah (Manjaji 2002), Brunei (Siriraksophon Common name: Freshwater sawfish (Aust.), 2012); Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan in river waters (van Largetooth sawfish (FAO), Leichhardt’s sawfish Oijen et al. 2007); somewhere in Indonesian Borneo Description: Maximum length is 700 cm TL (White et (Compagno 2002); Sungai Meriam, Anggana, Mahakan al. 2005); common length is 500 cm TL (Schneider 1990); Delta, East Kalimantan (collection of Office of Marine and max. published weight is 600 kg (Stehmann 1981); max. Fisheries, Kutai Kartanegara District, but need molecular reported age is 30 years (Compagno and Last 1999) (up to identification, since it is only rostrum without teeth); the 44 years). Length at first maturity is 240-300 cm; slow to Philippines: Luzon (Compagno and Last 1999); Malay mature (about seven years) and has low fecundity (a litter Peninsula and Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012); Java: size of 1-12 young) (Tanaka 1991; Thorburn et al. 2007). A Jakarta (Batavia) and Gresik in sea waters, Surakarta in heavily-bodied sawfish with a short but massive saw which river of Kali Pepe, caught in 1846 (van Oijen et al. 2007), is broad-based, strongly tapering and with 14-22-(23) very somewhere in Java (Compagno and Last 1999), New large teeth on each side; space between last 2 saw-teeth on Guinea: Oriomo River (Papua New Guinea), Lake Murray sides less than 2 times space between first 2 teeth (Papua New Guinea), Sepik River (Papua New Guinea) (Compagno et al. 1989). Interspace between the posterior (Taniuchi 2002; Fowler 2002), Sentani Lake, Jayapura, rostral teeth is once or twice greater than that between the Papua (our personal collection and MZB collection), anterior teeth. Origin of the first dorsal fin is in front of Merauke, South Papua (our personal collection, but need level of the origin pelvic fin. Caudal fin has a small but more investigation); somewhere in Papua New Guinea and distinct ventral lobe (Seret 2006). Pectoral fins are high and Indonesia (Morgan et al. 2011) (Figure 2C). angular, first dorsal fin is mostly in front of pelvic fins, and Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) caudal fin with pronounced lower lobe (Compagno et al. (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix II 1989). Greenish, grey or golden-brown above, cream below (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999) (Compagno et al. 1989). Human uses: Minor commercial fisheries (marketed Ecology: Inhabits sandy or muddy bottoms of shallow salted); the saws are sold as tourist souvenirs (Skelton coastal waters, estuaries, river mouths, and freshwater 1993), gamefish. rivers and lakes, until 10 m depth (Riede 2004); Reiner 1996). Usually found in turbid channels of large rivers over Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794 soft mud bottoms (Allen et al. 2002). Adults are usually Synonym: Pristis acutirostris Duméril, 1865; Pristis found in estuaries and coastal areas, and the juveniles in annandalei Chaudhuri, 1908; Pristis granulosa Bloch & fresh water. Most of the rivers in which it becomes into a Schneider, 1801; Pristis leptodon Duméril, 1865; Pristis series of pools in the dry season, reducing its available megalodon Duméril, 1865; *Pristis pectinatus Latham, habitat (Last 2002). Large adults can also be found in fresh 1794. Misapplied name: Pristis antiquorum (non Latham, water, but are rarely caught (Rainboth 1996). They are the 1794); Pristis clavata (non Garman, 1906); Pristis zijsron bottom dweller of estuaries and large river systems. Feeds (non Bleeker, 1851). Ambiguous synonym: *Pristis on benthic animals and small schooling species. evermanni Fischer, 1884; Pristis occa (Duméril, 1865); Ovoviviparous, producing 15-20 embryos (Dulvy and Pristis serra Bloch & Schneider, 1801; Pristis woermanni Reynolds 1997). The saw is used for grubbing and Fischer, 1884; Pristobatus occa Duméril, 1865. Note: * = attacking prey as well as for defense. The saws are sold as misspellings name (Froese and Pauly 2011). tourist souvenirs (Skelton 1993). Occasionally, they are Common name: Smalltooth sawfish (FAO), Wide caught by demersal tangle net and trawl fisheries in the sawfish Arafura Sea; they possibly have been extinct in parts of the Description: Maximum length is 760 cm TL; common Indo-Pacific; they are highly susceptible to gill nets. They length is 550 cm TL (Last and Stevens 2009); max. are utilized for the fins and meat (both are very expensive), published weight is 350 kg (Stehmann 1981). Long, flat, and also their skin and cartilage (White et al. 2006). blade-like rostrum with (20)-24 to 32 pairs of teeth along 168 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 161-171, October 2012 the edges. Interspace between the posterior rostral teeth is 2 areas of its former range in the North Atlantic to 4 times greater than that between the anterior teeth. Base (Mediterranean, US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico) and the of the first dorsal fin is at level of the pelvic fin base. Southwest Atlantic coast due to fishing and habitat Caudal fin is large and oblique without a distinct ventral changes. The remaining populations are now small, lobe (Seret 2006). Dark gray to blackish brown above, fragmented and critically endangered globally. It is paler along margins of fins. White to grayish white or pale apparently extinct in the Mediterranean and likely also the yellow below (Bigelow et al. 1953). In Nusantara, it Northeast Atlantic. Reports of this species outside the present has been reported from the Philippines. Atlantic are now considered to have been Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species; in shallow misidentifications of other Pristis species. bays, lagoons and estuaries, also in freshwater (Riede In Nusantara: the Philippines (Compagno and Last 2004), until depth of 10 m (Stehmann 1990). it may cross 1999; Siriraksophon 2012) (Figure 2D). deep water to reach offshore islands; and swim up rivers Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) for it can tolerate fresh water (Compagno and Last 1999). It (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I commonly be seen in bays, lagoons, estuaries, and river (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999) mouths. Also it can be found in rivers and lakes (Michael Human uses: Minor commercial fisheriy; gamefish; 1993). Feeding on fishes and shellfishes (Vidthayanon remedies for Asthma, rheumatism, arthritis (Alves and 2005). Ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997). Using Rosa 2006; Alves et al. 2007; Alves and Rosa 2007) its saw to stir the bottom when feeding on bottom Taxonomic note: P. clavata possibly have been invertebrates and to kill pelagic fishes (Compagno and Last misidentified as P. pectinata, whose distribution in the 1999). It is utilized as a food fish; its oil is used as Indo-Pacific is uncertain (Thorburn et al. 2007). medicine, soap and in leather tanning (Last and Stevens 2009). Adults stuffed is for decoration (Last and Stevens Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851 2009). It is reported to be aggressive towards sharks when Synonym: Pristis granulosa Schneider & Bloch 1801; it is kept in tanks (Michael 1993). Because it grows slowly, Pristis occa Duméril 1865; Pristis woermanni Fischer 1884; it is believed to mature late and large individuals are *Pristis zyrson Bleeker, 1851; *Pristis zysron Bleeker, thought to be very old. The four-generation period could be 1851; *Pristis zysross Bleeker, 1851; Misapplied name: 100 years or more. Bigelow and Schroeder (1953b) suggest Pristis antiquorum Latham 1794; Pristis clavata Garman that large females produce between 15 and 20 young per 1906; *Pristis zisron Bleeker, 1851; Pristis pectinata (non year; the young are born at 70 to 80 cm TL. Size at Latham, 1794); Pristis pectinatus Latham 1794. Note: * = maturity is estimated as 320 cm TL. Maximum life span is misspellings name (Froese and Pauly 2011), Pristis dubius estimated to be 40 to 70 yrs and generation times are Bleeker 1852 (van Oijen et al. 2007). approximately 27 yr. Annual rate of population increase Common name: Green sawfish (Aust.), Longcomb estimated as 0.08 to 0.13. (Adams and Williams 1995, sawfish (FAO), Narrowsnout sawfish Bigelow and Schroeder 1953, Simpfendorfer 2000, 2002, Description: Maximum length 730 cm TL (Compagno Adams 2005). Juveniles are common in very shallow et al. 1989); common length 550 cm TL. Length at first waters, but adults occur to depths over 100 m (Poulakis and maturity 430 cm (Last and Stevens 2009). It is Seitz 2004, Simpfendorfer and Wiley 2005). They are ovoviviparous (Dulvy and Reynolds 1997), giving birth to thought to spend most time on or near the seabed, but large young. Grant (1978) suggested that adult males use occasionally swim at the surface. There are many records their saws during mating battles. Sawfishes generally feed from coastal lagoons, estuarine environments and the on slow-moving shoaling fish such as mullet, which are lower, brackish drainages of rivers (Yarrow 1877, Bigelow stunned by sideswipes of the snout. Molluscs and small and Schroeder 1953b, Swingle 1971). The food of P. crustaceans are also swept out of the sand and mud by the pectinata is primarily fish, but it also consumes crustaceans saw (Allen 1982, Cliff and Wilson 1994). A male captured and other bottom dwelling organisms (Bigelow and as a juvenile survived 35 years in captivity. Dark grey to Schroeder 1953b). Breder (1952) summarized the function blackish brown on above part, white to yellowish on below of the saw in the feeding strategy of P. pectinata, noting part (Heemstra 1995). that prey is impaled on the rostral teeth then scraped-off on Ecology: Inshore and intertidal species are known to the bottom and consumed (Adam et al. 2006). enter freshwater in some areas (Compagno and Last 1999). Distribution: It is known from tropical and warm They are found in shallow (demersal) bays, estuaries, and temperate nearshore ocean waters; circumglobal. It is in lagoons, with depth range of 5 m (Heemstra 1995; Western Atlantic from North Carolina (USA), Caribbean Compagno and Last 1999). They inhabits muddy bottom and northern Gulf of Mexico (Robins and Ray 1986) to habitats and enters estuaries (Allen 1997). Often on the Argentina (Menni and Lucifora 2007). It is in Eastern bottom, they lay with their saw elevated at an angle to the Atlantic from Gibraltar to southern Angola (possibly body axis (Compagno and Last 1999). Feeds on fishes and northern Namibia), it is possibly in the Mediterranean Sea. shellfishes (Vidthayanon 2005). It has been recorded in It can be found in Indo-West Pacific from the Red Sea and inshore marine waters to at least 40 m depth, in brackish East Africa to the Philippines, and south to the tropical water (estuaries and coastal lakes) and in rivers. Its habitat Australia. Possibly, it occurrs in the eastern Pacific is heavily fished and often also subject to pollution, leading (Compagno and Last 1999). This large, widely distributed to habitat loss and degradation from coastal, riverine and sawfish has been wholly or nearly extirpated from large catchment developments. A very large, formerly common, SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara 169

Indo-West Pacific sawfish is recorded mainly in inshore ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS marine habitats, also reported from freshwater. Like all sawfishes, it is extremely vulnerable to capture by target The authors thank to Dr. Dewi Roesma (Andalas and bycatch fishing throughout its range, which has University, Padang), Dr. Muchlisin ZA (Syiah Kuala contracted significantly as a result. All populations are now University, Banda Aceh), Dr. Bambang Sulistiyarso very seriously depleted, with records having become (Christian University of Palangkaraya), Dr. Sri Wilujeng extremely infrequent over the last 30 to 40 years (Froese Cendrawasih University, Jayapura), Haryono (Museum and Pauly 2011). Zoologicum Bogor), Fahmi (Research Center for Distribution: Indo-West Pacific from South Africa to Oceanography, Jakarta), and Duto Nugroho and Dharmadi the Persian Gulf, and eastwards to southern China, Papua (Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research and New Guinea, south to New South Wales, Australia (Last Development, Jakarta), who inform the existence of pristid and Stevens 2009). sawfishes in all over Indonesian waters. Funding provided In Nusantara, it has been reported from Kalimantan: by “The Foreign Collaborative Research and International Kampong Tetabuan in Labuk Bay, Sabah (Manjaji 2002), Publication", Directorate General of Higher Education, Brunei (Siriraksophon 2012); Banjarmasin (Banjermassing), Ministry of Education and Culture, Indonesia to the first South Kalimantan (van Oijen et al. 2007); Malay Peninsula author. and Singapore (Siriraksophon 2012); Java (Compagno 2002); Moluccas: Ternate (Compagno 2002), Ambon (van Oijen et al. 2007) (Figure 2E). REFERENCES Conservation status: Critically Endangered (CR) (A2bcd+3cd+4bcd ver 3.1 ) (IUCN 2012); Appendix I AdamsWF, Fowler SL, Charvet-Almeida P, Faria V, Soto J, Furtado M. (CITES 2008); Protected (PP 7/1999) 2006. Pristis pectinata. In: 2012, IUCN Red List of Threatened Human uses: commercial fishery; gamefish Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org Allen GR, Midgley SH, Allen M. 2002. Field guide to the freshwater Taxonomic notes: P. zijsron is a member of the Pristis fishes of Australia. Western Australian Museum, Perth Australia. pectinata complex, probably also containing P. clavata, Alves RRN, Rosa IL, Santana GG. 2007. The Role of Animal-derived with narrow-based, less tapered, lighter rostral saws, with Remedies as Complementary Medicine in Brazil. BioScience 57: 949- more numerous (usually over 23), smaller teeth than 955. Alves RRN, Rosa IL. 2007. Zootherapeutic practices among fishing species of the Pristis pristis complex. (Compagno et al. communities in North and Northeast Brazil: A comparison. J 2006). Ethnopharmacol 111: 82-103. Alves RRN, Rosa IL: From cnidarians to mammals: The use of animals as remedies in fishing communities in NE Brazil. J Ethnopharmacol 2006, 107: 259-276. CONCLUSION Baensch HA, Riehl R. 1985. Aquarien atlas. Band 2. Mergus Verlag für Natur-und Heimtierkunde GmbH, Melle Germany. Five pristids species were found in Nusantara, namely: Bailly N. 2012. Anoxypristis cuspidata (Latham 1794). In: Bailly N (ed). FishBase. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at Anoxypristis cuspidata Latham, 1794, Pristis clavata http: //www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=217374 Garman, 1906, Pristis microdon Latham, 1794, Pistis on 2012-10-06 zijsron Bleeker 1851, and Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794. Berra TM. 2006. Art, ichthyology, Charles Darwin and the Northern A. cuspidata differs from Pristid spp. by the presence of a Territory of Australia. Beagle, Rec Mus Art Gall North Terr 22: 91- 97 very narrow rostral saw, with 16 to 29 pairs of teeth but no Bigelow HB, Schroeder WC. 1953. Sawfishes guitarfishes skates and teeth along the quarter of the rostral saw nearest to the rays. In: Tee-Van J et al. (eds.) Fishes of the western North Atlantic. head. P. microdon has a highly defined groove runs along Part two. New Haven Sears Found. Mar. Res. Yale Univ. MA. the entire posterior edge of the tooth into and beyond its Bigelow HB, Schroeder WC. 1953. Sawfishes, guitarfishes, skates and rays fisheries of the western North Atlantic. Mem Sears Mem Found confluence with the rostrum. This groove is absent in Mar Res 1: 1-514. juvenile of P. clavata and whilst in larger individuals, it Bleeker P. 1851. Vijfde bijdrage tot de kennis der ichthyologische fauna develops, and it rarely runs along the entire posterior edge van Borneo, met beschrijving van eenige nieuwe soorten van of the tooth or reach its confluence with the rostrum. P. zoetwatervisschen. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië 2: 415-442 [Ducth] clavata possibly have been misidentified as P. pectinata, Cavanagh RD, Kyne PM, Fowler SL, Musick JA, Bennett MB (eds). whose distribution in the Indo-West Pacific is uncertain. P. 2003. The Conservation Status of Australasian Chondrichthans. clavata can be distinguished from P. pectinata and P. Report of the IUCN Shark Specialist Group Australia and Oceania zijsron by the possession of fewer rostral teeth (18 to 22 in Regional Red List Workshop March 2003. The University of Queensland, Brisbane. P. clavata cf. 24 to 28 in P. zijsron and 24 to 34 in P. CITES. 2008. Appendices I, II, and III. pectinata), and by its smaller body size (i.e. less than 250 www.cites.orf/eng/app/apendices.shtml on 16 November 2012 cm TL in P. clavata). P. microdon indicate different sexes Compagno LJV. 2002. Freshwater and Estuarine Elasmobranch Surveys of the number of rostral teeth, i.e. 17-21 in female cf. 19-23 in the Indo-Pacific Region: Threats, Distribution and Speciation. In: Fowler SL, Reed TM, Dipper FA. (eds). Elasmobranch Biodiversity, in male, but in P. clavata, it can not be used to differentiate Conservation and Management: Proceedings of the International male from female, with both sexes possessing an average Seminar and Workshop, Sabah, Malaysia, July 1997. IUCN SSC of 42 rostral teeth. In P. clavata the dorsal fin origin is Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, opposite or slightly behind the pelvic fin origin, the rostum is UK. Compagno LJV, Ebert DA, Smale MJ. 1989. Guide to the sharks and rays relatively shorter (22-24% of TL), the lower cauda fin lobe is of southern Africa. New Holland, London. smaller. 170 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 161-171, October 2012

Compagno LJV, Last PR, Stevens JD, Alava MNR. 2005. Checklist of Last PR. 2002. Freshwater and estuarine elasmobranchs of Australia. In: Philippine Chondrichthyes. CSIRO Marine Laboratories Rept., Fowler SL, Reed TM, Dipper FA (eds). Elasmobranch biodiversity, Canberra. conservation and management: Proceedings of the International Compagno LJV, Cook SF, Oetinger MI, Fowler SL. 2006. Anoxypristis Seminar and Workshop, Sabah, Malaysia, July 1997. IUCN SSC cuspidata. In: 2011 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, 2011.2. www.iucnredlist.org. on 30 January 2012. UK. Compagno LJV, Cook SF. 1995. The exploitation and conservation of Latham J. 1794. An essay on the various species of sawfish. Trans Linn freshwater elasmobranchs: status of taxa and prospects for the Soc London 2: 273-282 future. J. Aquaricult Aqua Sci 7: 62-90. Manjaji BM. 2002. Elasmobranchs Recorded from Rivers and Estuaries in Compagno LJV, Last PR. 1999. Order Pristiformes. In: Carpenter KE, Sabah. In: Fowler SL, Reed TM, Dipper FA. (eds). Elasmobranch Niem VH (eds) The living marine resources of the western central Biodiversity, Conservation and Management: Proceedings of the Pacific Vol 3. Batoid fishes, chimaeras and bony fishes part 1 International Seminar and Workshop, Sabah, Malaysia, July 1997. (Elopidae to Linophyroidae). FAO, Rome. IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Compagno LJV. 1977. Phyletic relationships of living sharks and rays. Cambridge, UK. Amer Zool 17: 303-322. McAuley R, Newbound D, Ashworth R. 2002. Field identification guide Compagno LJV. 1999. Checklist of living Elasmobranchs. In: Hamlett to Western Australian sharks and shark-like rays, Fisheries WC (ed.). Sharks, skates, and rays, the biology of elasmobranch Occasional Publications No. 1, July 2002, Department of Fisheries, fishes. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Perth Western Australia 2002. Cook SF, Compagno LJV, Last PR. 2006. Pristis clavata. In: 2012 IUCN McEachran JD, de Cavarlho MR. 2002. Batoid fishes. In: Carpenter KE Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. (ed) The living marine resources of the western central Atlantic www.iucnredlist.org. on 16 November 2012 Vol 1. Introduction, molluscs, crustaceans, hagfishes, sharks, batoid Daley RK, Stevens JD, Last PR, Yearsley GK. 2002. Field guide to fishes, and chimaeras. FAO, Rome Australian sharks and rays. CSIRO Marine Research and Fisheries Menni RC, Lucifora LO. 2007. Condrictios de la Argentina y Uruguay. Research & Development Corporation, Australia. ProBiota FCNyM UNLP Serie Técnica-Didáctica La Plata Argentina Dulvy NK, Reynolds JD. 1997. Evolutionary transitions among egg- 11: 1-15. laying live-bearing and maternal inputs in sharks and rays. Proc R Soc Michael SW. 1993. Reef sharks and rays of the world. A guide to their Lond Ser B: Biol Sci 264: 1309-1315. identification behavior and ecology. Sea Challengers, Monterey, CA. Ebert DA. 1996. Biology of the sevengill shark, Notorynchus cepedianus Morgan DL, Whitty JM, Phillips NM, Thorburn DC, Chaplin JA, (Peron, 1807), in the temperate coastal waters of southern Africa. S McAuley R. 2011. North-western Australia as a hotspot for Afr J Mar Sci 17: 93-103. endangered elasmobranchs with particular reference to sawfishes and Fahmi, Dharmadi. 2005. Shark fishery status and its management aspects. the Northern River Shark. J R Soc Western Aust 94: 345-358. Oseana 30 (1): 1-8. [Indonesia] Mould B. 1994. A world list of rays. The scientific nomenclature and Feldheim KA, Gruber SH, Ashley MV. 2001. Population genetic structure distribution of the recent Batoidea (Batoidea, Elasmobranchii, of the lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris) in the western Atlantic: Chondrichthyes). University of Nottingham, UK. DNA microsatellite variation. Mol Ecol 10: 295-303. Peverell SC. 2005. Distribution of sawfishes (Pristidae) in the Queensland Feldheim KA, Gruber SH,, Ashley MV. 2004. Reconstruction of parental Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia, with notes on sawfish ecology. microsatellite genotypes reveals female polyandry and philopatry in Environ Biol Fish 73: 391-402. the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris. Evolution 58 (10): 2332- Peverell SC. 2008. Sawfish (Pristidae) of the Gulf of Carpentaria, 2342. Queensland Australia. [M.Sc. Thesis], James Cook University FMNH [Florida Museum of Natural History]. 2005. Biological profiles: Pogonoski JJ, Pollard DA, Paxton JR. 2002. Conservation overview and dwarf sawfish. action plan for Australian threatened and potentially threatened www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/DwarfSawfish/DwarfSawfi marine and estuarine fishes. Environment Australia, Canberra sh.html. On 26 August 2005. PP 7/1999 [Indonesian Government Regulation No. 7, Year: 1999, Date: Fowler, S.L. 2002. Elasmobranch Biodiversity, Conservation and January 27, 1999] On Preservation of Flora and Fauna. [Indonesia] Management in Sabah. In: Fowler SL, Reed TM, Dipper FA. (eds). Rainboth WJ. 1996. Fishes of the Cambodian Mekong. FAO Species Elasmobranch Biodiversity, Conservation and Management: Identification Field Guide for Fishery Purposes. FAO, Rome. Proceedings of the International Seminar and Workshop, Sabah, Reiner F. 1996. Catálogo dos peixes do Arquipélago de Cabo Verde. Malaysia, July 1997. IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Group. IUCN, Publicações avulsas do IPIMAR No. 2. 339 Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Riede K. 2004. Global register of migratory species - from global to Froese R. and D. Pauly (eds,). 2011. FishBase. www.fishbase.org on 29 regional scales. Final Report of the R&D-Projekt 808 05 081. Federal October 2012 Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, Germany. Gribble NA (ed.). 2004. Tropical Resource Assessment Program: FRDC Robins CR, Ray GC. 1986. A field guide to Atlantic coast fishes of North Report 1999/125. Information series QI04072. Queensland America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA. Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Brisbane. Saunders DL, Meeuwig JJ, Vincent ACJ. 2002. Freshwater protected Heemstra PC. 1995. Additions and corrections for the 1995 impression. areas: strategies for conservation. Conserv Biol 16 (1): 30-41. In: Smith MM, Heemstra PC. (eds.) Revised Edition of Smiths' Sea Schneider W. 1990. FAO species identification sheets for fishery Fishes. Springer, Berlin. purposes. Field guide to the commercial marine resources of the Gulf Ishihara H, Taniuchi T, Mitsuhiko S, Last PR. 1991. Record of Pristis of Guinea. Prepared and published with the support of the FAO clavata Garman from the Pentecost River, Western Australia, with Regional Office for Africa. FAO, Rome. brief notes on its osmoregulation and comments on the systematics of Seret B. 2006. Identification guide of the main shark and ray species of Pristidae. In: Shimizu M, Taniuchi T (eds) Studies on elasmobranchs the eastern tropical Atlantic, for the purpose of the fishery observers collected from seven river systems in Northern Australia and Papua and biologists. Fondation Internationale du Banc d’Arguin (FIBA), New Guinea. Univ Mus Univ Tokyo, Tokyo. Shark Specialists Group – West Africa IUCN. 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. www.iucnredlist.org. Simpfendorfer CA. 2002. Smalltooth sawfish: the USA’s first endangered on 4 April 2011. elasmobranch? Mar Mat 19: 45-49 IUCN. 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. Simpfendorfer CA. 2006. Threatened fishes of the world: Pristis www.iucnredlist.org. on 16 November 2012. pectinata Latham, 1794 (Pristidae). Environ Biol Fishes 73: 20. Jenkins DG, Brescacin CR, Duxbury CV et al. 2007. Does size matter for Siriraksophon S. 2012. Overview of elasmobranchs fisheries in Southeast dispersal distance? Glob Ecol Biogeogr 16: 415-425. Asian Region. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Nay Keeney DB, Heupel MR, Hueter RC, Heist EJ. 2005. Microsatellite and Pyi Taw, Myanmar mitochondrial DNA analyses of genetic structure of blacktip shark Skelton PH. 1993. A complete guide to the freshwater fishes of southern (Carcharhinus limbatus) nurseries in the northwestern Atlantic, Gulf Africa. Southern Book Publishers. of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea. Mol Ecol 14: 1911-1923. Slaughter BH, Springer S. 1968. Replacement of rostral teeth in Last PR, Stevens JD. 2009. Sharks and rays of Australia, 2nd ed. CSIRO sawfishes and sawsharks. Copeia 3: 499-506 Division of Fisheries, Melbourne SUTARNO et al. – Pristid sawfishes of Nusantara 171

Smith CL. 1997. National Audubon Society field guide to tropical marine clavata, Garman 1906 from the Kimberley region of Western fishes of the Caribbean the Gulf of Mexico Florida the Bahamas and Australia. Environ Biol Fish 83 (2): 139-145. Bermuda. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. Thorburn DC, Morgan DL, Rowland AJ, Gill HS. 2007. Freshwater Springer S. 1967. Social organisation of shark populations. In: Gilbert Sawfish Pristis microdon Latham, 1794 (Chondrichthyes: Pristidae) PW, Mathewson RF, Rall DP (eds.). Sharks, skates, and ray. Johns in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Zootaxa 1471: 27-41. Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Thorburn DC, Peverell SC, Stevens JD, Last PR, Rowland AJ. 2003. Stehmann M. 1981. Pristidae. In: Fischer W, Bianchi G, Scott WB (eds.) Status of freshwater and estuarine elasmobranchs in northern FAO species identification sheets for fishery purposes. Eastern Australia. Australian Department of Environment and Heritage, Central Atlantic fishing areas 34 47 (in part). Vol. 5. Canberra. Stehmann M. 1990. Pristidae. In: Quero JC, Hureau JC, Karrer C, Post A, Thorburn DC. 2006. Biology, ecology and trophic interactions Saldanha L. (eds.) Check-list of the fishes of the eastern tropical ofelasmobranchs and other fishes in riverine waters of Northern Atlantic (CLOFETA). JNICT Lisbon; SEI Paris; and UNESCO Paris. Australia. [Dissertation]. Murdoch University, Perth. Vol. 1. Thorson TB. 1982. Life history implications of a tagging study of the Stevens JD, Bonfil R, Dulvy NK, Walker PA. 2000. The effects of fishing largetooth sawfish, Pristis perotteti, in Lake Nicaragua-Rio San Juan on sharks, rays, and chimaeras (chondrichthyans), and the System. Environ Biol Fish 7: 207-228. implications for marine ecosystems. ICES J Mar Sci 57: 476-494. van Oijen MJP, Faria VV, McDavitt MT. 2007. The curious holotype of Stevens JD, Pillans RD, Salini J. 2005. Conservation assessment of Pristis dubius Bleeker, 1852 and the unravelling of Bleeker’s sawfish Glyphis sp. A (speartooth shark), Glyphis sp. C (northern river shark), taxonomy. Raffles Bull Zool 14: 37-49 Pristis microdon (freshwater sawfish) and Pristis zijsron (green Vidthayanon C. 2005. Thailand red data: fishes. Office of Natural sawfish). Department of the Environment and Heritage, Canberra Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning, Bangkok Stobutzki IC, JM Miller, DS Heales, DT Brewer. 2002. Sustainability of Thailand. elasmobranchs caught as bycatch in a tropical prawn (shrimp) trawl White WT, Last PR, Stevens JD, Yearsley GK, Fahmi, Dharmadi. 2006. fishery. Fish Bull 100: 800-821. Economically important sharks and rays of Indonesia. Australian Taniuchi T, Kan TT, Tanaka S, Otake T. 1991. Collection and Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra Australia. measurement data and diagnostic characters of elasmobranchs Whitty JM, Morgan DL, Peverell SC, Thorburn DC. 2009. Ontogenetic collected from three river systems in Papua New Guinea. Univ Mus depth partitioning by juvenile freshwater sawfish (Pristis microdon: Univ Tokyo Nat Cult 3: 27-41. Pristidae) in a riverine environment. Mar Fresh Res 60: 306-316 Taniuchi T. 1979. Freshwater elasmobranchs from Lake Naujan, Perak Wiley TR, Simpfendorfer CA, Faria VV, McDavitt MT. 2008. Range, River, and lndragiri River, southeast Asia. Japan J lchthyol. 25(4): sexual dimorphism and bilateral asymmetry of rostral tooth counts 273-277 in the smalltooth sawfish Pristis pectinata Latham (Chondrichthyes: Thorburn DC, Morgan DL, Rowland AJ, Gill HS, Paling E. 2008. Life Pristidae) of the southeastern United States. Zootaxa 1810: 51-59. history notes of the critically endangered dwarf sawfish, Pristis BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722 Pages: 172-177 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130402

Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia

AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN1,♥, YAYA IHYA ULUMUDDIN2 1Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A 57 126 Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia. Tel./Fax. +62-271-663375, email: [email protected]. 2Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), East Ancol, North Jakarta 14430, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 16 April 2012. Revision accepted: 17 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Setyawan AD, Ulumuddin YI. 2012. Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 172- 177. Research on diversity and distribution of mangroves on the small remote islands are rarely performed than on the coastal area and estuaries. Tambelan Islands is a cluster of small islands isolated in the Natuna Sea, Indonesia. On the island there are four species of Rhizophora, namely R. apiculata, R. stylosa, R. mucronata, and hybrid species R. x lamarckii. Rhizophora stylosa and R. apiculata are the most common species found. R. mucronata only found in certain places (i.e. Durian River), R. x lamarckii rare, usually grows in stands that also covered by the two parental, R. stylosa and R. apiculata. All Rhizophora species were found to have thorn on the leaf tip, and spotted brown on the underneath leaf. R. apiculata has a petal without woolly feathers, inflorescence have short stalks and cork. R. stylosa and R. mucronata are sibling species, both of them have a long-stalks and dichotomy inflorescence, but the style of R. mucronata very short (<2.5 mm), whereas in R. stylosa longer (> 2.5 mm). R. x lamarckii has characters between R. apiculata and R. stylosa.

Key words: Rhizophora, diversity, Tambelan, Natuna Sea

Stilt mangroves are widespread throughout most while the ocean is 58993.42 acres, with a population of tropical coastal areas of Indo-Malaya, from the east Africa about 4738 inhabitants (BPS Bintan 2008). The two largest to western Pacific (Duke 2006; Giesen et al. 2006). This islands and inhabited by majority population are Tambelan group of the genus Rhizophora consists of three species, R. (Tambelan Besar) and Benua. Uwi is important for natural mucronata, R. stylosa (two being closely allied or sibling conservation, since it is the main spawning spot turtles on species) and R. apiculata, and two hybrids, R. × lamarckii the islands. The Tambelan Islands have hilly topography. (from R. apiculata x R. stylosa) and R. × annamalayana At the last glacial maximum period, this region is the (from R. apiculata x R. mucronata) (Duke 2006). The five mountain peaks near the North Sunda super-river that species can be found in Indonesia. R. apiculata and R. empties into the Natuna Sea (Steinke et al. 2008). Marine stylosa is the most common species found. R. mucronata waters of Tambelan Islands have about 0.5 to 2 m wave relatively rare, although its global distribution much wider height (Bull Meteor 2009). Based on the satellite image than the two other Rhizophora species (Hou 1992; Duke data processing ALOS AVNIR-2 (earth.esa.int), in 2010, 2006; Duke et al. 2010a,b,c). R. x lamarckii rarely found, the mangrove ecosystem of these islands covered an area of only in locations where both parents present. R. × 478.2 hectares (data not shown). Setyawan and Ulumuddin annamalayana Kathiresan (Kathiresan 1995; 1999) only (2012) noted the existence of two species of Bruguiera, ie once recorded in Indonesia, i.e. in Lombok Island, West B. cylindrica and B. sexangula in the islands. Nusa Tenggara, and originally named R. lombokensis Baba In Tambelan Islands, there is no major river; the & Hayashi (Baba 1994). The main distribution of this mangrove ecosystem is marine type with relatively high hybrid is the east coast of India (Pichavaram, Tamil Nadu), levels of salinity. Stilt mangroves grow on various types of Sri Lanka and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Ragavan substrates, such as fertile mud sediments, white sand, and et al. 2011; Dahdouh-Guebas 2012). corals. Typically, these mangroves are common in the mid- Tambelan Islands is a group of small islands located in inter-tidal zone, and particularly along the seaward margin the Natuna Sea, Indonesia between Kalimantan, Sumatra of mangrove stands, especially for R. apiculata and R. and the Malay Peninsula, with the coordinates of 0o2"- stylosa. Stilt mangroves are known to play a vital role in 1o25” N and 106o50"-107o40" E (IOTA 2007). Tambelan shoreline protection, enhancement of water quality in Islands consist of 77 islands; but the exact number is nearshore environments (including coral reefs), and in debatable, since some small islands rise and submerged by supporting food chains. This tree is often harvested for the tide, about 20 islands are inhabited or used for firewood, and sometimes is used for building materials. agricultural field. The total area of land is 169.42 acres, Stilt mangroves are very well known by the Tambelan SETYAWAN & ULUMUDDIN – Rhizophora of Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea 173 population, generally named “bakau”. The Malays, as the part of Tambelan. The list of exploration sites had been major populations, recognize R. apiculata as bakau minyak, previously set based on the satellite imagery of ALOS R. stylosa as bakau (pasir) and R. mucronata as bakau AVNIR-2 in 2010, topographic maps of the Tambelan kurap; although it is sometimes confusing. Islands with the scale of 1: 75,000, and a preliminary study This study aims to determine the diversity of of a few months before. Rhizophora species in the Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Based on satellite imaginery and field surveys, as many Indonesia. as seven islands were covered with mangrove ecosystem characterized by a group of mangrove tree habitat (>100 ha), namely Bedua, Benua, Burung, Ibul, Menggirang, MATERIALS AND METHODS Selentang, Tambelan (in four locations). Based on field survey, mangroves are also present in many other islands, Area study but the quantity is very limited (Figure 1). Several series of survey had been conducted within two weeks in the end of 2010 in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Procedures Indonesia. A total of 23 islands was explored, namely Uwi, Field surveys. Mangrove habitat is entered from the Sedulang Besar, Sedulang Kecil, Sedua Besar, Sedua seaward using rubber boats. Further searching was done Kecil, Bungin, Tambelan (Tambelan Besar), Genting, along the edge of the mangrove forest, followed by walking Mundaga, Lintang, Panjang, Tamban, Ibul, Nibung, through the canals in the mangrove forest or directly Nangka, Lesuh, Benua, Bedua (incl. Untup Darat), Jelak through the pneumatophore to know the conditions in the (incl. Burung), Selentang, Betung, Lipih, Kepala forest. At the locations where the water was deep enough Tambelan, Menggirang, and Menggirang Kecil. On the and the trunks were too tight to pass such as in the quite large Tambelan Island, the exploration was conducted surrounding of the Durian River and Telukkupang River, at four locations, namely: Suak (canal) Dadu and Suak the exploration was done only by boat; the crocodiles that Ganja located in the Tambelan Bay, and Durian River and inhabited those places were also a consideration in itself. Telukkupang River (incl. Kera Island) in the northwestern

Figure 1. The distribution of mangrove ecosystems in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia 174 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 172-177, October 2012

On small islands, the exploration was done along the partly surrounded by a disk, free part elongating after coastal areas as far as possible, even in some small islands anthesis; style 1, sometimes very short; stigmas are 4. Fruit such as Lipih, the exploration was done by walking around is brown, ovoid, ovoid- conic, or pyriform. Fertile seed is 1 the island beaches, while on the island with a steep and per fruit; germination viviparous; hypocotyl protruding to wavy coastline such as Sedulang Kecil, the exploration was 78 cm before propagule falls (Ko 1983; Gathe and Watson done by boat around the island. The exploration was 2008). expected to represent all parts of the island potentially Eight or nine species: tropics and subtropics; five covered with mangroves. species in Indonesia; four species in Tambelan Islands. Sample observations. Each species of Rhizophora was found in every location sampled as many as 2-5 specimens 1a. Peduncle is shorter than petiole, thick, on leafless stems; and each sample was supposed to have flowers and flowers are 2 per inflorescence; bracteoles united, cup- hypocotyls. Samples were observed directly on the sites in shaped; petals are glabrous; stamen is 9-15. a fresh condition and documented, then dried and made into herbarium and again observed in the laboratory. The 2a. Bracts are corky brown, flower are hairless .. R. apiculata 2b. Bracts are smooth green ………………… R. x lamarckii preparation of dried herbarium samples was carried out according to Lawrence (1951). Herbarium specimens were 1b. Peduncle is usually as long as (or greater than) petiole, stored at the Research Center for Oceanography, slender, in leaf axil; flowers are more than 2 per Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), Jakarta. inflorescence; bracteoles are united at base; petals are Further herbarium samples were observed with reference to pubescent; stamen is 6-8. Rifai (1976) and de Vogell (1987), i.e. the samples were grouped according to morphological similarities and each 3a. Style is 0.5-1.5 mm (less than 2.5 mm); anthers species was observed for the first 10 samples, then the are sessile ...... R. mucronata identification key was made, after that all remaining 3b. Style is 4-6 mm (greater than 2.5 mm); anthers are on a short but distinct filament ...... R. stylosa samples were observed, and described by adding the character as fresh specimens. The identification was done by referring to Backer and Bakhuizen v.d. Brink (1968), Description Tomlison (1986), Ng and Sivasothi (1999), Giesen et al. (2006), and Duke (2006), Qin and Boufford (2007). The Rhizophora apiculata Blume, Enum. Pl. Javae 1: 91. ecological characteristic and others were also referred to 1827 Giesen et al. (2006), and Duke et al. (2010a,b,c). The Synonyms. Mangium candelarium Rumph., conservation status was referred to IUCN (2012). Rhizophora candelaria Candolle, Rhizophora conjugata (non Linné) Arn., Rhizophora lamarckii, Rhizophora mangle (non Linné). Local name. Bakau minyak, bakau tandok, bakau akik, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION bakau puteh, akik (Mal.); Bakau, bakau minyak, bangka minyak, donggo akit, jankar, abat, bangkita, bangkita Keys of identification baruang, kalumagus, kailau, parai (Ind.). Description. Trees are erect, 3-6 (-30) m tall, and 50 Rhizophora Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 443. 1753 cm d.b.h. Stilt-roots are up to 5 m up the stem. Bark is dark Trees are with stilt roots, usually branching and several grey and chequered, usually with vertical fissures. Stipules metres from the trunk. Stem internodes are hollow. Stipules are 4-(6)-8 cm, dropped early. Leaves are crowded at twig are reddish, sessile, leaflike, interpetiolar, lanceolate. tips, opposite, simple, penni-veined but venation barely Leaves are opposite or distichous, cauline, leathery, visible, glabrous, narrowly elliptic, leathery; are dark green petiolate, simple. Leaf blades are glabrous, entire; elliptic, with a distinct light green zone along the midrib, tinged or obovate (usually elliptic to obovate); pinnately veined reddish underneath. Petiole is 1.5-3.5 cm, usually tinged (midrib extended into a caducous point); margin is entire or reddish; and is flanked by leaflets at its base, 4-8 cm. Leaf serrulate near apex. Inflorescences axillary, dense cymes blade is elliptic-oblong to sublanceolate, 7-19 × 3-8 cm, (simple or di- or trichasial); pedunculate. Flowers are abaxial midvein reddish, base broadly cuneate, apex acute ebracteate; bracteoles forming a cup just below flower; to apiculate. Inflorescences are 2-flowered cymes; usually 4 or 5 merous. Perianth is with distinct calyx and peduncle is 0.7-10 mm. Flowers ca. are 2 cm diam., sessile, corolla; 6-32; 2 -whorled; isomerous. Calyx tube is ovate yellow-red, placed in axillary bundles, stalk 1.4 cm long. (to narrowly ovate), adnate to ovary, persistent; lobes 5-8. Calyx lobes are ovate, concave, 1-1.4 cm, apex acute. Petals are 4, ovate; sessile, alternating with the calyx, Sepals are 4,yellow-red, persistent, in a recurved form on lanceolate; blunt-lobed; valvate; tubular; regular; the end of the fruit. Petals are lanceolate, flat, 6-8 mm, commonly fleshy (or leathery); persistent. Stamens are 8- membranace- ous, glabrous, white. Petals are 4, yellow- 12; filaments are much shorter than anthers or absent; free white, membranous, flat, hairless, 9-11 mm long. Stamens of one another; anthers are connivent; dorsifixed; dehiscing are mostly 12, 4 adnate to base of petals, 8 adnate to sepals, by longitudinal valves, introrse, locules many, dehiscing by 6-7.5 mm; anthers are nearly sessile, apex apiculate. Ovary an adaxial valve. Ovary is inferior, 2-loculed, apically is largely enclosed by disk, free part 1.5-2.5 mm; style is ca. 0.8-1 mm. Fruit ca. is 2.5 × 1.5 cm, apical half SETYAWAN & ULUMUDDIN – Rhizophora of Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea 175 narrower, contain one fertile seed. Hypocotyl is cylindric- Distribution. Its distribution is overlapping to its clavate, green with purple, club shaped, ca. 1.8-3.8 × 1-2 parents. From India throughout Islands of Southeast Asia to cm, ± blunt before falling. tropical Australia. In Tambelan Islands, it is found in four Ecology. Occurs on deep, soft, muddy soils that are coastal regions namely: Tambelan (Durian River), Benua, flooded by normal high tides. Avoids are firmer substrates Ibul, and Uwi Islands. mixed with sand. Dominant: may form up to 90% of the Conservation status. This hybrid species has not yet vegetation at a site (Giesen et al. 2006). been assessed for the IUCN Red List. Distribution. From Sri Lanka throughout Southeast Uses. The wood is used as fire-wood, for construction Asia to Australia and the western Pacific Islands. In and for charcoal making. Tambelan Islands found in nine coastal regions namely: Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “lamarckii” is Tambelan (Suak Dadu, Suak Ganja, Telukkupang River, named in honour of Jean Baptiste Antoine Pierre de Durian River), Benua, Ibul, and Uwi Islands. Monnet de Lamarck (1744-1829), the French botanist Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1. famous for his theory of acquired traits in evolution. Uses. The roots are sometimes used as anchors. The wood is used as fire-wood, for construction and for Rhizophora mucronata Lamarck ex Poiret, Encycl. 6: charcoal making. 189. 1804 Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “apiculata” Sinonyms. Mangium candelarium Rumphius, means “pointed out”. It differs from R. mucronata and R. Rhizophora candelaria Wight & Arn., Rhizophora latifolia stylosa in possessing short, stout, dark grey inflorescence Miq., Rhizophora longissima Blanco, Rhizophora stalks (vs. long, slender, yellow). macrorrhiza Griff., Rhizophora mangle (non Linné) Roxb., Rhizophora mucronata var. typica Schimp. Rhizophora x lamarckii Montrouz. Mém. Acad. Roy. Local name. Bakau kurap, Bakau belukap, Bakau Sci. Lyon, Sect. Sci. sér. 2, 10:201. 1860 gelukap, Bakau jankar, Bakau hitam, (Mal.) Bangka Itam, Rhizophora x lamarckii is a hybrid of R. apiculata and Dongoh Korap, Bakau Hitam, Bakau Korap, Bakau Merah, R. stylosa. This species has many similarities with its Jankar, Lenggayong, Belukap, Lolaro (Ind.). parents. Description. It has erect trees and shrubs, and is up to Local name. Unknown 27(-30) m, d.b.h. is up to 70 cm in diam; bark is dark to Description. It has erect trees and shrubs up to ca. 25 almost black, horizontally fissured. It has both stilt roots m, often with several trunks; bark is light brown, smooth to and aerial roots growing from lower branches. Stipules are dark grey, rough, and often horizontally fissured. Stilt roots 5.5-8.5 cm. Petiole is 2.5-4 cm. Leaf blade is broadly extend to 2(-6) m above the ground, extend downwards elliptic to oblong, 8.5-23 × 5-13 cm, leathery, base cuneate, from branches. Stem base is diminished below the stilt apex ± blunt to ± acute. Leaf stalk is green, 2.5-5.5 cm roots. Leaves are simple, opposite, obovate-elliptic to long, leaflets are at the base of leaf stalk 5.5-8.5 cm. elliptic, bright yellowish-green, waxy above and dull Inflorescences are forked 2-3 times, 2-5(-12)-flowered below, 7-15 cm long, 3-8 cm wide, yellow-green, with a cymes; peduncle is 2.5-5 cm. Flowers are sessile. Calyx pointed apex and mucronate spike to 6 mm long, and are lobes are ovate, 9-14 × 5-7 mm, deeply lobed, pale yellow. not evenly spotted below (but old leaves are often liberally Petals are lanceolate, 7-9 mm, fleshy, partly embracing wound-spotted); petiole is 1-4 cm long. Inflorescence is stamens, margins pilose (densely hairy margins). Stamens axillary, 2-4-flowered (occasionally 1), borne within the are 8, 4 borne on base of petals, 4 borne on sepals, 6-8 mm; leafy shoot; yellow-green or cream flowers which are held anthers sessile. Ovary emerges far beyond disk, free part within leaf clusters; peduncle is 1-3 cm long, green,smooth; elongate-conic, 2-3 mm; style is 0.5-1.5 mm. Fruit is dull, bracteoles are partly united, smooth, yellow-green except a brownish green, elongate-ovoid, 5-7 × 2.5-3.5 cm, basally brown crenulate rim. Flowers have 4 calyx lobes and 4 often tuberculate, apically slightly contracted. Hypocotyl is slightly hairy white petals. Petals c. are 10 mm long; cylindric, 30-65 cm long, up to 2 cm wide. margins slightly incurved, sparsely hairy. Stamens are Ecology. They are found in similar localities as R. variable, usually 9-11; anthers sessile. Upper part of ovary apiculata but more tolerant to sandy and firmer bottoms. is shallowly conical; style c. are 2.5 mm long; stigma Distribution. From East Africa throughout Southwest minutely 2-lobed. Fruit is rarely found beyond the Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia, tropical immature fruit stage. Fruit is shiny, brown-olive, inverted Australia, to Western Pacific Islands. In Tambelan Islands pear-shape, pyriform, 2.5-3 cm long. Hypocotyl is rarely is only found in Tambelan (Durian River). developed, smooth, green, 14-28 cm long, narrowly club- Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1. shaped, rounded at apex. Uses. The timber is used for firewood and charcoal- Ecology. Occurs in locations that are found both making. parents (R. apiculata and R. stylosa), both deep, soft, Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “mucronate” muddy soils that are flooded by normal high tides and means “leaf apex usually broad, terminated by a short stiff firmer substrates are mixed with sand. Dominant: relatively point called a mucro”. The Malay name refers to their fruit, rare, but spreading evenly; rarely produces fertile kurap means "warty". R. mucronata differs from R. propagules, but it is capable of asexual reproduction by apiculata in possessing long, slender, yellow inflorescence dividing and spreading over large areas. stalks (vs. short, stout, dark grey) and from R. stylosa in the 0.5-1.5 mm long style in the flower (vs. 4-6 mm long). 176 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 172-177, October 2012

A B C D

E F G H

Figure 2. Diagnostic characters of Rhizophora on Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. Inflorescense: A. R. apiculata, B. R. x lamarckii, C. R.mucronata, D. R. stylosa; Flowers: E. R. apiculata, F. R. x lamarckii, G. R.mucronata, H. R. stylosa (photo: many sources)

Rhizophora stylosa Griffith, Not. Pl. Asiat. 4: 665. 1854 Ecology. It grows in a variety of tidal habitats on mud, Synonyms. Rhizphora lamarckii, Rhizophora sands, coarse grits and rock, pioneering in coastal mucronata Lamarck var. stylosa (Griffith) Schimper. environments or on landward margins of mangroves. One Local name. Generally the same names as for typical niche is in the fringing mangroves of small `coral' Rhizophora mucronata (Bakau in Indonesia and Malaysia); islands, growing on coral substrate. well known as Bakau pasir in Singapore. Distribution. From Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia Description. It has multi- or single-trunked erect small throughout South China, Ryukyu Islands to tropical trees or shrubs, often less than 8 m up to 10 m tall. Bark is Australia and the western Pacific Islands. In Tambelan reddish or pale gray, smooth to rough, fissured; it is 10-15 Islands, it is found in nine coastal regions namely: cm at d.b.h.; stilt-roots are up to 3 m long, and aerial roots Tambelan (Suak Ganja, Telukkupang River, Durian River), emerge from the lower branches. Leaves are broadly Burung, Benua, Lipih, Ibul, and Uwi Islands. elliptic,; leaf blade is obovate, 6.5-12.5 × 3-4(-5.5-7.5) cm, Conservation status. Least Concern ver 3.1. base broadly cuneate, apex mucronate, leathery, with a Uses. The timber is used for fire-wood, for construction regularly-spotted lower surface and a pointed tip. Petiole is and for charcoal making. 1-3.5 cm, with 4-6 cm long leaflets at its base. Taxonomic note. The species ephitet “stylosa” is Latin Inflorescences are axillary, flowers are forked 3-5 times, and comes from ‘stylos’ which means 'pillar' and refers to with 2- to many (up to 32) flowered; peduncle is 1-5 cm. the long style of this species. R. mucronata and R. stylosa, Pedicel 5-10 mm, terete; bracteoles are brown, connate. the sibling species, are distinguished by short styles (<2.5 Calyx lobes are pale-yellow, still present on the fruit, but mm long) in R. mucronata, while R. stylosa has long styles are then recurved, lanceolate to oblong- lanceolate, 9-12 × (>2.5 mm long). According to Duke et al. (2002) both 3-5 mm. Petals are white-yellow, 0.8-1.2 cm, involute, species are genetically and morphologically similar. margin densely villous/woolly. Stamens are usually 8; filaments are short but distinct; anthers are 5-6 mm. Ovary Note. The only mangrove species of Indo-Malayan is emerging beyond disk, free part and shallowly conic and region that is not found in Tambelan is R. annamalayana, a less than 1.5 mm; style is 4-6 mm; stigma lobes are 2. Fruit hybrid species between R. apiculata and R. mucronata. The is green-brown, conic, pear-shaped, 2.5-4 × ca. 2 cm. main distribution of this hybrid is the east coast of India, Hypocotyl is cylindric (often mistaken for the ‘fruit’), 20- Sri Lanka and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The 40 cm, apex acute. Flowers and fruits are produced western distribution of R. stylosa is not reaching these throughout the year. regions, except for a little stand in Orissa and Andaman SETYAWAN & ULUMUDDIN – Rhizophora of Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea 177 and Nicobar states (Ellison et al. 2012), so that Bull Meteor. 2009. Evaluation of weather and rainy characteristic in hybridization occurs only between R. apiculata and R. October 2009 as well as weather and rainy characteristic in November 2009. Stasiun Meteorologi Klas I Hang Nadim. Batam. Bulletin mucronata. Meanwhile, in Nusantara (Malesia), there are Meteorologi Edisi 23, November 2009. [Indonesia] plenty of R. stylosa that density is often higher than R. Chan HT. 1996. A note on the discovery of Rhizophora x lamarckii in mucronata, so more frequent hybridization between R. Peninsular Malaysia. J Trop For Sci 9: 128-130. apiculata and R. stylosa generate R. x lamarckii. The nature Dahdouh-Guebas F. 2012. Rhizophora annamalayana Kathiresan. In: Dahdouh-Guebas F (ed.). World mangroves database. style of R. stylosa is much longer than the style of R. http://www.vliz.be/vmdcdata/mangroves/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id= mucronata, and it is thought to increase the success of 344744 hybridization between R. stylosa and R. apiculata. de Vogel EF. 1987. Guidelines for the preparation of revisions. In: de However, in Nusantara there are also notes about the Vogel EF (ed). Manual of herbarium taxonomy theory and practice. UNESCO, Jakarta presence of R. annamalayana, in Merbok, Malay Peninsula Duke NC. 2006. Australia’s mangroves: The authoritative guide to (Chan 1996) and Lombok, West Nusa Tenggara, originally Australia’s mangrove plants. University of Queensland, Brisbane. named R. lombokensis (Baba 1994). Duke N, Kathiresan K, Salmo III SG, Fernando ES, Peras JR, Sukardjo S, Miyagi T. 2010a. Rhizophora apiculata. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org. On 15 November 2012. CONCLUSION Duke N, Kathiresan K, Salmo III SG, Fernando ES, Peras JR, Sukardjo S, Miyagi T. 2010b. Rhizophora mucronata. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org. On Tambelan islands, there are four species of On 15 November 2012. Rhizophora, namely R. apiculata, R. stylosa, R. mucronata, Duke NC, Lo EYY, Sun M. 2002. Global distribution and genetic and hybrid species R. x lamarckii. Rhizophora stylosa and discontinuities of mangroves—emerging patterns in the evolution of R. apiculata are the most common species found. R. Rhizophora. Trees Struct Funct 16: 65–79. Duke NC. 2006. Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, R. stylosa, R. × mucronata is only found in certain places (i.e. Durian annamalayana, R. × lamarckii (Indo-West Pacific stilt mangroves), River), R. x lamarckii is rare, and it usually grows in stands ver. 2.1. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Species Profiles for Pacific Island that are also covered by the two parental species, i.e. R. Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, stylosa and R. apiculata. All Rhizophora species were Hawai‘i. www.traditionaltree.org. Ellison J, Duke N, Kathiresan K, Salmo III SG, Fernando ES, Peras JR, found to have thorn on the leaf tip, and spotted brown on Sukardjo S, Miyagi T. 2010. Rhizophora stylosa. In: IUCN 2012. the underneath leaf. R. apiculata has a petal without woolly IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. feathers, inflorescence has short stalks and cork. R. stylosa www.iucnredlist.org. On 15 November 2012. and R. mucronata are sibling species, both of them have a Gathe J, Watson L. 2008. Rhizophora L. FloraBase the Western Australia Flora. http://florabase.dec.wa.gov.au/browse/profile/21806 long-stalks and dichotomy inflorescence, but the style of R. Giesen W, Wulffraat S, Zieren M, Scholten L. 2006. Mangrove guidebook mucronata is very short (<2.5 mm), whereas R. stylosa is for Southeast Asia. FAO and Wetlands International longer (> 2.5 mm). R. x lamarckii has mixed characters Hou D. 1992. Rhizophora mucronata Poiret. In: Lemmens RHMJ, between R. apiculata and R. stylosa. Wulijarni-Soetjipto N (eds.): Plant Resources of South-East Asia. No. 3: Dye and tannin-producing plants. Prosea Foundation, Bogor. IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. www.iucnredlist.org ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Kathiresan K. 1999. Rhizophora annamalayana Kathir (Rhizophoraceae), a new Nothospecies from Pichavaram mangrove forest in Southeastern peninsular India. Environ Ecol 17 (2): 500-501. The research was funded through the Research Project Kathiresan K. 1995. Rhizophora annamalayana: A new species of "Natuna Sea Expedition - 2010" in collaboration with the mangroves. Environ Ecol 13 (1): 240-241. Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Ko WC. 1983. Rhizophoraceae. In: Fang WP, Chang CY (eds.) Fl Reipubl Popularis Sin 52 (2): 125-143. National Education, GoI and the Research Center for Lawrence GHM. 1951. Taxonomy of vascular plants. John Wiley and Oceanography of Indonesian Institute of Science (PPO- Sons, New York. LIPI) Jakarta. The author would like to thank Dr. Ng PKL, Sivasothi N (eds). 2001. A guide to mangroves of Singapore. Dirhamsyah as the chairman of the project, Fahmi as the Volume 1: The ecosystem and plant diversity and Volume 2: Animal coordinator of field researchers, Daniel Irham as captain of diversity. The Singapore Science Centre, Singapore. Ong JE. 2003. Plants of the Merbok Mangrove, Kedah, Malaysia and the the Research Ship of Baruna Jaya VIII, and Murtada urgent need for their conservation. Folia Malaysiana 4 (1): 1-18. village chief of Kampung Melayu who acting as field guide Qin HN, Boufford DE. 2007. Rhizophoraceae. In: Wu ZY, Raven PH, and informant. Hong DY (eds). Flora of China 13: 295-299. Ragavan P, Saxena M, Coomar T, Saxena A. 2011. Preliminary study on natural hybrids of genus Rhizophora in India. ISME/GLOMIS Electronic Journal 9:5 REFERENCES Rifai MA. 1976. Principles of systematic botany. Lembaga Biologi Nasional, LIPI, Bogor. [Indonesia] Setyawan AD, Ulumuddin YI. 2012. Species diversity and distribution of Baba S. 1994. New natural hybrid in Rhizophora. Mangroves, Newsletter Bruguiera in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia. Proc Soc of the International Society of Mangrove Ecosystems 13: 1. Indon Biodiv Intl Conf 1: 82-90. Backer CA, Bakhuizen van den Brink, RC Jr. 1968. Flora of Java. Vol. Steinke S, Hanebuth SJJ, Vogt C, Stattegger K. 2008. Sea level induced III. P.Noordhoff, Groningen. variations in clay mineral composition in the southwestern South BPS Bintan. 2008. Bintan in figures in 2007. BPS Kabupaten Bintan, China Sea over the past 17,000 yr. Marine Geol 250 (3-4): 199-210 Tanjung Pinang. [Indonesia] Tomlinson PB. 1986. The botany of mangroves. Cambridge University Press, London. BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722 Pages: 178-189 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130403

Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

RAMADHANIL PITOPANG♥ Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Tadulako University. Kampus Bumi Tadulako, Tondo, Palu 94118, Central Sulawesi. Tel. +62-451-422611, Fax. +62-451 422844, ♥email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 1 October 2012. Revision accepted: 25 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Pitopang R. 2012. Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 178-189. We presented the structure and composition of vegetation in four (4) different land use types namely undisturbed primary forest, lightly disturbed primary forest, selectively logged forest, and cacao forest garden in tropical rainforest margin of the Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi Indonesia. Individually all big trees (dbh > 10 cm) was numbered with tree tags and their position in the plot mapped, crown diameter and dbh measured, whereas trunk as well as total height measured by Vertex. Additionally, overstorey plants (dbh 2- 9.9 cm) were also surveyed in all land use types. Identification of vouchers and additional herbarium specimens was done in the field as well as at Herbarium Celebense (CEB), Tadulako University, and Nationaal Herbarium of Netherland (L) Leiden branch, the Netherland. The result showed that the structure and composition of vegetation in studied are was different. Tree species richness was decreased from primary undisturbed forest to cacao plantation, whereas tree diversity and its composition were significantly different among four (4) land use types. Palaquium obovatum, Chionanthus laxiflorus, Castanopsis acuminatissima, Lithocarpus celebicus, Canarium hirsutum, Euonymus acuminifolius and Sarcosperma paniculatum being predominant in land use type A, B and C and Coffea robusta, Theobroma cacao, Erythrina subumbrans, Gliricidia sepium, Arenga pinnata, and Syzygium aromaticum in the cacao plantation. At the family level, undisturbed natural forest was dominated by Fagaceae and Sapotaceae disturbed forest by Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Rubiaceae, and agroforestry systems by Sterculiaceae and Fabaceae.

Key words: tree diversity, land use types, tropical forest, Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia

INTRODUCTION from these islands as well as from New Guinea by deep maritime straits as shown by Hall (1995) and Moss and Sulawesi which was formerly known as Celebes, is one Wilson (1998). Approximately 15% of the known of the big island in Indonesia. The island is the important flowering plant species of Sulawesi are endemic (Whitten island in the Wallacea subregion, situated in the centre of et al. 1987). Van Balgooy et al. (1996) recognized 933 the Indonesian archipelago, between Borneo (Kalimantan) indigenous plant species on Sulawesi and of these 112 were and the Moluccan islands. Van Steenis (1979) revealed that endemic to the island. Endemism varies among groups, phytogeography of Sulawesi is part of the Malesian however, and is very high in orchids and palms which total floristic unit; its flora is reportedly related to the 817 orchid species (128 genera) including 493 endemic Philippines, New Guinea, and Borneo and belongs to the ones (Thomas and Schuiteman 2002). Eastern Malesian. The Scientific knowledge of Sulawesi’s Tropical deforestation has become a major concern for flora both taxonomically and ecologically is still limited the world community. Whole regions in South and Central due to lack botanical research and publication on this America, Africa and Southeast Asia already completely subject (Bass et al. 1990; Keßler 2002), for example the lost their forest or are expected to become deforested in the amount of botanical expedition in Sumatra 20 times than near future (Jepson et al. 2001; Laurence et al. 2001). Sulawesi (Veldkamp and Rifai 1977) but Sulawesi has Based on recent mapping of the forest cover in Indonesia, recently been identified as one of the world’s biodiversity Ministry of Forestry (MoF) has revealed that the rate of the hotspots, especially rich in species found nowhere else in deforestation in Indonesia approximately doubled between the world and under major threat from widespread 1985 and 1997, from less than 1.0 million ha to at least 1.7 deforestation (Pitopang and Gradstein 2003). million ha each year; whereas Sulawesi lost 20% of its Total species richness and endemism of Sulawesi are forest cover in this period (Holmes 2002). comparable to those of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and New Many studies document the loss of biodiversity caused Guinea, in spite of the very different geological history of by modification or clearing of tropical rain forest where Sulawesi and the greater distance of the island to the Human activity is one of the most direct causes of wild mainland (Roos et al. 2004). Whereas the islands of biodiversity loss (WCMC 1992) and may also negatively Borneo, Sumatra and Java had terrestrial connections to affect biotic interactions and ecosystem stability (Steffan- mainland Asia in the past, Sulawesi was always isolated Dewenter and Tscharntke 1999). Introduction of exotic RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi 179 species, overexploitation of biological resources, habitat determining the changes in biodiversity due to human reduction by land use change, pastoral overgrazing, impact. Loss of diversity generally decreases when larger expansion of cultivation, and other human activities are areas are considered; therefore the impact of human common factors and primary agents contributing to the vast activities on plant diversity thus must be interpreted with endangerments and extinctions occurring in the past and in caution (Mooney et al. 1995). the foreseeable future (Kerr and Currie 1995; Pimm et al. This research focused on the structure and composition 1995; Tilman 1999; Palomares 2001; Raffaello 2001). of four land use types differing use intensity at the Lore Human exploitation also causes major changes in the Lindu National Park. The main objective was to determine biodiversity of these forests, even though research on this the taxonomic composition and forest structure of four land subject has been limited and results were often use types. controversial (Whitmore and Sayer 1992; Turner 1996; Kessler 2005). Some studies reveal conspicuously reduced species richness in secondary or degraded rainforests MATERIALS AND METHODS (Parthasarathy 1999; Pitopang et al. 2002), even in over 100 years old regrown forest (Turner et al. 1997), local Study sites extinction of plants (Benitez-Melvido and Martinez-Ramos The study area was located in the surroundings of Toro, 2003) in other studies is increased (Kappelle 1995; a village at the western margin of Lore Lindu NP about 100 Fujisaka et al. 1998). Area size is a crucial factor km south of Palu, the Capital of Central Sulawesi (Figure 1). The data of research was collected from August 2007-March 2009. Detailed information on the climate and soil conditions of this part of Central Sulawesi is not yet available (see Whitten et al. 1987). Gravenhorst et al. (2005) reported that mean annual rainfall in the study area is varied from 1,500 and 3,000 mm, mean relative humidity is 85.17%, monthly mean temperature is 23.40° C. Administratively, this village belong to Kulawi sub-district, Donggala District. This village is accessible by car, truck, motorbike and public car from Palu. As our study area, the margin of the National Park is characterized in many parts by a mosaic of primary forest, primary less disturbed forest, primary more disturbed forest, secondary forests, and several land-use systems with cacao, coffee, maize, and paddy (rice) as the dominating crops (Gerold et al. 2002). The elevation of the selected sites is between 800 m and 1100 m, therefore covering an altitudinal range that belongs to the submontane forest zone (Whitten et al. 1987). Tree diversity was studied in four (4) different land use types with four replicates as follows: (i) Land use type A: undisturbed rain forest. (ii) Land use type B: lightly disturbed rain forest. Natural forest with rattan extraction, rattan palm removed. (iii) Land use type C moderately disturbed rain forest. Selectively logged forest, containing small to medium sized gaps, disturbed ground vegetation and increased abundance of lianas following the selective removal of canopy trees and rattan. (iv) Land use type D; Cacao forest garden, Cacao cultivated under natural Figure 1. Map of study area, Ngata Toro at the western margin of the Lore Lindu shade trees (= remaining forest cover) in National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia the forest margin (Table 1). 180 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 178-189, October 2012

Table 1. Analyses of structural plant diversity; geographic position (measured by GPS Garmin 12), altitude and descriptions of each plot

Exposi- Incli- Canopy Plot Plot Coordinates Altitude tion nation cover Description and remarks Uppe Total Code Locality Longitute (S) Latitude (E) m deg deg r% % Land use type A (undisturbed rain forest) A1 Bulu Kalabui 010 30’. 589 1200 02'. 730 950 SE 30 80 80 Many large trees; on eastern slope of Bulu Kalabui but close to ridge; very sparse understorey and variable exposition A2 Bulu Lonca 010 29’. 518 1200 01'. 596 1080 ESE 25 75 75 Many large trees are reaching a height of approximately 35m, rattan dominating understory, bamboo on lower edge A3 Buku Kalabui 010 30’. 714 1200 02'. 750 950 W 20 80 80 Understory rattan dominated; fairly gentle slope; more slender and lower trees than other plots, even canopy structure; very close to ridge A4 Kawumbu 010 29’. 486 1200 03'. 054 1010 280 < 25 75 80 Single large trees are reaching a height of approximately 35m. Probably colluvium due to variable slope and micro relief. Large rocks on the soil surface. Spring inside plot, canopy very heterogeneous with some extremely large figs, understory relatively dense Land use type B ( lightly disturbed rainforest) B1 Bulu Kuku 010 30’. 053 1200 01'. 653 1050 90 30-40 60- 85 One of the highest plots. Very dense 70 understorey with much Pandanus; steep and large tree fall gap on lower edge; some smaller gaps already detectable B2 Bulu Kalabui 010 30’. 558 1200 02'. 967 840 ESE 25 80 60- Natural forest with very sparse understorey, 70 close to open plantation for precipitation gauge B3 Bulu Kuku 010 29’. 400 1200 01'. 607 1080 30 30 60- 80 Highest and tallest B type. Variable understorey North 70 with obvious timber and rotan extraction B4 Kolewuri 010 29’. 202 1200 02'. 821 1000 270 35 80 80 Steep with light understorey. Fairly moist with tall and slender trees but only little rotan Land use type C ( moderately disturbed rain forest) C1 Bulu Lonca 010 29’. 490 1200 01'.738 1000 200 30 40 60 One large older treefall gap and smaller gaps from extracted timber. Variable relief and understorey C2 Kolewuri 010 29’. 721 1200 02'.802 990 30 20-40 30 60 There are some big tree such as Anthocephalus sp, Pterospermum sp, variable in relief, dense understory with also treefall gaps and moist soil C3 Above Dusun 010 30’. 441 1200 01'.373 1000 SSW 30-40 50 60 Soil very rocky and dry. On upper slope below Tujuh clear cut (precipitation gauge?); Understorey dense, extremely steep and far from Toro core area C4 Bulu Kamonua 010 22’. 525 1200 02'.170 1040 E 25 40 60 Evenly spaced gaps from timber extraction, understorey not too dense, little rattan Land use type D ( Cacao forest garden) D1 Foot of Lonca 010 29’. 649 1200 02'.134 840 NE 25-40 10 30 Owned by Pak Berwin; worst plot, large gap on lower side without cocoa; steep slope beneath plot towards creek with secondary vegetation. Sparsely spread cocoa, high degree of grass cover, few shade trees, very steep. Northern border transition into E-type plantation. D2 Kaha 010 30’. 072 1200 01'.761 920 E 0-20 15 50 Owned by Pak Abia; flattest type at highest elevation; one large gap of shade trees in center, trees very tall and at upper boundary; variable ground cover D3 Kauboga 010 29’. 900 1200 01'.821 840 10 30-35 35- 65 Owned by Pak Penga; evenly spaced cocoa 40 trees with few gaps and partly dense herbal undergrowth on even slope. Situated on lower edge of forest. Nearby opening as chance for precipitation gauge D4 Foot of Bulu 010 31. 047’ 1200 01'.986 815 200 30-40 50- 75 Owned by Pak Ambi; steep with thick leaf litter Kalabui 60 layer and very little herbal undergrowth, highest shade tree cover with small gaps (some shade trees already ringed, some planted or secondary?) cocoa densely planted (< 80%) especially on lower slope RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi 181

Sampling protocol RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Plots size and sampling designed according to standardized protocols (Wright et al. 1997; Milliken 1998; Species diversity Srinivas and Parthasarathy 2000; Kessler et al. 2005; Small Statistically, the averages of number of species, genera, et al. 2004). Plot size was determined by the minimum area families, Shanon diversity index (H’), native species, curve (Suryanegara and Wirawan, 1986) and was 50 x 50 timber tree, stem and basal area of tree did not differ m with four (4) replicates. Each plot was subdivided into among land use type A, B and C but was significantly 25 subplots of 10 x 10 m² each and all trees dbh > 10 cm different with D. The mean species number of tree was were recorded. In these subplots (recording units), highest in land use type B (58.0±8), followed by land use individually all big trees (dbh > 10 cm) was numbered with type A (55.8±5.5) and type C (48.3±4.0). Cacao aluminum tags and their position in the plot mapped, crown plantations, however, had significantly lower species base crown diameter and dbh measured, and trunk as well numbers, with 20.8±7.8 tree species in cacao forest as total height estimated. Furthermore, profile diagram of gardens. forest both vertical and horizontal was made by using Roughly one third of the tree species in the forest plots “Hand drawing methods” (Laumonier 1997). (15-20 spp.) were of economic importance as commercial All recognizable morphospecies of trees were collected timber trees; of these, 4-5 were major timber species and in sets of at least seven duplicates. Plant collecting was the rest minor ones. Timber diversity was little affected by according to the “Schweinfurth method” (Bridson and moderate human use of the forest but was significantly Forman 1999). Additional voucher specimens of plant reduced in cacao forest gardens and dropped to near zero in material with flowers or fruits were collected for cacao plantations. identification purposes. Processing of the specimens was conducted at Herbarium Celebense (CEB), University of Taxonomic composition Tadulako, Palu. Identification was done in the field, in Tree species at land use type A are mainly dominated CEB, and the Herbarium Bogoriense (BO), Bogor. by Palaquium quercifolium (Sapotaceae) and followed by Vouchers were deposited in CEB, with duplicates in BO, Castanopsis acuminatissima and Lithocarpus celebicus GOET, L and BIOT. (both Fagaceae), Ficus trachypison, Chionanthus laxiflorus (Oleaceae) and Dysoxylum densiflorum (Meliaceae), Aglaia argentea (Meliaceae), Horsfieldia costulata Data analyses (Myristicaceae), Meliosma sumatrana (Sabiaceae), and Basal Area (BA), Relative Density (RD), Relative Dysoxylum alliaceum (Meliaceae). Sapling species are Frequency (RF), Relative Dominance (RDo.), and presented by Capparis pubiflora (Capparidaceae), importance value indices (IVI) were calculated and Castanopsis accuminatisima, Horsfieldia costulata, Ardisia analyzed according to the formulae Dumbois-Muller and celebica etc At the family level the forest was dominated Ellenberg (Soerianegara and Indrawan 1988; Setiadi et al. by Fagaceae, Sapotaceae, Meliaceae and Lauraceae. At the 2001). land use type B tree species mostly dominated by Basal area (m²) is the area occupied by a cross-section Neonauclea intercontinentalis, Palaquium quercifolium, P. of stem at breast height (1.3 m) = [3.14 x (dbh/2)²] obovatum, Pandanus sarasinorum, Meliosma sumatrana Absolute values so obtained may be transcribed to etc. Whereas, sapling species is dominated by Pandanus relative values: sarasinorum, Pinanga aurantiaca, Horsfieldia costulata, Areca vestiaria etc. The predominant species in moderately No. of individuals of a species disturbed forest (type C) were Oreocnide rubescens Relative density (%) = ------X 100 (Urticaceae), Castanopsis accuminatisima, Lithocarpus Total no. of individuals in sample celebicus, Pandanus sarasinorum, Neonuclea interconti- nentalis and Canarium hirsutum (Burseraceae). Sapling species are Lithocarpus celebicus, Oreocnide rubescens, Basal area of a species Castanopsis accuminatisima, Dysoxylum nutans, Relative dominance (%) = ------X 100 Dysoxylum alliaceum etc. Total basal area in sample Tree species in cacao forest garden (type D) mainly represented by Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae), Coffea Sampling units containing a species robusta (Rubiaceae.), Turpinia sphaerocarpa (Staphylia- Relative frequency (%) = ------X 100 ceae), Horsfieldia costulata (Myristicaceae), Arenga Sum of all frequencies pinnata (Arecaceae), Meliosma sumatrana, Melicope cf. confusa (Rutaceae) and Oreocnide rubescens. At the family level, the taxonomic composition of the habitat types showed major differences. Undisturbed Importance Value Index (IVI) for a species is the sum natural forest (land use type A) was dominated by of its relative density, relative dominance, and relative Sapotaceae, Fagaceae, Meliaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, frequency (Soerianegara and Indrawan 1988; Setiadi et al. Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Arecaceae and 2001). Oleaceae while Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae, Lauraceae and Annonaceae 182 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 178-189, October 2012 were the most common tree families in disturbed forest individuals of this species can be reach up to 40 m in (land use types B and C). In the cacao forest garden with height. moderate use intensity (D) was dominated by At the land use type B (lightly disturbed forest) Sterculiaceae, Moraceae, Rubiaceae, Staphyleaceae, recorded the other top canopy species such as Neonuclea Euphorbiaceae, Cunoniaceae and Myristicaceae. intercontinentalis, Artocarpus elasticus, Elmerrillia ovalis, and Magnolia champaca. Contrary to two forest types as Forest structure and profile diagram mentioned before that there was no any emergent/ top Forest structure and profile diagram of these studied canopy tree species founded at the land use type C land use types were provided in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 (moderate use intensity), but only Palaquium quercifolium, The analyses of forest structure revealed considerable Castanopsis accuminatisima, Canarium hirsutum, and a differences in canopy height where tree species with height strangler Ficus sp with height not more than 30 m. >30 m (emergent/top canopy species) was greater at the The middle canopy species (>20 dbh <30 m) which undisturbed rain forest (11.22%) and then followed by land found at the forests (type A, B and C) are mostly presented use type B (8.7%) and C (3.9%). On the other side, only a by Artocarpus vriesiana, Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis, few tree species > 30 m in height at the land use type D Knema celebica, Goniothalamus brevicuspis, Aglaia (0.9%), the middle canopy species (height 20.1-30 m) was argentea, Horsfieldia costulata, Chionanthus laxiflorus, higher at land use type B (16.35%) and C (13.8%) and Semecarpus forstenii, Sarcosperma paniculata, Litsea followed by A (11.11%), D (7.4%). Contrary to the top formanii, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Syzygium canopy species, the undergrowth species (<10 m in height) accuminatisima, Dysoxylum alliaceum, Pandanus was lower at the land use type A (undisturbed rain forest) polycephalus, Litsea densiflora, Trema orientalis, and gradually increased from type B to D. The greater tree Broussonetia papyrifera and Mangifera foetida, Gironniera height in undisturbed rain forest (type A) and type B reflect subaequalis, Astronia macrophylla, Ficus miquelii, that many originally top canopy trees persisted in these Nauclea ventricosa, Acer laurinum, Santiria laevigata, land use type. Lithocarpus celebicus and Dracontomelon mangiferum. At the land use type A (undisturbed natural rain forest), The lower canopy species were mainly composed by we recorded some top canopy tree species (with >30 m in Orophea celebica, Mitrephora celebica, Baccaurea height) such as Palaquium quercifolium, Palaquium tetrandra, Goniothalamus brevicuspis, Meliosma obovatum, Castanopsis accuminatisima, Lithocarpus sumatrana, Gnetum gnemon, Siphonodon celastrineus, celebicus, Bischofia javanica, Octomeles sumatrana, Antidesma celebica, Dracaena arborea, Dracaena Cinnamomum parthenoxylon, Pangium edule, angustifolia, Aglaia silvestris, Geunsia sp., Sterculia Pterospermum celebicum, Aglaia argentea, Dysoxylum sp, oblongata, Macadamia hildebrandii, Goniothalamus Chionanthus ramiflorus, Ficus sp. and Polyscias nodosa. macrophyllus, Arenga pinnata, Picrasma javanica, Palaquium quercifolium is one of tree species widely Calophyllum soulatrii and Macaranga hispida. distributed at the land use type A, B and C which several

Figure 2. Relative distribution of height class among trees in the four studied Land use types. Error bars indicated + standard error. Notes: > 30 m = Top canopy species 20.1-30 m = meddle canopy species, 10.1- 20 m = lower canopy species, <10 m = undergrowth species.

Figure 3.Relative distribution of diameter class among trees in the six studied land use types. Error bars indicated + standard error. RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi 183

Figure 4. Profile diagram of land use type A (presented by column 5A to 5E of plot A2). Goniothalamus brevicuspis (122), Palaquium quercifolium (200, 201, 208), Beilschmiedia gigantocarpa (123), Baccaurea tetrandra (124), Meliosma sumatrana (125), Antidesma celebicum (126), Semecarpus forstenii (127, 194, 205, 2012, 2022), Macadamia hildebrandii (128), Myristica kjellbergii (129, 215, 217), Pinanga aurantiaca (130,132, 216), Arytera littoralis (131), Castanopsis accuminatisima (121, 213, 214, 2025, 2026), Artocarpus vriesiana (196), Litsea sp (197), Pometia pinnata (198), Dysoxylum parasiticum (199), Chionanthus laxiflorus (202), Horsfieldia costulata (203, 210, 268), Ficus sp (204, 270), Ficus variegata (207), Pandanus lauterbachii (209), Litsea ferruginea (211), Sterculia longifolia (212), Ardisia celebica (218), Elaeocarpus sp (269), Calophyllum soulatrii (271), Litsea formanii (2021), Pisonia umbellifera (2028), Aglaia sp (2024). 184 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 178-189, October 2012

Figure 5. Profile diagram of land use type B (presented by column 5A to 5E of plot B1 at Bulu kuku). Elaeocarpus angustifolius ( 454, 577, 663, 670, 671, 674, 680, 685), Garcinia dulcis (455,575), Antidesma stipulare (457), Chionanthus laxiflorus (458), Pterospermum celebicum (459), Macaranga tanarius (460, 461, 462, 682, 683), Sterculia oblongata (464), Horsfieldia costulata (465, 466, 568, 687), Pandanus sarasinorum ( 467, 468, 469, 561, 562, 565, 566, 569, 662, 688), Koordersiodendron pinnatum (560), Neonauclea lanceolata (563), Elmerrillia ovalis (564), Artocarpus vriesiana (567), Ficus sp (570,676), Meliosma sumatrana (571, 574), Dysoxylum alliaceum (576, 580, 665, 669), Goniothalamus brevicuspis (578), Aglaia silvestris (579), Dracaena angustifolia (581), Litsea formanii (664, 668, 686), Litsea oppositifolia (666), Gouia sp. (673), Neonauclea intercontinentalis (677), Picrasma javanica (678), Baccaurea tetrandra (679), Polyalthia glauca (681), Dehaasia celebica (689) and Litsea ferruginea (668, 690). RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi 185

Figure 6. Profile diagram of land use type C (presented by column 2A to 2E of plot C4). Macadamia hildebrandii (2A-1), Aglaia exelca (2A-2), Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis (2A-3, 2B-2), Mitrephora celebica (2A-4, 478), Aglaia silvestris (2A-5), Lithocarpus celebicus (2A-6, 2A-9, 2A-12, 2A-13), 491, 492, 493), Litsea albayana (2B-1), Dysoxylum alliaceum (2B-4, 6, 7, 479), Acer laurinum (2B-5), Castanopsis accuminatisima (476, 477, 475, 494, 495, 496), Elaeocarpus sp (490), Horsfieldia costulata (474), Pandanus sarasinorum (441), Sterculia oblongata (432), Pisonia umbellifera (436), Phaleria costata (487), Picrasma javanica (438). 186 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 178-189, October 2012

Figure 7. Profile diagram of land use type D which is presented by column 1A to 1E of plot D4. Ae = Artocarpus elasticus, Tc = Theobroma cacao, Av = Artocarpus vriesiana, Ge = Geunsia sp., Cr = Coffea robusta, Ml = Melicope latifolia, To = Trema orientalis, Ap = Aphanamixis polystachya, Da = Dracaena arborea, Hc = Horsfieldia costulata. RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi 187

The small tree/ treelet or undergrowth species (<10 cm Alseodaphne sp. (Lauraceae), Artocarpus teysmanii or “tea in height) are composed by Timonius minahassae, Ardisia uru”, Artocarpus elasticus or “tea” (Moraceae), Artocarpus celebica, Dehaasia celebica, Pinanga caesea, Areca integer, (Moraceae), Beilschmiedia gigantocarpa vestiaria, Pinanga aurantifolia, Caryota mytis, Oreocnide (Lauraceae), Canarium hirsutum (Burseraceae), Canarium rubescens, Dendrocnide stimulant, Dysoxylum nutans, balsamiferum (Burseraceae), Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Antidesma stipulare, Lasianthus sp, Arenga undulatifolia, (Lauraceae), Cryptocarya crassinerviopsis (Lauraceae), Eurya accuminata, Capparis pubiflora, Ficus gul, Garcinia Lithocarpus grandifolius (Fagaceae), Dracontomelon dao parviflora, Fagraea racemosa, Tabernaemontana (Anacardiaceae), Fragraea racemosa (Loganiaceae), sphaerocarpa, Euonymus javanicus, Homalium javanicum Gymnacranthera sp. (Myristicaceae), Lithocarpus and one tree fern species is Cyathea amboinensis. celebicus (Fagaceae), Litsea spp (Lauraceae), Myristica In contrast to the land use type A, We were not found fatua (Myristicaceae), Octomeles sumatrana (Datiscaceae), any emergent/top canopy species at three cacao plantations. Sterculia oblongata (Sterculiaceae), Santiria laevigata For example, at the land use type D (cacao cultivated under (Burseraceae), etc. Generally, the timber tree species was natural shade trees) there were only some big tree species found at the research site of Toro, LLNP mainly belong to such as Turpinia sphaerocarpa, Trema orientalis, the important non Dipterocarp trees (Soerianegara and Artocarpus teysmanii, Artocarpus vriesiana, Bischofia Lemmens 1993; Lemmens et al. 1995; Sosef et al. 1998). javanica, Ficus variegata, Astronia macrophylla and Besides that, both Neonauclea spp and Mussaendopsis Lithocarpus celebicus but they can not reach more than 30 celebica (Rubiaceae) “pawa”, were two economic tree m in height. species with heavy and good in quality which have been used locally for long time by the local people for Discussion construction, whereas Cacao, coffee and other fruit trees The analyses of forest structure revealed considerable owned by many families at Toro as their cash income, differences in canopy height (Figure 2 and 3) where tree besides collection of sap from the Arenga pinnata (“aren species with height >30 m (emergent/top canopy species) palm”) is an important source of income for some families. was greater at the undisturbed rain forest (11.22%) and The sap is collected in bamboo pole and a single tapped then followed by land use type B (8.7%) and C (3.9%). tree can produce up to 6 liters a day. The sap can be drunk Structure and composition of Sulawesi’s forest is rather directly but more often is boiled down to make palm sugar different to other islands (Keßler 2002). The investigated or fermented to produce palm wine (saguer). undisturbed rain forests around Toro, the emergent tree Taxonomically, the investigated forests (types A-C) species were composed by Palaquium quercifolium, around Toro were mainly dominated by Palaquium Palaquium obovatum, Castanopsis accuminatisima, quercifolium, P. obovatum, Castanopsis acuminatissima, Lithocarpus celebicus, Bischofia javanica, Octomeles Lithocarpus celebicus, and Neonauclea intercontinentalis. sumatrana, Pangium edule, Pterospermum celebicum, According to Keβler et al. (2002) and Keßler (2002) the Aglaia argentea, Chionanthus ramiflorus, and Polyscias genus Palaquium is represented by eight species in nodosa. Laumonier (1997) reported the emergent tree Sulawesi. Palaquium obovatum is common and widespread species in the lowland forest of Jambi (Sumatra) mainly throughout Sulawesi but P. quercifolium is rare in Sulawesi represented by fifteen dipterocarp species, three and was previously only recorded from the southern Anacardiaceae species and one species of Apocynaceae. province. Both Palaquium species appear to be common in Some of them are Anisoptera costata, Anisoptera laevis, Lore Lindu National Park where they form tall trees up to Anisoptera marginata, Dipterocarpus crinitus, Hopea 40 m high. Castanopsis acuminatissima is common and dryobalanoides, Shorea acuminate, Shorea ovalis, widespread in Sulawesi and is one of two chestnut species Mangifera rigida, Mangifera torquenda, Pentaspadon known from the island, the other one being Castanopsis velutinus and Dyera costulata. buruana. Lithocarpus celebicus is endemic to Sulawesi and The timber volume was highest in land use type A widespread in the island, including Lore Lindu National (undisturbed rain forest) and gradually decreased with Park. Neonauclea intercontinentalis, finally, seems to be increased forest disturbance, and again towards forest common in Sulawesi (Keβler et al. 2002) and is one of gardens and was lowest in plantations. This result indicated about 20 timber species of the large family Rubiaceae (ca. that there were many large tree species in the land use type 600 genera, 10.000 species) in Sulawesi. Other important A than other land use type. Some of tree species in land use timber species of Rubiaceae recorded in the forest near type A are mainly belong to mayor commercial timber such as Toro include Anthocephalus macrophyllus and Palaquium quercifolium, Palaquium obovatum (Sapotaceae) Mussaendopsis celebica. The latter two are endemic known as “nyatoh” or “nantu” (“trade name”), Pterospermum species of Sulawesi and are representatives of the eastern celebicum (Sterculiaceae) or “bayur”, Dysoxylum spp. Malesian element in the island. (Meliaceae) or “tahiti”, Madhuca sp. (Sapotaceae), Aglaia The number of endemic species is different among all korthalsii, Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae) or “pulai”, land use types where endemic trees were best represented Calophyllum soulatrii (Clusiaceae), beside that there were in the three forest types with 6-10 species per plot, and tree species as minor timber such as Elmerrillia ovalis declined strongly in the three cacao agroforestry systems (Magnoliaceae) or “cempaka”, Bischofia javanica with 0-6 species per plot. This pattern was partly a result of (Euphorbiaceae) “balintunga or pepolo”, Mussaendopsis the lower overall native tree diversity in the cacao celebica (Rubiaceae), Ailanthus sp. (Rubiaceae), agroforestry systems. When the percentage of endemic 188 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 178-189, October 2012 species was considered, then the cacao forest gardens did appreciation to Prof. Stephan R. Gradstein (Paris Museum, not differ significantly (0-20% endemic species) from the France), H. Sahabuddin Mustapa (RIP), formerly the three forest types (10-20%), and only the two cacao Rector of Universitas Tadulako Palu. Finally I would like systems with planted trees had significantly reduced to thank an anonymous reviewer for the critical and percentages of endemic trees (0-13%). Endemic species are suggestion on this manuscript. of considerable conservation concern and represent about 15% of the tree flora of Sulawesi (Keßler et al. 2002). This overall value is in good accordance with the percentages REFERENCES recorded by us at the plot level, with 10-20% of the native tree species recorded in the three forest types and the cacao Baas P, Kalkman K, Geesink R. (eds). 1990. The plant diversity of forest gardens being endemic to the island. The Malesia. Kluwer, Dordrecht. Benitez-Malvido J, Martinez-Ramos M. 2003. Impact of forest representation of endemic species declined strongly to 0- fragmentation on understorey plant species richness in Amazonia. 13% in the two types of cacao plantations, however, Conserv Biol 17 (2): 389-400 showing that endemic species are more susceptible to Bridson D, Forman L. 1999. The Herbarium Handbook. Third edition. severe habitat disturbances than widespread taxa. This is in Royal Botanic Gardends. Kew, London. Fujisaka S, Escobar G, Veneklaas GE. 1998. Plant community diversity accordance with general hypotheses on the vulnerability of relative to human land uses in an Amazon forest colony. Biodiv endemic plants to habitat modifications (Kruckeberg and Conserv 7: 41-57. Rabinovitz 1985). Gerold G, Fremery M, Leuschner C, Guhardja E. 2002. Land use, nature Secondary forests, regenerating after clear-felling, were conservation, and the stability of rainforest margins in Southeast Asia. Storma, Bogor. not included in the present study but were treated by Gravenhorst G, Ibroms A, Rauf A et al. (2005) Climatological parameters Pitopang et al. (2002). These forests stand out by their total in the research area—supporting measurements and regionalization. lack of large trees and the abundance of thin-stemmed STORMA research report. University of Gottingen, Gottingen. trees. The high richness of trees 5 cm in secondary forests Hall R. 1995. The plate tectonics of Cenozoic SE Asia and the distribution of land and sea. In: Hall R, Holloway JD (eds.). Biogeography and showed that this forest type has the potential to recover a geological evolution of SE Asia. Backhuys, Leiden considerable richness, if allowed to mature. In terms of Holmes DA. 2002. Where have all the forest gone? Environment and taxonomic composition, the abundance of Meliaceae, Social Development East Asia, Pasific region Disccusion paper. The Lauraceae, and Moraceae appeared to be considerably World Bank. Washington D.C. Jepson P, Jarvie JK, MacKinnon K, Monk KA. 2001. The end for reduced in secondary forests relative to primary forests, Indonesia’s lowland rainforest? Science 292, 859-861 whereas in Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae and Ulmaceae it was Kappelle M, Kennis PAF, de Vries RAJ. 1995. Changes in diversity along increased. The latter families are typical fast-growing a successional gradient in a Costa Rican upper montane Quercus pioneer taxa of early successional stages throughout the forest. Biodiv Conserv 4: 10-34. Kerr JT, Currie DJ. 1995. Effects of human activity on global extinction tropics (Turner 2001; Slik 1998) that are of little economic risk. Conserv Biol 9: 1528-1538. interest. Kessler M, Keßler PJA, Gradstein SR, Bach K, Schmull M, Pitopang R. 2005. Tree diversity in primary forest and different land use systems in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiv Conserv 14: 547-560. Keßler PJA, Bos MM, Sierra Daza SEC, Willemse LPM, Pitopang R, CONCLUSION Gradstein SR. 2002. A checklist of the woody plants of Sulawesi, Indonesia. Blumea, Supplement 14: 1-160. In conclusion, we found that moderate human use of the Keßler PJA. 2002. Tree Flora of Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Storma, Bogor. forest ecosystems by rattan and selected timber extraction Kruckeberg AR, Rabinovitz D. 1985. Biological aspects of endemism in did not result in significant decreases of tree biodiversity, higher plants. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 16: 447-479. but the forest structure and its composition were differ Laumonier Y. 1997. The vegetation and physiography of Sumatra. among land use type. Number of endemism of tree Kluwer, Dordrecht. Laurence WF, Cochrane MA, Bergen S, Fearnside PM, Delamonica P. species was higher in primary forest and it was strongly 2001. The future of the Brazillian Amazon. Science 291, 438-836 reduced to cacao forest garden, although percentage Lemmens RHMJ, Soerianegara I, Wong WC. (Eds.). 1995. Plant endemism did not decline significantly in cacao forest Resources of South East Asia (PROSEA). Timber trees: No. 5 (2). gardens. Roughly one third of tree species in the forest Minor commercial timbers. Backhuys Publisher, Leiden. Milliken W. 1998. Structure and Composition of one hectare of Central plots were of economic importance as commercial timber Amazonian Tire Firma Forest. Biotropica 30 (4); 530-537 trees; timber diversity was little affected by moderate Mooney HA, Lubchenco J, Dirzo R, Sala OE. 1995. Biodiversity and human use of the forest but was significantly reduced in ecosystem functioning: basic principles. In: Heywood VH, Watson cacao forest gardens. RT. (eds) Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Moss SJ, Wilson MEJ (1998) Biogeographic implications of the Tertiary palaeogeographic evolution of Sulawesi and Borneo. In: Hall R, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Holloway JD (eds) Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia. Backhuys, Leiden. Palomares F. 2001)Vegetation structure and prey abundance requirements Fieldwork was kindly supported by Department of of the Iberian lynx: implications for the design of reserves and National Education Republic of Indonesia through the corridors. J Appl Ecol 38: 9-18. BPPS Scholarship was provided by Directorate General of Parthasarathy N. 1999. Tree diversity and distribution in undisturbed and Higher Education and Collaborative Research Centre 552 human-impacted sites of tropical wet evergreen forest in the southern Wastern Ghats, India. Biodiv Conserv 8: 1365-1381. at the University of Gottingen, funded by German Research Pimm SL, Russell GJ, Gittelman JL, Brooks T. 1995. The future of Foundation (DFG). R. Pitopang expresses his gratitude and biodiversity. Science 269: 347-350. RAMADHANIL – Disturbance on tropical rainforest of Central Sulawesi 189

Pitopang R, Gradstein SR, Guhardja E, Keßler PJA, Wiriadinata H. 2002. Srinivas V, Parthasaranthy N. 2000. Comparative analyses of tree Tree composition in secondary forest of Lore Lindu National Park, diversity and dispersion in the tropical lowland evergreen forest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. In: Gerold G, Fremery M, Guhardja E Agumbe, Central Western Ghats, India.c Trop Biodiv 7 (1): 45-60 (eds.). Land use, Nature Conservation and the Stability of Rainforest Steffan-Dewenter I, Tscharntke T. 1999. Effects of habitat isolation on Margins in Southeast Asia. Springer, Berlin. pollinator communities and seed set. Oecologia 121: 432-440. Pitopang R, Gradstein SR. 2003. Herbarium Celebense (CEB) and its role Thomas S, Schuiteman A. 2002. Orchids of Sulawesi and Maluku, a in supporting research on plant diversity of Sulawesi. Biodiversitas 5: preliminary catalogue. Lindleyana 17: 1-72. 36-41. Tilman D. 1999. Diversity by default. Science 283: 495-496. Raffaello C. 2001. Biodiversity in the Balance: Land Use, National Turner IM, Wong YK, Chew PT, bin Ibrahim A. 1997. Tree species Development and Global Welfare. The World Bank, Washington, richness in primary and old secondary tropical forest in Singapore. DC, and University College, London. Biodiv Conserv 6: 237-543 Roos MC, Keßler PJA, Gradstein SR, Baas P (2004) Species diversity and Turner IM. 1996. Species loss in fragments of tropical rain forests: a endemism of five major Malesian islands: diversity—area review of the evidence. J Appl Ecol 33: 200-209 relationships. J Biogeogr 31: 1893-1908 Turner IM. 2001. The Ecology the Tropical Rainforest. Cambridge Setiadi D, Qoyim I, Muhandiono H. 2001. Guidance for Practical University Press, Cambridge, UK. Ecology. Ecology Laboratory. Department of Biology. FMNS, Bogor Van Balgooy MMJ, Hovenkamp PH, Welzen PC. 1996. Phytogeography Agricultural University, Bogor. [Indonesia] of the Pasific- Floristic and historical distribution pattern in plant. In: Skole D, Tucker C. 1993. Tropical deforestation and habitat fragmentation Keast A, Miller SA (eds). The origin and evolution of Pasific island in the Amazon: satellite data from 1978 to 1988. Science 260: 1905- biotas. New Guinea to eastern Polynesia; pattern and process. SPB 1910 Academic Publishing bv., Amsterdam Slik JWF (1998) Three new Malesian species of Mallotus section Hancea Van Steenis CGGJ. 1979. Plant-geography of East Malesia. Bot J Linn (Euphorbiaceae). Blumea 43: 225-232. Soc 79: 97-178. Small A, Martin TG, Kitching RL, Wong KM. 2004. Contribution of tree Veldkamp JFMC, Rifai MA. 1977. Flora Malesiana Bulletin 12 (1-2). species to he biodiversity of a ha old world rainforest in Brunei, Leiden; Rijkherbarium Borneo. Biodiv Conserv 13: 2067-2088. WCMC [World Conservation and Monitoring Center]. 1992. Global Soerianegara I, Indrawan A. 1988. Forest Ecology Indonesia. Forest Biodiversity: Status of the Earth’s Living Resources. Chapman & Ecology Laboratory. Faculty of Forestry. Bogor Agricultural Hall, London. University, Bogor. [Indonesia] Whitmore TC, Sayer JA (eds). 1992. Tropical Deforestation and Species Soerianegara I, Lemmens RHMJ (eds.). 1993. Plant Resources of South extinction. Chapman & Hall, London. East Asia (PROSEA). Timber trees: majors commercial timbers. No. Whitten AJ, Mustafa M, Henderson GS. 1987. The Ecology of Sulawesi. 5 (1). Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen. Gadjah Mada Univ. Press, Yogyakarta. Sosef MSM, Hong LT, Prawirohatmojo S (eds.). 1998. Plant Resources of Wright DD, Jessen JH, Burke P, de Silva Garza HG. 1997. Tree and Liana South East Asia (PROSEA). No.5 (2). Timber trees: Lesser-known Enumeration and Diversity on a One-Hectare plot in Papua New timbers. Backhuys Publisher, Leiden. Guinea. J. Biotropica 29 (3): 250-260. BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722 Pages: 190-194 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130404

Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, Iran

MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM1,♥, MAJEED JAFARY1, MOSTAFA BAYATI1, REIHANEH REYAHI-KHORAM2 1Department of Environment, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran, P.O.BOX: 65138-734, Professor Mosivand st., Hamadan, Iran Tel: +988114494170, Fax: +988114494170, ♥ email: [email protected] 2Department of Agricultural Engineering Food Industries, Qazvin Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qazvin, Iran.

Manuscript received: 17 June 2012. Revision accepted: 6 September 2012.

ABSTRACT

Reyahi-Khoram M, Jafary M, Bayati M, Reyahi-Khoram R. 2012. Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, Iran. Biodiversitas 14: 190-194. Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) is regarded as one of the genetic reserves of Hamadan province in Iran. BMA is highly important regarding variety of plant and animal species, but limited research work has been performed in this area in the field of biodiversity. Identifying the unique ecologic talents and capabilities and aesthetics of BMA is the most important objective of this study. This research was conducted during 2010 through 2011 in BMA to identify various plant and animal species through documentary and also direct field observations. With direct referring to the various regions of the studied area, plant samples were collected from different slope position and transported to field laboratory units. Sampling was made for every 20 meters increase in the height of area. Animal species of the area were identified too. Based on the results, about 44 valuable plant species, 45 species of birds as well as 7 species of mammals have been identified in BMA. It is recommended that the area be declared an A prohibited hunting area by Department of Environment (DoE) of Iran for the conservation of flora and fauna in the study area.

Key words: biodiversity, ecotourism, environment, habitat, pasture

INTRODUCTION The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternative form of health care and the development of microbial Hamadan province with a long history and record in resistance to the classical antibiotics led researchers to traditional medicine was shown as one of the main centers investigate the antimicrobial activity of several medicinal of production and supply of herbal plants in Iran. The tomb plants (Ulukanli and Akkaya 2011). Also, demand for of eminent Iranian scientist and medicine, Avicenna (Ibn traditional food plants has increased significantly over Sina), is located in the heart of Hamadan city. The province recent years, particularly so over the past decade. Many covering 19,493 square kilometers and is located in the species of traditional food plants have been utilized by west of Iran, 320 km far from Tehran with a population of native people of the world. Hamadan province with a range 1.7 million, has varied pastures and natural resources of these plant species has the potential to provide a (Reyahi-Khoram and Karami-Nour 2010). Based on the valuable source of Traditional food plants in the area. available information, the flora of Hamadan province These traditional vegetables have the potential to provide a includes 6000 species of which 315 species related to 71 valuable source of nutrition in areas with hot or dry families and 209 genus are valuable plant drug, of which climates. They could fill a valuable niche in the production 159 species have traditional usage in the province and 156 of food in rural areas where the climate is not favorable to species are out of traditional and indigenous use but they the production of vegetables. But, most of the exotic are called medicinal plants in drug resources (Kalvandi et vegetables require large amounts of water for successful al. 2007). Medicinal plants are widely used by the production. In areas where people have to walk long indigenous people in the treatment of various diseases distances to collect their water, most water is used for (Russell-Smith 2006; Suneetha 2006; Mirutse-Giday 2009; domestic purposes and there is very little available for use Rihawy 2010; Tilahun-Teklehaymanot 2010; Nadembega on a vegetable garden. 2011). In Iran, Medicinal plants are as a basic element of Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) is regarded as one of the medical system. In the other word, medicinal plants are a genetic reserves of the province, and has a special status in source for a wide variety of natural antioxidants. These this regard. Although BMA is highly important regarding resources are usually regarded as part of cultural traditional variety of plant and animal species, but limited research knowledge (Shahidi 2004; Bouayed 2007; Koochak 2010; work has been performed in this area in the field of Mosaddegh 2012). biodiversity. Therefore, it is necessary to identifying and introducing various plant and animal species and the importance of mentioned region. Identifying the unique REYAHI-KHORAM et al. – Biodiversity of Buqaty Mountain Area, Iran 191 ecologic talents and capabilities and aesthetics of BMA is (Demers 2009). With direct referring to the various regions the most important objective of this study. Other objectives of the studied area, plant samples were collected from include introducing plant and animal species of this area. different slope position and packaged and transported to The said research may provide a means of identifying the field laboratory unit. Sampling was made for every 20 threatened species and critically endangered species and meters increase in the height of area. Rectangular sampling also determine the effective causes of protecting and or quadrate sampler unit was taken with a 100 square survival of the said species and may contribute to meters (10m x 10m). Plant samples were collected in full improvement of the programming and management overall form including stem, root, leave, and fruit and also seed study area. parts of plants. Before sampling, the ecology and biology form of every species was recorded directly. Plants were identified according to the appearance of stem, flower and MATERIALS AND METHODS or leaf. Then the collected species were compared to the scientific literature available and every species were This research was conducted during 2010 through 2011 identified separately. Key methods for identifying various in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) to identify various plant plant species in this area including the color of flower, the and animal species through documentary, extensive field size of leaf, the time of flowering, species more or less visits and also direct field observations during the years of prickly, existence or non-existence of fuzz in the leaves or study. Through the period, using the map, Global stem and right or branched vertical roots (Mozaffarian Positioning System (GPS) and in some cases through afoot 2006). Animal species of the area were identified by direct surveying or using car, the geographical location of BMA observation, using the viewpoints of native people and also was identified. To evaluate the climatology status of the experts of Kabodarahang City Environment Protection area, data of meteorology organization was used. Means, Department (Mansoori 2001). Regarding that the said area the data of the nearest meteorology stations to the BMA is not under management of Department of Environment including Khomigan and Nojeh Meteorology Stations were (DoE), Iran the native people and tourists appeared used. The analyses are based on the 21 years of available extensively in the area. This caused improper enumeration meteorological records of Khomigan and Nojeh stations. of animal species by the team members in the process of For general identification of the area, digital maps and identification and this is one of the major constraints of this Geographic Information System (GIS) were used and on research. this basis, the topological status of the area was identified

Hamadan Province

A Iran, Islamic Republic Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA)

Razan Zarivar Wetland Township

B 15 km C

Figure 1. Location of the study area, A. Hamadan Province, Iran, B. Razan Township, C. Buqaty mountain area 192 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 190-194, October 2012

Table 1. List of plant species in BMA highest point in the said area is located in 48°, Species Family Uses 41', 30.48" eastern longitude and 35°, 32', 49.20" northern latitude. The general height of Achillea tenuifolia Asteraceae (Compositae) Medical plant the area is reduced toward the south and is then Alcea ficifolia Malvaceae Medical plant led to Kabodarahang plain (Figure 1). Based on Alkanna bracteosa Boraginaceae Medical plant the data gathered from the nearest meteorology Allium haemanthoides Liliaceae Food plant Astragalus michauxii Papilionaceae Pasture plant stations, the average annual precipitation in the Astragalus onobrychis Papilionaceae Pasture plant mentioned area is about 302 mm per year, the Astragalus senilis Papilionaceae Pasture plant annual average of air temperature is 10.7°C, the Chaerophyllum aureum Umbelliferae Food plant maximum average is 18.4°C, the minimum Chamaemelum nobile Asteraceae (Compositae) Food plant average is 3.4°C, and the average annual Cirsium osseticum Asteraceae (Compositae) Food plant evaporation is 1682 mm. There are several Erigeron acer Asteraceae (Compositae) Medical plant natural springs dispersed among the mountains Francoeuria undulata Asteraceae (Compositae) Medical plant and has caused massive amount tourists chose Geranium collinum Geraniaceae Ornamental plant BMA as their favorite holidays. Gundelia tournefortii Asteraceae (Compositae) Medical plant Hordeum bulbosum Gramineae Pasture plant Diversity of plant species in the area Hypecoum pendulum Papaveraceae Medical plant Based on the results and observations, about Inula oculus-christii Asteraceae (Compositae) Medical plant 44 valuable plant species in BMA have been Ixiolirion tataricum Amaryllidaceae Pastore plant identified. Asteraceae, Labiatae and Leucopoa sclerophylla Gramineae Pastore plant Papilionaceae families had the highest number Londesia eriantha Chenopodiaceae Pastore plant of species (Figure 2). Some of these plants have Matricaria recutita Asteraceae (Compositae) Medical plant Muscari neglectum Liliaceae Pasture plant pharmaceutical properties, some are used as Phalaris paradoxa Gramineae Pastore plant forage crops and many of the said species have Phlomis pungens Labiatae Medical plant an important role in preserving water, prevent Phlomis rigida Labiatae Food Plant flood flowing and also preventing soil erosion Phyllitis scolopendrium Aspleniaceae Medical plant on slops. Plant species diversity of the studied Plantago media Plantaginaceae Medical plant area is presented in table 1. The plant species of Prangos ferulacea* Umbellifera Pasture plant BMA, which concerning plant coverage, is one Rheum ribes* Polygonaceae Medical plant of the most original and diverse areas of Iran. Salvia aethiopis Labiatae Pasture plant Every year in spring season, thousands of Satureja laxiflora Labiatae Medical plant people from local areas and other provinces Satureja macrantha Labiatae Medical plant travel to BMA and harvest their desired Scorzonera cinerea Asteraceae (Compositae) Food Plant traditional plants species using initial tools. Senecio cineraria Asteraceae (Compositae) Ornamental plant Many species of Lamiaceae family plant have Silene conoidea Caryophyllaceae Medical plant medical property and have been widely used in Sisymbrium irio Cruciferae Medical plant traditional medicine and the said species plants Sisymbrium loeselii* Cruciferae Pasture plant grow at different heights of the mentioned area. Stachys lavandulifolia Labiatae Medical plant Among aromatic plants belonging to Taraxacum syriacum Asteraceae (Compositae) Ornamental plant Trifolium repens Papilionaceae Medical plant Lamiaceae family, the most popular ones are Trigonosciadium Umbelliferae Pasture plant Salvia aethiopis, Satureja laxiflora and brachytaenium* Satureja macrantha. Trisetum flavescens Gramineae Pasture plant Vicia hyrcanica Papilionaceae Pasture plant Diversity of animal species in the area Vicia pseudocassubica Papilionaceae Pasture plant Regarding the ecological characteristics of Note: * = endemic plant of Iran the area and also according to pasture management which is applied relatively often, BMA is highly talented for growth and multiplication of various animal species including mammals and numerous birds. Based on the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION results, 45 bird species and 7 mammal species in BMA have been identified. Accipitridae and Turdidae families Geographical status of the area had the highest number of bird species (Figure 3). Animal BMA with a maximum height of 2800 meters above sea species diversity of the studied area as birds and mammals level is located in north of Hamadan Province and in the is presented in Table 2 and 3. Also, unplanned presence of northwest of Razan Township. This area has an area of some tourists produced insecurity in many parts of Wildlife about 12,000 hectares and is one of the most valuable Habitats in the study area. On the other side, all of these pastures of Iran with diverse plant coverage. BMA is a have caused migration of Wildlife from their natural mountainous area with moderate climate and full of a wide habitats to other areas. range of herbal medicinal plant species in the area. The REYAHI-KHORAM et al. – Biodiversity of Buqaty Mountain Area, Iran 193

12 Table 2. List of bird species in BMA

10 Scientific name Family

8 Accipiter nisus Accipitridae Alectoris chukar Phasianidae 6 Ammoperdix griseogularis Phasianidae

Species Number Species Aquila chrysaetos Accipitridae 4 Athene noctua Strigidae Bubo bubo Strigidae 2 Burhinus oedicnemus Burhinidae Buteo rufinus Accipitridae 0 Calandrella brachydactyla Alaudidae

Labiatae Liliaceae Cruciferae Malvaceae Geraniaceae Umbelliferae Carduelis flavirostris Fringillidae AspleniaceaeBoraginaceae Papilionaceae Polygonaceae Amaryllidaceae Papaveraceae Plantaginaceae CaryophyllaceaeChenopodiaceae Ciconia cicinia Ciconiidae Asteraceae (Compositae) Families Circus pygargus Accipitridae Figure 2. Number of species in each family of plants in BMA Coracias garrulus Coraciidae Corvus corone Corvidae Corvus frugilegus Corvidae Coturnix coturnix Phasianidae

6 Columba livia Columbidae Cuculus canorus Cuculidae

5 Emberiza cia Emberizidae Emberiza pusilla Emberizidae 4 Erithacus megarhynchos Turdidae Erithacus rubecula Turdidae 3 Falco naumanni Falconidae

Species Number Species Falco peregrinus Falconidae 2 Galerida cristata Alaudidae Gallinago gallinago Scolopacidae 1 Gyps fulvus Accipitridae Hirundo rustica Hirundinidae 0 Lanius minor Laniidae Laniidae PicidaeRallidae Alaudidae CorvidaeCuculidae StarnidaeTurdidaeUpupidae Burhinidae Coraciidae Falconidae Meropidae Passeridae Accipiteridae Charadriidae Columbidae Emberizidae Hirundinidae Motacillidae Phasianidae Ciconia cicinia Scolopacidae Merops orientalis Meropidae Families Monticola saxatilis Turdidae Figure 3. Number of Species in each family of Birds in BMA Motacilla cinerea Motacillidae Oenantha isabellina Turdidae Otus scops Strigidae Passer domesticus Passeridae A study was done in 2006 about Distribution system Passer hispaniolensis Passeridae and its role about range destruction in BMA, it was found Picoides minor Picidae the way are used in BMA, is that range land exclusion Porzana parva Rallidae (keeping livestock from entering the range land area) is Riparia riparia Hirundinidae applied every year until the pasture has made sufficient Sturnus vulgaris Sturnidae th growth (almost up to 25 June). Rangeland exclusion to Streptopelia decaocto Columbidae livestock is one of the best management methods for range Turdus merula Turdidae and watershed management that are applied for range Tringa totamus Scolopacidae rehabilitation and improvement. This method is used for Upupa epops Upupidae increase in vegetation cover in watershed area that leads to Vanellus vanellus Charadriidae increase in amount of land cover and consequently, causing stabilization of soil and reduction of soil loss rate. For this purpose, the ranger mans, that was called gorogban, is Table 3. List of mammal species in BMA employed by stakeholders. In the end of exclusion period, the sub divisions of every grass pastures and every hill Scientific name Family pastures as well as randomly classified and selected by the Paraechinus hypomelas Erinaceidae stakeholders. Later than, each stakeholder cut and collects Canis lupus Canidae the forage and carries them to the village. After cutting the Canis aureus Canidae forage material and finished the exclusion period, pasture Capra aegagrus Bovidae grazing becomes possible and free for all of the villagers to Lepus europaeus Leporidae graze their animals on. It is obvious that unlimited grazing Sus scrofa Suidae of pasture is made after forage harvest (Vejdani and Solgi Vulpes vulpes Canidae 2006). 194 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 190-194, October 2012

The results of the study may be compared to two other Demers M. 2009. Fundamental of Geographic Information System. John studies that have attempted to estimate the plant diversity Wiley & Sons, New York. Kalvandi R, Safikhani K, Najafi GH, Babakhanlo P. 2007. Identification in Lashgardar and Khan_Gormaz Protected Areas in of medicinal plants of Hamedan province. Iranian J Med Aromatic Pl Hamadan province. Both studies focused only on the plant 23 (3): 350-374. diversity of these protected area. The first of these studies Koochak H, Seyyednejad SM, Motamedi H. 2010. Preliminary study on was accomplished by Safikhani et al. (2003) and reported the antibacterial activity of some medicinal plants of Khuzestan (Iran). Asian Pac J Trop Med 3 (3):180-184. that there are 43 families, 184 genera and 266 plant species Mansoori J. 2001. Field guide to the birds of Iran. Nashre Zehn Aviz, in Lashgardar protected area. Based on the second study, Tehran, Iran. Approximately 46 families, 180 genera and 261 plant Mirutse Giday M, Asfaw Z, Woldu Z. 2009. Medicinal plants of the species have been identified in Khan Gormaz Protected Meinit ethnic group of Ethiopia: An ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 124 (3): 513-521. Area (Safikhani et al. 2006). Mosaddegh M, Naghibi F, Moazzeni H, Pirani A, Esmaeili S. 2012. Ethnobotanical survey of herbal remedies traditionally used in Kohghiluyeh va Boyer Ahmad province of Iran. J Ethnopharmacol 141 (1): 80-95. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Mozaffarian VA. 2006. A dictionary of Iran plant names. Farhang Moaser publisher, Tehran, Iran. Since Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) have a substantial Nadembega P, Boussimb J.I, Nikiemac J.B, Polia F, Antognonia F., 2011, role in maintaining genetic resources, preserving Medicinal plants in Baskoure, Kourittenga Province, Burkina Faso: An ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 133 (2): 378-395. biodiversity, production of medical herbs, biological Reyahi-Khoram M, Karami-Nour M. 2010. A Case Study on control of plant pests and preservation of soil and water, it Environmental Evaluation and Planning for Range and Forest is necessary to combine different techniques for better Management by Means of Geographic Information System (GIS). J exploitation of rangelands of the study area through Agric Sci Technol 4 (6): 57-62. Rihawy MS, Bakraji EH, Aref S, Shaban R. 2010. Elemental investigation teaching, educating, planning, investment, research and of Syrian medicinal plants using PIXE analysis. Nuclear Instruments also evaluation of previous plans. In order to manage and and Methods in Physics Research Section B, Beam Interactions with control the natural beauty and full use of its potential, it is Materials and Atoms 268 (17-18): 2790-2793. recommended that the area be declared as a prohibited Russell-Smith J, Karunaratne NS, Mahindapala R. 2006. Rapid inventory of wild medicinal plant populations in Sri Lanka. Biol Conserv 132 hunting area by DoE for the conservation of flora and fauna (1): 22-32. and vested in the study area. It is obvious that the Safikhani K, Rahiminejhad MR Kalvandi R. 2003. Presentation of flora, protection of BMA must be made in such a way as to life forms, endemic species and their conservational classes in guarantee the preservation and maintenance of the areas, protected region of Lashkardar (Malayer city-Hamadan province). Pajouhesh & Sazandegi 60: 72-83 increasing income of local people and also increasing the Safikhani K, Rahiminejhad MR, Kalvandi R. 2006. Presentation of flora capacity of nature and environment. and life forms of plants in protected region of Khangormaz (Hamadan province). Pajouhesh & Sazandegi 70: 70-78. Shahidi B. 2004. Evaluation of antibacterial properties of some medicinal plants used in Iran. J Ethnopharmacol 94 (2-3): 301-305. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Suneetha MS, Chandrakanth MG. 2006. Establishing a multi-stakeholder value index in medicinal plants—an economic study on selected This research was supported by Islamic Azad plants in Kerala and Tamilnadu States of India. Ecol Econ 60 (1): 36- 48. University (Hamadan Branch). The authors would like to Tilahun-Teklehaymanot T, Giday M. 2010. Quantitative ethnobotany of thank department of environment of mentioned university. medicinal plants used by Kara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Also, the authors would like to thank Ahmad Yari, the lower Omo River Valley, Debub Omo Zone, Southern Nations, expert of Hamadan provincial directorate of environmental Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia. J Ethnopharmacol 130 (1): 76-84. protection, for their collaboration in this study. Ulukanli Z, Akkaya A. 2011. Antibacterial Activities of Marrubium catariifolium and Phlomis pungens Var. Hirta Grown Wild in Eastern Anatolia, Turkey. Intl J Agric Biol 13 (1): 105-109. REFERENCES Vejdani HR, Solgi M. 2006. Distribution system and its role about range destruction. Proceeding of the First National Festival on Range and Rangeland Management, Mashhad, Iran. Bouayed J, Piri K, Rammal H, Dicko A, Desor F, Younos C, Soulimani R. 2007. Comparative evaluation of the antioxidant potential of some Iranian medicinal plants. Food Chem 104 (1): 364-368. THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722 Pages: 200-204 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130406

Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago Province

YONVITNER1,♥, FAHMI2 1Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB). Jl. Agatis No.1, Darmaga, Bogor 16680, West Java, Indonesia. Tel./Fax +62 251 8623644, email: [email protected] 2Research Center for Oceanography, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI), North Jakarta 14430, Indonesia

Manuscript received: 19 October 2011. Revision accepted: 14 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Yonvitner, Fahmi. 2012. Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago Province. Biodiversitas 14: 200-204. The population of demersal fishes tends to be decline in the last few decades. The decline was due to the increased of intensive catches, fishing effort and illegal fishing practices. This study aimed to examine aspects of population dynamics such as mortality, recruitment, opportunity capture and population estimation. The study was conducted in six locations at Tambelan waters, on 4-16 November 2010. Collected data included the fish species, size and biomass catch. The analyses performed included mortality, recruitment, opportunity capture and population estimates (VPA). The data indicated that the Genus of Nemipterus and Lutjanus possess the highest total mortality rate that was respectively 1.62 and 2.55. The highest recruitment presentation of the population which has an annual period as Pentapodus was 16%. Catch opportunities tend to be higher than actual fishing, while the alleged biomass of steady state conditions reached 12.2 tons/yr.

Key words: demersal, fish, Tambelan, Natuna Sea, Riau Archipelago

INTRODUCTION yield per recruit may be the indicators of the declining of stock levels. Fishing area located in the Natuna Sea waters are very Based on the above conditions, it requires a study on diverse both ecosystems and fish resources. In terms of the dynamics of the pattern of demersal fish stocks of ecosystems, the Natuna Sea waters possess coastal which includes the more frequent small fishes catch, the fisheries, offshore fishing, shallow water fishing, deep sea lower the percentage of recruitment as well as the fishing and reef fishing. In terms of fisheries resources, percentage of yield per recruit. The results of this study there is an area dominated by one particular species but were expected to be used as a basis for formulating also many fishing areas inhabited by various species. management plans and resource utilization of demersal fish Multi-species fishery may cause the existence of three from the Tambelan waters. Therefore, in the long period kinds of interactions, i.e. biological, technical, and the stocks are maintained and remain sustainable. economical interactions. The biological interaction may be both intra-and inter-species in the form of predation (prey- predator relationships, including cannibalism), and the competition in terms of food or space. Technical MATERIALS AND METHODS interactions occur because of fisheries on a stock as a target always cause mortality in other stocks, namely in the form Site sampling of by catches. The study of demersal fish in Tambelan Islands waters, Demersal fisheries in Tambelan waters, the Natuna Sea Natuna Sea, Riau Archipelago Province, Indonesia, was is one of fisheries resources where fishing pressures carried out on November 4 to 16, 2010. Fish samples were occurred. Tambelan waters are relatively open to fishing collected using a bottom trawl nets (trawling) with a swept pressure either by local and foreign fishermen. Usually area method. The equipments were operated on the fishing activities are carried out by using trawl fishing gear Research Ship Baruna Jaya VIII. Fish sampling using trawl (bottom nets). The declining of demersal fish stocks caused was conducted between 11 pm to 5 am. by high fishing pressure has led to decrease in stocks and Location of sampling stations were set as six spots in fish stocks in Tambelan waters. Capture diminishing size, the south, east and north of Menggirang Island, west and small fish catches getting more frequently, lower north of Benua Island, and east of Tambelan Island. The percentage of recruitment as well as the percentage of low sampling sites are presented in Table 1. YONVITNER & FAHMI – Demersal fishes of Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago 201

Table 1. Position and description of each location of the trawl operation in Tambelan waters, November 2010.

ST1 ST2 ST3 ST4 ST5 ST6 Location South of East of Menggirang North of West of Benua North of Benua East of Tambelan Menggirang Besar Besar Is. Menggirang Besar Is. Is. Is. Is. Is. Time (WIB) 3.45-4.45 4.30-5.30 4.15-5.15 4.50-5.50 22.05-23.05 4.34-5.58 Setting N 01o 02,257' N 00 o 53,163’ N 00 o 54,255’' N 00 o 54,804’ N 01 o 00.599' N 00 o 59,765' E 107 o 26,390' E 107 o 35,160’ E 107 o 31,478' E 107 o 25,258 E 107 o 26,253' E 107 o 37,788' Hauling N 00 o 59,805' N 00 o 55,850' N 00 o 56,434' N 00 o 58,669' N 01 o 03,779 N 01 o 02,789' E 107 o 29,062' E 107 o 38,208' E 107 o 34,385' E 107 o 22,242' E 107 o 27,818' E 107 o 35,134' Velocity (kt) 3.5 3.2 3.2 3.3 2.8 2.8 Depth (m) 33-34 44-45 32-34 37-39 37-42 37-63

Procedures class and the interpolation of the parameters of selection. The measurement of fishes caught were included the The function of the logistic curve (Pauly 1999; FAO 2005) i.e. length (mm) and weight (grams). Measurements were performed on the Baruna Jaya ship using a ruler (precision ln((1/PL)-1) = S1-S2 · L ...... (1) 0.005 cm) and OHAUS scales (accuracy 0.0005 g). The collected data were subsequently analyzed with the size Where, PL is catch opportunity of length data of fish structure using statistical approach (average and deviation catch (L). analysis), analysis of mortality, the percentage of recruited L25 = (ln(3)-S1)/S2 ……………………….………...(2) (Pauly 2004), the opportunity of the captured size, and the L50 = S1/S2 …………………………………………(3) level of population change (yield per recruit) (Pauly 1999; L75 = (ln(3)+S1)/S2 …………………………………(4) FAO 2005). Function of average is: PL,i(new) = (PL,i-1+PL,i(old)+PL,i+1)/3, …………………(5) Data analysis Analysis of natural mortality (M) according to Pauly Population analysis to reconstruct the population (2004) derived from empirical data that is ln (M) =-0.0152- (estimated population) which describes the maximum 0279 ln (L ∞) + 0.6543ln (K) + 0463 ln (T), where L ∞ number to obtain the calculated amount of catch, (infinity length), K (growth rate coefficient and T (average population, fishing mortality and biomass amount which temperature of the waters). While the mortality due to available in a state of equilibrium (steady state). Steady fishing was evaluated using model approach from the linear state conditions may include the circumstances that have relationship between the numbers of fish in length of-i with not been under pressure of arrest or arrests have been under the time needed to grow as follows: pressure, but the population is spread more uniformly. The model used was based on the model curve analysis ln(Ni/Dti) = a + b · ti approach to measure the length of the curve with the linear model. VPA analysis begins with the evaluation of Where, Ni: is the number of fish in length class i, Dti: is estimated population the time required for fish to grow in length to the class, ti: is the age (or the relative age, calculated) in accordance Nt = Ct · (M + Ft)/Ft with the value of mean of class-i, and where b (negative sign) is as an estimate value of Z (mortality). Where, Ct catch point (i.e. the number of catches taken Analysis of recruitment percentage was conducted from the largest length class). Then the value of Nt is using length frequency data analysis approach used on the determined from the movement of the curve F (fishing) to approach of regression analysis of the relationship of solve the equation Gausian distribution model (with a normal distribution curve approaches is maximum (Moreau and Cuende 1991). Ci = Ni+Nt · (Fi/Zi) · (exp(Zi·Nti)-1) Fisheries analysis includes descriptive analysis of production data and the size of the capture, while analysis Where, of fishing opportunities using the approach curve to Nti = (ti+1-ti), and approach the selection of data length and weight in the ti = to-(1/K) · ln(1-(Li/L)) interpolation of the catch curve and compare with the and whereas length of population (Ni) calculated from actual number of catches caught by fishermen. Length Ni = Ni+Nt. exp(Zi) parameters with the estimation success rate (%) i.e. (L25, L50, L75), which was evaluated from (i) using a logistic Last two equations are used as an alternative to curve, which assumes that the selection will be population size and mortality due to fishing for all groups symmetrical or nearly between the actual catch by logistic of predetermined length. ELEFAN analysis assisted with curve interpolation; (ii) using a moving average of each analysis tools in the program I Fisat 1.2.2 series. In the 202 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 200-204, October 2012 analysis of fish size structure, all fish samples were used. Recruitment While frequency distribution analysis, age group and the Recruitment is the addition of new individual either due growth were measured from the dominant fish caught. to the birth process and the process of growth and migration. In one population, recruitment is usually seen as a stage of the entry of individuals from youth to adult RESULTS AND DISCUSSION individuals who are ready to be captured. Indicators recruitment is usually the size of the population began to Mortality get caught by fishing gear used. Knowledge of the high Mortality describes fish mortality rates either due to fishing mortality these species endure may affect a fishery fish catch, or natural deaths. Natural death is a process of regulator’s choice of management measures (Morgan and life cycle of many populations which are influenced by the Burgess 2009). environmental factors. While deaths due to fishing is a From the length frequency analysis, then the level death caused by fishing activities and use of destructive recruitment of each type of fish can be known. The results fishing gear. The results of analysis of dominant fish of the analysis of recruitment approaches was using mortality rates are presented in Table 2. Gausian distribution model as follows. Levels of The results showed that the highest total mortality rate recruitment from Saurida grandisquamis were happened in the group Lutjanus lutjanus, then Nemipterus sp and two times within a year of entering fourth months to nine Saurida grandisquamis. Pentapodus group has a low months. Percentage recruited in April reached 21.17% and mortality rate. From these results it can be concluded that in September reached 8.49%. But the percentages of the the Tambelan waters was very supportive to life and the second month was not as high as in April as shown in development of Pentapodus setosus, Selaroides leptolepis Figure 1. Percentage recruit of Lutjanus lutjanus at the and Upeneus asymmetricus. Mortality of siganid fishes highest recruited in June reached 19.73%. In general, the from the Luwu waters (M = 1.27, F = 1.08), Tambelan fish level of recruit more evenly each month throughout the mortality was nearly the same of Nemipterus group (Jalil et year with different percentages as in Figure 1. al. 2003).

Table 2. Total maturity (z), natural maturity (m) and fishing maturity (f) of demersal fishes

Species M* F Z** Note Nemipterus sp. 1.05 0.57 1.62 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 135 mm Saurida grandisquamis 0.35 1.31 1.66 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 200 mm Upeneus asymmetricus 0.31 0.8 1.11 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 110 mm Pentapodus setosus 0.35 0.29 0.64 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 196 mm Selaroides leptolepis 0.64 0.33 0.97 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 106 mm Lutjanus lutjanus 0.54 2.01 2.55 Mortality of dominant catch in size > 109 mm Note: *: Empirical equation of Pauly; **: Empirical equation of Jones van Zelinge

A B C

D E F

Figure 1. Recruitment percentage. A. Saurida grandisquamis, B. Lutjanus lutjanus, C. Nemipterus sp., D. Pentapodus setosus, E. Selaroides leptolepis, F. Upeneus asymmetricus YONVITNER & FAHMI – Demersal fishes of Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago 203

Recruitment of Nemipterus sp. occurred Table 3. Estimated size of catched fish in Tambelan evenly with a peak in September (20.81%). Estimated size (mm) Distribution of However, increased recruit began in May to Species L25 L50 L75 catched size a peak in September. At this time many Lutjanus lutjanus 152.32 218.19 284.06 54,76-180 young fishes started to grow into adulthood Nemipterus sp. 378.16 536.88 695.61 65-210 and begin to be captured. The percentage of Pentapodus setosus 607.76 822.09 1036.41 115-285 Nemipterus sp. recruits as shown in Figure Saurida grandisquamis 265.65 342.35 419.05 110-315 1C. This pattern was similar to the type of Selaroides leptolepis 206.75 259.21 311.67 80-177,89 fish Pentapodus setosus that the percentage Upeneus asymmetricus 331.75 447.94 564.12 70-185 of the highest recruited in June reached 16%. In March, the percentage of recruited began to show improvement and almost Table 4. VPA analyses of dominated caught fish evenly each month as shown in Figure 1D. Groups of Selaroides leptolepis possess Population Ratio (%) high levels of recruitment two times a year. Species C (ind) N (ind) F (ind) SSB (ton) C/F C/N Saurida grandisquamis 48.0 391.7 41.6 0.4 86.767 12.2549 Dominant first recruited in February reached Nemipterus sp. 53.0 1802.9 10.7 0.3 20.253 2.9398 6.32%, the highest peak in August was Upeneus asymmetricus 401.0 17720.0 5.1 3.7 1.261 2.2630 17.72% (Figure 1E). Recruitment percentage Pentapodus setosus 127.0 6005.5 2.8 12.2 2.190 2.1147 of Upeneus asymmetricus was evenly in the Selaroides leptolepis 78.8 4037.8 3.2 1.3 4.073 1.9509 month since April and the peak was in Lutjanus lutjanus 147.1 5105.1 11.8 1.5 8.028 2.8824 August 15.22%. The pattern of Upeneus Note: C = number of actual catches (ind); N = Estimated fish abundance asymmetricus was recruited during the (ind/area); F = Estimated catch (assuming that L, K, M according to the entire year with a period of more uniform as estimation); SSB = Steady State Biomass (tons); C/F = Ratio of actual number of shown in Figure 1F. catches against the estimated catch; C/N = Ratio of actual catches against the estimated total population Captured opportunity Catching opportunity is the percentage of fish capture using trawl gear. Fishes which showed a of stocks in the waters. Opportunity of catching size also chance of being caught in a larger size were Pentapodus indicates the affectivity of fish capture. Reduction of setosus, Nemipterus sp. and Upeneus asymmetricus. abundance of the bigger fishes (Serra and Canales 2007) Opportunity of the size capture of the dominant fish is and with this, the decrease of the relative biomass reflected presented in Table 3. From the results revealed that fish in the CPUE. Information from this study is an indirect which potentially have depleted due to fishing were indicator for the creation of capture efficiency (Canales et Lutjanus lutjanus, Selaroides leptolepis and Saurida al. 2005). According to FAO (1999) red snapper as a group grandisquamis. The shorter of fish catch size indicated the of bentho-pelagic can reach 80 cm in size, but the average lower fish size in the waters. It is an indicator of the decline catch was in the size of 50 cm.

A B C

D E F

Figure 2. The pattern of distribution of survival rates, natural mortality, catch and catch rates of: A. Nemipterus sp., B. Lutjanus lutjanus, C. Pentapodus setosus, D. Saurida grandisquamis, E. Selaroides leptolepis, and F. Upeneus asymmetricus. 204 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 200-204, October 2012

Virtual population analysis ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Virtual population analysis principally is the estimation of population in an area of waters that includes information The authors thank to the Directorate General of Higher about the amount of population growth (survival) and death Education and Research Center for Oceanography, (mortality). The results of the evaluation of estimated Indonesian Institute of Sciences (PPO-LIPI). The help of population catch rate and catch rate of each size of the entire crew of Baruna Jaya VIII was also kindly dominant fish are presented in Figure 2 and Table 4. acknowledged. From the results revealed that the fish with high survival rate due to the condition of aquatic ecosystems in Tambelan regarding to fish catches was Pentapodus REFERENCES setosus. Saurida grandisquamis, Lutjanus lutjanus and Nemipterus sp. tended to be susceptible to fishing pressure. Canales C, Caballero L, Aranís A. 2005. Catch per unit effort of Chilean All three types of these fishes can quickly run into stock in Jack Mackerel (Trachurus murphyi) of the purse seine fishery off the waters. Demersal groups of fish such as Cynoglossus south-central Chile (32º10’-40º10’ S) 1981-2005. Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Valparaiso, Chile. sp. was difficult to escape from the capture process (Veiga FAO. 1999. Morphometric of fish species-sub ordo Percoidea. FAO, et al. 2009). The low estimated total abundance and Rome. standing stock of biomass in the waters was also possible to FAO. 2005. Fisat user guide. FAO, Rome. cause the rapid decline of fish stocks populations in the Jalil, Malawa A, Ali SA. 2003. Population biology of Baronang Lingkis fish (S. canaliculatus) in waters of Bua sub-district, Luwu district. J waters. According to Ridho et al (2004) biomass density of Sains & Teknologi 3 (1): 8-14. [Indonesia] 2 demersal fish in the Natuna Sea was from 2.35 ton/km Moreau J, Cuende FX. 1991. On improving the resolution of the decreased to 1.3 ton/km2. recruitment patterns of fishes. ICLARM Fishbyte 9 (1): 45-46. Morgan AC, Burgess GH. 2009. Fishery-dependent sampling: Total catch, effort and catch composition. Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION Pauly D. 1999. Longhurst areas: ecological geography of the sea by A. Longhurst. Trends Ecol Evol 14 (3): 118. Pauly D. 2004. Much rowing for fish. Nature 432: 813-814. The natural mortality rate of Pentapodus setosus due to Ridho MR, Kaswadji RF, Jaya I, Nurhakim S. 2004. Distribution of fishing activities was relatively lower compared to other demersal fish resources in the South China Sea waters. Jurnal Ilmu- fishes. Fish with solely high recruit percentage indicates Ilmu Perairan dan Perikanan Indonesia 2: 123-128. [Indonesia] that the fish possess spawning periods annually, while the Serra JR, Canales C, Caballero L. 2007. Evaluación y captura total permisible de Jurel (Trachurus murphyi) Sub Regional, 2008. number with more evenly distributed peaks are more Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Valparaiso, Chile. resistant to fish catches. Opportunity catch of larger fishes Veiga P, Machado D, Almeida C, Bentes L, Monteiro P, Oliveira F, than actual size of the fishing waters indicated that the Ruano M, Erzini K, Gonçalves JMS. 2009. Weight-length standing stock was decreasing. Types of fish which were relationships for 54 species of the Arade estuary, southern Portugal. J Appl Ichthyol 25: 493-496. susceptible to fishing pressure are Saurida grandisquamis, Lutjanus lutjanus and Nemipterus sp. BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722 Pages: 205-213 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130407

The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia

IIK SRI SULASMI1,2,♥, NISYAWATI2, , YOHANES PURWANTO3, SITI FATIMAH4 1 State High School number 1 of Jambi. Jl. Urip Sumoharjo No 15, Telanai Pura, Jambi 36122. Indonesia. Tel. +62-741-63147, Fax. +62-741-61108, email: [email protected] 2Conservation Biology Post Graduate School, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, University of Indonesia, Depok 16436, West Java, Indonesia. 3 Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia. 4 State High School number 2 of Surakarta. Surakarta 57134, Central Java, Indonesia.

Manuscript received: 12 September 2012. Revision accepted: 18 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Sulasmi IS, Nisyawati, Purwanto Y, Fatimah S. 2012. The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 13: 205-213. Research of Rattan Jernang (Daemonorops draco Willd.) population in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi had never been done before. Daemonorops draco is a plant that produces sap called dragon blood. Dragon blood is very useful for the the lives of people of Anak Dalam Tribe in Jambi. This research used purposive random sampling method. All of data were analyzed descriptively. The results showed that beside D. draco, there were other six species of rattan in Jebak forest. The population of D. draco in Jebak forest was only 8 clumps, consisting of 82 individuals. D. draco had the smallest population among all rattan species. Calamus javensis had the highest population, namely 11 clumps, consisting of 197 individuals. The research location had air temperature of 20.20C-28.90C, relative humidity of 58%-68%, and pH of 4.60-4.81. In this location, there were 35 tree species (73 individuals) as supporting trees for D. draco to climb. The number of D. draco’s supporting trees and D. draco was not balanced, causing the death of D. draco in Jebak forest. Vegetation analyses showed that there were 51 tree species with diameter > 10 cm, consisting of 69 individuals. Pithecolobium saman had the highest importance value index (11) among all trees. There were also 33 tree species with diameter < 10 cm, consisting of 60 individuals. Pithecolobium saman also had the highest importance value index (20) in this group. Based on the interview, it is showed that the population of D. draco in Jebak forest declined because of illegal logging and forest encroachment.

Key words: Daemonorops draco, supporting trees, dragon blood, forest encroachment, illegal logging.

INTRODUCTION and medicines for diarrhea (Winarni et al. 2004), for wound (Harata et al. 2005), and ingredient of tooth paste The word Daemonorops is derived from Greek, daemo (Purwanto et al. 2009). Not only producing jernang sap, and rhops; daemo means devil, and rhops means shrub Daemonorops periacanthus, found only in Japan, also (Mogea 1991). In Indonesia, the genus Daemonorops produces edible sweet fruit (Beccari 1911). consist of many species, namely 84 species (Beccari 1911), Indonesia is the largest jernang sap exporter in the 113 species (Dransfield and Manokaran 1994), 115 species world. The demand of Indonesian jernang sap from China (Rustiami et al. 2004). According to Rustiami et al. (2004), is 400 ton-500 ton per year (Januminro 2000; Soemarna of the 115 species of Daemonorops found in Indonesia, 12 2009), but Indonesia can export only 27 ton per year, worth species produce sap, namely D. acehensis, D. US$ 10,125,000 (Soemarna 2009). In addition to Sipintun brachystachys, D. didymophylla, D. draco, D. dracuncula, and Lumbun Sigatal Villages, Jebak Village in Muara D. dransfieldii. D. maculata, D. micracantha, D. rubra, D. Tembesi Sub-District, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, sekundurensis, D. siberutensis, and D. uschdraweitiana. In also produces jernang sap as much as 300 kg per month Jambi, 10 species of Daemonorops are found, namely, D. (Jambi Forestry Office 2009). brachystachys, D. didymophylla (Beccari 1911), D. Jebak Village has 15,830 ha of natural forest, but the dracuncula, D. dransfieldii, D. longipes (Dransfield 1984), forest is not utilized optimally because much of it has been D. palembanicus, D. singalamus, D. trichrous, D. draco damaged due to illegal logging and forest encroachment (Dransfield 1992), and D. mattanensis (Soemarna 2009). done by transmigrants coming mostly from Java and South According to Heyne (1987), only five species of rattan Sumatra (Soemarna 2009; BKSDA Jambi 2010). produce high quality of sap, namely D. didymophylla, D. Forest degradation at an extent of 6,332 ha has caused draco, D. draconcellus, D. motleyi, and D. micracantha. Of the decline of population of supporting tree species on the five species, D. draco produces the best jernang sap, which the jernang rattan climb (BKSDA Jambi 2010), which has many uses, such as coloring agent (Beccari which in turn has caused the decline of jernang rattan 1911), ingredient of cosmetics (Dali and Soemarna 1985), population. As a result, the production of jernang sap has 206 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 205-213, October 2012 declined (Soemarna 2009). The degree of negative impact RESULTS AND DISCUSSION of illegal logging and forest encroachment on the population of jernang rattan population had not been Population of jernang rattan and others documented. The objective of this study was to estimate the According to Rustiami (2004), Daemonorops draco population of jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco Willd.) Willd. is also known as Calamus draco Willd. and in Jebak Village. The results of this study can be used to Daemonorops propinqua Becc. The species has many local complete the data of rattan population in Batanghari names in Indonesia, namely rotan jernang (Malay), District, Jambi Province, Indonesia and as the basis for the limbayung (West Sumatra), huar (Dayak-Busang), development of this species in Jebak Village. seronang (Dayak-Penihing), uhan (Dayak-Kayan), getih badak (Sundanese), getih warak (Javanese). The jernang rattan is distributed in two islands, namely Sumatra (Jambi, MATERIALS AND METHODS Bengkulu, Riau Archipelago Provinces), and Kalimantan. The species grows in clumps in valleys and is commonly Study site found in flood plain near rivers. The field work was done from January to February In Jambi, there were 10 species of Daemonorops, 2011 in forest area belonging to Anak Dalam Tribe (Suku namely D. brachystachys, D. didymophylla (Beccari 1911), Anak Dalam) in Jebak Village, Muara Tembesi Sub- D. dracuncula, D. dransfieldii, D. longipes (Dransfield District, Batanghari District, Jambi Province. The location 1984), D. palembanicus, D. singalamus, D. trichrous, D. was selected based on the information that the Jebak forest draco (Dransfield 1992), and D. mattanensis (Soemarna is a habitat of jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco). 2009). Currently only three species can be found in Jambi, namely D. didymophylla, D. draco, and D. mattanensis. Sampling method The three species can be found in the Districts of Sampling of data in the field was done using purposive Batanghari, Sarolangun, Tebo, and Tanjung Jabung random sampling method (Fachrul 2007; Simon 2007). (Soemarna 2009). Based on the information from the Sampling plots were made only in the sites where D. draco jernang sap seekers in Jebak Village, Malay people in was found. Within 25 hectares of research area, five 100m Jambi know two jernang sap producing rattans, namely x 100m plots were made. Each plot was divided into 100 rotan jernang (D. draco) and rotan kelukup (Daemonorops small plots measuring 10m x 10m each. Within 100 small didymophylla), while the people of Anak Dalam Tribe in plots, the number of jernang rattan and all species of rattan Jebak Village call the two species rotan jernang (D. draco) were counted and categorized according to their growth and rotan mengkarung/kelemunting (D. didymophylla). The stages following Dransfield (1984), INTAG (1989), Kalima jernang rattan has longer panicles and high density of (1991) and Siswanto (1991): (i) Seedling: length of stem < flower, darker fruit and more abundant, higher quality and 3 m, (ii) Juvenile: length of stem: 3-5 m, (iii) Semi mature: more expensive sap than the kelemunting. The people of length of stem: 5-15 m, (iv), Mature: length of stem > 15 m. Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Village can easily distinguish Within 10m x 10m plots, the number of trees on which jernang rattan from other rattans from the stems, leaves, jernang rattan climbs was also counted. For vegetation fruits, and spines. Jernang rattan has diameter between 1cm analyses, two sizes of plots were made in one of the 100m to 3 cm, reddish green leaves, shinny black fruit, the skin x 100m plot, namely 10m x 10m plots and 20m x 20m being scaly when extracted. It has stem internodes between plots, with a total area of 0.2 ha (20m x 100m). Trees with 15cm to 40 cm long, and the whole stem is covered by a diameter > 10 cm were counted in 20m x 20m plots, black spines which do not shed until old age. The number while trees with a diameter < 10cm were counted in 10m x of stems in a clump is between 5 to 20 individuals, with the 10m plots. The data of trees were used as supporting data. height between 8m to 15m. The names of species and number of individual trees were According to jernang sap seekers, the cane of D. draco recorded to determine the frequency and density of each can be used to make household equipments. But the quality species. Identification of trees was not done because the of cane is not good, so the people of Anak Dalam Tribe local and scientific names of trees had been given. only infrequently use it. Figure 1. shows the differences between jernang rattan and batang rattan, young leaves of Data analyses female jernang rattan, jernang rattan fruit. Jernang rattan Importance value index was counted for each species can be easily distinguished from other rattan from its stem, using formula cited in Rugayah et al. (2004) and Simon leaves, and fruit. Jernang has many spines, light green or (2007). From the importance value, dominance index was reddish green leaves and black fruit. determined using the formula cited in Simon (2007), According to Rustiami (2004) and Winarni et al. namely: (2004), the characteristics distinguishing D. draco from ID= Σ _ni/N_2 other Daemonorops are the followings: Its height is 8m- ID= dominance index for each tree species, 15m, the length of internodes 20 cm; the breadth of sheath ni= importance value of each tree species, 30mm; the length of leaf 3m, the length of cirrus 100 cm, N= total importance value indexes. petiole10 cm; diameter of stem 10mm-30mm. The leaves Criteria for Simpson dominance indexes were 0 < C < have sheath circling the stem. The fruit skin is scaly like 0.5 = low dominance; 0.5 < C < 0.75 = medium salacca’s fruit. The spines are arranged in a structure called dominance; 0.75 < C < 1 = high dominance the knee (Figure 1). SULASMI et al. – Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi 207

A

B C D E

Figure 1.A. Stem of jernang rattan, B. Stem of batang rattan (Calamus), C. Seedlings, D. Young leaves of female jernang rattan, E. Jernang rattan fruit.

The differences between female and male jernang rattan Table 1. The differences between female jernang rattan and male can be seen from the bracts, young leaves, flower, jernang rattan internodes, and number of individuals in a clump (Table 1). Distinguishi Daemonorops draco is a dioecious plant. Female Female jernang rattan Male jernang rattan flowers and male flowers are produced in different rattan ng factors Universitas Young Reddish green Green clumps. D. draco starts producing fruit at the age of two Indonesia leaves’ years, but it starts producing jernang sap when it is 5 years color old (Winarni et al. 2004). A clump of D. draco generally consists of 5-20 individuals (BKSDA Jambi 2010). 49 cm Based on the report from the Forestry Office of Jambi 54 cm 49 cm Province in 2009, the population of jernang rattan in Jambi is relatively small, as shown in detail in Table 2. Table 2 shows that the smallest population in nature is found in Batanghari District, which is 40 clumps, because since Internodes 15 cm-20 cm 35 cm-40 cm 1990, illegal logging and forest encroachment in Jebak Village, Batanghari District has been the largest among all districts (BKSDA Jambi 2010). Therefore, in 2008 two people from Anak Dalam Tribe started planting 40 clumps 2020 cm cm of rattan under the guidance of Forestry Office of 20 cmcm Batanghari District (Jambi Forest Office 2009). However, only 25 clumps survive, because the other 15 clumps were consumed by pigs. According to jernang rattan farmers, since November 2011, the planted jernang rattans have Bracts Large Small produced sap as much as 30 kg. The results of our study showed that the population of 2.5 cm jernang rattan in Anak Dalam Tribe forest area in Jebak 2.5 cm Village has declined. Our study only found 8 clumps of 3.5 cm jernang rattan consisting of 82 individuals (stems). Table 2 shows that the population in nature has declined from 40 clumps/ha in 2009 to 8 clumps in 25 ha in 2011. The ♂ ♀ decline of rattan population is caused by illegal logging and forest encroachment done by transmigrants and other Number of 5-20 individuals 3-5 individuals outside communities. According to Anak Dalam Tribe, the individuals damage due to illegal logging and forest encroachment in in a clump 2011 was 60% from the total of 15.830 ha of forest belonging to the tribe. Transporting timber in the forest is done using skid road made of timber. Many jernang rattans die because there are not enough supporting trees to climb. 208 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 205-213, October 2012

Table 2. The population of naturally growing jernang rattan and planted jernang rattan in Jambi Province based on the Forestry Ofiice report and on research data in 2011.

Population Research District in nature Plantation data per hectare Batanghari 40 clumps In 2008, plantation was started in jebak Village, consisting of 40 clumps. 8 clumps Sarolangun 53 clumps In 2006, plantation was started in Sipintun and Lumban Sigatal villages, consisting 8 clumps of 500 clumps. Rattans were planted in rubber plantation at the extent of 10 ha. Tebo 71 clumps Plantation has not been done. 8 clumps Tanjung Jabung 69 clumps Plantation has not been done. 8 clumps

B C

A B C

D E F

Figure 2. Pictures of forest encroachment in Jebak Village: A= encroachment; B= skid road to facilitate timber transportation, C= jernang rattan died because there was no supporting tree, D= forest fire; E-G = conversion of forest into oil palm plantation; F. indicates an area inside Anak Dalam Tribe forest being encroached.

After the death of jernang rattan, people burn the forest between the forest area and the villages around the area. to clear the land for oil palm plantation, 2-3 months later The encroachment is done not only by transmigrants, but (Figure 2). The information was in agreement with the data also by several oil palm plantation companies in the from BKSDA Jambi (2010) stating that the forest damage surrounding areas. (The companies are PT. Asiatic Persada in 2009 was 40% of 15.830 hectare, resulting in the decline in the west, PT. Tunjuk Langit Sejahtera and Batanghari of trees on which the jernang rattan climb. The damage of Sawit Persada in the north, and PT. Nan Riang in the east forest can be seen from the conversion of forest into oil of the forest area). palm plantation. According to the people of Anak Dalam Tribe, before Since 1990, the encroachment of forest has grown out 1990, they could easily get the sap because the population of control because of lack of supervision from the density of jernang rattan was still high. Within less than 6 government and because of unclearness of the boundary hours, they could collect jernang rattan fruit as much as 60 SULASMI et al. – Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi 209 kg-180 kg per family. That amount was collected from 3-6 Table 3. Number of individuals of jernang rattan in Jebak Village clumps of jernang rattan. After 1990, they could collect Plot Jernang rattan population (ind.) jernang fruit only 3 kg-20 kg per day, taken from 1 clump nos Seedlings Juvenile Semi Mature of jernang rattan. In 2010, the population of jernang rattan mature in Jebak Village was 15-30 clumps, but in 2011, only 8 1 5 - - - 2 - - - - clumps left, consisting of 82 individuals. The composition 3 - - - - of growth stages of the 83 individuals are given in Figure 3. 4† - - - - Figure 3 shows that the number of seedlings was much 5 - - - - higher than the mature individuals, so the production of 6 - - - - jernang sap was low. But, the abundant seedlings also 7 - - - - 8 - - - - ensure the sustainability of jernang rattan in the future if 9 - - - - illegal logging and forest encroachment is stopped, so the 10 - - - - number of supporting trees on which rattan climb is sufficient. 11 5 - 5 - 12 - - - - 13† - - - - 14 - - - - 15 - - - - 16† - - - - 17 - - - - 18 - - - - 19 - - - - No. of individuals 20 - - - - 21♂ - - 3 - 22 - - - - Mature Juvenile

Seedling 23 - - - - mi mi mature 24† - - - - Se 25 - - - - 26 - - - - Figure 3. The number of jernang rattan individuals at different 27 - - - - growth stages in Jebak Village in 2011. 28 - - - - 29 - - - - 30 - - - - The complete data of the number of individuals of 31 3 3 7 - jernang rattan is given in Table 3. In plot 1, a clump of 32 - - - - young female rattan (5 individuals) was found. One clump 33 - - - - died in plot 4 because there was no supporting tree to 34 - - - - 35♂ - - 5 - climb. In plot 11, a clump of female rattan was found (5 36 - - - - seedlings and 5 semi mature individuals). Two clumps died 37 - - - - in plots 13 and 16. In plot 21 a clump of semi mature male 38† - - - - jernang rattan was found (3 individual), and clump died in 39 - - - - plot 24.In plot 31 a clump of female jernang rattan was 40 - - - - found (3 individuals of seedling, 3 individuals of juvenile, 41 5 3 2 10 42 - - - - and 7 individuals of semi mature rattan). In plot 35 a clump 43 10 - 4 (†) 7 of semi mature male jernang rattan was found (5 indivi- 44 - - - - duals), and a clump died in plot 38. In plot 41 a clump of 45† - - - - female rattan was found (5 individuals of seedlings, 3 46 - - - - individuals of juvenile, 2 individuals of semi mature, and 47 5 - - 4 48 - - - - 10 individual of mature rattan). In plot 43 a clump of female 49 - - - - jernang rattan was found (10 individuals of seedlings, 4 50† - - - - individuals of semi mature and 7 individuals of mature Total 33 6 22 21 rattan). In plot 45 a clump of rattan died. In plot 47 a clump of female jernang rattan was found (5 individuals of seedlings, and 4 individuals of mature rattan). In plot 50 a clump of rattan died. Table 3 shows that jernang rattan population was distributed widely in each plot. Overall, there were 2 clumps of male jernang rattan (8 individuals), 6 clumps of female jernang rattan (74 No. of individuals individuals) (Figure 4), and 7 clumps of jernang rattan died. Because the number of female and male rattans was not equal and their locations were separated widely, natural reproduction of jernang rattan did not occur easily. To Male rattan Female rattan overcome this constraint, artificial pollination has been Figure 4. Comparison of number of female and male individuals conducted. of jernang rattan in 2011 210 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 205-213, October 2012

The comparison of population between jernang rattan therefore, the humidity was high. and other rattans in Jebak Village is presented in Table 4. The detailed information of rattan population in Jebak Table 6. Air temperature, relative humidity, soil pH in Jebak Village is given in Table 5. Village, during research period in 2011.

Table 4. Population of rattan in Jebak Village. Parameters measured Relative Day/date Plot no. Temp. Soil humidity   (0C) pH Local names Scientific names (%) clumps Ind Monday/3-1-2011 1 23.1 65 4.71 Rotan lilin Calamus javensis Bl. 11 197 Wed./5-1-2011 2 24.2 64 4.71 Rotan semambu Calamus scipionum Lour. 9 178 Thurs./6-1-2011 5 25.1 63 4.70 Sego air Calamus axillaris Becc. 9 103 Wed./12-1-2011 6 25.1 63 4.71 Rotan getah Daemonorops melanochaetes Bl. 10 102 Thurs./13-1-2011 10 26.0 60 4.74 Rotan dahan Calamus flagellaris Burr. 8 95 Sat/15-1-2011 11 25.9 60 4.75 Rotan manau Calamus manan Miq. 8 93 Tuesday/18-1-2011 15 26.8 59 4.70 Rotan jernang Daemonorops draco Willd. 8 82 Thurs./20-1-2011 20 27.0 59 4.61 Monday/24-1-2011 21 27.0 59 4.61 Tuesday/25-1-2011 25 27.5 59 4.64 Table 5. Population of rattan in Jebak Village in 2011 Thurs/27-1-2011 30 28.6 58 4.61 Wed./2-2-2011 31 28.6 58 4.60 Sat./5-2-2011 33 28.5 58 4.62 Tuesday/8-2-2011 35 28.9 58 4.62 Wed/9-2-2011 37 28.9 58 4.62 Number of individuals Thurs/10-2-2011 40 23.0 66 4.68 Sat./12-2-2011 41 22.9 66 4.68 Monday/14-2-2011 43 22.9 66 4.77 Rotan jernang Segoair Rotandahan Rotangetah Rotanmanau Rotanlilin Rotan semambu Thurs./17-2-2011 47 20.2 68 4.81 Seedlings 33 21 20 23 14 24 24 Monday/21-2-2011 50 21 68 4.81 Juvenile 6 20 30 24 18 41 39 Semi mature 22 35 16 23 35 63 44 Mature 21 27 29 32 26 69 71 The soil in Jebak village is acidic (pH 4,60-4,81) and Total 82 103 95 102 93 197 178 belongs to yellow red podzolic soil type (Soemarna 2009). The village has an altitude of 20 m above sea level with It can be seen in Table 4 that jernang rattan had the annual rainfall of 1500-2296 mm (BPS 2010). smallest number of individuals. This may be due to illegal logging and forest encroachment which result in the shrink Table 7. The average temperature, relative humidity and rainfall of jernang rattan habitat. Meanwhile, the populations of in Jebak Village in 2005-2009 (BPS 2006-2010) rotan lilin (Calamus javensis) and rotan semambu (Calamus scipionum) were relatively large because, Air Relative humidity Rainfall according to the community, these two species have low Month temperature (%) (mm) economic value. The canes from these species have low (oC) quality because they are easily broken. Of the 7 species January 25.9 86 126 above, beside jernang rattan, rotan manau (Calamus February 25.4 87 243 manan) also has high economic value. The cane of rotan March 25.9 85 207 manau has the highest quality among all the species and it April 26.4 84 167 May 27.5 80 137 is flexible, so it can be easily made into desirable forms June 27.3 81 129 (Soemarna 2009). July 26.9 83 70 August 26.8 82 123 Habitat of jernang rattan in Jebak Village September 27.4 81 139 The results showed that in 2011 the forest in Jebak October 26.9 83 157 Village had been damaged by illegal logging and November 26.6 84 245 encroachment, so the vegetation was sparse. The relatively December 26.5 85 254 open vegetation caused the relatively wide range of air temperature, 20.20C-28.90C, and low relative humidity, Jernang rattan is an endemic species of Sumatra 58%-68% (Table 6). (Soemarna 2009). In Jebak Village jernang rattan is found The sparse vegetation results in low transpiration, so the mostly in dry flood plain. According to Soemarna (2009), Universitas water vapor is little, and consequently the humidity is low. jernang rattan grows in acidic yellow red podzolic soil, Indonesia Bernatzky (1978) said that water vapor in the air from with pH of 4-6, in lowland, with annual rainfall of 1000- evapotranspiration affects air humidity. Table 7 shows that 2300 mm, air temperature of 24-32oC, and relative in 2005-2009 the range of air temperature was not wide and humidity of 60-85%. Plantation of jernang rattan will the relative humidity was high, 80%-87%. These produce the best result if it is done in its natural habitat. phenomena indicated that the vegetation in that period was The forest area in Jebak village is suitable for the dense, so the water vapor from transpiration was large; development of jernang rattan. SULASMI et al. – Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi 211

Figure 5. Forest encroachment results in the death of jernang rattan because there is no supporting tree.

Species diversity of jernang rattan supporting trees Diversity of tree species Jernang rattan is a liana. Its life depends on the The trees found in the study area were divided into two supporting tree on which it climbs. If the population of groups, those with stem diameter > 10 cm (Table 9) and supporting trees declines due to forest degradation, the population jernang rattan Table 8. Jernang rattan supporting trees in jebak Village. will decline too (Figure 5.). In Jebak Village, jernang rattan is usually found climbing 7 species of trees, Local names Scientific names No. of ind. Plot nos namely keranji, berangan, duku, durian, Keranji Dialium platysepalum Backer 4 1, 11, 31, 47 meranti bunga, kayu tahi, and sekentut. Berangan Quercus elmeri Merr. 4 21, 31, 41 These 7 species were frequently found in Kelat Eugenia sp. Verdc. 4 11, 41 sampling plots. However, their population Medang api Adinandra dumosa Jack 4 21, 41 has declined due to forest degradation. The Duku Lansium domesticum Corr. 3 31, 41, 47 comparison of the number of individuals of Durian Durio zibethinus Murr. 3 11, 31, 43 Meranti bunga Shorea teysmanniana Bl. 3 31,41,43 jernang rattan and the supporting trees is Kayu tahi Celtis wightii Planch. 3 1, 31, 47 presented in Table 8. Study on jernang Sekentut Saprosma arboreum Blume 3 21, 31,43 rattan supporting trees had not been Berangan babi Castanopsis inermis Lindl 3 31, 43 conducted. Siluk Gironniera subaequalis Planch. 3 31, 41 It can be seen from Table 8 that all tree Tempinis Sloetia elongata Kds. 2 21,43 species can become jernang rattan Kempas Koompassia malaccensis Maing. 2 31, 35 supporting trees. According to Mogea Kayu arang Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 2 35, 41 (2002), Jasni et al. (2007) and Soemarna Jelutung Dyera costulata Miq 2 11, 43 (2009), all tree species in forest can become Kepayang Pangium edule Reinw. 2 21, 35 Trembesi Pithecolobium saman Jacq. 2 1, 47 supporting trees for jernang rattan to climb. Kedondong Spondias cytherea Forst 2 35, 47 However, since the number of supporting Jengkol Pithecellobium lobatum Benth 2 31, 35 trees is not balanced with the number of Petai Parkia speciosa Hassk 2 31, 47 jernang rattan individuals (82), the Ambacang Mangifera foetida Lour. 2 1 possibility of jernang rattan to die is high Medang Litsea sp. Lam. 2 35 because of the lack of supporting trees. Cempedak Artocarpus champeden Lour. 2 47 Table 8 also shows that some tree species Simpur rawang Dillenia indica L. 1 47 were clustered in one location, while other Medang serai Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack 1 11 species were distributed in several locations. Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum L. 1 1 Mahang Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb. 1 1 The results of this study showed that to Brumbung Adina minutiflora Val. 1 31 grow optimally, each individual jernang Kabau Archidendron bulbalium Jack 1 21 rattan needed 4 supporting trees. This result Tempunek Artocarpus rigida Blume 1 11 is in agreement with the statement of Kayu batu Rhodamnia sp. 1 35 Soemarna (2009) that each jernang rattan Kelat jambu Eugenia densiflora Blume 1 31 needs 4 supporting trees. If there is no Kayu terap Artocarpus elastic Willd. 1 35 supporting tree or the number of supporting Tampui Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm. 1 35 trees is small, then jernang rattan will not Merpayang Scaphium macropodum 1 47 survive. Rotan jernang Daemonorops draco Willd. (82 ind.) Total 73 212 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 205-213, October 2012 those with diameter < 10 cm (Table 10). All Table 9. Importance value index (IVI), number of individuals (n), density (n/ ha), tree species had been identified by Forestry and dominance index (DI) of trees with stem diameter > 10 cm Office of Batanghari District, so tree identification was not done in this study. Local names Scientific names IVI n n/ha DI Table 9 shows that the species of trees Trembesi Pithecolobium saman Jacq. 11 2 10 0.00123 found abundantly in the study site were, Keranji Dialium platysepalum Backer 9 2 10 0.0009 among others, trembesi. pinang, and Punak Tetramerista glabra Miq. 8.8 2 10 0.00086 sungkai. The abundance of those tree Jelutung Dyera costulata Miq. 8.8 2 10 0.00086 species indicates that those species have Mahang Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb. 8.5 2 10 0.00081 high adaptation capability, so they grow fast Manggis Garcinia mangostana L. 8.4 2 10 0.00079 in Jebak forest area. Ecologically, those Kayu batu Rhodamnia sp. 8.1 2 10 0.00072 species have positive role for jernang rattan Balam Palaquium sp. R. Br. 7.9 2 10 0.00069 population because those trees can become Kayu arang Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 7.6 2 10 0.00065 supporting trees for jernang rattan. Gaharu Aquilaria malaccensis Oken 7.5 2 10 0.00062 Kelat jambu Eugenia densiflora Blume 7.5 2 10 0.00062 It can be seen from Table 10 that tree Kayu terap Artocarpus elastic Willd. 7.4 2 10 0.0006 species with stem diameter < 10 cm which Medang Litsea sp. Lam. 7.3 2 10 0.00059 had the highest importance value index (20) Medang kuning Pimelodendron sp. Hassk. 7.3 2 10 0.00059 was trembesi. (rain tree) That species was Mahang gajah Macaranga gigantean Reichb. 7.1 2 10 0.00056 found in highest number of individuals Merpayang Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) 7 2 10 0.00055 among all trees in the ecosystem. Keranji Beumee ex Heine and sekentut had the same IVI, which was Pasak bumi Eurycoma longifolia Jack 6.5 2 10 0.00047 10. The relatively large differences in IVI Duku Lansium domesticum Corr. 6.2 1 5 0.00043 are caused by forest degradation which lead Cempedak Artocarpus champeden Lour. 6.1 1 5 0.00041 Durian Durio zibethinus Murr. 6 1 5 0.00039 to the decline of plant population, which in Sungkai Peronema canescens Jack 5.7 2 10 0.00037 turn affects dominance value in ecosystem. Kedondong Spondias cyntherea Forst 5.6 1 5 0.00034 According to Irawan (2002, 2003), the low Kabau Archidendron bubalinum Jack 5.6 1 5 0.00034 IVI of several species in Jebak forest was Kempas Koompassia malaccensis Maing. 5.3 1 5 0.00031 due to the low population caused by illegal Siluk Gironniera subaequalis Planch. 5.2 1 5 0.0003 logging. While Peluso (1992) stated that the Medang serai Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack 5.2 1 5 0.0003 decline of population of a species is due to Kayu tahi Celtis wightii Planch. 5.1 1 5 0.00029 over exploitation of that species. Berangan Quercus elmeri Merr. 5.1 1 5 0.00029 In general, the dominance of trembesi Simpur rawang Dillenia indica L. 5.1 1 5 0.00029 Jengkol Pithecellobium lobatum Benth 5 1 5 0.00028 (rain tree) among all tree species population Petaling Ochanostachys amentacea Mast. 4.9 1 5 0.00026 was categorized as low. The dominance Medang api Adinandra dumosa Jack 4.9 1 5 0.00026 indexes of trembesi for tree with diameter > Kepayang Pangium edule Reinw. 4.9 1 5 0.00026 10 cm, and < 10 cm were low, namely Meranti bunga Shorea teysmanniana Bl. 4.8 1 5 0.00025 0.00123 and < 10cm were 0.00018, Medang kelor Litsea teysmanni Miq. 4.8 1 5 0.00025 respectively. This is in accordance with the Sekentut Saprosma arboreum Blume 4.7 1 5 0.00024 criteria of Simpson Dominance Index, Merawan Hopea mengarawan Miq. 4.7 1 5 0.00024 namely 0 < C < 0.5 = low dominance; 0.5 < Ambacang Mangifera foetida Lour. 4.7 1 5 0.00024 C < 0.75 = medium dominance; 0.75 < C < Keruing Dipterocarpus hasseltii Blume 4.6 1 5 0.00023 Kelat Eugenia sp. Verdc. 4.6 1 5 0.00023 1.00 = high dominance. Kemang Mangifera kemanga Blume 4.6 1 5 0.00023 Mangga Mangifera indica L. 4.6 1 5 0.00023 Tempinis Sloetia elongate Kds. 4.5 1 5 0.00022 CONCLUSION AND Berangan babi Castanopsis inermis Lindl. 4.5 1 5 0.00022 RECOMENDATION Bulian Eusideroxylon zwageri T. et B. 4.5 1 5 0.00022 Tempunek Artocarpus rigida Blume 4.1 1 5 0.00019 The population of jernang rattan in Jebak Karet Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg. 4.1 1 5 0.00018 Brumbung Adina minutiflora Val. 4.1 1 5 0.00018 forest in 2011 was 8 clumps, consisting of Petai Parkia speciosa Hassk. 3.9 1 5 0.00017 82 individuals. The life or jernang rattan Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum L. 3.8 1 5 0.00016 depends highly on the supporting trees on Tampui Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm. 3.8 1 5 0.00016 which jernang rattan climbs. All trees can Total 300 69 345 become supporting trees for jernang rattan. There were 35 species of supporting trees, consisting of 73 individuals in Jebak forest. The tree rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum). The population of species in Jebak Village on which jernang rattan usually jernang rattan (D. draco) was only 82 individuals, smaller climbed were berangan (Quercus elmeri), duku (Lansium than other rattan such as rotan lilin (Calamus javanensis) domesticum), durian (Durio zibethinus), kelat (Eugenia 197 individuals, rotan semambu (C. scipionum) 178 sp.), kempas (Koompassia malaccensis), keranji (Dialium individuals, sego air als (C. axillaris) 103 individual, rotan platysepalum), mahang (Macaranga hypoleuca), and getah (D. melanochaetes) 102 individuals, rotan dahan (C. 5 2 SULASMI et al. – Daemonorops draco of Jebak village, Jambi 213 flagellaris) 95 individuals, and rotan manau (C. Table 10. Importance value index (IVI), number of individuals (n), manan) 93 individuals. density (n/ ha), and dominance index (DI) of trees with stem diameter < To protect the forest from the increasing forest 10 cm. encroachment, serious efforts from the government are needed, such as increasing forest rangers that Local names Scientific names IVI n n/ha DI are brave and firm in enforcing the law to the Trembesi Pithecolobium saman Jacq. 20 4 20 0.00018 encroachers. Further research is needed to estimate Pinang Areca catechu L. 20 4 20 0.00018 the population of jernang rattan in other district, Sungkai Peronema canescens Jack 16 3 15 0.00010 because the population in Batanghari District is Balam Palaquium sp. R. Br. 16 3 15 0.00010 critical. Mahang Macaranga hypoleuca Rechb. 15 3 15 0.00010 Berangan babi Castanopsis inermis Lindl. 15 3 15 0.00010 Medang Litsea sp. Lam. 12 3 15 0.00010 Brumbung Adina minutiflora Val. 11 2 10 0.00004 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Keranji Dialium platysepalum Backer 10 2 10 0.00004 Sekentut Saprosma arboreum Blume 10 2 10 0.00004 We are grateful to Yana Soemarna, Erwin Medang kuning Pimelodendron sp. Hassk. 10 2 10 0.00004 Nurdin, Wisnu Wardana, Dr. Kuswata Kartawinata, Medang serai Cinnamomum parthenoxylon Jack 10 2 10 0.00004 Mega Atria, Dr. Himmah Rustiami, Titi Kalima, Tempinis Sloetia elongate Kds. 10 2 10 0.00004 Totok Waluyo, Dr. Bambang Irawan, who spent Kayu terap Artocarpus elastic Willd. 10 2 10 0.00004 time with us for discussion. The financial support Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum L. 10 2 10 0.00004 and permission to conduct reseacrh by the Kayu arang Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco 9.9 2 10 0.00004 government of Jambi are greatly appreciated. Punak Tetramerista glabra Miq. 8.9 2 10 0.00004 Simpur rawang Dillenia indica L. 8.2 2 10 0.00004 Kayu tahi Celtis wightii Planch. 5.3 1 5 0.00001 Petaling Ochanostachys amentacea Mast. 5.3 1 5 0.00001 REFERENCES Kelat Eugenia sp. Verdc. 5.3 1 5 0.00001 Kemang Mangifera kemanga Blume 5.3 1 5 0.00001 Beccari O. 1911. Asiatic palm lepidocariae the species of Karet Hevea brasiliensis Muell.Arg. 5.3 1 5 0.00001 Daemonorops. Ann Royal Bot Gard Calcuta 12 (1): 1-237. Kelat jambu Eugenia densiflora Blume 5.3 1 5 0.00001 Bernatzky A. 1978. Tree ecology and preservation. Elsevier, Kabau Archidendron bulbalium Jack 5.3 1 5 0.00001 San Francisco. Tempunek Artocarpus rigida Blume 5.3 1 5 0.00001 BKSDA Jambi. 2010. Non-timber forest products of Jambi Province. Department of Forestry, Jambi. [Indonesia] Tampui Baccaurea crassifolia J. J. Sm. 5.3 1 5 0.00001 BPS [Badan Pusat Statistik]. 2010. Jambi in Figures. Badan Cempedak Artocarpus champeden Lour. 5.3 1 5 0.00001 Pusat Statistik, Jambi. [Indonesia] Kacang-kacang Strombosia javanica Blume 5 1 5 0.00001 Dali Y, Soemarna Y. 1985. Cultivation of potential rattan. Bulian Eusideroxylon zwageri T. et B. 5 1 5 0.00001 Prosiding Lokakarya Nasional Rotan. IDRC Canada-Badan Merpayang Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) 5 1 5 0.00001 Litbang Kehutanan, Dephut, Jakarta. [Indonesia] Beumee ex Heine Dransfield J, Manokaran N. 1994. Rattan plant resources of Medang kelor Litsea teysmanni Miq. 4.7 1 5 0.00001 South-East Asia. LIPI, Jakarta. Mangga Mangifera indica L. 4.7 1 5 0.00001 Dransfield J. 1984. The genus Areca in Borneo. Kew Bull 39:1-22. Dransfield J. 1992. The list of rattan in the world. Allen Press, Total 300 60 300 Kansas. Fachrul MD. 2007. Sampling methods of Bio-Ecology. Bumi Aksara, Jakarta. [Indonesia] Peluso NL. 1992. The ironwood problems management and development Harata K, Mogea JP, Rahayu M. 2005. Diversity conservation and local of an extractive rainforest product. Conserv Biol 6 (2): 210-219. knowledge of rattans and sugar palm in Gunung Halimun Salak Purwanto Y, Polosakan R, Susiarti S, Waluyo EB. 2009. Extraction of National Park Indonesia. Palms 40 (1): 25-35. jernang sap (Daemonorops spp.) and the possible extension. In: Heyne K. 1987. De Nuttige Planten van Indonesie. Badan Litbang Purwanto Y, Walujo EB, Wahyudi A. (eds.). 2009. Valuasi hasil Departemen Kehutanan, Jakarta. [Indonesia] hutan bukan kayu setelah pembalakan (Kawasan konservasi PT INTAG. 1989. Pedoman inventarisasi rotan. Direktorat Inventarisasi Wirakarya Sakti Jambi). LIPI, Bogor: 183-198. [Indonesia] Hutan Departemen Kehutanan. Jakarta. [Indonesia] Rugayah, Widjaya EA, Praptiwi. 2004. Guidelines for collecting data on Irawan B. 2002. Ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri) present condition and the diversity of flora. Pusat Penelitian Biologi-LIPI, Bogor. future development in Jambi, Indonesia. J Ecol 91: 222-233. [Indonesia] Irawan B. 2003. A study on tree diversity in association with variability of Rustiami H, Setyowati FM, Kartawinata K. 2004. Taxonomy and uses of ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri) in Jambi, Indonesia. J Ecol 92: 10-18. Daemonorops draco (Willd.). J Trop Ethnobiol 1 (2): 65-75. Jambi Forest Office. 2009. Annual Report. Jambi Forest Office, Jambi. Rustiami H. 2004. A new species of Daemonorops section Piptospatha [Indonesia] (Arecaceae) from Siberut island, West Sumatra. Kew bulletin. 57 (3): Januminro CFM. 2000. Rattan of Indonesia. Pusat Penelitian Hasil Hutan, 729-733. Bogor. [Indonesia] Simon H. 2007. Methods on forest inventory. Pustaka Pelajar, Jasni, Damayanti R, Kalima T. 2007. Atlas of Indonesian Rattan. Pusat Yogyakarta. [Indonesia] Penelitian dan Pengembangan Hasil Hutan, Bogor. [Indonesia] Siswanto BE. 1991. Methods of forest inventory in forest group of Sungai Kalima T. 1991. Some species of Daemonorops; jernang producer and its Aya Hulu, KPH Hulu Sungai, South Kalimantan. Buletin Penelitian problems. Sylva Tropika 6 (1): 15-18. [Indonesia] Hutan 538: 13-22. [Indonesia] Mogea JP. 1991. Utilization and conservation of Indonesian palms. In: Soemarna Y. 2009. Cultivation of jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco Johnson DVJ (ed) Palms for Human Needs in Asia. A.A. Balkema, Willd). J Litbang Kehutanan 2 (3): 5-10. [Indonesia] Rotterdam. Winarni I, Waluyo T, Hastoeti P. 2004. An overview of jernang as Mogea JP. 2002. Rattan in Gunung Halimun National Park and the potential commodity. Prosiding hasil-hasil hutan. Bogor: 173-176. prospects for cultivation in the village Cisungsang, Lebak, Banten. [Indonesia] Prosiding Biodiversitas Taman Nasional Halimun 6 (1): 33-55. [Indonesia] BIODIVERSITAS ISSN: 1412-033X Volume 13, Number 4, October 2012 E-ISSN: 2085-4722 Pages: 214-227 DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d130408

Review: Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigation

ASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA1, MAHENDRA K. RAI2,♥ 1 Department of Geology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati 444602, Maharashtra, India. Tel: +91-721-2662207/8, Extension-302. Fax: +91 721 2660949, 2662135.email: [email protected] 2 Department of Biotechnology, Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati 444602, Maharashtra, India. Tel: +91-721-2662207/8, Extension-267. Fax: +91 721 2660949, 2662135. ♥email: [email protected]

Manuscript received: 11 August 2012. Revision accepted: 17 October 2012.

ABSTRACT

Srivastava AK, Rai MK. 2012. Review: Sugarcane production: impact of climate change and its mitigation 13: 214-227. Sugarcane is a climatic sensitive crop: therefore, its spatial distribution on the globe is restricted as per the suitability of various climatic parameters. The climate change, though, a very slow phenomenon is now accelerated due to natural, as well as enormous human activities disturbing the composition of atmosphere. The predications of various climatic models for probable rise in temperature, rainfall, sea level show an alarming condition in forthcoming decades. As the sugarcane is very sensitive to temperature, rainfall, solar radiations etc. therefore, a significant effect on its production and sugar yield is expected in future. It is also well known that sugarcane is one of the precious crops of the world and its end products i.e. sugar and ethanol have a continuous growing demand on global level. Hence, the studies related to good production of sugarcane in changing conditions of climate has become one among the front line area of research and is a major concern of scientist’s world over. Advance agronomic measures including development of suitable cane varieties susceptible to changed climatic conditions, land preparation, time and pattern of plantation, weed, disease and pest managements, nutrients managements, proper timing and adequate water management seems to be the affective measures for obtaining high production of crop with good quality juice in future.

Key words: sugarcane, climate change, agronomy, soil

INTRODUCTION phase with around 80% humidity is the best suited condition. The last phase of maturity and ripening prevails Sugarcane, a taxa represented by stout, jointed, fibrous for a period of about 90 days. In this phase, rapid stalk of 2-6 m with sugar is a tall perennial grass of the accumulation of sugar as well as conversion of simple genus Saccharum of family Poaceae (Clark et al. 1995). It sugar to cane sugar takes place. A dry weather with good is native to warm temperate to tropical regions of South sunshine, warm days accelerate the process. Asia and Southeast Asia having humid climate. This C4 The crop is grown in more than 120 countries, of plant has a high efficiency to store solar energy as well as which, Brazil (420,121,000 MT), India (232,320,000 MT), efficient converter of the same. Broadly, four growth China (88,730,000 MT), Thailand (49,572,000 MT), phases of the plant can be identified, i.e. germination Pakistan (47,244,100 MT), Mexico (45,126,500 MT), phase, tillering phase, main growth phase and, maturity and Columbia (39,849,240 MT), Australia (38,246,100 MT), ripening phase. The first phase covers a period of planting Philippines (31,000,100 MT) and USA (25,803,960 MT) up to the completion of germination of buds which depends are the top ten countries in production (FAO 2005). Area upon field condition and lasts for 4-5 weeks. The optimum wise, Brazil is the highest, i.e. 5.63 million ha, whereas, temperature for sprouting is around 20-30°C. The second India’s contribution is 4.0 million ha (FAOSTAT 2005). In phase is of about 120 days i.e. tillering which is a tender production, Brazil still remains on the top with 33% of and highly sensitive to the local climate, soil climate, water global sugar production followed India (23%), China (7%) and nutrient supply as it forms a base for good production. and Pakistan (4%) (FNP 2009). Worldwide sugarcane Temperature and solar radiations play a major role in this occupies an area of 20.42 million ha with a total production phase. Temperature around 30°C is optimum whereas: of 1328 million metric tons (FAOSTAT 2005). sufficient light is required for good growth. Tillering is also In India, sugarcane occupy about 4.0 million hectare influenced by water availability, spacing manuring, weed area and is produced in most of the states having the control etc. The phase of main growth is a period of actual highest area of 47.05% in Uttar Pradesh followed by cane formation and elongation which may take 270-300 Maharashtra (17.52%), Karnataka (7.76%), Tamil Nadu days. Better growth of the cane requires warm and humid (7.47), Gujarat (4.57%) and Andhra Pradesh (3.76%) conditions which facilitates leaf production and their contributing about 88% of the total area. The rest of the growth. Similar temperature condition as of the second 12% area is shared by Bihar, Uttarakhand, Haryana, SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production 215

Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Punjab etc. However, the global level which is basically necessitated to have a good yield of sugarcane per hectare is highest in Tamil Nadu, crop in different regions having local variations in climatic followed by West Bengal, Karnataka and Maharashtra set-up. Optimum climates required for cane development (ICRISAT 2009). The average cane yield in India is about are as follows (Binbol et al. 2006, Gawander 2007): 70.0 tonnes per hectare while the sugar recovery is around Rainfall: Rainfall is an important factor for good 10.0 percent (IISR 2011). growth of sugarcane. The plant requires optimum rains Though, the cultivation of sugarcane is geographically during the vegetative growth as it encourages rapid cane restricted so as to climate, but its end products e.g, sugar growth, cane elongation and internodes formation. During and ethanol have a global increasing demand, therefore, it ripening period, the rainfall should be less in order to have is very essential to look the cultivation, production and good quality juice, less vegetative growth as well as yield in this changing scenario of the climate. Sugarcane is reduction in the tissue moisture. Due to high rainfall, these very sensitive to the climate but also highly adoptive. conditions may be adverse. An average of 1200 mm evenly Basically, it is a rain-fed crop and depends heavily on the distributed rainfall in the range of 1100-1500 mm is amount and duration of precipitation, humidity, moisture optimum for higher yield. However, good productions are content, temperature and soil condition (Gawander 2007). also being taken in the regions having a minimum of These factors are to some extent interrelated and the 600mm and a maximum of 3000mm rainfalls, which change in one normally affects the others. In recent years, depends on adoptive measures, selection of varieties, both natural phenomena, i.e. variations in the earth's orbital farming methods (ICAR 2000). characteristics, atmospheric carbon dioxide variations, Temperature: Temperature is equally important similar volcanic eruptions and variations in solar output (Masih to the rainfall as it is closely related to the growth and 2010): and, human activities, particularly, the rapid productivity of the plant. Its optimum range varies for industrialization which resulted in increased emission of different phase of the plant which has a severe affect on CO2, global warming, green house effect etc. (Segalstad good growth of plant and recovery of sugar. An optimum 1996) have influenced the global climatic set-up. temperature for sprouting (germination) of stem cuttings is Therefore, it is a matter of concern on priority to study the 32-38°C as it slows down below 25°C, reaches plateau effect of climatic change on various aspects of sugarcane. between 30-34°C, and reduced above 35°C, whereas, practically stops when the temperature is above 38°C. Temperatures above 38°C reduce the rate of photosynthesis CLIMATE AND SOIL FOR SUGARCANE and increase respiration. During ripening period, a low temperature in the range of 12-14°C reduces vegetative Climate requirement growth rate and enrichment of sucrose in the cane (Fageria Climate plays an important role in all the phases of the et al. 2010). plant. Since, the plant stands in the field for 12-24 months, However, there is a control of cane variety, frequency hence, goes through all possible limits of weather and irrigation and other field practices on growth and parameters i.e. rainfall, temperature, sunshine, humidity production of cane as well as the yield of sugar. A etc. All these parameters have a role in plant growth, sugar minimum mean temperature of 20°C congenial during yield, quality and content of juice etc. For good growth of active growth phase. Temperatures both below 5°C and plant and high production, specific weather conditions with above 35°C are not suitable as previous may be harmful for suitable parameter are required. young leaves and buds. In the later case of high The crop is grown in the world from latitude 36.7° N to temperature, rolling may occur irrespective of water 31.0° S however, inhabits well in tropical region. In India, supply. Further rise in temperature may enhance red rot two distinct regions can be categorized for sugarcane disease. The durations of high and low temperature phases cultivation, i.e. tropical and sub-tropical. The northern sub- influence highly on sucrose accumulation. The adverse tropical region experiences extreme summer temperatures affect of high temperature is marked by reversion of as well as severe cold in winter, whereas, the tropical sucrose into fructose and glucose. Enhanced region south of Vindhyans, the temperature, like previous, photorespiration may reduce accumulation of sugar (Binbol shoots up to 47°C in comparatively prolonged summer et al. 2006; Gawander 2007): season, however, winter is short and temperature is Sunlight: Increase in leaf area index is rapid during 3rd comparatively congenial. The cultivation is done right from to 5th month, coinciding the formative phase of the crop Punjab and Haryana in the north to Tamil Nadu in the and attained its peak values during early grand growth down south. It has wider adaptability and grows well where phase. Light in terms of both duration and intensity is a temperature ranges between 20-40°C. It responds well to necessary requirement of this C4 plant, which has a high long period of sunlight (12 to 14 hours), high humidity capacity of photosynthesis as well as stabilization range. In (above 70%) and high rainfall even up to 1500 mm. If general, high radiation favors high production of cane and assured irrigation water is available, it can also be grown in good yield of sugar. On average 7-9 hours of bright sun areas where rainfall is low up to 500 mm. As sugarcane light is optimum. In cloudy and short day’s period, tillering crop remains in the field for more than 12 months, it may be adversely affected. Growth of stalk is also good withstands temperature variations of winter (6-8°C) and during bright light with long duration (ICAR 2000; Fageria summer (40-42°C). The climatic factors required for the et al. 2010). The upper six leaves of the sugarcane crop good growth of the plant is a matter of active research on canopy intercept 70% of the radiation which reduce the 216 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 214-227, October 2012 photosynthetic rate of the lower leaves due to mutual good for groundnut, tobacco, potato, rice and sugarcane in shading. Therefore, a care is to be taken for proper spacing the area of southern Karnataka, eastern Rajasthan, during plantation. The areas with short growing period northeastern states, Maharashtra etc. However, all these benefit from closer spacing to intercept higher amount of soils are good for the sugarcane however, the cane variety solar radiation and thus get higher yields however, with matters. Certain other soil types i.e. lateritic soils, saline long growing season, wider spacing is suggested to avoid and alkaline soil, mountain soil, desert soil etc. are not mutual shading and mortality of shoots (Legendre 1975). suitable up to the required extent The entire mechanism of sugarcane growth and A generalized idea about the soil conditions for the formation of sugar depends on photosynthesis, for which sugarcane is being summarized on the basis of information sunlight is required. Like others, the growth of plant result available on SC (2012). Sugarcane can be produced in all from conservation of radiant energy from the sun into the types of soils, however, well drained loamy soil with a plants fibers and sugar. During the process, the first ph of 6.5-7.5 and adequate nutrients is considered to be the product of photosynthesis i.e. four carbon sugar (C4) is ideal. There should not be compaction in soil, as well as, it fixed in the specialized cells of conductive tissue i.e. stem should be loose and friable with a minimum depth of 45 of the plant. The amount of carbon gain per day from cm, excluded with harmful soil. The plant can be well photosynthesis is dependent on latitude and clouds covers. grown on higher soil, as well as, on heavy clays provided The previous, determines the intensities of radiation on one has to opt for proper irrigation management. horizontal surface and the later amount of radiation that A continuous monitoring of physical, chemical and reaches the surface. This plant thrives best under high solar biological conditions of the soil is required to ensure good insolation and temperature associates with lower latitudes cane growth, high yield and better quality of sugar. The (da Silva et al. 2008). bulk density and porosity of soil along with other Relative humidity and wind have comparatively less significant physical parameters affects the root growth. A control over plant, however, affect to a large extent in case bulk density of 1.4mg/m3 and porosity around 50% of extremes. Up to 80-85% humidity and warm weather occupied by both air and water in equal proportions are conditions favor the rapid growth of the cane. In ripening highly favorable. Higher density hampers the proper spread phase, a moderate humidity with limited water supply is and growth of roots. The plant has a capacity for deep roots favorable (SC 2012). Similarly, wind has no harm to plant up to 5m, hence, soil thickness along with its quality until it reaches to a velocity capable of breakage of cane or matters as deep soil have appreciable dry tolerance (Huang damage to leaves. The high velocity may be harmful in 2000). initial stage of plant growth. The long duration high The pH conditions other than the normal (pH 6.5-7.5) velocity wind will result to loss of moisture. of soil may lead to alkaline or acidic nature. However, Broadly, two different sets of climatic parameters are sugarcane can tolerate the pH range from 5.0-8.5 but required in the life cycle of the plant. Long duration of requires lime or gypsum applications in more extreme bright sunshine warm season with optimum rainfall high conditions. Proper management of soil is required in case humidity in growing phase favors rapid growth of plant as of saline soil i.e. dissolution, removal of salts by draining well as cane length with good yield. The ripening season of water trough channels, organic manuring, mechanical which is a phase of sugar storage needs clear sky without treatments etc. There are certain plant varieties which can precipitation, warm days and dry weather conditions. tolerate salinity up to certain limits, may be opted. The light textured soils bear poor water holding capacity which Soil requirement can be upgraded by addition of organic matter. Black soils Soils, forming the base of any of the crop, affect the usually have high water holding capacity but permeability productivity as per its inherent and dynamic proportions. It is very less i.e. ill drained, hence, bad poor drainage provides essential nutrients and water: and, holds the crop (European Commission 2012). standing for months together. Broadly, it consists of thin Sugarcane is a management responsive crop: therefore, layers, of which, the topmost is made up of soil panticks soil-plant relationship is to be monitored during all the including animal and plant decay material. Numerous types phases of the plant. The condition of plant, as well as the of soils are reported world over, which depends upon soil, takes so many turns in entire period as the crop physical, chemical and biological properties of the same. remains in the field for more than one year facing all the Since, soil is basically a weathered product: therefore, the extremes of rainfall, temperature, sunlight, humidity etc. host rock plays an important role in the composition of the Therefore, it is recommended to maintain the congenial soil soil. This specific composition makes the soil specific or climate for good growth of plant by its proper management suitable for a particular crop, for example, the alluvial soil in various extreme conditions i.e. irrigations in dry period, of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and other adjoining area maintaining drainage of excess water, pest control, weed are highly fertile and rich in potassium making it highly control etc. suitable for sugarcane, rice, wheat etc. whereas, the black soil from Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, a weathered product of basalt rich in iron, lime, calcium, magnesium provides good crops of cotton, EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SUGARCANE sugarcane, groundnut, rice, wheat etc. The red soil is iron rich and more sandy due to high content of silica and It general, agricultural production activities of all the ferromagnesium minerals in host crystalline rocks. It is sectors are the most sensitive and vulnerable to climate SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production 217 change (IPCC 1990, 2005). IPCC (2007) clearly reports as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The fossil that the climate change is real and the process is going on. fuel combustion along with land use change is the main Its impact will be disproportionately on developing reason for the global increase of carbon dioxide countries threatening to undermine the achievement of the concentration, while agriculture for methane and nitrous Millennium Development Goals, reduction of poverty and oxide (Cerri et al. 2007). The increase in their security of safeguard food. The climatic change is not only concentrations will retain the radiations emitted by the concerned with the crop production, instead, heavy impact earth’s surface causing imbalance to the earth’s thermal on socio-economic set-up of a region, ultimately affecting system. The changes in temperature, rainfall and solar the national economy. The change also poses significant radiation patterns due to global warming will affect the challenges for the fair trade movement. There are sugarcane production in both positive and negative ways. evidences that most of the small farmers in Indian IPCC (2007) reported that the average global surface subcontinent, as well as others of Southeast Asia, are temperature has increased by 0.74±0.18°C in the last experiencing increased climate variability and change. It is century and is projected to increase by another 1.1°C-6.0°C expected that climate change will include more extreme in this century: may be 6.0°C increase by the end of this events and slow onset impacts, such as changes in century (Rahmstorf et al. 2007). The mean annual surface precipitation and temperature (Nelson et al. 2010). Climate air temperature is likely to increase ~ 4°C over India by the change is likely to have mainly negative impacts upon end of 21st century (2071-2098). The temperature extended agricultural production, food security and economic i.e. daily maximum and minimum temperatures may be development, especially in developing countries (Hannah intense which will be more intense in case of night time et al. 2005). temperature (Kumar 2011). The role of temperature in cane Sugarcane is also strongly influenced by the impacts of development starts from the very beginning and continues long-term climatic change as well as local weather and up to later stage. It is directly linked with the growth of seasonal variations. The climate affects the growth and plant, photosynthesis as well as other biochemical development of plants and may harm the crops. It also processes including bud development (Gawander 2007). affects severely on the microorganisms related directly or Photosynthesis efficiency of sugarcane increases in a linear indirectly for better growth and yield of the crop. manner with temperature in the range of 8°C to a maximum Rosegrant et al. (2008) identified potential direct effects of 34°C. Cool nights and early morning temperatures 14°C of climate change on the agricultural systems which are as in winter and 20°C in summer significantly inhabit follows: (i) Seasonal changes in rainfall and temperature photosynthesis next day. The leaf growth is constrained at could impact agroclimatic conditions, altering growing temperatures less than 14-19°C. Cool night temperatures seasons, planting and harvesting calendars, water and sunny days slow down growth rates and carbon availability, pest, weed and disease populations, etc. (ii) consumption, while photosynthesis may continue Transpiration, photosynthesis and biomass production is (Gawander 2007). Gbetibouo and Hassan (2005) employed altered. (iii) Land suitability is altered. (iv) Increased CO2 a Ricardian model to measure the impact of climate change levels lead to a positive growth response for a number of on South Africa’s field crops including sugarcane. Their staples under controlled conditions, also known as the study reveals that the production of field crops in South “carbon fertilization effect”. Africa will be very sensitive to even marginal changes in Certain model-based predictions of climate change on temperature as the remaining range of tolerance to various regions of the globe have been made by Rosegrant increased temperature is narrow compared to changes in et al. (2008), which are as follows: (i) Global models precipitation. This result suggests developing the varieties consistently highlight risk disparities between developed of plant which should have more heat tolerance rather than and developing countries. (ii) For temperature increases of draught and moving from rain fed to irrigated agriculture only 1-2°C, developing countries without adaptation will could be an effective adaptation option to reduce the likely face a depression in major crop yields. (iii) In mid-to harmful effects of climate change for the field crops. high latitudes, increases in temperature of 1-3°C can Gouvêa et al. (2009) made the future estimates of improve yields slightly, with negative yield effects if sugarcane yield in tropical southern Brazil for the years temperatures increase beyond this range. (iv) Stronger 2020, 2050 and 2080 on the basis of an agrometeorological yield-depressing effects will occur in tropical and sub- model based on future A1B climatic scenarios and tropical regions for all crops, which reflect a lower growing interpreted that increasingly higher temperatures will cause temperature threshold capacity in these areas. (v) an increase of the potential productivity, since, this variable Estimations predict that cereal imports will increase in positively affects the efficiency of the photosynthetic developing countries by 10 to 40 percent by 2080. (vi) processes of C4 plants. However, changes in solar radiation Africa will become the region with the highest population and rainfall will have less impact. of food insecure, accounting for up to 75 percent of the The rainfall is also a limiting factor. The countries world total by 2080. depending more on rain-fed crops are experiencing an Global warming, increase in the global temperatures, is adverse effect the agricultural products including sugarcane one of the main factors affecting the climate in recent past, because of the change in volume and spatial distribution of for which, the human activities play an important role rains. A climatic prediction made for 2050 on Viti Levu (Nikolaos 2011). The global warming is result of an Island, Fiji shows that the increases in rainfall during good increase in the concentration of “greenhouse” gases, such years may offset the impacts of warmer temperatures, with 218 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 214-227, October 2012 little change in sugarcane production. However, a warmer the increase of soil moisture as the crop needs water and its and possibly drier climate could lead to more intense local accumulation increases the moisture posing difficulty droughts during El Niño years in which the sugarcane will in ploughing. Hence, sufficient time of 1-2 weeks is be heavily affected (World Bank 2004). The availability of required for decrease in soil moisture. A cross and deep water is more or less a dependable factor on climate which ploughing for 2-3 times with sufficient organic manure is well reflected in agricultural sectors. An increase in provides good seed bed. Hard stubble of wheat, maize, temperature will enhance the evaporation from soil, water sorghum should be taken out. In case of wheat as preceding and plant surfaces due to deficit of water in the atmosphere. crop, soil is not much deteriorated due to less moisture, There will be more demand of water to land ecosystems. hence, easy for preparation by simply collecting the residue Kimball et al. (2002) interpreted that elevated CO2 and and burning or removing the same. The cleaning is temperatures will affect plant growth and water balance. followed by ploughing which depends upon the soil Lawlor and Mitchell (1991) reported that the elevated conditions. Sometimes, mainly in the large forms, the atmospheric CO2 concentrations primarily enhance CO2 transportation of crop by heavy vehicles make the soil diffusion into the leaf and increase the photosynthetic rate compact and uneven which reduces the pore spaces to of C3-plants over a wide range of radiation intensities. In retain water and air, which is harmful for root India, monsoon is most active with a share of about 70% development. It needs a proper tillering by disc harrows, annual rain fall in the duration of June to September, i.e. tyned harrows or rotavator. However, 2-3 shallow and 1-2 summer monsoon or southwestern monsoon. However, deep ploughings are sufficient in order to maintain the soil south-eastern and northeastern regions are more affected by density and moisture congenial for its proper aeration and the northeastern monsoon for their agricultural produce. softness. It is followed by the leveling of the ground for The high resolution regional climate precipitation model uniform crop stand and proper distribution of water. PRECIS, projects that summer monsoon in India may Organic manure may be added by last ploughing or in the increase by ~150 to 2080s relative to the base line period later stage to improve soil fertility (ICRISAT 2009). corresponding to 1970s. The number of raining days may be non uniform over the country and spatial pattern may Planting material also differ. The intensity of rain fall on a raining day is The next step is the planting material and planting likely to be higher in future (Kumar et al. 2011). pattern with the selection of suitable variety of the cane. The sugarcane producing coastal belt areas are also From a long time, scientists world over are involved in vulnerable to climate change and a major loss is expected. developing improved varieties to make the crop more Low lying areas will be submerged in this phase of sea productive and high yielding with respect to change in level rise. Coastal erosion and inundation will be high. local setup of climate and soil. The selection of variety differs with the area, requirement, climatic conditions, soil types etc.: and, the information about the same is available AGRONOMIC MEASURES locally in almost all the major sugarcane producing countries. Agronomy basically dealing with good production of Cane setts, settlings and bud chips are planting material any crop and yield starts from the very beginning. to raise the crop. The setts are the cut pieces of a healthy Sugarcane agronomy also starts with field preparation and disease free cane which bears 2-3 buds. In most of the followed by seed selection, planting patterns, tillering, countries three bud setts are used. To ensure a disease free irrigation, manuring, weed and insect controls, irrigation material, a few treatments are recommended. Sugarcane management etc. These practices are though generalized, Streak Mosaic Virus (SCSMV) and Sugarcane Mosaic but also need certain specifications depending upon soil Virus (SCMV) are two common viruses affecting the crop characteristics, field topography, cane variety, climatic to considerable limit (Chatenet et al. 2005: Damayanti et al. conditions etc. The long standing crop should get the 2010). Damayanti et al. (2011) concluded that the thermal optimum condition for better growth in changing inactivation point of SCSMV ranges between 55-60°C, environmental and soil climate, hence, specific agronomic which is higher than the plant thermal death point. measures are required at different phases. Some of the However, treatments at 53°C for ten minutes can reduce agronomic measures required for the sugarcane are as drastically the disease severity with maintaining 100% follows: plant viability. Apart from this, simply soaking the cane water for 12-18 hours, mud or cow dung treatments are Field preparation and planting also applied for higher germinations. Treatment with The field preparation starts with the cleaning of the specific chemicals i.e. KMnO4, MgSO4 or potassium field particularly, the left out of the previous crop. The seed ferrocyanide, ammonium sulphate, chlorohydrins, bed for sugar should be free from the unwanted residue of acetylene etc. are good for better germination and bud the previous crop. Paddy happens to be a preceding crop in sprouting, whereas, prevention from fungal attack as well most of the Indian subcontinent which leave a lot of stubble as insects can be made from Aretan and Benzene. Another and roots. A common practice to remove these is their vegetative material is the settlings that are cane setts having collection followed by their burning and spreading the ash roots. It can be raised in the nursery as used in spaced in the field which results in the change of soil texture and transplanting, as well as, in plastic bags. The later has an composition. The other affect of the paddy cultivation is advantage as the climatic conditions, soil conditions; SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production 219 nutrient supply can be regulated artificially: and over all, cane setts provides protection from soil born insects. the transportation is easy. The other alternative is the bud Trenches are filled with the soil after planting. In Rayungan chip which is excised auxiliary buds of cane stalk or, method, the seed stalk is topped off about two months cutting of one bud from entire stem. It proved to be an before planting which results in the development of lateral alternate to reduce the mass and improve the quality of shoots. Trenches having 30 cm depth and 90 cm lateral seed cane. These bud chips are less bulky, easily intervals are made and prepared by mixing of manure. transportable and more economical seed material. The bud Further digging and softening of soil up to the depth of chip technology holds great promise in rapid multiplication about 15 cm is carried out and filled with same soil and of new cane varieties (Jain et al. 2010). This method, fertilizer. Shaft of about 40-45 cm with 2-3 nodes are though have multifaceted advantages also bears certain planted followed by irrigation. There are other methods of drawbacks, e.g. poor survival conditions in the field, plantation like distance planting, bud transplantation, relatively low food reserves, limited survival etc. Food sprouting method, planting of uppermost nodes etc. which reserve and moisture in the bud chip depletes faster which are more or less modifications of above mentioned methods results in poor sprouting which can be managed with suitable for specific region or climatic and soil conditions suitable storage conditioned including low temperature. A (IISR 2008). study carried out for improvement of sprouting by soaking Planting pattern has a direct bearing on the productivity of pre-planting seed by growth-promoting chemicals viz, and yield. An experiment conducted by Mahmood et al. ethephon and calcium chloride helps in enhancing bud (2007) to determine the effect of different planting patterns sprouting, root growth and plant vigor by altering some of i.e. number of rows, spacing in between, width of the the key biochemical attributes essential for the early growth ditches, pit size etc. on the yield potential and juice quality and better establishment of bud chips under field of autumn planted sugarcane indicates that there were conditions. Treated bud chips recorded higher bud significant differences in the length, diameter and weight of sprouting, shoot height, root number, fresh weight of individual cane. The data also shows high variation in cane leaves, shoot and roots, and plant vigor index (Jain et al. yield as well as production of millable canes due to 2011). adoption of various planting patterns. Garside and Bell An ideal seed cane can be obtained from a seed crop of (2009) experimentally demonstrated that high density 7-8 months. Care should be taken to choose the seed free planting did not produce more cane or sugar yield at the diseases like red rot, wilt, smut, ratoon stunting disease harvest than low-density planting regardless of location, etc. It should be healthy with high moisture content and crop duration, and water supply and soil health. In general, nutrients and aerial roots and splits. tiller survival, cane weight and yield are higher in wide row planting resulting to comparatively high produce of Planting pattern millable canes as well as longer duration and high-yielding Pattern of planting is a significant factor affecting the nature of the same (Sundra 2002: IISR 2008: Kapur et al. plant. Some of the commonly followed practices are flat 2011). beds, ridges and furrows, trench method, Rayungan method etc. The field method is adopted in the areas having low Weed management rain fall. It is a simple and cheep method mostly followed Weeds are probably the single factor which can damage in northern and central India. Shallow furrows of 8-10 cm the crop productivity and yield up to the maximum limit. It depth at the distance of 70-90 cm are made on flat seed can reduce the potential sugar yield by 25-90% along with bed. The setts with 3-buds are planted end to end in these other nutrients. In India, the common weed are Cynodon furrows which are covered with the soil followed by doctylon, Cyperus rotundus, Echinochloa spp, Saccharum leveling. Moisture content should be adequate at this time. sp. (narrow leaved), Chenopodium album, Solanum The furrow planting is a common practice in the areas of nigrum, Convolvulus arvensis, Trianthema sp. Digera northern and southern India having moderate rain fall and arvensis, Anagallis arvensis, Fumania sp. (broad leaved) heavy soil with low drainage. V-shaped furrows of 15-20 and Cynodon dactylon, Sorghum halepense, Panicum spp, cm depth are made at the intervals of 90 cm. Addition of Dactyloctenium aegyptium (grasses) etc. Since, the FYM, potassium and phosphate fertilizers, nutrient in the sugarcane is a long standing crop: therefore, it is affected soil of the furrow may be done as per the requirement. The by the different weeds in changing climatic conditions. The cane setts are planted in end-to-end manner and are major reasons for easy susceptibility of the sugarcane are covered by about 6 cm soil which leaves a furrow above its planting pattern i.e. wide row gap: slow rate of plant the planted row. These furrows are watered in order to growth as the germination phase is of 4-6 weeks followed enhance soil moisture for good germination. The trench by 8-10 weeks of full development of canopy: and, method is followed in coastal areas where strong winds comparatively better water and nutrient conditions during prevail in the rainy season. This method prevents the crop plantation. These factors enhance the possibility of weed from lodging. It is also known as ‘Java method’ as growth: however, the control of the same is essential for common in Java. Trenches of 20-25 cm depth are dug at economical sugarcane production. It reduces the yields by the distance of 75-90 cm. Suitable soil condition is made competing for moisture, nutrients, and light during the by addition and through mixing of fertilizers rich in growing season. Various growth phase of the plant are sodium, potash and phosphate. Like previous, end to end prone to specific weeds, however, the initial 4-6 months of pattern is also opted in this method. Chemical treatment to growing phase of the plant need more care as negligence 220 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 214-227, October 2012 during this period will have an adverse affect on tiller management is a combination of all the practices i.e. growth as well as number and development of millable cultural, manual and chemical methods at proper time of stalks (Chauhan and Srivastava 2002; Chattha et al. 2007). the plant growth to get the maximum productivity and The methods for weed control broadly consist of yield. A wise combination of various methods will also cultural, mechanical, chemical and integrated weed results to the best and economical way for controlling management practices. The cultural method includes the weed. use of high tillering and fast growing cane varieties which reduce the time span of critical period of competition. Insect/pest control Mulching of the trash, inter crop between the row space are Insects and pests are equally dangerous if not controlled also adopted. Mechanical and manual control includes the within time. Sugarcane is also very much susceptible to the physical removal of weeds by bullock or tractor-drawn same and may bear heavy loss due to rapid and enormous cultivators, harrows and rotavators or by manual labor growth of the pests in comparatively short time depending implements like spade, hand hoe, etc. are very effective in upon climate, rain fall, temperature, as well as sufficient early stages of crop growth. These practices are very food material in the form of crop itself. More than 200 effective, but now difficult to be opted because of so many species of insects are known from India, however, a few reasons like, non availability of man power, high cost of are considered as most devastating. Some of the common labor, longer time span of operation etc, therefore, use of insects of the sugarcane, its time of appearance and chemical methods i.e. use of herbicides are widely being controlling measures are as follows: followed. It provides an effective and long duration control Pyrilla perpusilla. It is a most destructive foliage- as well as economical in a few cases. However, it is also sucking pest and causes heavy loss in cane yield and sugar true that chemical methods are only supplementary to recovery. It appears in the months of August-September cultural practices and as can possibly never replace the after heavy rainfall casing high humidity. It attacks mainly later. There are so many herbicides available in the market, on the leaves and leave sheath. Spray of chemicals is the however, prior to use, the opinion of expert is suggested for only remedy. Planting in paired row method provides space proper selection of herbicide, doses, methodology etc. for supervision and to undertake control measures (Paul Selective herbicides will invariably fail to kill some weeds 2007). and furthermore some herbicides will damage the crop Termites. These are the underground insects attack the because the protoplasm of desirable plants is similar to that stalk used for the planting as well as shoots, canes. In of undesirable plants i.e. weeds. It follows that continuous initial phase, it finds the way from the cut ends of the seed and injudicious use of a particular selective herbicide will and damage the soft tissue leading to low bud germination encourage a resistant type of weed to flourish and and replantation. These include Coptotermes heimi, predominate (Stewart 1955). Odontotermes assmuthi, O. obesus, O. wallonensis, The herbicides are specific for pre-emergence and post- Microtermes obesi and Trinervitermes biformis. They are emergence varieties (see Mossler 2008; Odero and Dusky most active under draught conditions, i.e. April-June and 2010; www.sugarcanecrop.com). Some common herbicides October, however, active in almost all the seasons. Farmers are (i) Atrazine-controls most annual grass and broadleaf control termites by spraying pesticides over the stalks in weeds, (ii) 2,4-D-spiny amaranth, ragweed, morning glory, the furrow during planting (Cheavegatti-Gianotto et al. and many others, (iii) Ametryn-annual grass and broadleaf 2011). The remedial measures include application of well weed seedlings, especially effective against Alexander rotten farmyard manure, removal of stubbles and debris of grass, (iv) Asulam- controls Alexander grass, broadleaf previous crop, addition of chemicals in the furrows during panicum, and other annual grasses but response is slow: it planting. is applied only once per season, (v) Metribuzin-controls Borers. These are the insects which bore young shoots, most annual grass and broadleaf weeds but is often mixed canes and roots. Significant damage results from the with atrazine or pendimethalin. It is applied at the time of sugarcane borer larvae tunneling within the stalk. This can planting or ratooning, but prior to weed emergence, (vi) cause a loss of stalk weight and sucrose yield. The borer's Pendimethalin-control and time of application are same as tunneling into the stalk allows points of entry for secondary previous and often mixed with the same, (vii) invaders. If the tunneling is extensive, death of the terminal Halosulfuron- controls purple and yellow nutsedge as well growing point of the plant may result. Weakened stalks are as some broadleaf species and may be applied to any stage more subject to breaking and lodging (Cherry et al. 2001). of sugarcane growth. Apart from these, Diuron, Alachlor, The shoot borers (Chilo infuscatellus) attacks in the early Trifluralin, Terbacil, Dalapan, Glyphosate, Paraquat are phase during the months of plant growth i.e. April-June by also in common use. Diuron is less common, though entering laterally through the holes in the stalk and may response well to broad leaves than grass. Trifluralin works even damage complete cane by upward or downward on annual grasses and small seeded broadleaf weeds. boring producing dead hearts. In early phase, it may Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide patented under damage the mother stem destroying entire stem. Plantation the trade name Roundup. It is only effective on actively of early crop e.g. before mid March is suggested. Chemical growing plants: it is not effective as a pre-emergence treatment is effective. The internode borer (Chilo herbicide (WHO 1994; Duke and Powles 2008). Paraquat sacchariphagus) is one of the major pests of peninsular have an excellent control on annual weeds and can be used India (Gupta 1957) and is more active at the time or little as an alternated to glyphosate. Integrated weed after the internode formation, however effective during SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production 221 entire plant life (Ananthanarayana and Balasubramanian a post monsoon pest normally appears in 5-6 months old 1980). Due to infection, the internodes suffer reduction in crop after formation of internodes. The symptom is the length and girth causing considerable reduction in cane presence of approximately circular, smoky-brown or yield (David et al. 1979). It also deteriorates juice quality grayish-black scale covers on stems and leaf midribs and reduces sucrose content (David and Ranganathan (Agarwal et al. 1959). The scales are often so closely 1960). Immature internodes are normally attacked by fresh crowded that it is difficult to distinguish their individual borers. The top shoot borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis) shapes. Infested leaves may show drying of the tip and pale attack the youngest part of the plant top, and usually green to yellow coloration. Nodal region is more infested destroy the growing point. Young stalks die, whereas older than internodal region. It thrives best between 24°C and stalks often die or produce side shoots and sucrose content 34°C and at high relative humidity: the traditional method is usually adversely affected (Sallam 2006). It attacks of irrigation by flooding fields strongly favors survival of during March-October and is very serious during July- the pest (CPC 2012). Rao et al. (1991) found that a long August. The larvae usually penetrate along the midrib of dry period immediately after the rains favored a rapid the leaf into the heart of the plant. Larvae feed to tender build-up of M. glomerata populations. Wind is an leaves within the whorl and damage the growing points important aid to the dispersal of the scale (Tripathi et al. which turn dark. The other signs of attacks are shot holes in 1985). The control of the pest is to be taken care from leaves, white or red streaks on the upper side of the mid rib selection of setts by avoiding them from infested field. The and bunchy tops from July onwards. Collection and destroy setts may be treated with insecticide to ensure removal of of moth and egg clusters as well as integrated method of infestation. Crop rotation with wheat is an effective cultural and chemical methods are useful. The root borer measure (Varun et al. 1993). Detrashing and burning of the (Emmalocera depressella) disconnects the conducting trash and other crop residue helps considerably. Spray of tissues of the root from the soil due to which the plant die. insecticide is quite effective controlling measure provided It also paves way for Ratoon Stunning Disease (RSD) (Gul detrashing is carried out in combination with the pesticide 2007). Plants infested with E. depressella suffer dead application (Rao et al. 1976). hearts and general yellowing of the leaves and may result Mealy bug (Saccharicoccus sacchari). These are found in poor tillering in mature plants. It infests sugarcane plants in cluster, on the stalks under overlapping leaf sheaths, at all stages of development (Singh et al. 1996). Chemical below the nodes and spread up and down to the other and biological managements are effective if done at internodes and buds. The damage mainly occurs by sucking suitable time. the cell sap, depriving plants of essential nutrients which Black bug. This group of insects are mainly a problem may result to stunning, yellowing and thinning of the of north Indian Sugarcane formers. It is most destructive canes. It also plays an important role in virus transmission for the ratoons. These include Blissus gibbus and Macropes and the growth of sooty-mould fungus due to large amount excavates. Both nymphs and adult accumulate in the of honeydew secreted by the insect (Eid et al. 2011). The central whole of the cane shoot and suck the sap as a result pest populations grow fast under drought conditions and the shoot turns pale, yellow in color with brown patches ants help in their dispersal to a large extent. Both nymphs and sickly appearance. These consequently affect the and adults (female) suck the juice. The infested plants show chlorophyll content of the leaves, length, girth and a sickly appearance and look pale. Severe infestation may ultimately weight of the stalk. The healthy stalk exhibited cause drying up of the leaves. Occasionally, cavity like comparatively higher length as compared to infested stalk depressions is formed on the internodes under the leaf- as well as loss in weight occurs. An increase in nitrogen sheaths. Deterioration in juice quality and loss in sucrose content of infested leaves and decrease in chlorophyll content are the late results. Destroying of the affected content hampers the growth (Yadav 2003). Nymphs appear leaves at harvest, selection of proper and healthy seed in March-April which is also a peak period of infection and canes, spray of insecticides are the controlling measures. from June to October, both nymph and adults are present Spray material should be made in a way that it can trickle together. The management needs both cultural and down the internodes into the underneath leaf-sheath in chemical methods. Burning of trash and leaves left behind order to kill the nymphs. the harvesting may be done in the months of March-April White fly (Aleurolobus barodensis, Neomaskellia when the pest go through the early stage of its activity. bergii). It is the most dreaded pest causing direct as well as Chemical method is the spray of specified insecticides. independency for sucking cell sap from leaves. Population Nitrogen deficiency has been reported to invite black bug growth is high and reaches to maximum level under low infestation in sugarcane ratoon crop (Jaipal 1991). Foliar lying, water logged and nitrogen deficient areas (Mann et fertilization of black bug infested cane crop with 2.5 al. 2006). It usually becomes active with the onset of percent urea at formative phase has shown to substantially monsoons having high humidity which favors its breeding. reduce the young nymphal population. The incidence and September-October is the period of maximum attack which intensity of black bug in ratoon crop may reduce from 50- gradually slows down in forthcoming days due to 70 percent with a concomitant increase in shoot height unfavorable climatic conditions. Both adult and the nymphs simply by removal of plant crop residue and foliar N suck the sap from the leaves and turning them yellow. The applications (Jaipal 2000). adults are small pale yellow, ovate in outline with black Scale insect (Melanaspis sp.). It is probably a native to and grey coating on the body. Nymphs reside underneath of North India (Rao 1970) but prevails in other parts also. It is the leaves and suck the cell sap. Due to the attack, cane 222 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 214-227, October 2012 juice becomes more watery. Reduction of sucrose and less patches across the stalk. These white patches differentiate it recovery of sugar are other adverse affects. Loss can be from other stem rots. In resistant varieties, the infection is minimized by avoiding ratoon in low lying areas, burn all largely confined to the internodes. The typical stalk the trash of the harvested crop, destruction of affected parts symptoms i.e. presence of white spots in otherwise rotten and foliar sprays (dull red) internodal tissues and nodal rotting appear when White grub (Holotrichia sp.). It is a problem of mainly the crop is at the fag end of the grand growth phase during tropical India, but the name ‘white grub’ is a collective August-September in subtropical India. In the early stages term for various genus and species reported from sugarcane of infection, it is difficult to recognize the presence of the producing areas of the world. The pest life cycle consists of disease in the field, as the plant does not display any egg, larval instars, pupa and adult stages, of which, the late external symptom or distress. At a later stage, some larval stage is the most damaging to sugarcane. It feeds on discoloration of rind often becomes apparent when internal the root of the sugarcane and also damages the tissues have been badly damaged and are fully rotten. At underground part of the stem by boring. The visible the field level, this may be observed as the death of a few symptom can be seen in September with yellowing plants or clumps to the failure of entire crop (chlorosis) of the leaves which is usually followed by (Duttamajumder 2008). Infected leaf shows small red stunted growth, dense browning, lodging, plant uprooting, marks on upper surface of the lamina and midrib. Due to and death in heavily infested areas. Symptoms may be seen this disease, retardation in the yield and deterioration as early as September. Damage is usually more severe in occurs in juice quantity. The management includes ratoon crops and is most evident around the edges of a field selection of healthy setts treated with heat therapy: (Srikant and Singaravelu 2011). It thrives in moist sandy cultivate of resistant sugarcane varieties, burning of trash soil. The larval instars can survive for more than three and other residue of the field, rotation of with paddy, months by remaining dormant inside the earthen cell. The onion, garlic, linseed and green manure crops etc. management can be made by collection of beetles and Precaution should be taken to control the spread of disease destroying them either the same night or a night after first through water: hence, water of infected crop field is not to shower when the emergence is high. Cultural practice be allowed in other crop grown areas. includes deep ploughing of field in the month of February Sett rot or pine apple disease. It is caused by well before summer showers. Flooding for 24-48 hours Ceratocystis paradoxa, both sett borne and soil borne. It during pest activity period reduces grub population. infects in the primary phase of cultivation due to which the Rotation of crop with paddy and sunflower also help to internal tissue of the setts turns red and black. The black minimize the pest. Biological control is mostly self- coloration is due to production of fungal spores within the sustaining as several vertebrates are natural enemy of the seed piece. Nodes act as partial barriers to the spread of pest. A fungus Beauveria brongniartii infective to all rotting, but with susceptible varieties, entire seed pieces stages of the white grub, penetrates the body wall of larva may become colonized by the fungus. The disease severely and multiply, thus killing the insect. The chemical method retards bud germination, shoot development and early may be of little use, i.e. spray of insecticides immediately shoot vigor. Pineapple disease can result in young plant- after the first summer shower (Srikant and Singaravelu cane crops having patchy, uneven appearance germination 2011). over large areas (Raid 1990). The disease is much prone in low lying areas and soils having ill drainage. It can be Disease management controlled by treating the setts by chemical fungicide There are about 50 diseases of sugarcane caused by before plantation (Vijaya et al. 2007). fungal, bacterial, viral and phytoplasm pathogens Wilt disease. A fungal disease caused by (Vishwanathan and Padnabhan 2008). Fungal diseases Cephalosporium sacchari, spreads through setts and include Red rot, Smut, Wilt, Eye spot, Yellow spot, Brown adversely affects the germination. Poor and weak quality spot, Pine apple, Banded scletioal and Pokkah boeng, germination ultimately affects the root development and whereas Ratoon stunting, Leaf scald and Red stripe are cane formation. The symptoms are visible after 4-5 months mainly caused by bacteria. Viral and mycoplasmal diseases of plantation during monsoon and post monsoon periods are Mosaic, Grassy shoot and Leaf yellow of sugarcane. showing gradual withering. The affected tissue show Brief ideas about the symptom of important diseases are as reddish brown coloration in patches. The leaves turn follow: yellow and dry up. The disease is controlled by selecting Red rot. It is a fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum healthy, disease free seed setts after treatment with falcatum. The growth of this fungus is affected by fungicide (Khan 2003; Gupta and Tripathi 2011). temperature, pH, nutrition and environmental conditions. It Gummosis or gumming disease (Xanthomonas is one of main diseases of Indian subcontinent as well as vasculorum). The symptoms are white leaf stripes with other parts of the world. It can attack entire plant e.g. stalk, necrotic zones at leaf margins, extensive chlorosis of leaf, buds or roots however: the most amazing phase is its emerging leaves, vascular reddening and cavity formation attack on stalk. The symptom depends on the susceptibility in invaded stems, production of side shoots, rapid wilting of the sugarcane variety, time of infection and the and death of plants. Prolonged latent infection can occur, environment which may not be apparent in the initial phase necessitating detection by isolation or sensitive molecular but may be fatal in later stage. In the initial phase, the assays. The development and spread of disease includes infected tissues show dull red coloration with whitish xylem-invading pathogen, transmitted in cuttings, SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production 223 mechanically, and by wind-blown rain (Birch 2011). The may spoil this property of soil. The crusting of soil before control is mainly the precautions i.e. selection of disease development of crop canopy is a phenomenon of both rain free setts, cultivation of resistant varieties and destroying fed and irrigated conditions. These crusts develop when the diseased canes. soil surface dries out after rainfall or irrigation. Physical Sugarcane smut. The causal organism of smut disease disaggregation of soil particles occurs in response to the of sugarcane is Ustilago scitaminea, which occurs in most impact of raindrops, causing compaction of the surface part of the world and spread by windblown spores, infested layer which limits water penetration into the soil. Soil seed-cane and infested soil (Nzioki 2010). The diagnostic crusting is a precursor to soil loss through erosion and feature is the emergence of a whip which is gray to black, improving water intake rates (Meyer et al. 1996). curved, pencil-thick growth which, emerges from the top of Acidity and alkalinity of the soil requires specific the affected cane plant. It arises from the terminal bud or treatments. Acid soils are normally recorded in the areas of from lateral shoots on infected stalks and may attain the high rainfall areas and in the soils rich with organic matter. length from a few centimeters to meter. It is composed Under such environmental conditions, soils weather partly of host plant tissue and partly of fungus tissue. The quickly and the basic cations like Ca, Mg, K are leached control measures are hot water treatment of seed canes, out from the soil profile, leaving behind more stable rouging out diseased plants, planting resistant or tolerant materials rich in iron and alumina oxides. This process cultivars, and fungicides (Agnhotri 1983). makes soils acidic and generally devoid of nutrients. There are many other diseases of sugarcane which may Accelerated acidification of soils under cultivation is most affect to some extent in the growth and quality of juice, viz. often due to the combined effect of oxidation of ammoniac ratoon stunting, yellow spot, red stripe, rust and genetic fertilizers to nitric acid, mineralization of organic matter variegation of leaf and sheath. black rot, black stripe, and leaching of basic cations from the soil. Because of acid brown rust, dry rot, leaf binding, leaf blast, leaf blight, leaf soil, the growth of cane may not reach to the optimum: in fleck, leaf scorch, leaf splitting, leaf yellows, mosaic range addition, yield and quality of the juice are also adversely rust etc affected. High alumina level damages the root system: as a result, the roots tend to be shortened and swollen, having a Soil and nutrient management stubby appearance. Management is possible by lime and Soil and nutrient management is the most emphasized dolomite applications. The solicity or soil salinity is also a aspects of the agro-technology to increase the crop common problem of sugarcane growing areas having low production and sugar yield. Since, all the nutrient rain fall. It may be natural or secondary, developed due to management practices are to be applied on the soil over irrigation however, in both cases, the plant is affected. In which the crop is to be grown, therefore, the idea of soil some areas, the cause of soil salination is due the condition, texture, composition etc. are the prerequisite. development of high water tables, which allow capillary The soils of the area varies considerably, therefore, the rise of saline ground water into the rooting depth of the agronomic methods varies from area to area. Land crop. Occasionally, poor quality irrigation water may be degradation in the tropics has mainly resulted from poor another source of salts (Meyer et al. 1996). Various adverse soil management practices. In Korea, despite choosing new affect reported are stunted growth, scorched tips and sugarcane varieties with improved sugarcane and sugar margins of leaves, poor root growth, poor cane quality, yields, early maturity, resistance to pests and diseases, deterioration of juice quality etc. good milling qualities and adaptability to local growing The nutrient management is basically the maintenance conditions, the average yield was low as compared to of sound soil fertility conditions for the crop. The nutrient previous years (Wawire 2006): for which, the decline of condition of the field which was good in the past may soil fertility resulting to depletion of essential nutrients was become poor in future due to many reasons including one of the main reason (Bell et al. 2001: Garside et al. cultivation of crops without nutrient management. Each 2003). The yield potentials and other characteristics are crop requires certain constituents which are taken from the specific to a particular sugarcane variety. Soil is one of the soil resulting to reduce its quantity as per the previous main factors which influence the production according to level. Therefore, continuous cropping without proper its chemical composition particularly nitrogen and management of nutrient will result to degradation of soil: potassium which play a major role in physiology, growth hence, the nutrients management is required. Fertilizers are and development (Malavolta 1994: Rice et al. 2002). necessity for better management of the soil but at the same Both physical and chemical properties of the soil have time its composition, quantity and time have an important an impact on the plant growth. Soil bulk density in the role. Higher quantity of unwanted constituents may act as sugarcane field varies considerably as the crop is usually pollutant and harm the crop. Though, a lot of constituents grown on low ridges i.e. rows with tractors and harvesters are required for the sugarcane, however, the management passing over the interrows making it compact. Because of of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium needs special care the compaction, the soil strength gets increased but the for good crop. porosity is reduced lowering the water intake capacity of Nitrogen is an essential part of all plants. Its deficiency topsoil (Srivastava 1984). The good soil structure, i.e. in the soil is represented on sugarcane by short and thinner arrangement of soil particles having lots of pores and and shorter stalk, paleness of foliage, leaves turn black and spaces is good for root development by allowing good die, blade turn light green to yellow, thin roots etc. It also drainage and aeration. Excessive cultivation, high irrigation influences the quality and quantity of juice. Phosphorus in 224 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 214-227, October 2012 low quantity reduces sprouting or no tillering, less the crop from the very begning and up to the last. elongation of stalk, red, greenish violet and purple Reduction in the stalks elongation and leaves in the plant colorations of leaf tips and margins, slender leaves, delay are the primary symptoms of water stress, whereas, the last in canopy development etc. It is essential for cell division phase of crop shows decrease in sucrose accumulation. responsible for plant growth and also for better root Irrigation is therefore a major factor for growth of development to support and develop healthy plant. It is a sugarcane which has been a matter of active research from necessary constituent for formation of protein, the very begning and will probably continue with more photosynthesis and plant metabolism. Potassium helps in quantum in future as the water is being expansive day by carbon assimilation and photosynthesis, in addition to day, so as to the cost of irrigation. providing resistance to sugarcane against pests and In the present climatic conditions, it is evident that the diseases. Symptoms of deficiency are yellow-orange rain fall is very erratic, unpredictable and uneven. Its coloration of leaf borders and tips, slender stalk. It is the stipulated duration is also shifting in some of the regions. most abundant cation of the cell sap. By acting mainly as In central India, 2-3 seasons of good rain fall is normally an enzyme activator in plant metabolism, it is fundamental followed by a draught or low rainfall period. Since, the to the synthesis and translocation of sucrose from the demand of sugarcane is high for the water, as the irrigation leaves to the storage tissues in stalks. It also plays a is required in almost all the phases of plant growth and cost significant role in controlling the hydration and osmotic of irrigation has also increased, therefore, the cost effective concentration within the stomata guard cells (Ng 2002). management is present need in almost all the sugarcane Sugarcane requires sulfur in relatively large amounts growing areas. Moreover, it also becomes necessary for the which is used for plant structure and growth. Plants take up judicious use of the available water as its share for sulfur as sulphate which is more mobile in soils. Other agriculture is also reduced due to high demand and natural sources of sulfur are rainfall and irrigation. Calcium consumption by domestic, private and public sectors in last is essential for cane growth and for cell wall development. 2-3 decades. In India, the present demand of irrigation It is taken up as a positively charged cation from the soil water is between 543-557 billion cubic meter (BMC) as solution. Magnesium is essential for plant photosynthesis estimated by NCIWARD (1999) which may go to 628-807 as it is the main mineral constituent of chlorophyll. Sodium BMC in the year 2050 and 826-852 BMC in the year 2065. is required in very small amounts for the maintenance of However, it is expected that demand for water is likely to plant water balance. Copper, zinc, iron, manganese, exceed the availability much before 2050 (Jain 2011). molybdenum, boron etc. are the micronutrients which are Various traditional methods of irrigation followed for taken up by cane in much smaller quantities and are the crop are flood irrigation, large furrow system, generally regulators of plant growth (Wood 2003). The serpentine method, alternate skip furrow method and deficiencies of micronutrients are also effective and their contour furrows system which depends upon the symptoms are visible either on leaves and stem in the form availability of water, soil characteristics and topography of of odd appearance, different colorations, spots, necrotic the area. In most of the practices, the water used for leaves, thinning of stalks etc. It is advisable to contact the irrigation is often more than that of the requirement, and a expert agronomist, because the identification of the certain amount of water go waste, particularly in the flood deficiency of a particular micronutrient and their exact irrigation. Therefore, the drip irrigation is now a highly remedial measure is difficult for a common farmer. adopted technique. This technique is largely preferred in The management starts with enhancement of the central India because of mainly low rainfall and high depth suitability of soil by adding organic manure i.e. farm yard of water table. Further, it saves the water, reduces labor manure (FYM), compost, dung etc. which improves the cost, save electricity and is suitable for almost all lands. physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. Besides, free movement of pests and diseases as in case of Apart from these, various other manures like, press mud, flood management are automatically prohibited. Sprinklers vermicompost, green manure can be made with little are also being common. planning. The fertilizers provide a supplement to the soils The irrigation depends mainly upon the climatic depleting in one or more constituents. The requirement of condition of the region and type of soil, however, sowing the suitable fertilizer for a particular field can be known by pattern, type of manure and fertilizers are also the the analysis of soil test result. At the same time, soil type, governing factors to some extent. The northern India, crop nutrient requirements, past fertilization practices and where the water table is comparatively low, most of the soil cropping history should also be taken into consideration. spread is alluvial and fertile, may need comparatively less The traditional methods like mixing of fertilizer with soil, number of irrigations. Water requirement is more in the its application in the furrows followed by little irrigation areas having hot and dry winds. The method of sowing in are still widely used. It is also important to retain the trench form is little economical. The soil types and cane nutrient in the field by avoiding the runoff and erosion for varieties also restricts the method and number of irrigations which soil and water conservation measures should be to be practiced for the crop. In all the cases, the irrigation is followed. to be carried out to the extent preventing water-logged condition as it adversely affects the crop growth. Irrigation management Sugarcane is a high water requirement crop. The lack of water in soil cause the moisture stress which can ihfluence SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production 225

Biotechnological approaches sugarcane. The same may be availed regularly to ensure Biotechnology plays a pivotal role for the improvement good crop. of Sugarcane varieties. Tiwari et al. (2010) suggested biotechnological approaches for sugarcane improvement in the following areas: (i) Cell and tissue culture for rapid REFERENCES propagation genetic transformation and molecular breeding, (ii) Introduction of novel genes into commercial Agarwal RA, Sharma DP, Kindaswamy PA. 1959. Feeding habit of cultivars, (iii) Molecular detection of sugarcane pathogens, sugarcane scale (Targionia glomerata Green). Curr Sci 28: 462-463. Agnhotri VP. 1983. Diseases of sugarcane. Oxford and IBH Publishing (iv) Development of genetic maps using molecular marker Co. technology, (v) Understanding the molecular basis of Ananthanarayana K, Balasubramanian M. 1980. Distribution and intensity sucrose accumulation, (vi) Molecular testing of plants for of internode borer of sugarcane, Chilo sacchariphagus indicus (K.) clonal fidelity, (vii) Variety identification, and (viii) during different periods of plant growth. Proc Ann Conven Deccan Sugar Technol Assoc 30: 81-88. Molecular characterization of various traits. Bell MJ, Garside AL, Halpin NV, Berthelsen JE. 2001. Yield response to Much focus had been made on development of breaking the sugarcane monoculture. Proc 10th Aust Agron Conf, transgenic plants and marker assisted breeding. Australian Society of Agronomy. Biotechnological strategies may improve a number of plant Binbol NL, Adebayo A A, Kwon-Ndung EH. 2006. Influence of climatic traits which may important for adapting to climate change factors on the growth and yield of sugar cane at Numan, Nigeria. Climate Research, 32, 247–252. including early vigor, water-use efficiency, nitrogen-use Birch RG. 2011. Xanthomonas albilineans and the antipathogenesis efficiency, water logging tolerance, frost resistance, heat approach to disease control. Molecular Pl Pathol 2 (1): 1-11. tolerance, pest and disease resistance, and reduced BoM [Bureau of Meteorology]. 2007. The greenhouse effect and climate change. Bureau of Meteorology Technical Report. Commonwealth of dependence on low temperatures to trigger flowering or Australia, Melbourne. seed germination. Research is being conducted into Cerri CEP, Sparovek G, Bernoux M, Easterling WE, Melillo JM, Cerri developing molecular markers or GM varieties for these CC. 2007. Tropical agriculture and global warming: impacts and traits. The Genetically modified Sugarcane would really be mitigations options. Scientia Agricola 64: 83-99. Chatenet M, Mazarin C, Girard JC, Fernandez E, Gargani D, Rao GP, the answer to cope with the challenges of Climate changes. Royer M, Lockhart B, Rott P. 2005. Detection of Sugarcane streak Development of new stress tolerant, high yielding verities mosaic virus in sugarcane from several Asian countries. Sugar Cane with the help of biotechnology may open up new avenues Intl 23 (4): 12-15. in sugarcane in sugarcane production. Chattha MU. Ali A. Bilal M. 2007. Influence of planting techniques on growth and yield of spring planted sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.). Pak J Agric Sci 44 (3): 452-455. Chauhan RS. Srivastava TK. 2002. Influence of planting techniques on CONCLUSION growth and yield of sugarcane. Ind. J. Weed Sci., 34(3-4): 318-319. Cheavegatti-Gianotto A, de Abreu HM, Arruda P, et al. 2011. Sugarcane (Saccharum x officinarum): A reference study for the regulation of Various climatic factors and agronomic measures genetically modified cultivars in Brazil. Trop Pl Biol 4 (1): 62-89. required for better growth of sugarcane are specific in local Cherry RH, Schueneman TJ, Nuessly GS. 2001. Insect management in set-up. The change in global climate is a matter of serious sugarcane. Entomology and Nematology Department Document concern to sugarcane cultivators for sustainable ENY-406. University of Florida/ IFAS, Gainesville, FL. Clark LG, Zhang W, Wendel JF. 1995. A phylogeny of the grass Family development of the crop. A review of various climatic (Poaceae) based on ndhF sequence data. Syst Bot 20 (4): 436-460. factors and agronomic measures strongly suggests for the CPC [Crop Protection Compendium]. 2012. Melanaspis glomerata. CABI adaptation of modern techniques being developed at Intl. www.cabi.org/cpc. regional level in most of the sugarcane producing areas. In da Silva FC, Diaz-Ambrona CGH, Buckeridge MS, Souza A. Barbieri V. Dourado Neto D. 2008. Sugarcane and climate change: Effects of the initial phase, both land preparation and planting CO2 on potential growth and development. Acta Horticulturae 331- material need a careful planning as the further growth of 336. the crop entirely depends on the same. Land preparation Damayanti TA, Putra LK, Giyanto. 2010. Hot water treatment of cutting- requires a thorough study of the soil and climatic cane infected with Sugarcane streak mosaic virus (SCSMV). J Intl Soc Southeast Asian Agric Sci 16 (2): 17-25. conditions of the region which may vary as per the David H, Sithanantham S, Velayutham B. 1979. Some aspects of losses temperature of the region, availability and intensity of due to internode borer in sugarcane in Tamil Nadu. Proc Ann Conven rainfall and sun light. The selection of planting material is Deccan Sugar Technol Assoc 29: 27-40. being suggested for those varieties which can sustain local David IL, Ranganathan V. 1960. Influence of internode borer on the quality of juice in sugarcane. Indian J Sugarcane Res Dev 4: 209-212. climatic conditions as well as resist for pests and diseases. Duke SO, Powles SB. 2008. Mini-review: Glyphosate: a once-in-a- Since, sugarcane is a long standing crop and experiences century herbicide Pest Manag Sci 64:319-325. severe changes in climate, biotic and abiotic factors, Duttamajumder AK. 2008. Red rot of sugarcane. IISR, Lucknow therefore, a regular care of soil and nutrient management, Publication, India. Eid MA, El-Shabrawy HA, Yakoub RS. 2011. An attempt to study the pest control, disease management and adequate irrigation impact of Pink Mealybug infestation Saccharicoccus sacchari Ckll. are required. It is also advised to the cultivators to take on chemicals and allelochemicals of some sugarcane cultivars. Acad suggestions of the experts to enhance the quality and bJ Entomol 4 (1): 23-29. production of the cane. Such expertises are made available European Commission. 2012. Guidelines on best practice to limit, mitigate or compensate soil sealing, SWD/2012/101 final. locally by government at agriculture offices and research Fageria NK. Virupax C. Baligar. Jones CA. 2010. Growth and mineral centers. Besides, all most all the agriculture universities, nutrition of field crop. 3rd Ed. CRC Press, 437-456. colleges and research institutes extend their cooperation to FAO 2005. Major food and agricultural commodities and major the cultivators for good development of crops including producers. FAO, Rome. FAOSTAT. 2005. Primary Crops. FAO, Rome. 226 BIODIVERSITAS 13 (4): 214-227, October 2012

FNP. 2009. AGRIANUAL 2009 - Anurio da Agricultura Brasileria, Sâo Lawlor DW, Mitchell RAC. 1991. The effects of increasing CO2 on crop Paulo, P497. photosynthesis and productivity-a review of field studies. Plant Cell Garside AL, Bell MJ. 2003. Management of legume residues to maximize Environ 14: 807-818. the nitrogen benefits to the following sugarcane crop. Proceedings of Mahmood A, Ishfaq M, Iqbal J, Hazir MS. 2007. Agronomic performance International Society of Sugarcane Technologists 26: Sugarcane and juice quality of autumn planted sugarcane (Saccharum Agronomy. officinarum L.) as affected by flat, ditch and pit planting under Garside AL, Bell MJ. 2009. Row spacing and planting density effects on different spatial arrangements. Institute J Agric Biol 9: 167-169. the growth and yield of sugarcane. 1. Responses in fumigated and Malavolta E. 1994. Nutrient and fertilizier management in sugarcane. non-fumigated soil. Crop Past Sci 60 (6): 532-543. International Potash Institute. Basel, Switzerland. Gawander J. 2007. Impact of climate change on sugarcane production in Mann RS, Suri KS, Sharma S. 2006. Population dynamics of insect pests Fiji. WMO Bull 56 (1): 34-39. of sugarcane in Punjab. Indian J Plant Protect 34 (2): 198-201. Gbetibouo GA, Hassan RM. 2005. Measuring the economic impact of Masih J. 2010. Causes and consequences of global climatic change. Arch climate change on major South African field crops: a Ricardian Appl Sci Res 2 (2): 100-105. approach. Glob Planet Change 47: 143-152. Meyer JH, van Antwerpen ER, Meyer E. 1996. A review of soil Gouvêa JRF, Sentelhas PC, Gazzola ST, Santos MC. 2009. Climate degradation and management research under intensive sugarcane changes and technological advances: impacts on sugarcane cropping. Proc South African Sugar Technol Assoc 70: 22-28. productivity in tropical southern Brazil. Scientia Agricola 66 (5): 593- Mossler M. 2008. Crop profile for sugarcane in Florida. 605. www.ipmcenters.org Gul K. 2007. Distribution and management of sugarcane borers in NCIWARD. 1999. Report of the National Commission for integrated Peshawar Valley. [Dissertation]. KP Agricultural University, Water Resources Development, Ministry of Water Resources, Peshawar. Government of India, New Delhi. Gupta BD. 1957. A note on the scientific and common names of Nelson V, Morton J, Chancellor T, Burt P, Pound P. 2010. Climate sugarcane pests in India. Indian J Sugarcane Res Dev 2: 9-13. change, agricultural adaptation and fair trade, identifying the Gupta SK. Tripathi SC. 2011. Fungitoxic activity of Solanum torvum challenges and opportunities. Natural Resources Institute, University against Fusarium sacchari. Plant Protect Sci 47: 83-91. of Greenwich Hannah L, Lovejoy TE, Schneider SH. 2005. Biodiversity and climate Ng KK KF. 2002. The effects of potassium on growth, development, yield change in context. In: Lovejoy TE, Hannah L. (eds.) Climate change and quality of sugarcane. In: Pasricha and Bansal (eds.). Potassium and biodiversity. Yale University Press, New Haven. for Sustainable Crop Production: Potash Research Institute of India Huang B. 2000. Role of root morphological and physiological (PRII) and International Potash Institute (IPI), Horgen, Switzerland, characteristics in drought resistance of plants. In: Wilkinson, R. F. 430-444. (Ed.) Plant-Environment Interactions, Mercel Dekker, New York. Nikolaos C, Stott PA, Brown JS. 2011. The role of human activity in the ICAR. 2000. (Indian Council of Agricultural Research). Handbook of recent warming of extremely warm daytime temperatures. J Climate Agriculture, 5th ed., New Delhi. 24 (7): 1922-1930. ICRISAT. 2009. Training Manual on Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative: Nzioki HS, Jamoza JE, Olweny CO, Rono JK. 2010. Characterization of Improving Sugarcane Cultivation in India, An Initiative of ICRISAT- physiologic races of sugarcane smut (Ustilago scitaminea) in Kenya. WWF Project, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh, India. 30P. African J Microbiol Res 4 (16): 1694-1697. IISR. 2008. Annual Report, 2007-2008. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Odero DC, Dusky JA. 2010. Weed management in Sugarcane. SS-AGR- Research, Lucknow. 09, Agronomy Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, IISR. 2011. Vision 2030. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida Lucknow. Paul AVN. 2007. Insect pests and their management (online), Indian IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1990. Scientific Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. assessment of climate change. Working Group 1, World Metrological nsdl.niscair.res.in/.../revised+insect+pest+and+their+management.pdf. Organization and United Nations Environmental Program, New York. Rahmstorf S, Cazenave A, Church JA, Hansen JE, Keeling RF, Parker IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2005. Climate DE, Somerville RCJ. 2007. Recent climate observations compared to Change 2005: The Science of Climate Change (including summary projections. Science 316: 709. for Policy makers). Working Group 1, World Metrological Raid RN. 1990. Fungicidal control of pineapple disease of sugarcane. J Organization and United Nations Environmental Program, New York. Amer Soc Sugarcane Technol 10: 45-50. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007. Climate Rao SV, Rao CS, Rao BHK. 1976. Mechanical and chemical control of Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Summary for Policy sugarcane scale insect Melanaspis glomerata Green. Indian Sugar 26 makers. Working Group I, World Metrological Organization and (10): 689-693. United Nations Environmental Program, New York. Rao VLVP, Rao NV, Rao SS. 1991. Influence of seasons on buildup of Jain R, Solomon S, Shrivastava AK, Chandra A. 2010. Sugarcane bud scale insect Melanaspis glomerata (G.), insecticidal performance and chips: A promising seed material. Sugar Technol 12 (1): 67-69. their effect on yield and quality in sugarcane. Indian J Plant Protect Jain R, Solomon S, Shrivastava AK, Chandra A. 2011. Effect of ethephon 19 (1): 17-22. and calcium chloride on growth and biochemical attributes of Rao VP. 1970. The sugarcane scale insect, Melanaspis glomerata Green. sugarcane bud chips. Acta Physiol Plant 33: 905-910. Indian Sugar 20: 279-282. Jain SK. 2011. Population rise and growing water scarcity in India - Rice RW, Gilbert RA, Lentini RS. 2002. Nutritional requirements for revised estimates and required initiatives. Curr Sci 101 (3): 271-276. Florida sugarcane. Florida Cooperative Extension Service Publication Jaipal S. 1991. Infestation and severity of damage by black bug, SS -AGR – 228. Cavelerius sweeti to shoots of nineteen sugarcane accessions and Rosegrant MW, Ewing M, Yohe G, Burton I, Huq S, Valmonte-Santos R. cultivars. Ann Appl Biol 118 (Suppl.) 12: 120-121. 2008. Climate protection programme for developing countries. Jaipal S. 2000. An IPM module for the management of major insect pests German Technical Cooperation Publication, Germany. of sugarcane in Indian Subtropics. Sugar Technol 2 (3): 1-8. Sallam MS. 2006. A review of sugarcane stem borers and their natural Kapur R, Duttamajumder SK, Krishna Rao K. 2011. A breeder’s enemies in Asia and Indian Ocean Island: an Australian perspective on the tiller dynamics in sugarcane. Curr Sci 100 (2): 183- perspective. Annales de la Societe Entomologique de France 42 (3-4): 189. 263-283. Khan EA. 2003. Studies on weed control in sugarcane and allopathic Sc. 2012. Sugarcane. www.sugarcanecrops.com. On Nov 2012. effects on eucalyptus on field crops. Ph. D. thesis, Gomal University, Segalstad TV. 1996. The distribution of CO2 between atmosphere, Dera Ismail Khan. hydrosphere, and lithosphere; minimal influence from anthropogenic Kimball BA, Kobayashi K, Bindi M. 2002. Responses of agricultural CO2 on the global "Greenhouse Effect". In Emsley, J. (Ed.): The crops to free-air CO2 enrichment. Advan Agron 77: 293-368. Global Warming Debate. The Report of the European Science and Kumar KK, Patwardhan SK, Kulkarni A, Kamla K, Rao KK, Jones R. Environment Forum. Bourne Press Ltd., Bournemouth, Dorset, U.K. 2011. Simulated projections for summer monsoon climate over India Singh M, Chhiliar BS, Madan YP. 1996. Biology of sugarcane root borer by a higher resolution regional climatic model (PRECIS). Curr Sci Emmalocera depressella Swinhoe. Indian Sugar 45: 12. 101 (3): 312-326. SRIVASTAVA & RAI – Impact of climate change on sugarcane production 227

Srikant J, Singaravelu B. 2011. White grub (Holotrichia serrata) as a pest Vijaya HK, Kulkarni S, Yashoda R, Hedge YR. 2007. Chemical control of of sugarcane and its management. Extension Publication 197, sett rot of sugarcane caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa. Karnataka J Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore Publication, 1-5. Agric Sci 20 (1): 62-64. Srivastava AK. 1984. Soil compaction: a problem in sugarcane culture. Vishwanathan R, Padnabhan P. 2008. Handbook on sugarcane diseases Indian Sugar 34: 503-504. and their management. Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatur Stewart MJ. 1955. A survey of chemical weed control in sugarcane. Proc Publication. 29th Ann Congr South African Sugar Technol Assoc 29: 126-133. Wawire NW, Kahora FW, Wachira PM, Kipruto KB. 2006. Technology Sundra B. 2002. Influence of varieties, seed and fertilizer rates and adoption study in the Kenya sugar industry. Kenya Sugar Res Found, planting pattern on sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) grown under Tech Bull 1: 51-77. wide row spacing. Indian Sugar 52 (5): 341-347 WHO. 1994. Glyphosate. World Health Orgnization, Geneva. Tiwari AK, Bharti YP, Tripathi S, Mishra N, Lal M, Rao GP, Sharma PK, Wood AW, Schroeder BL, Stewart RL 2003. Soil-specific management Sharma ML. 2010. Biotechnological approaches to improve guidelines for sugarcane production: Soil reference booklet for the sugarcane crop with special reference to disease resistance. Acta Herbert District. CRC Sugar Technical Publication, CRC for Phytopathol Entomol Hun 45: 235-249. Sustainable Production, Townsville. Tripathi N, Omkar, Shukla GS. 1985. Role of air currents in the dispersal World Bank. 2004. Cities, seas and storms: Managing Change in the of sugarcane scale insect crawlers. Agric Sci Digest, India 5 (3): 148- Pacific Islands, Volume II Managing Pacific Towns. The World 149. Bank, Washington D.C. Varun CL, Singh S, Singh HN. 1993. Cultural control of sugarcane scale Yadav RA. 2003. Assessment of losses caused by black bug Cavelerius insect (Melanaspis glomerata Green.) in Bhat soil. Indian J Entomol (Excavatus) sweeti to sugarcane in yield and quality parameters. 55 (2): 219-220. Indian J Entomol 65 (3): 409-415. THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK A-1

Authors Index

Abedi R 72 Peritika MZ 140 Adiwibowo A 46, 56 Pharmawati M 53 Agus SB 145 Pitopang R 178 Agustini V 59 Pourbabaei H 7 72 Arisoesilaningsih A 18 Purwanto Y 92, 151, 205 Asgari F 72 Putranto HD 1 Aththorick TA 92 Rahman DA 79 Bayati M 190 Rai MK 214 Boer C 86 Reif A 72 Budiman 18 Reyahi-Khoram M 130, 135, 190 Fahmi 200 Reyahi-Khoram R 190 Farhan AR 145 Santosa Y 79 Farida WR 86 Santoso U 1 Fatimah S 151, 205 Sarungallo ZL 124 Filiz E 114 Setiadi D 92 Finnegan PM 53 Setianto J 1 Gandjar I 34 Setiawan A 23 Ghasemi A 195 Setyawan AD 161, 172 Guharja E 92 Sinery AS 86 Haghgooy T 7 Srivastava AK 214 Hariyadi B 40 Subhan B 145 Hernawan UE 118 Suciatmih 34 Hoshmand K 135 Sufaati S 59 Ikawati V 23 Sugardjito J 23 Jafary M 190 Sugiyarto 140 Jalilvand H 195 Suharno 59 Kartono AP 79 Suhartoyo H 13 Koc I 114 Suhendra D 145 Kumar A 107 Sulasmi IS 46, 151, 205 Kusmardiastuti 79 Sunarto 140 Lense O 98 Sutarno 161 Madduppa HH 145 Suwarno 28 Mangunwardoyo W 34 Suyatna I 161 Mawikere NL 124 Ulumuddin YI 172 Mir RA 65 Vafaei H 130 Mohajeri-Borazjani S 195 Verma N 107 Munawar A 13 Wani AH 65 Murtiningrum 124 Warnoto 1 Nisyawati 46, 151, 205 Wibisono Y 23 Norisharikabad V 130 Wiryono 13 Nugroho TS 23 Yan G 53 Nurmeliasari 1 Yonvitner 200 Pala SA 65 Zueni A 1 A-2

Subject Index

A. muelleri growth 18, 19, 22 diversity 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 27, 49, accession 54, 107, 108, 109, 112, 115, 54, 57, 59, 65, 70, 72, 73, 74, 124 75, 76, 77, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, agroforestry 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 50, 140, 141, 92, 99, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 142, 143, 152, 178, 187 114, 116, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 133, 137, 138, 140, agronomy 214, 218 141, 142, 145, 147, 150, 161, Amanita 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70 163, 173, 179, 180, 181, 187, Anoxypristis 161, 164, 165 188, 190, 192, 194, 211 anti-bacterial 3, 34, 38, 69, 102 diversity index 9, 10, 16, 74, 75, 87, 88, 90, anti-yeast 34, 37 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 147, aquatic 130, 131, 132, 133, 138, 145, 181 204 dragon blood 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, Arfak Mountain 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 158, 205 artificial inlet 195, 196, 197, 198 dry seasons 28, 34, 138 Avicennia marina 195, 196, 198 ecological species groups 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 biodiversity 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 16, 44, 46, ecotourism 133, 137, 190 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 65, 69, endophytic 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 6, 87, 89, environment 2, 7, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 21, 92, 130, 133, 135, 138, 141, 31, 35, 37, 40, 59, 73, 75, 76, 145, 147, 152, 159, 178, 179, 82, 92, 96, 126, 130, 131, 132, 188, 190, 194 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, burgo 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, Bushehr 195, 196, 198 147, 162, 164, 168, 172, 176, 190, 191, 194, 195, 196, 202, Central Java 23, 24, 25, 26, 140, 141, 142 218, 222, 223 chemical 11, 16, 49, 100, 102, 105, 124, establishment 11, 13, 14, 26, 27, 195, 196, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132, 197, 213, 219 135, 137, 140, 141, 142, 195, 196, 197, 198, 216, 217, 218, estradiol-17ß 1, 2, 3, 4 219, 220, 221, 222, 223 fecundity 28, 79, 80, 81, 162, 167 chloroplast SSRs 114, 115 fish visual census 145, 146 climate change 46, 65, 79, 135, 214, 216, 217, follicles 1, 5 218, 225 forest encroachment 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, cluster 50, 59, 60, 62, 63, 107, 111, 211, 212 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 145, forest plant species 86 148, 172, 175, 211 genetic diversity 7, 89, 107, 108, 109, 112 cultivation 18, 19, 21, 22, 40, 42, 43, 44, Guilan 7, 8 92, 93, 112, 151, 52, 58, 59, 79, habitat 7, 11, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 215, 218, 222, 223 25, 26, 27, 37, 46, 65, 67, 68, cuscus 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 69, 79, 80, 81, 87, 88, 90, 118, Daemonorops draco 46, 47, 48, 50, 151, 152, 153, 119, 120, 127, 130, 132, 135, 156, 158, 205, 206, 207, 210, 137, 142, 145, 147, 148, 150, 211, 212, 205 152, 157, 158, 159, 162, 163, Darabkola 72, 73 166, 167, 168, 173, 176, 179, demersal fish 200, 202, 204 181, 188, 190, 206, 210 Dendrobium crumenatum 34, 36, 38 harvest 18, 20, 21, 22, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 72, 73, 75, 79, 80, 81, Dieng Mountain 23, 24, 25, 26 83, 84, 94, 107, 126, 151, 152, distribution 7, 8, 11, 15, 16, 23, 24, 25, 26, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 172, 27, 29, 40, 44, 74, 86, 87, 88, 192, 193, 195, 217, 219, 221, 90, 94, 95, 96, 107, 111, 114, 222, 223 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, harvesting quota 79, 80, 81, 83 125, 161, 162, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 172, 173, 175, 176, Hirpora 65, 66 182, 193, 197, 198, 201, 202, hunting area 135, 136, 138, 190, 194 203, 214, 217, 218 illegal logging 151, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210, A-3

212 olive 114, in silico analysis 114 orchid-mycorrhiza 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 income source 48, 49, 151, 156, 157, 158 Pandanus conoideus 124, 125, 127, 128, indigenous people 40, 98, 99, 103, 105, 190 Papilio demoleus 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 Indonesia 1, 2, 3, 5, 13, 23, 28, 34, 35, 40, Papua 59, 60, 86, 87, 90, 98, 99, 100, 41, 43, 59, 60, 79, 80, 86, 98, 102, 103, 124, 26, 27, 28, 163, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 118, 164, 166, 167 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 127, parasitoids 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 140, 141, 145, 146, 147, 153, pasture 13, 131, 190, 192, 193 162, 163, 164, 167, 172, 173, 714, 176 178, 179, 188, 200, PCR-RFLP 53, 54, 55, 57 205, 206 phylogenetic analysis 53, 60, 63, 107, 109 Iran 7, 8, 11, 72, 73, 75, 130, 131, physical 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, plant species diversity 7, 9, 72, 73 190, 191, 192, 195, 196 plantation 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, ISSR 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112 32, 33, 46, 47, 48, 50, 72, 73, Jambi 40, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 151, 152, 74, 75, 76, 77, 151, 152, 154, 153, 154, 155, 156, 517, 158, 158, 178, 180, 181, 187, 188, 159, 205, 206, 207, 208, 213 196, 208, 210, 214, 216, 219, Javan gibbon 23, 24, 25, 26, 220, 222 Jebak forest 151, 205, 206, 212 population 1, 2, 5, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, jernang 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 151, 152, 49, 50, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 108, 111, 159, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 112, 114, 118, 126, 129, 130, 210, 211, 212 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 151, Kandelat 7, 8 152, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161, Kashmir 65, 66, 69, 70, 71 162, 166, 168, 172, 173, 190, katuk 1, 2 195, 196, 200, 201, 202, 203, lagoon 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 168 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 217, 221, 222 land use types 178, 79, 82, 87 predator 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 83, 135, Leucadendron 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 142, 43, 48, 200 Leuser ecosystem 92, 93 prediction 18, 21, 217 life table 28, 29, 30 pristid 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, local ecological knowledge 40 169 long-tailed macaque 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 Pristis 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, Lore Lindu National Park 178, 179, 187 168, 169 macrofungi 65, 69, 71 prohibited 43, 44, 135, 162, 190, 194, 224 Malay Archipelago 161, 163, 164, 165, 166 RAPD 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, management 18, 26, 40, 41, 44, 49, 50, 72, 114 75, 76, 79, 86, 87, 112, 131, rattan 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 87, 151, 152, 134, 136, 138, 140, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 152, 157, 159, 191, 192, 193, 159, 179, 180, 188, 205, 206, 200, 202, 214, 216, 218, 219, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225 red fruit 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129 Manokwari 87, 89, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, reef fishes 145, 146, 147, 148, 200 103, 104, 105, 106, 124, 125, regression model 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 126, 127 restoration 12, 13, 14, 16, 33, 195, 196, Maratua Island 145, 146 199 Mazandaran 72, 73, 75 Rhizoctonia 34, 37, 38, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, mining 13, 16 Rhizophora 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177 Mount Slamet 23, 24, 25, 26, Riau Archipelago 200, 206 mtDNA 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 Russula 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71 Museum Zoologicum 118, 119, 121, 122, 163 sawfish 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, Bogoriense 167, 168, nad1/B-C 53, 54, 55, 57 seasonal wetland 135, 136, 138, Natuna Sea 172, 173, 176, 177, 200, 204 secondary forest 14, 15, 25, 43, 44, 50, 92, 93, nature conservation 40, 44, 79 94, 96, 102, 179, 188, 198 Nusantara 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, sloping land 140, 141, 142, 143 168 soil 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, Olea 114, 115, 116 20, 21, 22, 42, 43, 46, 61, 72, A-4

75, 76, 92, 96, 132, 137, 140, 69, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 87, 90, 141, 214 92, 94, 95, 96, 108, 111, 116, soil macrofauna 140, 141, 142, 143 124, 126, 33, 40, 51, 54, 56, 57, Spathoglottis plicata 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 58, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 87, 88, 95, 97, 98, SSR mining 114, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, structural complexity 7, 13, 76, 212, 213 sugarcane 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, tree diversity 16, 178, 179, 187 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225 tribe 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 98, 100, Sulawesi 178, 179, 187, 188 102, 103, 105, 151, 152, 153, Sumatra 13, 14, 40, 41, 44, 46, 47, 92, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 93, 151, 152, 153, 163, 167, 206, 207, 208 172, 178, 187, 205, 206, 210 Tribulus terrestris 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112 supporting tree 205, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, Tridacninae 118, 119, 122 survival 23, 28, 29, 30, 33, 76, 79, 90, tropical forest 92, 93, 96, 178, 81, 83, 84, 136, 143, 162, 191, Tulasnella 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 196, 203, 204, 219, 221 wet season 28, 30, 32, 33 Tambelan 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204 wetland 42, 43, 130, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43, 130, 131, taxonomy 118, 161, 163 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, topography 7, 11, 24, 65, 92, 140, 142, 172, 139 198, 218, 224, wild plant 98 traditional agriculture 92, 93 Zarivar 130, 131, 132 traditional medicine 98, 99, 100, 105, 107, 190, 192 tree 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 40, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 56, 57, 59, 62, 63, 67, 68, A-5

List of Peer Reviewers

Abdul-Reza Dabbagh The Persian Gulf Aquatics World Center, Bandar-e-Lengeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Bandar-e Lengeh, Iran Altafhusain B. Nadaf Department of Botany, University of Pune, Pune 411007, Maharashtra, India Anath Bandhu Das Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Agriculture, Orissa University of Agricultutre & Technology, Bhubaneswar 751003, Orissa, India Brad M. Potts School of Plant Science and Cooperative Research Centre for Forestry, University of Tasmania, Hobart 7001, Tasmania, Australia Chao Dai Chuan College of Life Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, PR China David R. Bellwood School of Marine and Tropical Biology & ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld. 4811, Australia Hari Sutrisno Division of Zoology, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia Himmah Rustiami Division of Botany, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong Bogor 16911, West Java, Indonesia Jean-Luc Legras INRA, UMR 1083 Sciences pour l'Oenologie Bat 28, 2 place Viala, F-34060 Montpellier Cedex 1, France Jesús Ernesto Arias González Dpto. Recursos del Mar, Cinvestav-Unidad Mérida, Cordemex 97310, Mérida, Yucatán, México Mahdi Reyahi-Khoram Department of Environment, Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, Iran Marilyn S. Combalicer Nueva Vizcaya State University, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya, The Philippines Mario A. Tan Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, Espana, Manila 1015, The Philippines Matt Gitzendanner Department of Biology and Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-7800, U.S.A. Md-Sajedul Islam University of Texas-Pan American and USDA-APHIS-PPQ-CPHST, Moore Air Base Building S-6414, Edinburg, Texas 78541, U.S.A. Milan S. Stanković Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac, Radoja Domanovića 12, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia. Mohammad Basyuni Department of Mangroves and Bio-resources, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus. Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213 Japan Mohammed S.A. Ammar National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Attaqa, Suez, Egypt Nelson Rosa Ferreira Group of Biotransformations and Molecular Biodiversity, Institute of Exact and Natural Sciences, Federal University of Pará, Belém, Pará, Brazil Prafulla Soni Ecology and Environment Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun 248006, Uttarakhand, India. Pulla K. Nakayama Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology 8916-5, Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan Rashid Sumaila UBC Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall Vancouver, BC, Canada Richard C. Gardner School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand Saneyoshi Ueno Department of Forest Genetics, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Matsunosato, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8687, Japan Shahabuddin Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Tadulako University. Tondo, Palu 94118, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia Sujitha Thomas Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Research Centre Mangalore, Bolar, Mangalore 575001, Karnataka, India Suranto Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Sebelas Maret University. Surakarta 57126, Central Java, Indonesia Yaherwandi Departmentof Plant Pest and Disease, Faculty of Agriculture, Andalas University, Padang 25161, West Sumatra, Indonesia Youhong Peng Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chengdu, P.R. China Zhengrong Luo Department of Pomology, Key Lab of Horticultural Plant Biology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Shizishan, Wuhan 430070, P.R. China A-6

Table of Contents

Vol. 13, No. 1, Pp. 1-51, January 2012

GENETIC DIVERSTY Estradiol-17β hormone concentration and follicles number in exotic Burgo chicken supplemented by Sauropus 1-6 androgynus katuk leaves extract HERI DWI PUTRANTO, JOHAN SETIANTO, URIP SANTOSO, WARNOTO, NURMELIASARI, AHMAD ZUENI

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Plant species diversity in the ecological species groups in the Kandelat Forest Park, Guilan, North of Iran 7-12 HASSAN POURBABAEI, TAHEREH HAGHGOOY Returning biodiversity of rehabilitated forest on a coal mined site at Tanjung Enim, South Sumatra 13-17 HERY SUHARTOYO, ALI MUNAWAR, WIRYONO Predictive model of Amorphophallus muelleri growth in some agroforestry in East Java by multiple regression analysis 18-22 BUDIMAN, ENDANG ARISOESILANINGSIH Population density and distribution of Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch) in Central Java, Indonesia 23-27 ARIF SETIAWAN, TEJO SURYO NUGROHO, YOHANNES WIBISONO, VERA IKAWATI, JITO SUGARDJITO Age-specific life table of swallowtail butterfly Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in dry and wet seasons 28-33 SUWARNO Frequency of endophytic fungi isolated from Dendrobium crumenatum (Pigeon orchid) and antimicrobial activity 34-39 WIBOWO MANGUNWARDOYO, SUCIATMIH, INDRAWATI GANDJAR

ETHNOBIOLOGY Jambak Jambu Kalko: Nature conservation management of the Serampas of Jambi, Sumatra 40-45 BAMBANG HARIYADI The relationships of forest biodiversity and rattan jernang (Deamonorops draco) sustainable harvesting by Anak 46-51 Dalam tribe in Jambi, Sumatra ANDRIO ADIWIBOWO, IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI

Vol. 13, No. 2, Pp. 53-106, April 2012

GENETIC DIVERSTY The conservation of mitochondrial genome sequence in Leucadendron (Proteaceae) 53-58 MADE PHARMAWATI, GUIJUN YAN, PATRICK M. FINNEGAN Isolation and phylogenetic relationship of orchid-mycorrhiza from Spathoglottis plicata of Papua using mitochondrial 59-64 ribosomal large subunit (mt-Ls) DNA SUPENI SUFAATI, VERENA AGUSTINI, SUHARNO

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Diversity of macrofungal genus Russula and Amanita in Hirpora Wildlife Sanctuary, Southern Kashmir Himalayas 65-71 SHAUKET AHMED PALA, ABDUL HAMID WANI, RIYAZ AHMAD MIR Effect of plantations on plant species diversity in the Darabkola, Mazandaran Province, North of Iran 72-78 HASSAN POURBABAEI, FATEMEH ASGARI, ALBERT REIF, ROYA ABEDI Determination of long-tailed macaque’s (Macaca fascicularis) harvesting quotas based on demographic parameters 79-85 YANTO SANTOSA, KUSMARDIASTUTI, AGUS PRIYONO KARTONO, DEDE AULIA RAHMAN The population condition and the food availability of cuscus in the Arfak Mountains Nature Reserve, West Papua 86-91 ANTON SILAS SINERY, CHANDRADEWANA BOER, WARTIKA ROSA FARIDA A-7

ETHNOBIOLOGY Vegetation stands structure and aboveground biomass after the shifting cultivation practices of Karo People in 92-97 Leuser Ecosystem, North Sumatra T. ALIEF ATHTHORICK, DEDE SETIADI, YOHANES PURWANTO, EDI GUHARDJA The wild plants used as traditional medicines by indigenous people of Manokwari, West Papua 98-106 OBED LENSE

Vol. 12, No. 3, Pp. 107-160, July 2012

GENETIC DIVERSTY A comparative phylogenetic analysis of medicinal plant Tribulus terrestris in Northwest India revealed by RAPD and 107-113 ISSR markers ASHWANI KUMAR, NEELAM VERMA In Silico chloroplast SSRs mining of Olea species 114-117 ERTUGRUL FILIZ, IBRAHIM KOC

SPECIES DIVERSTY Taxonomy of Indonesian giant clams (Cardiidae, Tridacninae) 118-123 UDHI EKO HERNAWAN The exploration and diversity of red fruit (Pandanus conoideus L.) from Papua based on its physical characteristics 124-129 and chemical composition MURTININGRUM, ZITA L. SARUNGALLO, NOUKE L. MAWIKERE

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Study of biodiversity and limiting factors of Ag-gol Wetland in Hamadan Province, Iran 130-134 MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, VAHID NORISHARIKABAD, HOSHANG VAFAEI Assessment of biodiversities and spatial structure of Zarivar Wetland in Kurdistan Province, Iran 135-139 MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, KAMAL HOSHMAND Diversity of soil macrofauna on different pattern of sloping land agroforestry in Wonogiri, Central Java 140-144 MARKANTIA ZARRA PERITIKA, SUGIYARTO, SUNARTO Fish biodiversity in coral reefs and lagoon at the Maratua Island, East Kalimantan 145-150 HAWIS H. MADDUPPA, SYAMSUL B. AGUS, AULIA R. FARHAN, DEDE SUHENDRA, BEGINER SUBHAN

ETHNOBIOLOGY Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) management by Anak Dalam Tribe in Jebak Village, Batanghari, Jambi 151-160 Province IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

Vol. 12, No. 4, Pp. 161-227, October 2012

SPECIES DIVERSTY Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of Nusantara waters (Malay 161-171 Archipelago) SUTARNO, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, IWAN SUYATNA Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia 172-177 AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, YAYA IHYA ULUMUDDIN

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical rainforest of Central 178-189 Sulawesi, Indonesia RAMADHANIL PITOPANG Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, Iran 190-194 MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, MAJEED JAFARY, MOSTAFA BAYATI, REIHANEH REYAHI-KHORAM Vegetative characteristics of Avicennia marina on the artificial inlet 195-199 AKBAR GHASEMI, HAMID JALILVAND, SOHEIL MOHAJERI-BORAZJANI Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, Riau Archipelago Province 200-204 YONVITNER, FAHMI A-8

ETHNOBIOLOGY The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, 205-213 Indonesia IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

REVIEW Review: Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigation 214-227 ASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA, MAHENDRA K. RAI GUIDANCE FOR AUTHORS

Aims and Scope ”Biodiversitas, Journal of Biological Diversity” or sentence and verbiage, and used efficient and effective sentence. Manuscript Biodiversitas encourages submission of manuscripts dealing with all of original research should be written in no more than 25 pages (including biodiversity aspects of plants, animals and microbes at the level of gene, tables and picture), each page contain 700-800 word, or proportional with species, and ecosystem. article in this publication number. Invited review articles will be Article types The journal seeks original full-length research papers, accommodated. reviews, and scientific feedback (short communication) about material Title of article should be written in compact, clear, and informative previously published. sentence preferably not more than 20 words. Name of author(s) should be Acceptance The only articles written in English (U.S. English) are completely written. Running title is about five words. Name and institution accepted for publication. Manuscripts will be reviewed by managing editor, address should be also completely written with street name and number communicating editor and invited peer review according to their disciplines. (location), zip code, telephone number, facsimile number, and e-mail address. Authors will generally be notified of acceptance, rejection, or need for Manuscript written by a group, author for correspondence along with address revision within 2 to 3 months of receipt. Manuscript is rejected if the content is required. First page of the manuscript is used for writing above information. is not in line with the journal scope, dishonest, does not meet the required Abstract should not be more than 200 words, written in English. quality, written in inappropriate format, has incorrect grammar, or ignores Keywords is about five words, covering scientific and local name (if any), correspondence in three months. The primary criteria for publication are research theme, and special methods which used. Introduction is about 400- scientific quality and biodiversity significance. The accepted papers will be 600 words, covering background and aims of the research. Materials and published in a chronological order. This journal periodically publishes in Methods should emphasize on the procedures and data analysis. Results and January, April, July, and October. Discussion should be written as a series of connecting sentences, however, Uncorrection proofs will be sent to the corresponding author by e-mail for manuscript with long discussion should be divided into sub titles. as .doc or .docx files for checking and correcting of typographical errors. To Thorough discussion represents the causal effect mainly explains for why and avoid delay in publication, proofs should be returned in 7 days. how the results of the research were taken place, and do not only re-express A charge The cost of each manuscript is IDR 250,000,- plus postal cost the mentioned results in the form of sentences. Concluding sentence should or IDR 150,000,- for SIB members. There is free of charge for non preferably be given at the end of the discussion. Acknowledgments are Indonesian author(s), but need to pay postal cost for hardcopy. expressed in a brief. Reprints Two copies of journal will be supplied to authors; reprint is only Figures and Tables of maximum of three pages should be clearly available with special request. Additional copies may be purchased by order presented. Title of a picture is written down below the picture, while title of a when sending back the uncorrection proofs by e-mail. table is written in the above the table. Colored picture and photo can be Submission The journal only accepts online submission, through e-mail accepted if information in manuscript can lose without those images. Photos to the managing editor at [email protected]; better to forward to one and pictures are preferably presented in a digital file. JPEG format should be of the communicating editor for accelerating evaluation.. The manuscript sent in the final (accepted) article. Author could consign any picture or photo must be accompanied with a cover letter containing the article title, the first for front cover, although it does not print in the manuscript. There is no name and last name of all the authors, a paragraph describing the claimed appendix, all data or data analysis are incorporated into Results and novelty of the findings versus current knowledge, and a list of five suggested Discussions. For broad data, it can be displayed in website as Supplement. international reviewers (title, name, postal address, email address). Reviewers Citation in manuscript is written in “name and year” system; and is must not be subject to a conflict of interest involving the author(s) or arranged from oldest to newest and from A to Z. The sentence sourced from manuscript(s). The editor is not obligated to use any reviewer suggested by many authors, should be structured based on the year of recently. In citing an the author(s). article written by two authors, both of them should be mentioned, however, Copyright Submission of a manuscript implies that the submitted work for three and more authors only the family (last) name of the first author is has not been published before (except as part of a thesis or report, or abstract); mentioned followed by et al., for example: Saharjo and Nurhayati (2006) or that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere; that its publication (Boonkerd 2003a, b, c; Sugiyarto 2004; El-Bana and Nijs 2005; Balagadde et has been approved by all co-authors. If and when the manuscript is accepted al. 2008; Webb et al. 2008). Extent citation as shown with word “cit” should for publication, the author(s) agree to transfer copyright of the accepted be avoided. Reference to unpublished data and personal communication manuscript to Biodiversitas. Authors shall no longer be allowed to publish should not appear in the list but should be cited in the text only (e.g., Rifai manuscript without permission. For the new invention, authors suggested to MA 2007, personal communication; Setyawan AD 2007, unpublished data). manage its patent before publishing in this journal. In the reference list, the references should be listed in an alphabetical order. Open access The journal is committed to free open access that does not Names of journals should be abbreviated according to the ISSN List of Title charge readers or their institutions for access. Users are entitled to read, Word Abbreviations (www.issn.org/2-22661-LTWA-online.php). download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the APA style in double space is used in the journal reference as follow: articles, as long as not for commercial purposes. For the new invention, Journal: authors are suggested to manage its patent before published. Saharjo BH, Nurhayati AD (2006) Domination and composition structure Preparing the Manuscript change at hemic peat natural regeneration following burning; a case study 2 in Pelalawan, Riau Province. Biodiversitas 7: 154-158. Manuscript is typed at one side of white paper of A4 (210x297 mm ) size, in a single column, double space, 12-point Times New Roman font, with Book: 2 cm distance step aside in all side. Smaller letter size and space can be Rai MK, Carpinella C (2006) Naturally occurring bioactive compounds. applied in presenting table. Word processing program or additional software Elsevier, Amsterdam. can be used, however, it must be PC compatible and Microsoft Word based. Chapter in book: Names of sub-species until phylum should be written in italic, except for italic Webb CO, Cannon CH, Davies SJ (2008) Ecological organization, biogeography and sentence. Scientific name (genera, species, author), and cultivar or strain the phylogenetic structure of rainforest tree communities. In: Carson W, should be mentioned completely at the first time mentioning it, especially for Schnitzer S (eds) Tropical forest community ecology. Wiley-Blackwell, taxonomic manuscripts. Name of genera can be shortened after first New York. mentioning, except generating confusion. Name of author can be eliminated Abstract: after first mentioning. For example, Rhizopus oryzae L. UICC 524, Assaeed AM (2007) Seed production and dispersal of Rhazya stricta. 50th hereinafter can be written as R. oryzae UICC 524. Using trivial name should annual symposium of the International Association for Vegetation be avoided, otherwise generating confusion. Mentioning of scientific name Science, Swansea, UK, 23-27 July 2007. completely can be repeated at Materials and Methods. Biochemical and Proceeding: chemical nomenclature should follow the order of IUPAC-IUB, while its Alikodra HS (2000) Biodiversity for development of local autonomous translation to Indonesian-English refers to Glossarium Istilah Asing- government. In: Setyawan AD, Sutarno (eds) Toward mount Lawu Indonesia (2006). For DNA sequence, it is better used Courier New font. national park; proceeding of national seminary and workshop on Symbols of standard chemical and abbreviation of chemistry name can be biodiversity conservation to protect and save germplasm in Java island. applied for common and clear used, for example, completely written butilic Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta, 17-20 July 2000. [Indonesian] hydroxytoluene to be BHT hereinafter. Metric measurement use IS denomi- Thesis, Dissertation: nation, usage other system should follow the value of equivalent with the Sugiyarto (2004) Soil macro-invertebrates diversity and inter-cropping plants denomination of IS first mentioning. Abbreviation set of, like g, mg, mL, etc. -2 -1 -1 productivity in agroforestry system based on sengon. [Dissertation]. do not follow by dot. Minus index (m , L , h ) suggested to be used, except Brawijaya University, Malang. [Indonesian] in things like “per-plant” or “per-plot”. Equation of mathematics does not always can be written down in one column with text, for that case can be Information from internet: written separately. Number one to ten are expressed with words, except if it Balagadde FK, Song H, Ozaki J, Collins CH, Barnet M, Arnold FH, Quake relates to measurement, while values above them written in number, except in SR, You L (2008) A synthetic Escherichia coli predator-prey ecosystem. early sentence. Fraction should be expressed in decimal. In text, it should be Mol Syst Biol 4: 187. www.molecularsystemsbiology.com used “%” rather than “gratuity”. Avoid expressing idea with complicated ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722 L

SPECIES DIVERSTY Species diversity of critically endangered pristid sawfishes (Elasmobranchii: Pristidae) of 161-171 Nusantara waters (Malay Archipelago) SUTARNO, AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, IWAN SUYATNA Species diversity of Rhizophora in Tambelan Islands, Natuna Sea, Indonesia 172-177 AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN, YAYA IHYA ULUMUDDIN

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSTY Impact of forest disturbance on the structure and composition of vegetation in tropical 178-189 rainforest of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia RAMADHANIL PITOPANG Plants and animals diversity in Buqaty Mountain Area (BMA) in Hamadan Province, Iran 190-194 MAHDI REYAHI-KHORAM, MAJEED JAFARY, MOSTAFA BAYATI, REIHANEH REYAHI-KHORAM Vegetative characteristics of Avicennia marina on the artificial inlet 195-199 AKBAR GHASEMI, HAMID JALILVAND, SOHEIL MOHAJERI-BORAZJANI Population dynamics of dominant demersal fishes caught in Tambelan Islands waters, 200-204 Riau Archipelago Province YONVITNER, FAHMI

ETHNOBIOLOGY The population of Jernang rattan (Daemonorops draco) in Jebak Village, Batanghari 205-213 District, Jambi Province, Indonesia IIK SRI SULASMI, NISYAWATI, YOHANES PURWANTO, SITI FATIMAH

REVIEW Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change and its mitigation 214-227 ASHOK K. SRIVASTAVA, MAHENDRA K. RAI

Front cover: Avicennia marina (PHOTO: ABU ABDURRAHMAN)

Published four times in one year PRINTED IN INDONESIA

ISSN: 1412-033X E-ISSN: 2085-4722