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2001 The archaeology of Doulo Cameroon

Jones, Kimberley S.

Jones, K. S. (2001). The archaeology of Doulo Cameroon (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/11643 http://hdl.handle.net/1880/41208 master thesis

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The Archaeology of Doulo, Cameroon

by

Kirnberley S. Jones

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY

CALGARY, ALBERTA

JUNE, 200 1

O Kimberley S. Jones 200 1 Natiarral Library &liith&que nationale du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services sewices biblbgraphiques

The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive pennettant B la National Library of Canada to Bibliotheque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distrriute or sell reproduire, prgter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette these sow paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format electronique .

The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriete du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qpi protege cette these. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thkse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent 8tre imprimes reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. ABSTRACT

Doulo, Extreme North, Cameroon has been inhabited for at least 2500 years and for much of the last 400 years has been the centre of the Wandala State. This thesis examines the archaeological evidence excavated by the Projet Mqu Wandala in order to unravel the prehistory of this community. In particular, the statistical method of cluster analysis is used on ceramics to map chronological and spatial trends at Doulo. By using this method, and other archaeological and ethnohistoric information, it is clear that the occupation of Doulo is represented by at least three periods. The earliest recognized period is the Early Iron Age, the second is the Late Iron Age, and the most recent is the Wandala Period. Similarly, statistical analysis differentiated between assemblages associated with recent ethnic Mura and ethnic Wandala populations, indicating that it is possible to identify socially distinct populations within the larger community. This thesis is the result of several years of research that has taken place in Cameroon, the USA and Caoada. It would not have been possible without the collaboration of many individuals at every stage of the archaeological process. Funding for the Projer Maya Wandala was provided by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada (grant 4 10-92- 1860), my travel to Cameroon was made possible by a National Geographic Society Research Grant, and some of my own research was funded by a University of Calgary Thesis Research Grant (File Reference 99 17 18). Dr. Scott MacEachern must be thanked for giving me the opportunity to conduct research on this material, and for allowing me the privilege of travelling to Northern Cameroon in 1996. Dr. MacEachem also provided essential input into this thesis at all stages. He and his family, Dr. G. Lemoine and their daughter, Meredith MacEachern, graciously welcomed me into their home in Maine during the early phases of analysis. I must also acknowledge my supervisor, Dr. Nic David, for his encouragement, guidance, and prompt and thorough attention to early drafts of this document. He has also provided valuable references fiom his own library and has generally gone out of his way to prepare this graduate student for the rigours of academic life. Gratitude must also be expressed to my defence committee, Dr. Kathryn Reese-Taylor and Dr. Doug Peers who both read this thesis during very busy semesters. Many members of the faculty and staff at the University of Calgary were very generous in sharing their knowledge and experience with me during the preparation of this thesis. Dr. Nigel Waters, fiom the Department of Geography, provided helpful comments on statistical analysis, and Dr. Jon Jones of the Department of Geology and Geophysics generously assisted . in identifying some of the raw materials in Doulo's stone assemblage. I have gained a great deal of knowledge fiom the faculty, staff and students of the Department of Archaeology. Special mention must be made of Gerry Oetelaar, Brian Vivian, Peter Shinnie, Brian Kooyman, Charles Mather, Scott Raymond, Annie Katzenberg, Dan Meyer and Geny Newlands. Among my fellow students, Mitch Hendrickson and ~edferTischer must be given special acknowledgement for their support and advice. The members of the 1996 Projet Maya Wandala field crew also require special recognition for their contributions. Maureen Reeves, Claire Bourges and Monica Webster, in particular, have been great fiendsand great influences. Dr. Arlene Miller Rosen, Dana Wickner and Eric Pavri also made instrumental contributions to the wdy of Doulo7sarchaeology. The field crew from Doulo also supplied valuable information and a great deal of very hard work. TOSecretaire, Bishay, Galdima, Tchady, Abdu, Mala, Yaaba and Michel Kaurdapai, thank you and I wish I had had the chance to get to know you all better. Aissa Harde's field crew. Moise, Bode Abba, Magdeme, Aboni, Boukar, Abba Idris, Adama, and Mamadi Fikwa, contributed enormous amounts to my personal knowledge of the area. This thesis would not have been possible without you. In addition to these individuals Mohammed Sale and Larnbert Ganava deserve special thanks for their insights on so many things. To the same end, 1 must thank all the people of Doulo and Aissa Harde, including Kristi Hall, the Peace Corp volunteer at Aissa Harde who opened her home to me on more than one occasion. I would also like to express my gratitude to TheIbrahim of Mora and Chief Umate of Doulo for their co-operation, and to Abdoulaye Taousset for his assistance in Yaounde and Mora. Finally, my most personal and heartfelt thanks go to my mother, Patricia Jones, who provided all kinds of support and never doubted that I would finish, and to Russell Gragg for his helpful comments on later versions of this thesis and his support and encouragement in the early phases. TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ABSTRACT ...... 111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv TABLEOFCONTENTS ...... vi ListofTabies ...... ix List of Figures ...... x Chapter One - Introduction ...... 1 1.1Introduction ...... 1 1.2TheStudyArea ...... 1 1.3 Projet Maya-Wandala ...... 2 1.4 Research Goals and the Archaeology of Doulo ...... -3 1.5TheSources ...... 3 1.5.1 Archaeological Research ...... 3 1S.2 Historical Sources and Research ...... 5 1.6TheThesis ...... 6 Chapter Two - Environmental Context ...... 7 2.1Introduction ...... 7 2.2 Climate in The Southern Chad Basin ...... 7 2.3 Palaeoclimate ...... 8 2.4ModernConditions ...... 10 2.4.1 Logone Plain ...... 10 2.4.2 The Mandara Mountains ...... 10 2.4.3 TheMoraPlainandDoulo ...... 11 2.5PeopIeandtheLand ...... 13 2.6Summary ...... 14 Chapter Three - Cultural Background ...... 15 3.1 Introduction ...... : ...... 15 3.2. Archaeological Sequence of the Southern Chad Basin ...... 15 3.3 History of the Wandala and Doulo ...... 18 3.3.1 The Wandala and their Neighbours at Doulo ...... 18 3.3.2 Doulo's Population ...... 21 3 .3.3 Doulo's Cultural Landscape ...... 22 3.4 Discussion and Summary ...... 24 Chapter Four - The Archaeology of Doulo ...... 25 4.1 Projet Maya-Wandala Excavations at Doulo ...... 25 4.2 PMW 674: Doulo Town Site ...... 27 4.3 PMW 636: Doulo IgzawaI ...... 27 4.4 PMW 651:DouIoIgzawa2 ...... 31 4.5 PMW 652: Doulo Igzawa3 ...... 32 4.6 PMW631:DouloKwore ...... 33 4.7 PMW 635: Doulo Chefferie ...... 38 4.8 PMW678: Dodo4 ...... 43 4.9 PMW 675: Doulo SW ...... 45 4.10 PMW609:Doulo Wall 1 ...... 47 4.11 PMW610: MayoDouIoI ...... 47 4.12 PMW 611: MayoDoulo Surface ...... 48 4.13 PMW 633: Doulo Yagoua ...... 48 4.14 PMW 656: Yawa Tlagama 1 ...... 48 4.15 PMW 657: Yawa Tlagama 2 ...... 49 4.16PMW634. Doulo3 ...... 49 4.17 Summary ...... 50 Chapter Five - Ceramic Analysis ...... 51 5.1 Introduction ...... 51 5.2 Ceramic Analysis ...... 52 5.2.1 Field Collection and Analysis ...... 53 5.2.2 Coding System ...... 55 5.3 Statistical Analysis ...... 62 5.3.1 Cluster Analysis ...... 63 5.4 Results ...... 66 5.4.1 Excavated Sites ...... 67 5.4.1.1 PMW636Unit 1 ...... 67 5.4.1.2PMW636Unit2 ...... 68 5.4.1.3 PMW636Unit3 ...... 69 5.4.1.4 PMW 636 Unit 4 ...... 69 5.4.1.5 PMW 636 Unit 5 ...... 70 5.4.1.6 PMW636SiteSummary . : ...... 70 5.4.1.7 PMW 652 ...... 71 5.4.1.8 PMW 631 Unit 1 (North andsouth) ...... 72 5.4.1.9 PMW 631 Unit 1 (East and West) ...... 73 5.4.1.10PMW631 Unit2 ...... 73 5.4.1.11 PMW 631 Unit 3 ...... 74 5.4.1.12PMW631 Sitesummary ...... 75 5.4.1.13 PMW 635 Unit 1 ...... 76 5.4.1.14 PMW 635 Unit 2 ...... 76 5.4.1.15PMW635Unit3 ...... 77 5.4.1.16 PMW 635 Site Summary ...... 78 5.4.1.17PMW678Unit 1 ...... 78 5.4.1.18 PMW675 Unit 1 ...... 79 5.5 Inter Site comparisons ...... 79 5.5.1 Excavated Sites ...... 79 5.5.1.1 Early Iron Age ...... 80 5.5.1.2LateIronAge ...... 80 5.5.1.3 Wandala Period ...... 81 5.5.2 Survey Sites ...... 82 5.6 Discussion and Summary ...... 83 Chapter Six - Small Finds and Lithics ...... 86 vii 6.1Fntroduction ...... 86 6.2ClayArtifacts ...... 87 6.2.1 Worked Sherds ...... 87 6.2.2 Smoking Pipes ...... 88 6.2.3 Spindle Whorls ...... 89 6.2.4 OtherFired Clay Artifacts ...... 90 6.3 Metals and Metallurgy ...... 91 6.3.1 Metal Artifacts ...... 91 6.3.2 Slag ...... 93 6.4 Beads ...... 94 6.5StoneTechnology ...... 96 6.6Summary ...... 99 Chapter Seven - Summary and Conclusions ...... 101 7.1 Thesis Summary ...... 101 7.2 Future Research ...... 106 ReferencesCited ...... 108 Appendix1 ...... 128 Appendix11 ...... 131 Tables ...... 132 Figures ...... 150 List of Tables

Table 4.1 Deposits at PMW 636 Unit1 ...... 132 Table4.2DepositsatPMW636Unit2 ...... 133 Table4.3DepositsatPMW636Unit3 ...... 133 Table 4.4 Deposits at PMW 636 Unit 4 ...... 134 Table4.5DepositsatPMW636Unit5 ...... 134 Table4.6DepositsatPMW652Unit 1 ...... 135 Table4.7DepositsatPMW652Unit2 ...... ~...... 135 Table4.8DepositsatPMW631Unit1N/S ...... 135 Table4.9DepositsatPMW63lUnitlE/W ...... 136 Table4.10DepositsatPMW631 Unit2 ...... 136 Table4.11 DepositsatPMW631 Unit3 ...... 137 Table 4.12 Deposits at PMW 635 Unit I ...... 137 Table4.13 DepositsatPMW635 Unit2 ...... 138 Table4.14DepositsatPMW635Unit3 ...... 139 Table 4.15 Deposits at PMW 678 Unit i ...... 140 Table 4.16 Deposits at PMW 675 Unit 1 ...... I41 Table 4.1 7 Radiocarbon dates from Doulo ...... 141 Table 5.1 List of cases where ceramics were randomly sampled in the field ...... 142 Table 5.2 Codes for Ceramic Decoration ...... 143 Table 6.1 Distribution of Worked Sherds at Doulo ...... 144 Table 6.2 Clay Artifacts at Doulo ...... 145 Table 6.3 Distribution of Metal Artifacts at Doulo ...... 146 Table 6.4 Distribution of Beads at Doulo ...... 147 Table 6.5 Distribution of Collected Stone Artifact Types At Doulo ...... 148 Table 7.1 Chronology of Doulo ...... 149 List of Figures

Figure 1. I Communities and archaeological sites mentioned in text ...... 150 Figure 2.1 Map of southern Chad Basin ...... :...... 151 Figure 2.2 Map of Doulo and surrounding terrain ...... 152 Figure 3.1 Simplified map of language distributions in the northern Mandara region ..... 153 Figure 3.2 Cultural features at Doulo ...... 154 Figure 4.1 Map of PMW Archaeological sites at Doulo ...... 155 Figure 4.2 Profile of PMW 636 Unit 4 ...... 156 Figure 4.3 Profile of PMW 636 Unit 5 ...... 157 Figure 4.4 Plan of PMW 63 1 Unit 1 with sub-adult human remains ...... 158 Figure 4.5 Profile of PMW 63 1 Unit 2 ...... 159 Figure 4.6 Profile of PMW 63 1 Unit 3 ...... 160 Figure 4.7 Profile of PMW 635 Unit 2 ...... 161 Figure 4.8 Profile of PMW 635 Unit 3 ...... 162 Figure 4.9 Profile of PMW 678 Unit 1 ...... 163 Figure 4.10 Profile of PMW 675 Unit 1 ...... 164 Figure 5.1 PMW base types and codes ...... 165 Figure 5.2 PMW rim types and codes ...... 166 Figure 5.3 Tripod jar with moderately everted rim and zoned KPR ...... 167 Figure 5.4 Large rim sherd with zoned TCR ...... 168 Figure 5.5 Comb stamped pattern (a); chevron incision with comb stamped border (b); punctate (c); and, cross-hatched incision (d)...... 169 Figure 5.6 Applique band on burnished vessel ...... 169 Figure 5.7 Sherds with sgraffito design (scratching through red slip) ...... 170 Figure 5.8 Dendrogram of PMW 636 Unit 1 ...... 171 Figure 5.9 Dendrogram of PMW 636 Unit 2 ...... 172 Figure5.10 DendrognunofPMW636Unit3 ...... 172 Figure 5.1 1 Dendrogram of PMW 636 Unit 4 ...... 172 Figure 5.12 Dendrogram of PMW 636 Unit 5 ...... 173 Figure 5.13 Dendrograrn of PMW 636...... 174 Figure 5.14 Dendrogram of PMW 652...... 175 Figure 5.1 5 Dendrogram of PMW 63 1 Unit 1 N/S ...... 176 Figure 5.16 Dendrogram of PMW 63 1 Unit l EN...... 177 Figure 5.17 Dendrogram of PMW 63 1 Unit 2 ...... 177 Figure 5.18 Dendrogmm of PMW 63 1 Unit 3 ...... 178 Figure 5.19 Dendrograrn of PMW 63 1 ...... 179 Figure 5.20 Dendrogram of PMW 635 Unit 1 ...... 180 Figure 5.2 1 Dendrogram of PMW 635 Unit 2 ...... 181 Figure 5.22 Dendrogram of PMW 635 Unit 3 ...... 182 Figure 5.23a Dendrogram of PMW 635 Cluster I ...... 183 Figure 5.23b Dendrograrn of PMW 635 Cluster I1 ...... 184 Figure 5.24 Dendrogram of PMW 678 ...... 185 Figure 5.25 Dendrograrn of PMW 675 ...... 186 Figure 5.26 Distribution of clustered attributes in Early Iron Age sites ...... 187 Figure 5.27 Distributions of clustered attributes fkom Late Iron Age sites ...... 188 Figure 5.28 Distributions of clustered attributes from Wandala Period sites ...... 189 Figure 5.29a Dendrograrn of Early Iron Age sites ...... 190 Figure 5.29b Dendrogram of Early Iron Age sites (continued) ...... 191 Figure 5.30 Dendrognun of Late Iron Age sites ...... 192 Figure 5.3 1 a Dendrogram of Wandala Period sites ...... 193 Figure 5.3 1 b Dendrogram of Wandala Period sites (continued) ...... 194 Figure 6.1 Examples of Worked Sherds from Doulo ...... 195 Figure 6.2 Smoking pipes (a.c), figurine fragment (d), and perforated miniature vessel (e) ...... 195 Figure 6.3 Spindle whorls from Wandala Period ...... 196 Figure 6.4 Radiograph of bracelet and ring fragments &om Doulo ...... 196 Figure 6.5 Radiograph of iron projectile points and pin fragment at Doulo ...... 197 Figure 6.6 Iron pin fiom PMW 6361511 4(a), and historic metal objects PMW 63 1/2A/l(b), 675/18/6 (c) and 675/1A/3(d) ...... 197 Figure 6.7 Radiograph of pin fragments from Doulo ...... 198 Figure 6.8 Digging stick (or ax) blade from PMW 63 11 3/341 ...... 198 Figure 6.9 Some French coins fiom PMW 675 ...... 199 Figure 6.10 Beads from Early Iron Age site PMW 636 ...... 199 Figure 6.1 1 Assortment of beads from Doulo ...... 200 Figure 6.12 Beads fiom Wandala Period site PMW 678 ...... 200 Figure 6.13 Agate projectile point fiom PMW 674 and small biface ...... 201 Figure 6.14 Polished quartz cylinders and labret ...... 201 Figure 6.15 Examples of flaked stone artifacts from Doulo ...... 202 Figure 6.16 Examples of ground stone artifacts fiom Doulo ...... 202 Chapter One Introduction

1.1 Introduction The village of Doulo, Extreme North, Cameroon, is located at approximately 1 1 7' N, 14" 10' E. The roughly 800 people in this community are the inheritors of a long legacy, as Doulo has been inhabited for over 2500 years. In recent centuries, Doulo passed fiom the hands of a semi-legendary people, known as the Maya, to the Wandala. The rulers of the Wandala state made Doulo their capital in the early seventeenth century, placing the village at centre stage in regional trade and politics for the next three hundred years. It is this long history and connection to the Wandala that makes Doulo apromising case study for understanding both regional prehistory and the archaeology of a small African state. For these reasons. the hjer Maya WandaIa began archaeological and ethnohistoric investigations at Doulo in the early to mid 1990s. This study presents the result of these investigations.

1.2 The Study Area Doulo is part of a larger region known as the southern Chad Basin which includes those parts of northern Nigeria, northern Cameroon and southern Chad surrounding the southern portion of Lake Chad (Figure 1.1). It lies on the plains, only a few kilometres north of the Mandara Mountains which straddle the border between Cameroon and Nigeria. Cuiturally, this area is among the most ethnically diverse regions in Africa, with over forty ethnic groups recorded in the province of Extreme North alone (Seignobos 2000: 1). The Wandala have emerged as a state over the past 600 years. Like many of their neighbours, both in the mountains and on the plains, they speak a language belonging to the Chadic family. They are also known by the name Mandma, the label given to them by their Kanuri neighbours fiom the historic Bomo state to the northwest. Likewise, the village of Doulo itself is known by a second name, Dela. Dela is the name used by the villagers to refer to their home (Lyons 1992), but Doulo is the most common label given the community within the region and in print; therefore, Doulo is the name that will be used in this thesis. 13 Projet Maya-Wandala Archaeological surveys and excavations were conducted at Doulo between 1992 and 1996 under the supervision of Dr. Scott MacEachem, director of the Projet Maya- Wandala (PMW). The PMW focussed excavations and surveys around isolated massifs known as inselbergs on the plains north of the Mandara Mountains of Cameroon and adjacent regions of Nigeria (MacEachem 1993a). The goals of the PMW are to investigate the relationships between the historic groups of the area and their predecessors known locally as the Sao' and the Maya. Doulo is an excellent case study for such investigations as it was a capital of the Wandala state and a considerable amount of information is known about its recent history fiom both written and oral sources. Furthermore, as the following chapters reveal, the area around the Dodo inselberg appears to have been occupied fiom at least the onset of the Iron Age to modem times.

1.4 Research Goals and the Archaeology of Doulo Fifteen archaeological sites were recorded by the Projet Maya-Wandala at Doulo including low cultural mounds (less than 5 metres high), habitation sites, surface scatters, burials and a possible quarry site. Some of these are single component occupations while others show evidence of having been used for centuries. Based on the goals of the PMW outlined in section 1.3, the duration of occupation at Doulo, and the nature of the finds themselves, three specific questions were developed to guide the investigation of the culture history of Doulo. These are: 1) Are differences between sites due to age, use, ethnicity or other factors? 2) Is the arrival of the Wandala at Doulo discemable in the archaeological sequence? and; 3) Are economic changes such as increased specialization or trade apparent in the

'Sao is a term used in numerous oral traditions south of Lake Chad to denote a race of giants who previously inhabited the area. The term has been adopted by archaeologists and art historians to denote the Late Iron Age inhabitants of the southern Chad Basin. For a thorough discussion of the historical roots of the term see Lange (1989). archaeological record? These questions highlight the need to detect change through time in general. and, more specifically, the impact that the Wandala have had on the population of Doulo since their arrival in the seventeenth century AD.

1.5 The Sources In order to understand Doulo7sposition vis-h-vis the culture history of the Wandala and earlier populations, the cultural heritage of the southern Chad Basin must be surveyed. Research in this area has been ongoing in a number of disciplines for most of the last century and a brief review of the most relevant archaeological and historical contributions is given below. I will summarize and draw upon the findings of this body of research in later chapters, and I am indebted to this pool of resources for the current understanding of the study area's past, and the theoretical orientation of this work.

1.5. I Archaeological Research Archaeological research has been undertaken in the southern Chad Basin since the 1920s when Wulsin (1 932 cited in Connah 198 1) surveyed the Chari River. Later, Griaule and Lebeuf (1 948,1950, 195 1 ) excavated numerous Iocalities on the plains south of Lake Chad, and Bivar and Shinnie (1 962) surveyed Kanuri city sites. In the 1960s, Cornah (1 97 1,1981,1985) began work in Bomo State, Nigeria, including excavations at Daima. Later, Lebeuf and colleagues (1980) conducted excavations at Mdaga and at various other Sao sites in Chad (Lebeuf 1962). Farther to the south, the 1960s and 1970s saw the first results of archaeological research in the highlands and the eastern lowlands with Hervieu (1 969) and Marliac (1975,198 1) publishing results of their work in northern Cameroon. David (1968 ,197 I ) surveyed and excavated in the Benue and Logone valleys, and Gauthier (1979,1992) conducted research among the Fali near Garoua in the same period. Some of the first attempts at regional synthesis were tackled at this time including Lebeuf s (1969) Carte Arche'ologique des abords du Lac Tchad, Marliac's (1973) synopsis of the Cameroonian Stone Age, and David's (1 98 1) outline of prehistory and summary of the history of crops and agriculture in northern Cameroon (David 1976). Research continued in the 1980sand 1990swith Augustin Holl workihg at Houlouf (1988a, 1988b, 1993; Lebeuf and Holl 1985), and Rapp (1 984 cited in Holl 1992) excavating Sou Blame Radjil. New research on the Late Stone Age to historic era was also conducted on the Nigerian side of the basin in this period (see Breunig 1994; 1996; Breunig et al. 1992; 1993; 1996; Comah 1984; Connah and Jemkur 1982; Gronenborn 1996; 1997; 1998; and Gronenbom and Magnavita 2000). The Mandara Archaeological Project (MAP) worked in the northern Mandararegion between 1984-89 (David and Sterner 1988; 1989; David and MacEachern I988 and 1992; MacEachem 1992; Wahome 1989). In the 1990s, this project was succeeded by the PMW of which the current research is a part (Bourges et al. 1999; MacEachern 1993a, 1993b; 1996). Inquiry also continued during this period on the Diamare Plain to the southeast of Doulo (Delneuf 1992; Marliac and Delneuf 1984; Marliat 1 982; 1985; 1 986; Marliac et al. 1983). Archaeological exploration has been undertaken using a variety of approaches and by looking at a number of aspects of prehistory. Most early research was concerned with identifying sites and building regional chronologies. Later efforts expanded to look at specific elements of prehistory such as trade patterns in stone and metals, and mortuary practices (Connah and Freeth 1989; Holl 1994; 1995a, 1995b). A great deal of attention has also been given to the arts of the Sao and earlier cultures in the region, including characteristic pottery and statuettes (Breunig 1994; Jansen and Gauthier 1973; Lebeuf and Lebeuf 1977). Ethnoarchaeology and modem material culture studies have come to the forefront in recent years. For example, the MAP has considered ethnicity and numerous facets of material culture in the Mandara Mountains and surrounding plains (David 1995; 1998; David et al. 199 1; Gavua 1989, Lyons 1989a, 1989b; MacEachern 1990). Diane Lyons (1992) studied architecture, ethnicity and gender at Doulo. Christian Seignobos (1 980; 1982) has studied plant fortifications in northern Cameroon and architecture in the Mandara Mountains. Garba (1 999) looked at methods of grain storage practised in Bomo State. Augustin Holl(1987; 1991) examined mound formation in northern Cameroon, and I studied refuse disposal at Aissa Harde (Jones 1997). Modem ceramic usage and manufacture have also been a common topic of research. For example. Judy Sterner (1 989; 1995; David et al. 1988) has looked at ritual pottery in the Mandara Mountains and Claire Bourges studied ethnicity and ceramics at Grea (1 994; 1996). Numerous other material culture studies have also been made of ceramics fiom farther to the south in both the mountains and on the plains (see Barreteau and Delneuf 1990; David and Hennig 1972; Delneuf 1986; Jest 1956; Seignobos 1990). These sources will be used to place Doulo in the regional prehistoric sequence in terms of chronology, artifactual content and other trends. The ethnoarchaeological studies are used to help identifythe nature of the archaeological finds, and, in the case of the ceramics, to help recognize social distinctions in the archaeological record.

2.5.2 Hbtorr'cal Sources and Researcit Historical resources are most usefir1 to the present study as they relate to the Wandala. The story of the Wandaia begins before they themselves adopt Islam, but the historic record pertaining to them begins due to their interaction with the encroaching Muslim world. They were first mentioned on Fra Mauro's map of the world in the 1450s (Leporace 1956), and then by Leo Africanus (1 600) who refers to the "Madra", in the fifteenth century after visiting Bomo. Later they are mentioned by Ahrned Ibn Fartua (1 926) in writings penned for the Bomuan ruler, Mai Idris Alooma (1564- 1596). Subsequent firsthand accounts of the Wandala state come from European explorers in the nineteenth century, including Major Denham (1 826), who visited the Wandala court in 1823, Dr. Heinrich Barth (1965) in thel850s, and the German explorer, Gerhard Rohlfs (1 875), who visited and described the area around nineteenth century Doulo. The history of the Wandala is also recorded in indigenous documents describing the royal court and history of the people. Many of these surviving Arabic language chronicles, or Kirgam, have been published by Eldridge Moharnmadou (1982). Colonial and modem historians have also explored the past of the Wandala, including Mouchet's (1 946) research on conversion of the Wandala to Islam, and Vossart's (1953) early summary of the history of the Wandala state. Bawuro Mubi Barkindo (1979; 1980; 1985% 1985b; 1989), a Nigerian historian, has written on the origins of the Wandala, their adoption of Islam, relations with neighbouring states, and the Wandala under European colonial rule. Stephen R. Morrissey (1 984) examined slavery in Wandala society, Scott MacEachem has published on the socio- economic relations between the Wandala and their neighbours (MacEachem 1993b); and Hermann Forkl has written extensively on Wandala political structure and development (Forkl 1983; 1985; 1989; 1990; 1993).

1.6 The Thesis The god of this thesis is to interpret Doulo's past, and to place it within the larger context of the culture history of the Wandala and the southern Chad Basin. Chapter Two explores the physical milieu of the southern Chad Basin with particular emphasis on Doulo's physical environment, reviewing both its historic and present circumstances. Chapter Three looks at the cultural setting of the same area. The archaeology of the region is reviewed from the Stone Age to the Late Iron Age, as is the history of the Wandala, tracing the origins of the state and Doulo's role in it. Finally, the present cultural landscape of Doulo is described. In Chapter Four, I turn to the archaeological sites discovered by the PMW at Doulo. These sites will be described and their cultural affiliation arid chronological position discussed in this first step of the analytical process. The ceramic assemblage from these sites is andysed in Chapter Five in order to fixher pinpoint chronological and cultural afinities in the overall assemblage. This is accomplished using the statistical method of classification known as cluster analysis to elucidate which components and sites have the greatest similarities between their ceramic assemblages. This analysis, in conjunction with stratigraphy and absolute dates, will be used to build a picture of Doulo's past that stretches beyond the historic record in time and content. The sequence that emerges is one where three periods are discemable: the very Early Iron Age, the Late Iron Age, and the Wandala Period. Within this last period, even greater detail is discernable in the ceramic assemblage that can be, to some extent, explained in terms of people of different ethnic affiliations inhabiting Douh Chapter Six integrates the other elements of artifactual evidence into the analysis, describing clay, metal and stone objects and their distributions. This largely descriptive chapter adds new dimensions to the understanding of the economy of Doulo throughout its history. Finally, Chapter Seven summarizes and discusses the implications the defined sequence has on the development of Doulo and makes some suggestions for firture research. Chapter Two Environmental Context 2.1 Introduction Doulo is part of the southern Chad Basin. Drainage systems in this region advance north fiom the Mandara highlands, through the inselberg-dotted grasslands, and out onto a seasonally partially-inundated plain surrounding Lake Chad. The modem village of Doulo and the inselberg of the same name are situated on the Mora Plain eight kilometres northeast of the Mandara Mountains, and eleven kilometres to the south of a sandy ridge, known as the Bama Ridge, that marks the greatest extent of Lake Chad (Figure 2.1). The physical environment of Doulo, the Mora Plain and neighbouring locales will be briefly described here. This background will illustrate the circumstances under which the prehistoric and modem people of the region lived and how they have impacted their environment.

2.2 Climate in The Southern Chad Basin As in the rest of West Afiica, the major factor af5ecting rainfall and seasonality in the southern Chad Basin, is the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ (Brooks 1998; Casey 1998; Grove 1993; Hassan 1996; Maley 1981 ; Talbot 1980; Van Zinderen Bakker 1976). Trade winds from north and south of the equator meet in the ITCZ causing rapid cooling and heavy precipitation. The movement of the earth in relation to the sun causes the zone and the rain it produces to migrate over Afiica fiom south to north, reaching its most northerly extent of 23" 27' N in July (Casey 1998:51). The area encompassed by the southern Chad Basin includes three zones, each receiving different quantities of rainfall under the influence of the ITCZ. Farthest to the north is the Sahel. This is a narrow strip of land running east to west across the African continent and crosscutting northern Cameroon just south of Lake Chad, and approximately 1SO kilometres north of Doulo. At 100-500 mm of rain per annurn, its northern limit forms the boundary where rainfall agriculture is no longer feasible. The southern boundary represents the northern extent of the tsetse fly that restricts livestock herding. South of the Sahel, encompassing Doulo and the Mora Plain, as well as the northern Mandara Mountains, is the Sudanic zone, receiving 500 -1 000 mm of raidall per annum. The sudano-guinea zone begins roughly 100 kilometres south of Doulo and receives 1000-1 500 mm of rainfall each year (Servant and Servant-Vildary 1980: 135). The rains pass over the northern Mandara Mountains and the Mora Plain beginning in May and continue until September on the plains. This is the main agricultural season when flooded fields around rivers make land transportation very difficult in the lowlands. Beauvilain (1989 cited in Otto 1996: figure 3) places Doulo between the 600 and 700 mrn isohyets, receiving the greatest amount of rainfall in the month of August. During the months of December and January, in the middle of the dry season, when the monsoons have travdled far to the south, the region is influenced by the northern trade winds, or Harmattan, bringing red dust fiom the Sahara Desert. This sharp contrast between the short rainy season and the long dry season constrains the types of economic activities practised in the region and the scheduling of these activities.

2.3 Palaeoclimate Climatic conditions in northern Cameroon have fluctuated during the Holocene, and these fluctuations have altered the amount of rainfall, floral composition, and the geomorphology of the area. Between 20,000 and 12.000 years ago, at the end of the last glacial period, the area that today forms the Sahel was much drier with desert conditions extending southward to at least 13" N (Maley 198 1 : 136; Servant and Servant-Vitdary 1980: 143). Dunes formed in the Chad Basin under these arid conditions (Talbot 1980:42; Van Zinderen Bakker 19765 1). Hervieu (1 969: 25) attributes drier conditions south of the lake and in the Mandara Mountains, to this same time frame. He calls this phase the Bossownien, during which arid circumstances in the highlands led to only sporadic drainage toward Lake Chad. Following this period of aridity, there was a general increase in surface water seen throughout Africa with many lakes reaching their maximuh extent at approximately 9500 BP (Grove 1993: 36). Lake Chad reached its greatest limit much later after undergoing fluctuations in the terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene (Maley 198 1: 140- 141 ). Radiocarbon dates fiom a site near Konduga, Nigeria on the Barna Ridge, date the feature to 63502250 BP (Thiemeyer 1992, 1993). This date was obtained fiom water-worked charcoal of a type typical of beaches 9

and thus supportive of a roughly 6000 BP date for the maximum extent of Lake Chad. During this lacustrine maximum, all the areas north of the Bama Ridge wouId have been submerged. It should be noted that this version of the origin of the Bama Ridge is not universally accepted. Durand (1982) attributes it to neotectonics, citing the presence of an intersection of two tectonic zones as the source of the ridge. However, Thierneyer's findings verify that the ridge is to some extent associated with Holocene lacustrine deposits. South of Lake Megachad2, conditions also reflected a moister climate in the mid- Holocene. At 5500-5000 BC, the area immediately south of Konduga had a sudanic woodland landscape (Breunig et al. 1996: 120). Today, the same area is much drier. Little comparable palaeoenvironmental data is available for this period on the Cameroonian side of the border. However, as most of the water that drains into Lake Chad comes fiom streams passing through northern Cameroon, including the Logone and El Beid rivers. higher lake levels would necessarily reflect increased rainfall in the Mandara Mountains, as this is a major contributing source of the water in the lake. Furthermore, the augmented volume of water in the swollen lake would have led to increases in rainfall on the surrounding plains via increased evaporation (Wilson 1988:27). Conditions changed dramatically by 4000 BP. The climatic optimum in the Chad Basin came to an end and lake levels dropped substantially (Maley 198 1; van Zinderen Bakker 1976: 50). This change coincided with a general period of pronounced aridity on the African continent (Grove 1993: 4 1). The pollen spectra fiom samples in Lake Chad show contributions fiom southern drainages decreasing significantly after ~OOOBP,meaning that southerly regions, including the Mora Plain and the Mandara Mountains, also received less rainfall after 4000 BP and thus contributed less pollen to the lake's profile (Lezine 1989: 325). The modern climatic regime with increased rainfall developed shortly after this time and human populations began to increase.

'This is the name given to Lake Chad at its maximum extent. 2.4 Modem Conditions 2.4.l Logone PIain North of the Bama ridge, falling lake levels left clayey deltaic deposits on the seasonally inundated plains of northeastern Nigeria and northern Cameroon (Pullan 1969). In Cameroon, this area is caIled the Logone Plain (Hallaire 1965). The area consists of fertile vertisols, containing montmorillonitic clays deposited by seasonal flooding of rivers. These deposits are known as yae're' in Cameroon, andfirki in Nigeria. These fine textured soils retain water into the dry season and are highly valued by cultivators today, as they have been since the Neolithic, for dry season flood retreat agriculture (Connah 198 1).

2.4.2 The Mundara Mountains The Mandara Mountains are located on the border between northern Cameroon and Nigeria and are named for the Muslim state that dominated the northern plains in recent centuries. However, many individual massifs are named for the Montagnard people that call them home. The cooler temperatures, higher rainfall and defensively strategic highlands have had high population densities in historic times (Hallaire 1965; 1991). The mountains are formed of granite, migmatite and gneiss and have steep sl6pes that rise off the plains and out of the interior plateaux. These mountains are part of a larger highland formation that continues to the south through the Cameroonian provinces of Adamawa, but for our purposes can be defined as existing between Mora in the north, and the Mayo-Oulo Plain near Garoua to the south (Hallaire 199 1). The hills are 1500 m above sea level at their highest point (north of the town of Mokolo) with interior plateaux between 750 and 800 m (Boutrais 1984: 25). The northern portion of the Mandara chain has sudanic vegetation and is more densely forested than the surrounding plains. Common species include Anogeissus leicarpus, Daniellia oliveri, Acacia albida and Khaya senegalensis (Hdlaire 1991: 75). These trees provide fuel for domestic use, and traditionally fhished fuel for smelting iron. Rainfall in the highlands is, on average, higher than it is on the plains, with humid southwesterly winds blowing into the higher altitudes and causing additional precipitation. The soils are not, however, ideal for cultivation as they are typically thin, gravel-laden, sandy, and retain little water. To help overcome this, the mountain slopes are extensively terraced for agriculture. Rainfall reaches 950 mm per annum in the northern portion of the Mandara chain (Boutrais 1984: 26). High precipitation is important as the rain that falls on the mountains fuels the seasonal streams, called mayos in Fulfulde, and supplies a great deal of the water on the surrounding plains. In July of 1996, I witnessed this phenomenon myself when a large storm cloud appeared over the mountains near Mora. Only an hour later, the completely dry stream bed of Mayo Sava (four kilometres east of Doulo) was almost instantly filled when the flow from the slopes came crashing down onto the plains and through the village of Aissa Harde. The highland streams also collect magnetite sands traditionally used by Montagnards as iron ore. lt.4.3 The Mora Plain and Doulo To the north and northeast of the Mandara Mountains lies the Mora Plain, named for the Wandala town at the foot of the Mora massif. The weitern limit of the area is marked by the international border with Nigeria, and the eastern boundary is Mayo Mangafe. To the north, the plain is flanked by the Bama Ridge. The plain rises gradually fiom 320 m as1 at the Bama ridge to 440 m at Mora, over a distance of 17 kilometres. Close to the mountains, the flat terrain is broken by occasional bedrock outcrops. Soils are generally sandy but with substantial amounts of clay near stream beds. The flat terrain means the area is poorly drained during the rainy season, but the sandy sediments away fiom the stream banks do not retain water into the dry season, severely restricting agricultural activities. All streams are seasonal in this area. Vegetation is dominated by Acacia, Bulanites, Capparidaceae, Commiphora, Combreturn, Arisrida and Panicurn species (Marliac 1991 cited in Otto 1996: Figure 7; Wilson 1989: 24). The Waza National Game park offers a glimpse at what the wild fauna once was, with elephants (Loxodonta afi.icanus), giraffes (Giraflu carnelopardolis), 1ions (Panthera leo), ostriches (Smhio camelus), warthogs (Phacochoerus aefhiopicus), gazelle (GazeZla sp.), and many other bovids represented. Some inselbergs surrounding the mountains are still inhabited by baboons (Papio papio) and hyrax (Hererohyrax sp.). On the plains, high ground attracts settlers much as the massifs do in the mountains. Far out on the savanna, the Bama Ridge and isolated red dunes dotting the landscape attract agro- pastoralists who settle on these well-drained, relatively mosquito-free high points where the soil is easily worked (Hallaire 1965: 48). The higher topography is also, no doubt. useful for spotting intruders in an area where cattle rustling is a constant concern. Villages such as Limani, Kossa, Magdeme and Kolafata are typical of this settlement type. Nearer to the mountains, the plains are punctuated with several inselbergs. These isolated massifs are erosional features which generally consist of hard granitic material. Wandala settlements are commonly found at the foot of these massifs which are attractive for the run-o ff water and good soil they produce, and also for security. Many ofthese inselbergs are steep-sloped and difficult to penetrate, while providing an excellent view of the surrounding terrain. It is interesting to note that many researchers primarily interested in the physical characteristics of the region have emphasized the benefits for subsistence of the high terrain on the plains and in the mountains (see Boutrais 1984 and Hallaire 1965 for examples), while those interested in culture history emphasize the role that security has played in the settlement pattern (see Schilder 1994 and MacEachem 1990 for examples). No doubt, both factors actively contributed to site selection, both prehistorically and in more recent times. Doulo is one such inselberg, and is associated with a predominately Wandala settlement (Figure 2.2). At 581 metres above sea level, the massif rises over 200 metres above the surrounding savanna. The massif, referred to locally as Wa-dela. is funher divided into two parts: the larger western portion, Wa-dela proper, and the lower eastern section called Mbata (Lyons 1992: 52). The two peaks are separated by a low' pass. The inselberg is composed largely of granite and quartz, and several channels drain the feature on its north and south faces (Figure 4.1). Villagers still cultivate on terraces. gather wood, pasture animals, and collect stone for construction on the slopes of the inselberg, although there is presently no human settlement on the massif (Lyons 1992: 2 1 1). The modem village is located to the northwest of the inselberg along the bed of a small seasonal stream called Mayo Doulo, or Gwa-dela, that drains into Mayo Mtchelye. Presently, a highway linking Mora with the Waza Game Park runs to the west of the inselberg and through the village. A remnant of the wall that once enclosed the town and several cultural mounds are still visible around the modem settlement on the otherwise flat landscape. Most of the best agricultural land around Doulo is concentrated to the north and northwest of the inselberg, and around the seasonal stream beds where occasional stands of Acacia albida dot the landscape. Closer to the massif, the soil is sandier with gravel inclusions. The terrain south of the inselberg slopes off more gradually and is covered by sparse stands of Acacia senegalensis.

2.5 People and the Land The occupants of northern Cameroon have actively altered the terrain in which they live. For example, terracing in the Mmdara Mountains and surrounding inselbergs slows erosion for as long as the terraces are maintained, adds water retention qualities to the soils, and increases agricultural yields. The vegetation of the mountains has also been altered. Land has been cleared for crops, and trees removed for fuel and lumber. Likewise, the vegetation on the plains has been modified by human intervention. Modern arboreal vegetation is very degraded around towns and villages where people are continuously collecting wood for fbel and clearing land for agricultural fields (personal observation). Recent down-migration fiom the Mandara Mountains and urbanization have added significantly to the populationof the plains and increased demand for fuel in many areas on the Mora and Diamare Plains (Otto 1996: 103). This is also true for recent times near Doulo, as Montagnards have left the highlands since independence and settled in the area to the east, near Mayo Sava (Boutrais 1973). Pollen analysis indicates that deforestation and anthropogenic landscapes have been factors in some areas of the Diamare Plain for much of the last millennium as populations have increased and agro-pastoral activities have intensified (Delneuf and MCdus 199 1; Medus and Marliac 199 1; Mddus et al. 1991 ). Specifically on the plains, fields suitable for intensive agriculture are difficult to come by and people have adopted ways of getting the most out of the land. Crop rotation, mixed cropping and fallow land techniques are all used by the populace (Boutrais 1973: 237-240; Hallaire 1965: 98). Numerous crops are grown and maqy wild resources utilized (see for examples Garba I991 ). Sorghum is the staple food crop with bicolor species, and durra and caudufumraces being the most important, and likely the crops of greatest antiquity in the region (David 1976; Harlan 1993). Penniseturn americanum is also important. Macrobotanical evidence fiom the site of Sdak on the Diarnare Plain indicates that a diversified agriculture and arboriculture subsistence has existed there for at least 1500 years (Otto 1996). We will see, in the next chapter, that cultivation has moa likely been practised in the southern Chad Basin for much longer. Today, cotton and peanuts are important cash crops on the plains. Cattle, goats, sheep and chickens are also notable resources in the local economy. and hunting continues to play a role in the region.

2.6 Summary Palaeoenvironmental information paints a picture of the history of the environment on the scale of millennia. However, people living in an area not only adapt to long-term environmental change, but also to short-term variation in the environment that can be observed over the course of a few generations, within the lifetime of one individual, or even from year to year. This is particularly well-pronounced in the southern Chad Basin where the growing season is short and intense, and allocation of proper human resources at the right time, in the right place, to the right crop, is essential. Doulo is a microcosm of the environmental backdrops seen in the region. The inselberg, like the Mandara Mountains, provides security and natural resources not available on the plain, while agriculture is largely tied to the alluvial soils below, similar to the yaire' to the north. In the next chapter we see how inhabitants of Doulo, and the region as a whole, have settled, and exploited these environments. Chapter Three Cultural Background

3.1 Introduction Chapter Two illustrated that the southern Chad Basin encompasses considerable environmental variation. In this chapter, we examine how this milieu has been exploited by people. Although there are a great many similarities between the cultures of the Mandara Mountains and the plains encompassing Doulo, there is also substantial cultural diversity. Knowledge ofthis diversity and its time depth, is, to some extent, a reflection of the amount and type of research done in various parts of the basin, but it is also a reflection of real cultural and economic changes that have manifested themselves during the last millennia. In the pages to come, the work of archaeologists is examined to elucidate information about the prehistory of the region, while the historic record and the work of ethnographers and linguists is consulted to trace the history of the Wandala and their neighbours. Particular attention is paid to the role Doulo has played in the Wandaia state.

3.2. Archaeological Sequence of the Southern Chad ~asia The early peopling of the southern Chad Basin is not well studied or understood, and is largely known from stone tool assemblages from the mountains and other areas south of the Mora Plain. One exception to this is a possible Acheulian or Middle Stone Age biface recovered north of the Mandara Mountains at Ghwa Masogo, in Nigeria (MacEachem 1994: 15). This was a surface fmd at a Neolithic site and it is therefore likely that the specimen was transported to this location as a curio by much later inhabitants. Beyond this example, recorded palaeolithic sites largely consist of surface scatters associated with dated geomorphological formations between Maroua and the Benue River (Hervieu 1968 and 1969; Marliac 1973; 1986). These have been ascribed to the Middle Stone Age, Acheulian and even earlier traditions. Farther north, any early occupations would likely be deeply 6uried beneath substantial Holocene colluvial deposits from the mountains, lacustrine deposits from Lake MegaChad, and the eolian dunes of the late Pleistocene dry period (see section 2.3 for discussion of late Pleistocene and Holocene palaeoclimate). The Late Stone Age, beginning at about 12,000 BP, is not very well represented among the archaeological finds from the southern Chad Basin. North of the Bama Ridge, no sites are dated to the early Holocene when conditions would have been much wetter than today, and much of the area would have been submerged. An almost complete mahogany (Khayasp.) dug out canoe radiocarbon dated to roughly 8000 BP, was recovered just south of the ridge on a deeply buried ancient stream course in Dufuna, Nigeria (Breunig 1996: 462). This is the earliest isotopically dated occupation of the region and the earliest date for a boat in the world (Breunig et al. 1996: 116). Another LSA site is located on the Bama Ridge at Konduga Nigeria. Rocker stamped potsherds were recovered from this site which is dated to over 6000 BP (Breunig et al. 1996: 1 19). In the mid-1970s Sutton (1 974) identified the 'Aqualithic Tradition' in early post-Pleistocene times across much of 'Middle Africa', consisting of the terrain that today includes the southern Sahara and the ahe el, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west, to the Rift Valley and south to the equator in the east. Use of the term 'Aqualithic' has fallen out of favor as it implies a unified cultural tradition that is not substantiated by the archaeological evidence. It is, however, useful for describing numerous lakeside and riverine occupations with assemblages containing bone harpoons, early ceramics decorated with wavy- line motifs, microlithic industries and a relatively settled way of life dependent on fishing, hunting and gathering wild resources (Sutton 1977: 26). These recent discoveries by Breunig and his team south of Lake Chad may represent peoples practicing a congruent lifeway. No similarly dated finds are available for the Mora Plain. In this area, the Neolithic is a period at the end of the LSA that is broadly recognized as having pottery, evidence of permanent or semi-permanent settlements, domesticated animals, and an assumed dependence on cultivated crops, although direct evidence of this last criterion is rare. Settlements are found north of the Bama Ridge for the first time during the Neolithic and many stratified sites such as Kursakata, Daima, Mege and Ndufu in Nigeria, and Sou Blame Radj il and Mdaga to the east are attributed to the Neolithic (Breunig et al. 1996; C0~a.h198 1; Gronenborn 1998; Lebeuf et al. 1980; Lebeuf 1981: 1 1 cited in Holl 1988b: 97). Borno 70, Borno 38, Gajiganna, Ghwa Masogo, Gwalagwa Ngare, and MAP site 506 are also associated with this period (COM~~198 1 : 85; Breunig et aL 1996 :124; David and MacEachem 198858; MacEachern 1994: 13). AMS and standard radiocarbon dates generally place the Neolithic between 3000-1 800 BP with grains ofPennisetum americanum (bullrush millet) collected fiom Kursakata associated with a date of 2800 3P (Neumann et al. 1996: 443). Closer to Doulo, sites are often located away fiom the inselbergs but are commonly associated with low cultural mounds and dunes. Structures fiom this period are believed to have been made of grass or wood, although daub was found on the surface of Ghwa Masogo (MacEachern 1994: 15). On the stoneless firki and Logone Plains, bone tools are common. Polished stone axes, small stone projectile points, food grinding equipment, zoomorphic figurines and comb-stamped ceramics are standard throughout the region. Farther south, on the Diarnare Plain, Neolithic sites typically consist of scatters of polished and ground stone tools. The only evidence for a Neolithic occupation at Doulo consist of surface finds, including a small stone projectile point similar to those found at Gajiganna (Breunig et al. 1996: 141). The transition to the Iron Age, like the Neolithic, is best understood north of the Mandara Mountains. At some locations, such as Doulo, the very early Iron Age is characterized by more intensive occupations. Near the highlands, this can include sites near inselbergs with multiple small mound and surface scatters, although in some locations in the same region settlements remain sparse in the Early Iron Age. Farther north, large settlement mounds are common. Houlouf, for example, is a semicircular mound 450 metres in diameter and approximately 12 metres high (Holl 1988: 1 1). At Daima, the settlement mound is roughly 700 metres across and over ten metres high (Connah 1981 : 100). In contrast, Mehe, located on the Mora Plain near Meme, has several small mounds between 15-50 metres across and 1- 4 metres high (David and MacEachern 1988: 60; Wahome 1989). he mounds at Doulo and elsewhere on the Mora Plain are comparable to the Mehe examples. These types of sites are common throughout the Iron Age. Agricultural intensification and good evidence for daub structures is available for this period. Ceramic decoration becomes dominated by roulettes, and iron artifacts and slag begin to appear. In this region, the earliest Iron Age dates available are between approximately 2500-2000 BP (Connah 198 1: 1 11 ; Lebeuf 1969: 8; MacEachern 1996: 49 1). Dates come fiom the large stratified settlement mound sites of Daima and Mdaga, as well as much smaller mound sites north of the Mandara Mountains including Ghwa Kiva in Nigeria and PMW 636 at Doulo. It is during the Iron Age that both zoomorphic and anthropomorphic clay figurines become standard features of assemblages, and classic "Sao" burials in large pots appear. North of the Barna Ridge, the Early Iron Age continues to approximately 1200 BP. After this period, walled towns, copper alloy artifacts and carnelian beads are common. In the latter part of the Iron Age, carved wood roulettes become a common form of ceramic decoration in this area. On the Mora Plain, Sao pot burials are not standard, but-walled towns near inselbergs like Doulo and Grea are typical towards the end of the Iron Age and beyond. In the last few centuries, knotted plait roulette decorated ceramics also become much more common, particularly in the Wandala and Kanuri occupied areas. On the Diamare Plain, mound sites are also typical during the Iron Age. Many, such as Salak, date fiom the beginning of the second millennium AD (Marliac 1992: 104). The historic phase begins in the sixteenth century on the Mora Plain and in adjacent areas of Nigeria.

3.3 History of the Wandala and Doulo 3.3.1 The Wandala and their Neighbours at Doulo It is in the last 500-600 years that the Wandala have emerged. From their beginnings in the present-day heartland of the Gamergu ethnic group, they came to hold varying degrees of influence over an area extending to Bomo in the north, southward to the Mandara Mountains and Diamare Plain, and running fiom the Logone Plain in the east to the Yedseram River in the west. Their political domination never extended up into the Mandara Mountains, but their economic and military influence was, and still is, felt by the pagan Montagnards in the northern massifs. Today, most Wandala live in towns such as Mora, Meme, Kerawa and Doulo. Although the Mora Plain is very much culturally dominated by the Islamic Wandala, the area as a whole, and many of the towns and villages within it, are both multi-ethnic and multi-lingual. The Wandala dialect is part of the Chadic language family in Greenberg's Afioasiatic phylum (1 963 : 168). Wandala is commonly classified in either the Biu-Mandara subdivision of Chadic or as aCentral Chadic language (Barreteau et al. 1984; Newman 1977; Schubert 198 1). It is most closely related to the Gamergu dialect spoken by the Wandala's close relatives on the plains, aad the Mura dialect spoken by a Montagnard community centred on the Mora massif (Barreteau 1987: 68; Barreteau et al. 1984: 167; ~arreteau-andJungraithmayr 1993 : Table 4; Kordass and Annett 1977). The languages spoken in the northern Mandara Mountains are also Chadic including those of the Podokwo, Urza, Muktele, Mada, Mafa and Mineo Montagnards that are presently represented at Doulo (Lyons 1992: 5). For communities rooted on the plains, the linguistic typology is more diverse (Figure 3.1). The Kanuri, who make up approximately fifteen percent of the population in the Wandala area (Barkindo 1989: 24), speak a language in I Greenberg's Nilo-Saharan phylum; and the Fulbe language, Fulfulde, is a Western Atlantic language of the Niger-Congo (or Niger-Kordofanian) phylum. The Shuwa Arabs speak a dialect of Arabic of the Semitic division of the Afroasiatic phylum. One reason why the Wandaia are so intriguing fiom a historical perspective is that, unlike other Muslim groups such as the Kanuri tied to the Kanem-Bomo state, and the Fulbe, the Wandala have developed a state of local origins. Wandala tradition indicates they originated in the northern part of their traditional territory. According to the Kirgam-a- Wandala, at a place called Ishwa-Kewe, a Gamergu queen named Soudka accepted a traveller from the east named Gaya as her husband (Mohammadou 1982: 19-2 1). The ascension of this king marked the transition fiom matrilineal to patrilineal descent and the foundation of the Wandala line. Soukda and Gaya are said to have reigned at Kerawa in present-day Nigeria, which became the first Wandala capitd. Around AD 1600, under a Tlihe, or Sultan, named Sankre, the capital was moved to Doulo (Barkindo 1989: 106; Mohammadou 1982:10; Vossart 1953: 36), although Forkl(1989: 543) puts the date of the conquest as late as AD1 650. The Kirgum-a- WundaIa relates that the 77ikse was aided in his conquest of Doulo by his queen, Anguida. She is said to have been the daughter of the Tli-Maya, who was the ruler of the Maya centred at Doulo (although they were also associated with Aissa Harde and Meme). According to the chronicle, the Wandala were able to take the town when the men were away hunting and Anguida signalled to her husband that it was time to attack. The chronicle also suggests that the conquest took some time to complete, with Sankre waiting several years before making a permanent move to Doulo. The Maya who survived the attack fled south to the mountains settling on the Urza, Mboko, and Molkwo massifs (Boutrais 1973: 108). The exact motivation for the move to Doulo is not known, but Barkindo points out that this location may have provided the small Wandala state more protection fiom Bomo than Kerawa. He also mentions that the Tli-Mnyo controlled an important magico-religious centre in the form of Lake Kingiro near Doulo. In terms of the archaeology of Doulo, the transition fiom Maya to Wandala is significant because it indicates that a decisive break in the occupation should be discemable near the beginning of the seventeenth century. Once established at Doulo, the Wandala continued to expand their territory and influence in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. An important change took place in approximately 171 53 with the conversion of TZikse Boukar Adji, and all Wandala by association, to Islam. On the ground, conversion of the Wandala continued throughout his reign, through that of his son, Madi-a-Makiya, and beyond. Politically, this had ramifications in the organization of the state, with many of the pre-Islamic hereditary positions of power becoming overshadowed by the Thehimself and his appointees who followed the more centralized Islamic model. This shift centred more power and wealth at Doulo than ever before with the Tlikse's court and entourage in residence within the town. Despite this, Kerawa remained an important economic centre for the Wandala with a great deal of trade fiom the western portion of the mountains moving through it long after the political capital was moved to Doulo (Barkindo 1989: 187). A ;oyal residence was maintained at Kerawa for the Nahungi, or the queen of the Wandala, suggesting that very close ties between Doulo and Kerawa continued well beyond Sankrk's reign (Barkindo 1989: 120). Outside major centres like Kerawa, some degree of independence was maintained in smaller places like Grea where the court appointed TZigrea (chief of Grea) was ritually disallowed entry and thus actual control of the village (Bourges 1996: 25-26). Ironically, this independence was, to some extent, facilitated by the shift towards keeping the TIikse's appointees within his reach at Doulo. Territorial expansion in this era went hand in hand with Wandala control of trade. The

'Some sources put the date as at 1723 (Fork1 1983) or even 173 1 (Mohammadou 1982: 1 1). All agree conversion took place in the first half of the eighteenth century. TIikse oversaw the trade of iron smelted in the mountains north to Bomo and beyond. He also controlled a significant slave trade in the same direction. As the Wandala became wealthier, their towns attracted immigration fiom IsIamic scholars, skilled craftsmen and Montagnard labourers. Many Kanuri fkom Bomo came to Wandala economic centres like Kerawa and Doulo at this time. With them, they brought trades like weaving and dyeing. At some point, the Kanuri and Montagnards came to dominate ceramic production among the Wandala as well (Bourges 1996: 93; Lyons 1992: 93). In the nineteenth century, the Wandala saw the rise of a new adversary. This time it was fiom the Fulbe encroaching fiom the west and south. The capital was moved early in the century fkom Doulo to the more defensible Mora at the foot of the mountain chain. The capital moved back and forth between Doulo and Mora until Boukar Anarbana reinstated the court at Doulo in the middle of the century where it stayed until another threat rose out of the north in the 1890s (Mohammadou 1982: 12). After conquering Borno, a Sudanese invader named Rabeh set his sights on the Wandala, sacking and burning Doulo in 1895 and sending the townspeople with their possessions fleeing to the heights of Mora massif. After the attack, the population of Doulo dropped to levels lower than its present population of 800 (Fork1 1989: 545). During its heyday as capital, estimates of the population were as high as 30,000 (Rohlfs 1875: 61). Shortly after Rabeh's conquest, European colonial rulers began to assert themselves in the area. Germany established administration of northern Cameroon in 1902 and remained the colonial administrators until the British forced them out of the area after a Iong siege on the Mora Massif in 19 16. Since the end of World War I, the Wandala homeland has been divided, first between British and French administrationsand later betweenNigeria and Cameroon. The TZihe presently resides in Mora.

3.3.2 Doulo 's Population Doulo has remained a small and predominantly Wandda town, but has seen many changes in the twentieth century. Since independence in 1960, many Montagnard groups who previously lived on Doulo massif and in the Mandara Mountains have migrated to the plains, and this is reflected in the present population. Specifically, Mura, Urza, Mineo, Podokwo and Muktele groups have moved fiom small villages nestled on Doulo inselberg to the fringes of the plains town (Lyons 1992). The Mura Montagnards at Doulo are tied to communities on Mora massif, although they claim their ultimate origins to be from the Waul area. Diane Lyons (1 992: 39) speculates that they have been at Doulo since the seventeenth century, when conflict with Bomo caused a great deal of emigration out of the Waza area. The Urza come fiom the Urza massif near Meme. Those that made their home in Doulo in the 1980s had recent ties to villages at Wawidive and Talake. Many Podokwo came to Doulo during famines in the 1930s (Boutrais 1973: 134). Since independence, other Montagnards have come to Doulo and other villages in the area directly fiom the highlands to settle new agricultural lands. The Doulo-Gane agricultural scheme also brought new fmers to the region, although most Montagnards associated with this development live to the north and east of Doulo, closer to the village of Aissa Harde (Boulet et al. 1984: 106; Boutrais 1973). Today, other Muslim ethnic groups also call Doulo home. In addition to the Wandala who make up the bulk of the population, there are Kanuri who live in the Wandala ward and commonly intermany with them. A small number of Shuwa Arabs also live at Doulo. These families have given up the nomadic pastoral existence and now practise a mixed farming economy.

3.3.3 Doulo 's Cultural Landscape Doulo's present landscape reflects the long and complex history of the village. The modem community straddles the paved highway that links Mom to WazaNational Park (Figure 3.2). The Wandala ward is along this road and Wandala cemeteries are located to the north and south of the village along the Mayo Doulo stream bed. To the southeast, closer to the inselberg, but still within the main village area, are areas where most of the Montagnards currently reside. The Shuwa ward is located to the north of the town. North of the inselberg, and just outside the former city wall, is a Mura ward named Wa-dela after the part of the massif where it was located prior to the 1960s. The present town is mapped onto older cultural features. Chief among these is the remnant of the city wall completed in the nineteenth century by Tiikse Bukar Arbaana. This wall had six gates, originally leading to various centres around Doulo. The present-day village, with the exception of the Shuwa and Wa-dela areas, falls within the perimeter of this wall leaving plenty of room to spare. This demonstrates how much the population has decreased. A second older wall remnant also remains next to the inselberg and was built by Sankrt! enclosing an area roughly 7.5 ha in size (Forkl 1989: 543). This smaller area is where the Maya leader's compound is said to have been, and a small mound in this area is largely attributed to the Maya. Small mounds on the scale of those at Mehe are also recorded on the north and south sides of the inselberg. On the massif itself, the remains of recent Montagnard occupations are still identifiable. In addition to the abandoned Mura village above the current Mura ward, another abandoned Mura village is located faaher to the east on Mbata Graveyards associated with Montagnard communities are also located on the inselberg. On the east side of the massif and above Sank.6'~walled area are the remains of a village attributed to Muktele, Mineo and Podokwo Montagnards (Lyons 1992: 52). All these massif villages consist of collapsed stone walls with surface scatters of broken pots and other household detritus. The remains of a fortress built by the Mura for Bukar Arbaana are still preserved near the peak of Wa-Dela. Finally, a well attributed to the Maya is located on the north side of the inselberg. Grooves ground into bedrock were noted by Lyons (1 992: 52) and Forkl (1 989: 544) near this well and near Sankr6's residence. These will be discussed in Chapter Six. Chapter Four will examine the archaeological finds discovered at Doulo by the PMW, but some earlier archaeological work has also been undertaken at Doulo. Rodinson and Lebeuf (1 956) found a large Sao type pot at Doulo in 1930, and Lebeuf (1 969) lists Doulo as an Iron Age site on the Carte Arch6ologique des abords du Lac Tchad. Several sites were also identified by the Mandara Archaeological Project. The assemblages of these MAP sites include surface scatters of ceramics, metal artifacts, quartz flakes, and features such as granary bases, grinding stones and hut foundations. The collected ceramics included everted and straight rims from jars and bowls, with common surface treatments including knotted plait roulette, twisted cord roulette, red slip, burnished, stamp and drag, and sgrafEito motifs. As we will see in upcoming chapters, the overall assemblage is consistent with the Wandala occupation of the area. 3.4 Discussion and Summary Doulo is part of a cultural landscape of considerable antiquity. The Mora Plain has been inhabited for at least three millennia and there is growing evidence of even longer occupation in adjacent areas. It is also already clear that Doulo fits into many of the regional patterns of prehistory. Its occupation is centred on an inselberg with small cultural mounds on the plains similar to other sites on the Mora Plain, and the town has been walled during recent centuries. In the following chapters, we will examine the archaeological sequence at Doulo. The cultural background of the region gives some hints as to what we might expect to be the most important changes in that sequence if it is similar to the archaeological record elsewhere, and if it is sensitive to the political and social shifts of recent centuries. Major developments in the archaeological record are expected to coincide with intensification of occupation at the beginning of the Iron Age, and again later when the Wandala state arrives and the presumably more simply organized society of the Maya departs. Perhaps continuing change could also be expected as the Wandala and their capital city becomes a part of the larger Islamic world. Another theme in Doulo's recent past that has been brought out here is the pluralistic nature of its population. This pluralism should also be distinguishable in the archaeological record. Chapter Four The Archaeology of Doulo

4.1 Projet Maya-Wandala Excavations at Doulo The Doulo massif is surrounded by an artifact scatter consisting largely of potsherds, with a smattering of iron, slag and stone artifacts stretching out 100 to 300 metres around the inselberg. Water transport and slope wash of materials fiom the massif and areas immediately below continue to alter the landscape. Nevertheless, numerous in situ sites are identifiable including fifteen discovered within less than 1 km of ~duloinselberg by the Projet Mqcz WandaIa(Figure 4.1). In 1992, during the project's fust field season, eleven sites were located. The remaining locations were recorded during the course of excavations in 1995 and 1996. Site descriptions include information on environment, location, and dimensions. Surface collections were made in most cases. While archaeological work was being conducted, interviews and informal inquiries with elderly Wandala residents of Doulo were carried out by Scott MacEachem to gain insight into the use history of various localities4. Excavations were conducted at six of the sites (PMW 63 1, PMW 635, PMW 636, PMW 652, PMW 675 and PMW 678) between 1992 and 1996. Local workers were employed to excavate and these individuals provided invaluable insights into local history and material culture, both modem and archaeological, throughout the eicavations. The tools of excavation consisted of hoes for most work, as the workers were familiar and remarkably precise with these implements. Pickaxes were used for particularly solid sediments and trowels and brushes for delicate work. A datum stake was established on the highest comer of each excavated unit for taking depth measurement. These stakes were typically 5-20 cm above the surface. Ten centimetre arbitrary levels were the norm with materials fiom each level screened using %" mesh and bagged separately fiom other levels. Artifacts associated with a given feature were frequently sorted and bagged separately fiom the remaining material in the same level. All units were excavated to culturally sterile levels unless otherwise noted. Sterile levels were found at

%tewiews with informants are referenced below with the name of the informant and the date of the interview. The referenced interviews are listed at the end of the references. as little as 30 cm below the surface on the south side of the inselberg, where hard rocky sediments are present, and up to three metres below surface elsewhere. Most of the terrain excavated is close to the massif, if not actually on it, and was under cultivation in the 1990s. Certain site formation processes are standard to all areas examined at Doulo. As has already been mentioned, slope wash from the inselberg itself is an ongoing process transporting rock, sediment and cultural material to the plains below. Decaying bedrock is also a factor where sites are particularly close to the large erosional feature. Cultivation in the area has continuously churned up the earth's surface. An identifiable layer approximately 30 cm thick is present in most excavated units and is referred to here as the hoe zone. It is likely that mixing of this type has been an ongoing factor as habitation and other activity areas are abandoned and converted or reverted to agricultural land. Descriptions of site location, environment, stratigraphy, finds, and dating follow for each of the fifteen sites at Doulo. Both their formal name and PMW number will be given, although in Wechapters they will be referred to primarily by the numerical label. Many units were sub-divided during excavation into quadrants or halves sometimes named directionally (i.e., north and south) or with letters (i.e., A and B). Although the units will be discussed as a whole, it is frequently usell to use such labels to describe horizontal trends, therefore these sub-units are defined in this chapter and are integral to analysis in the following chapter. The stratigraphy of excavated units is discussed in terms of natural stratigraphic layers, and by cultural layers wherever possible. Detailed descriptions of the ceramics from sites that were only surface surveyed will be given in this chapter, as these were not included in the cluster analysis of Chapter Five. The artifact assemblage ofexcavated sites will only be briefly and very generally described, as these will be examined in much greater detail in Chapters Five and Six. Radiocarbon dates are cited here for some locations, while sites not yet dated by absolute means are assigned a relative age based on their assemblage. The criteria used to establish these periods will also be the subject of discussion in the following chapters. The reader should also note that hwnan and faunal remains will only be briefly mentioned because these will be the subject of a forthcoming doctoral dissertation by Ms. Maureen Reeves. 4.2 PM\N 674: Doulo Town Site This site is the present-day village of Dodo that is still occupied. A serrated stone projectile point was collected here in 1995, and potsherds and slag scatters are common. No excavations or systematic collection was carried out within the occupied areas of the village. The stone point is the best evidence available for a Stone Age occupation at Doulo, although as an isolated surface find in a currently inhabited village, its significanceis difftcult to evaluate.

43 PMW 636: Doulo Igzawa I This site consists of two ill-defined mounds and adjacent artifact scatters. One mound, measuring approximately i 5 metres in diameter and 2 metres high, was tested. The site is located south of Dodo inselberg in a small valley with quick and easy access to the inselberg itself. High densities of artifacts were discovered on the surface of this site in 1992 and six shovel tests were initially made. Slag, ceramics and stone ax fragments are all plentiful although no evidence of architectural remains was observed. Five units were excavated at this site. Much of the unexcavated portion of this site has been disturbed by road construction. Unit 1 (0- 140 cm bd) is 2 x 2 metres laid out on the cardinal directions and excavated in quadrants (i.e., NW, NE, SE, SW) to a depth of 140 cm below datum (bd). It is located towards the western side of the mound and may represent midden deposits along its margin. The earliest levels of the unit consist of hard packed clay with decomposing granite and occasional grey ashy stains (see layer V in Table 4.1 ). Generally, the quantity of potsherds and other artifacts is low through these levels. Layer IV includes a ceramic and granite concentration along the western margin of the unit between 80 - 1 15 cm bd. It is thickest in the extreme northwest comer. This feature may continue to slope to the northwest along the edge of the mound, ultimately bordering the run-off gully. Excavators interpreted this as a distinctive layer of refuse deposited on the side of the mound. Outside the western area, the matrix is clayey. Layer III, fiom 55 cm to approximately 80 cm bd, has a higher gravel and ash content. In the northwest quadrant, part of this layer is immediately under a lens of burnt earth containing carbon and possible seed fiagrnents. It is fiom this burnt area that the earliest radiocarbon date was obtained. The soil of the top layers is ashy grey under dark brown, loosely packed gravelly soil. Massive quantities of ceramics are present beginning just below the surface (for example, 25 kg of potsherds were collected fiom one arbitrary level in a single quadrant). Twisted cord roulette, or TCR, strongly dominates the decorated ceramics, although a variety of techniques and motifs are present throughout the sequence, including comb stamping, incision, punctate, applique and slipped waress. Vessel forms are similar to other sites around Doulo with necked and neckIess jars being the most identifiable forms followed by bowls and the occasional bottle. Rims are dominated by unexpanded straight and everted varieties, but interiorly and exteriorly expanded variations are also present, and expanded and inverted rims are relatively common. Large amounts ofplain body sherds were weighed but not collected in layers I and 11. These large quantities diminish at approximately 55 cm bd, at the same depth as the soil change noted above. Mollusc shell beads were collected fiom layers I and I1 of this unit, and a small disc- shaped carnelian bead was recovered fiom near the bottom of the pit. Worked sherds are a very common artifact type. These are small circular and rectangular-shaped fragments of pottery that have been chipped or ground into form. Iron and slag are present throughout the sequence in small amounts and bone was also collected. Two radiocarbon dates were obtained fiom this unit. These are: 2 100270 BP (TO- 4788) on bone from Unit 1 NW level 2, and 2500 + 60 BP (TO-4422)on charcoal from level 6. These are among of the earliest Iron Age dates available for the southern Chad Basin. The ceramic and lithic assemblage of the unit is consistent with the early dates. The relative closeness of the dates, separated by only 400 years and 40 cm of deposition, indicates that the mound accumulated fairly rapidly. If this rate of accumulation was similar in the lower levels as well, it is very possible that the lower levels of the unit do not significantly predate 2500 BP and thus do not substantially push back the transition to the Iron Age beyond this point. Unir 2 (0-1 00 cm bs) is located north of Unit 1 and away from the mound. It is 1 x 1

meceramic attributes used to describe the assemblage will be defined in the following chapter in section 5.2.2. metres in size and is located on a spot where a complete pot was found on the surface. The unit was only excavated in its entirety to a depth of 70 cm bs (no datum was established) due to the hardness of the deposits and lack of cultural material. Only the southeastern quadrant was continued to a depth of 100 cm bs where sterile sediment was reached (Table 4.2). This lowest layer (layer III) consists of a sandy matrix with gravel becoming increasingly hard and orange towards the bottom. Layer 11, between 20-30 cm bs, contains a yellow-brown sand. The soil of layer I is grey-brown sand with some granite derived gravelly inclusions. The ceramics are similar to that of Unit 1 with TCR-decorated sherds outweighing other decorated offerings by far. A variety of other decorative motifs were also present, including comb-stamping. Jars and bowls were identifiable in this unit and the rim types had the same variation as those described in the previous unit. Relatively small quantities of slag and worked sherds were recovered through the top 50 - 60 cm of the unit and bone was found throughout. A small iron bead was located on the surface and a mollusc shell bead was located in layer I. Unit 3 (0-1 00 cm bd) was excavated when the PMW crew returned to Cameroon in 1995. It is located roughly 25 metres south of the inselberg and 25 metres north of Unit 1. This location was chosen with the intention of defining variation within the site and to further examine the amount of outwashing taking place from the inselberg onto the southern plain. Unit 3 is 2 x 1 metres in size and oriented lengthwise in a roughly east-west direction. Although decaying granite dominates both sides of the unit below 50 cm bd, excavations continued to the east until granitic material covered the entire bottom of the-pit at 100 cm bd (layer 111 in Table 4.3). In Layer II, between 25 and 50 cm bd, yellow sand and decaying gravel are present The top layer, like the units excavated in 1992, is dominated by loose sand containing gravel derived fiom granite and quartz. Most of the cultural material below 25 cm bd comes from yellow sand. Artifact densities, in general, and ceramic densities, in particular, are much lower than in Unit 1. Slag was recovered in the top 50 centimetres, fiom the east side of the unit. Some burned bone was found in level 2 and a small number of flakes were recovered fiom the lower levels. Unit 4 (0-250 cm bd) is approximately 25 metres northwest of Unit 3. It was the second 2 x 1 metre unit dug in 1995. It, too, is oriented on a roughly east - west long axis. This unit was excavated in 20 cm arbitrary levels as little artifactual material was found (Table 4.4; Figure 4.2). A consolidated clay matrix with quartz inclusions dominates the earliest levels fiom approximately 160-250 cm bd. Immediately below this, the soil became too hard to excavate and solid granite is present in most of the pit, aIthough very small quantities of ceramics were still present. Layer III is dominated by yellow-grey gravel. Between 72 -120 cm bd, in layer II, finer sediments are present with a hard clayey loam dominating the matrix. This clayey loam produces considerably more artifacts than the layer above it. The soil of the layer I is a loose sandy grey-brown with fewer quartz inclusions than elsewhere at this site. The profile of the north wall of the unit reveals complex stratigraphy that was not visible during excavation, including a possible pit feature between approximately 40-100 cm bd in layers I and II. Small amounts of ceramic material were recovered fiom this unit. TCR dominates the decoration in the top levels as elsewhere, but below 180 crn bd, in level 10, where the clay matrix truly begins to dominate the whole unit, TCR frequencies fall off significantly and comb stamping increases. Very few vessel and rim types are identifiable fiom this assemblage as most sherds are very eroded. Jars and bowls are still the most common forms and rim types were similar to others at this site. Ceramic analysts mention.repeatedly in their notes that the ceramics fiom this unit are generally thinner and have finer decoration than the ceramics fiom other areas. Slag is present from the top level of the unit to approximately 2 metres bd and is in substantial quantities compared to other areas at Doulo. An iron point was also found in this unit in level 8. Worked sherds are present and only a small amounts of bone and charcoal were recovered. A stone bracelet hgment was also collected in level 8. Unit 5 (0-190 cm bd) is 2 x 2 metres in size and located adjacent to the east side of Unit 3. The two units form a continuous southern border. This unit was positioned in hopes of exposing more of the cultural material identified in the sandy matrix on the east side of Unit 3. Virtually the entire pit is dominated by a light coloured, hard gravelly clay fiom 90-1 50 cm bd (Figure 4.3 and Table 4.5). A 40 x 40 cm hole was dug near the northeast comer to 190 cm bd, but this proved to be sterile. Between 50-90 cm bd the main matrix gives way to a brown clayey loam with very high proportions of quartz gravels. A yellow-grey gravel is present on the eastern side of the pit at the same depth. An ash stain appears over the gravel between 40-60 cm bd. This lens is very thin in the extreme northwest comer but much thicker along the west wall. The soil of layer I is similar to the top of Unit 3, consists of brown sandy loam. The ceramics are very similar to that of Unit 3 described above- Few vessel forms were identified, with neckless jars, dishes and bowls being among these few. Small amounts of charcoal were recovered throughout the unit. A long iron needle, recovered in layer III between 140- 150 cm bd, was the only identifiable iron object found. Little bone was present. The assemblage of PMW 636 is relatively uniform in all excavated areas, indicating a similar time of occupation, and the entire assemblage is consistent with an Early Iron Age occupation. This is confirmed by the radiocarbon dates, the presence of slag and iron artifacts, and the persistence of diverse types of stone technology such as stone bracelets and ax fiagments. The ceramic assemblage is also consistent with a transitional Neolithic/Iron Age period with TCR, incision and comb decorated surface treatments well represented. The general lack of cultural features, other than the mounds, could indicate that structures were still being made of wood and grass in this period, but this may also be a function of destruction and disturbance due to slope-wash in this area.

4.4 PMW 651: Doulo Igzawa 2 Doulo Igzawa 2 consists of a small surface scatter approximately 500 metres south of PMW 636. The site is on essentially flat featureless terrain where artifacts have been exposed on an erosional surface covering approximately 20 x 20 metres in what is otherwise an out wash area south of the massif. The soil is sandy and the ground cover is composed of coarse grasses with stands of A. senegalensis. Well-formed quartzite and sandstone flakes, and stone ax fiagments are sparsely scattered on the surface in very low densities. No ceramics are visible and the slope-washed nature of the terrain makes it difficult to rule out the possibility that this material has been moved downslope from the dense assemblage at PMW 636. Regardless, the prevalence of flaked stone is indicative of relatively early occupation, be it Early Iron Age or older. 4.5 PMW 652: Doulo Igzawa 3 Doulo Igzawa 3 is a light ceramic and lithic scatter located 250 metres south of PMW 636. It covers and area roughly 20 x 10 metres. The terrain in this area is sandy with intennittent vegetation identical to that of PMW 65 1. Two shallow units were excavated in 1992. Unit 1 (0-30 cm bs) is a 1 x 1 metre pit oriented on the cardinal directions. Depth measurements for this unit were taken fiom the surface, as no datwn was established. By 30 cm bs the matrix is dominated by clay and decomposing bedrock with very few artifacts. Excavations were halted at this point because the clay and Quartz made digging very difficult. The soil above this zone is a loose medium brown to red sandy clay with gravel (Table 4.6). Ceramics coming fiom this unit and the surface of the site are extremely eroded and most have no identifiable decoration. No vessel forms are identifiable and only two rims are present. A very small quantity of slag and quartz flakes were also recovered. Unit 2 (0-60 cm bs) is also 1 x 1 metres in size. It is approximately 75 metres south of PMW 636, and 10 metres south southeast of a mound covered with cultural material. Like Unit 1, measurements are from below surface. Decomposing bedrock is present below 50 cm bs and excavations were halted at 60 cm bs (Table 4.7). The middle layer in this unit consists of a hard grey-yellow loam. The top soil in this area is a loosely packed dark brown loam with a high gravel content at the surface. Most potsherds were recovered fiom the hard packed deposits between 30-50 cm bs. Although the potsherd density is low throughout this shallow unit, TCR is the most common decoration. Jars, bowls and bottles were identified as vessel forms and a variety of rim types including unexpanded, interiorly, and exteriorly expanded fonns are present. Some eroded bone, quartz flakes, slag and worked sherds were also collected fiom this unit. The eroded nature of the finds fiom this site and the shallow nature of the deposits are consistent with PMW 652 being an outwash area fiom PMW 636, which is up-slope and closer to the inselberg. The presence of a low cultural mound 10 metres north of Unit 2 may mean that the materials fiom the unit were washed fiom the mound, or may predate the formation of the mound. Testing of the mound would be required. to reach stronger conclusions. Regardless, an Early Iron Age date is expected given the relationship of the site to PMW 636 and the nature of the finds.

4.6 PMW 631: Doulo Kwore This is a mound site with a very high artifact densie. It is southeast of the easternmost portion of the Doulo wall and west of a small cluster of modem Mura compounds in Wa-Dela. The small mound is located approximately 60 metres away from the edge of the massif and is surrounded to the north, west and south by the massif. The site extends up the north side of the inselberg. According to one oral tradition, this area is where the Maya originally told the Wandala they could settle when they fust arrived at Doulo. The Wandala turned down this offer in favour of the area west of the inselberg (PMW 635) because it had morning shade (Zedzi-gre gwe 14/8/92). Three units were excavated at this site, including Unit 1 and its extension in 1992, and Units 2 and 3 in 1996. Unir I North and South (0-90 cm bd) is a 1 x 2 metre pit oriented lengthwise north- south with the northem lm2 labelled Unit IN and the southern portion named Unit 1s. It is 5-7 metres fiom an occupied compound and modem disturbances were present in the upper levels. Indeed, a 1959 Nigerian penny was discovered while removing the vegetation fiom the surface of the unit (and immediately carried off by one of the local children). Such pennies are still in use as decorative attachments in northeastern Nigeria (Gronenborn and Magnavita 2000: 49). The lowest layer of the excavation consists of consolidated yellow sand with gravel and degraded granite (Table 4.8). Excavations ha1ted at 90 cm bd at which point the ground was almost impenetrably hard and virtually no cultural material was present. The top of a human cranium was discovered in the west wall at 63 cm bd in layer I1 (Figure 4.4). This matrix continues to approximately 40 cm bd with the amount of cultural material greatest in the upper levels. Layer I consists of dark soil with granitic pebble and.cobble-sized inclusions for several centimetres below the hoe zone. Over 20 kg of ceramics and significant amounts of bone are present throughout this layer. The terrain of Unit 1 was under cultivation in 1992 and the upper levels were clearly subject to mixing fiom agricultural activity. The ceramics collected fiom this unit were quite uniform in decoration and morphology. Large quantities were collected 5om the top three levels decreasing dramatically below this point. TCR dominates the decorated sherds fiom the surface to the bottom of the sequence with very small quantities of applique, incision, punctate and red slipped wares also represented below the surface. Although few vessel forms were identified, neckless jars were the most common, followed by bowls, necked jars and a few fi-agments of bottles and dishes. Rim types were dominated by straight unexpanded varieties, although a large number of distinctive rim sherds fiom several vessels were collected fiom the surface of the site. These specimens consist of straight interiorly expanded rims with TCR exterior surface treatment. These sherds are all quite thick (ca. 1 cm) and likely come fiom large neckless jars. A very small quantity of slag was recovered from the top 60 cm of the unit as were numerous worked sherds and small iron fragments. Unit I East and West (0-68 cm bd) was excavated in order to expose the burial discovered in Unit lN/S. This pit is 150 centimetres across (north-south) and centred on the long axis of Unit 1 (meaning the two units form a 'T3. This extension of Unit 1 expands the excavation two metres to the west (Figure 4.4 and Table 4.9). Below 30 cm bd, the matrix is a yellow sand with the amount of ceramics decreasing as in the neighbouring unit. Unit 1 East revealed the top of the burial pit in level 5 in the northern portion of the unit, while Unit 1 West was abandoned when it became clear that the burid did not continue in that direction. The fill associated with the burial is dark brown with gravel, and the surrounding matrix consists of yellow sand. Arbitrary 5 cm levels were utilized to excavate the burial. From level 6 and below, most ceramics collected are associated with the burial fill but these sherds do not represent in situ breakage. As this unit was excavated to expose the burial, ceramics were not collected fiom the hoe zone (to approximately 30 cm bd in the east half and a few centimetres lower to the west). The skeleton revealed in this pit was in flexed position lying on the right side and facing northeast. An eggshell was found associated with the hands which appeared to be clasped together judging by the entangled position of the manual phalanges and metacarpals. Some large potsherds may have been positioned under the body, but this cannot be confirmed as many random sherds are also present in the fill. The individual is a sub-adult as the pelvic bones were not yet fked at the time of death. The uncollected ceramics fiom the surface to level 3 are similar to that found in Unit INIS with TCR heavily dominating the exterior decoration and several thick. straight interiorly expanded rim sherds among the assemblages. Below this, and in association with the burial, TCR continues to dominate with minute quantities of incision, punctate, and slipped wares present. In general vessel and rim forms are similar to Unit INIS. Worked sherds were present throughout the excavation. A single glass bead was collected fiom the first level and a minute quantity of slag was also recovered. Some animal bone was present in the upper layer of dark soil as well as in the burial fill. A complete bovid mandible was found near the human cranium. Unit 2 (0- 170 cm bd) was excavated in 1996. This pit is 2 x 2 metres and located a few metres south of Unit 1 on top of the small mound. The matrix is hard dark grey gravelly sand with a pickaxe being the implement of choice for excavation in layer 111, from 70 cm - 170cm bd (Figure 4.5; Table 4.1 0). The soil matrix is red and gravel-filled in layer I1 (40-70 cm bd). The soil in layer I (0- 40 cm bd) is very silty sand with a great deal of the sediment derived from the granitic parent material of the inselberg. However, ceramics actually outweigh soil in much of this upper layer. The farmer who plants this land commented that the ceramics made it impossible to hoe, and aplow was used in this area instead (Monica Webster field notes 1996). Carbon samples were collected from the very top of the unit and from layer 111. The profiles of the north and east walls of this unit reveal horizontal deposits in the top levels with lower strata sloping slightly downward towards the north. A partial burial (Feature 1) was recovered fiom the northwestern portion of the unit in layer UI. This individual was buried in a flexed position lying on the right side and facing northwest with several worked sherds resting on the femur. The remains were re-interred when the unit was closed. The burial positions of this individual and the sub-adult in Unit 1 do not follow that of the Montagnard groups who historically inhabited the Doulo massif. The Mura and the Urza bury men in extended position on their right side with the right hand tucked under the head, and women in extended position on their left side with their left hand under the head (Lyons 1992: 128). In layer 111, with bottom levels yielding small and eroded sherds, all ceramics were collected and analysed. Extraordinary quantities of cemmics were collected fiom the first three levels and level 6, forcing the selection of a 25% sample. Quantities of ceramics tapered off a bit in levels 4 and 5 (to 60 cm bd), but in level 7 only a 50 % sample was analysed. Many of the sherds fiom these upper levels are large and well preserved. TCR overwhelmingly dominates the exterior sherd decoration throughout most of the sequence although slipped sherds have a strong showing in levels 6 and 7. Comb stamping, applique and incision are also present in minute quantities throughout the sequence. Necked and neckless jars, bowls and very few bottle fragments were among the identified vessel forms. Rims were predominantly unexpanded. Worked sherds and iron fragments are present throughout the sequence, including an iron clasp with fabric still attached in level 1, and an iron point found at a depth of 102 cm bd. Small quantities of slag are present both above and below the ceramic-rich layer. Three beads made by drilling holes in ovicaprid phalanges and a carnelian bead were recovered between 50 and approximately 80 cm bd. A stone flake was found in the western half of the unit between 15-20 cm bd. Faunal material was also collected fiom this unit including a bovid lumbar vertebra with distinctive chop marks in level 1, and what is likely an ovicaprid astragalus in level 2. An unidentified accretion is present on the bone and some large mollusc shell fragments collected down to at least 90 cm bd. Unit 3 (0-1 67 cm bd) is located approximately 50 metres up the side of the inselberg on a terrace overlooking the mound and Units 1 and 2. This area was occupied by Mura of the Logone lineage until the 1960s. The terrace contains numerous wall remnants, including a circular stone wall eight metres across and about 20-30 cm high at the time of excavation. Similar terraces are located above this locality and wall remnants up to 1 metre high are present in these areas. This stone wall construction with termite mound soil mortar is common in the Mandara Mountains today as opposed to the daub construction on the plains. Stone wall construction is still practised by Montagnards in Doulo in compounds very near to the foot of the massif (Lyons 1992: 2 1 1). The unit is 2 x 2 metres in size and four layers are apparent in the deposits. In layer N, fiom 100 crn bd to the bottom of excavations, the soil is a hard brown fme sand until granitic bedrock begins to appear between 132 and 140 cm bd (Table 4.1 1). The soil in layer III (60-100 cm bd) is red-brown sandy silt and higher in gravel content. Cultural material of many kinds is present, with charcoal, stone, and bone all plentiful. Layer I1 includes a stone concentration on the east side of the unit which is most likely a coilapsed wall; a separate grinding stone and a small gravel-contain pit are also located in sandy silts between 40 and 60 cm bd (levels 3 and 4). The hoe zone contains an ashy-grey silty matrix. The ceramics in this unit are relatively uniform with KPR dominating the decorated sherds and TCR not far behind. Smaller quantities of slipped, applique and incised wares are also represented. Despite the rather distinctive decoration of these ceramics, vessel forms are similar to the other units at this site. Numerous small finds were recovered. Iron fragments were found throughout the unit to a depth of about 140 cm bd (level 12) and a very small amount of slag is present below 60 cm bd. Spindle whorls were identified in the top deposits, and a smoking pipe fragment was recovered fiom layer III. A great deal of bone is present in this unit, including burned bovid remains recovered in layer Il and a complete ovicaprid skull removed from level 6. The assemblage and ethnographic information available for this area indicate that this location was recently occupied. Layer IV, the sandy sediments below the rock concentration, likely represents midden deposits. The rock concentration, grinding stone and hard red-brown soil above this most likely represent part of a habitation associated with the collapsec! wall. It would appear that the hoe zone and deposits to 60 cm bd are midden deposits within the silty sediments of the abandoned structure. These rehse deposits are identifiable fiom the ashy accumulation and random artifactual distributions. When PMW 63 1 is examined as a whole, it becomes immediately apparent that the assemblage and deposits associated with Unit 3 on the inselberg are quite distinct from those associated with mound below. The terrace settlement is consistent with recent occupation in the area, having KPR decorated ceramics, well-preserved architectural features and a smoking pipe. In contrast, most finds associated with Units I and 2 are consistent with earlier occupations in the southern Chad Basin with TCR decorated ceramics dominating surface treatments. The lack of recognizable habitation features such as hearths or wall remnants also hints at a different use and a distinctive site formation process for the mound.

4.7 PMW 635: Doulo Chefferie Doulo Cwerie is just south of the present village and located between the inselberg and the road. It is a habitation site previously occupied by the nikse, hence the French designation chefferie or chiefs residence. This stratified site is within the area walled by SankrC after the conquest of Doulo by the Wandala. Three units were excavated. Unit 1(North and South) was excavated in 1992; however, excavation of this unit was cut short due to objections fiom a local Wandala noble (MacEachern 1993a: 5). As the end of the season was near, digging was not continued and Unit 1 was only excavated to a depth of 30 cm bd. Unit 1 is 1 x 2 metres oriented lengthwise north to south and located ten metres west of a mound. This mound is 6-7 metres high and 40 metres in diameter. It is said to be a rubbish heap attributed to the Maya and early Wandala times (Scott MacEachern, personal communication 200 1). The pit is approximately 15 metres east of the Mora-Waza road and 30 metres south of the modem village. The unit is on a high spot approximately 50 - 70 cm above the surrounding terrain and covered with a dense ceramic surface scatter. Depth measurements are given below surface as no datum was established. Grey soil containing rootlets dominated the matrix (Table 4.12). A clearly defined feature with yellow gravelly fill runs along the northern boundary of the pit below 10 cm bs. Most of the cultural material in levels 2 and 3 came fiom this area. Unfortunately, excavations were halted before the nature of the feature was determined. The ceramics from this unit are generally in small fragments. Like most locations at Doulo, plain sherds appear in high frequencies, with TCR, slipped and KPR decorated sherds making up most of the balance of the decorated materials. Vessel forms that could be identified include bowls, jars and dishes. Rims included many unexpanded straight and everted examples. Small fragments of bone were present throughout. Worked ceramic sherds are common and two white glass bead fragments were recovered fiom the unit. A very worn grinding stone was also recorded. Unit 2 (A and B, 0-270 cm bd) is a 2 x 4 metre pit located within the walls of the old sultan's quarters. It is approximately 25 metres southeast of the mound. The unit is oriented lengthwise along a roughly north-south axis with sub-unit A to the north (Figure 4.7 and Table 4.13). The datum for the unit was established at the southeast comer. The earliest deposits, in layer m, below approximately 130 cm bd, consist of hard but fine gravel-laden material. A 1 x 1 metre step was places in the northwest corner of Unit 2A at 200 cm bd, revealing extremely consolidated sediments with decaying granite and quartz below this point. Excavation were halted at 270 cm bd. Layer II is rich in cultural features with the main matrix comprising a grey-brown loamy-sand with numerous ephemeral variations in hardness and colour. The features are described here tiom the bottom to the top of the sequence. Feature 5 ( located in the centre of Unit 2A between 120-1 35 cm bd) consists of dark soil with charcoal and ash over orange sand (consistent with the type used today for house floors). Feature 4 (80 - 1 10 cm bd) is located in the eastern edge of Unit 2A and mainly consists of a concentration of hard burnt earth, rock and large ceramic sherds. Two smoking pipes were found in the middle of this feature and a possible pot stand was identifiable. A small third feature was discovered in the southeastern portion of the unit just below 40 cm bd, this one also consisting of ceramics and burnt earth. In Unit 2B, at the same depth as Feature 3 a pit-like feature exists (Feature 2) with a ceramic and rock concentration continuing to a depth of 62 cm bd. Consolidated soil exists to the south of the feature. A pit (Feature 1,40-84 cm bd) containing soft grey clay, ceramics and rock is located in the centre of Unit 2A with harder sediments near the top and a lens of hard soil immediately south of the feature. The bottom of the pit-fill constitutes red clay. Layer I, the hoe zone in the uppermost 30 cm, is composed of ashy, sandy soil containing a great deal of quartz, granite and organic material. Rodent disturbances were detected throughout the unit. In addition to the features in layer II, a buriai was unearthed in Unit 2A level 23 (230- 240 cm BD). This small individual was in poor condition with rib, mandible, pelvic and crania! fragments identified. Excavators noted the mandible revealed only unerupted teeth and thus the individual was an infant, likely less than 1 year old at time of death. This individual was buried on an east-west orientation with the head to the west. Unfortunately, the long bones were largely destroyed by the pickaxe and neither metric information nor the exact positioning of the remains were discernable. No grave goods were found. The quantities of pottery vary greatly throughout the sequence. Generally the largest samples are present in the upper levels. The amount of ceramics falls below 1 00 cm bd although Unit 2B level 18 shows a distinct increase. In Layer III, TCR dominates the decorated sherds. In layers I and I1 decorated sherds are still dominated by TCR,with slipped sherds and KPR being the next two most common decorated techniques. As elsewhere,jars and bowls dominate the vessel forms with small quantities of dishes and lids also present. Unexpanded straight and everted rims are most common. Small amounts of slag are present from the surface to 190 cm bd and several unidentifiable iron fragments were recovered to a depth of 140 cm bd. Worked sherds were also present. Three radiocarbon dates were obtained fiom charcoal in this unit. The earliest date is fiom layer III (sample TO-8628 fiom PMW 635 Unit 2A level 25) yielding an age of 330280 BP, or AD1425-1675 calibrated. This dates the lowest layer to the late phase of the Maya occupation and possibly into early Wandala times. The second date, sample TO-8627, is from PMW 635 Unit 2A level 12 in layer 11. This sample yielded a date of 300m BP or AD 1440- 1675 calibrated, indicating that the bottom of layer 11 also dates to a period that is transitional between the Late Iron Age (Maya), and historic Wandala occupations. The latest date is from sample TO-8629collected from layer I1 (PMW 635 Unit 2B level 5). This sample yielded a date of 160270 BP or AD1635- 1955, placing the upper portion layer I1 firmly within the Wandala Period. Thus it would seem that deposits represent, at most, the last 600 years at Doulo. Unit 3 (A and B, fiom 0-315 cm bd) is a 2 x 4 metre pit located approximately 25 metres inside the chefferie wall, 100 metres from the massif, and 80 metres fiom the highway. This portion of the Sultan's residence was designated as slave and horse quarters. The unit is located on a small rise on a north-south orientation with Unit 3A making up the northern half (Figure 4.8 and Table 4.14). The surface of the unit was covered with a moderately dense concentration of ceramics. Layers 111 and IV, fiom 130 cm bd, contain hard fine sand with gravel over clay with gravel. Unit 3A was excavated to 270 cm bd, and 3B to 3 IS cm bd in the southeast comer only. Layer II contained several orange, black and grey lens visible in profile between 20-130 cm bd. These likely represent floors, ashy patches, post holes and clay-lined pits. A possible collapsed wall is identifiable in the profile of the west wall. This is a light brown consolidated layer at about 50 - 70 cm bd. The soil in the hoe zone (layer I) consists of silty sand with some gravel. The bottom of the hoe zone is at 20 cm bd and is distinguishable by a marked increase in soil hardness. Layers II and III reveal numerous features similar to those found in the Wandala component of Unit 2. Feature 1 was identified in the northeast corner of Unit 3B (20-30 cm bd) consisting of a large grinding stone, rock and ceramic concentration that continues into the east wall. The matrix within this feature contains red clay and gravel. A pit containing grey soil was identified between 70 and 82 cm bd. This was labelled Feature 2 and contained faunal remains, ash, charcoal and a clay bead. A third feature is located in the southeast comer of Unit 3B. It contained several vertically-standing ceramic sherds consisting of at least three different pots, and some burnt earth at 80 cm bd. Occasional ceramic concentrations with bone continue with Feature 5 appearing at 170 cm bd, and Features 7 arid 8 at approximately 180 cm bd. Many of the sherds fiom these concentrations look as though they will refit. These concentrations also contain ash and charcoal. Feature 6 is a deep pit which also contained a significant amount of bone, ash and possibly the remains of some plant material. During excavations it was initially visible as a sofk, brown patch in the southwest comer of the unit between 130-140 cm bd, becoming lighter tan in colour and wider to a depth of 240 cm bd. Examination of the profile of the west wall reveals that the feature, in fact, begins roughly at 70 cm bd, continues downwards for approximately 175 cm and has a distinctive bell shape. The fill consists of alternating layers of soft black silts and light brown poorly sorted sands with occasional thin gravel lens, between 2-8 mm thick. All layers slope downwards towards the northeast with the highest angle to the top of the pit and decreasing towards the bottom. Pits similar to Feature 6, used for grain storage, have been identified in archaeological context by Gronenbom (1997) and Holl(1988a: 75-77). Although somewhat different in shape, all three structures widen at the bottom and are between 1.7 and 1.8 metres deep. Gronenbom's example, fiom Bomo in Nigeria, dates to 3070+ 70 BP, while Holl's, fiom Houlouf, dates to the second millennium AD. In addition, Barkindo (1989:176) refers to plains dwellers in general using pits for grain storage. Lyons (1992: 13 I) found that the Shuwa and Wandaia at Doulo used chaffand mat Lined pits located within the central courtyard of compounds for grain storage up to the earty 1970s, and the Shuwa at MChe Kijimatari were still using underground storage for grain in the mid-1980s (Lyons 1992: 223). Also, Garba (1 999: 5 1-53) reports a globular shaped storage pit used at Dufha in Nigeria. Gronenbom (1997: 435), who has conducted the most forensic investigation of such storage pits, found that, on the firki in Nigeria, the surficial clays insulate the contents of the pit which is dug into the underlying sand. The pit in Unit 3 was indeed excavated into sandy sediments, but there are no overlying clays so it is unclear if a storage pit of this type wouid be feasible in this specific location. Furthermore, only a portion of the feature was excavated. Despite this, its structure is similar to the ones described above which indicates it is most likely a grain storage pit that was allowed to refill naturally after its abandonment. In terms of ceramics in this unit, TCR is by far the most common decorative technique, with KPR and slipped materials both well represented. Toward the bottom of the unit, the amount of slipped and KPR sherds decreases significantly. Jars, bowls and bottles were all identifiable in the assemblage. Unexpanded straight and everted rims were common throughout the sequence but both interiorly and exteriorly expanded rims become more common near the bottom of the sequence. Faunal material was plentiful. Bone, some of it burnt, was recovered throughout the sequence and mollusc shell fragments were collected fronthe upper levels of Unit 3B. At 80 cm bd, a great deal of bird bone was recovered in the northern half of Unit 3B. Ovicaprid remains and bird bone were identified and associated with an ash-filled pit (Feature 4) in Unit 3B. Slag and iron are present in small quantities to a depth of 250 cm bd in layer N and worked sherds are also present throughout the sequence. A few beads and spindle whorls were also recovered. Numerous grinding stones and handstones were discovered in the top levels of this unit. It would appear that the upper two metres of this pit are associated with the same type of occupation as that found in layer II of Unit 2, having a similar ceramic assemblage and similar features consisting of recognizable concentrations of ceramics and other material. Therefore, we can expect that most of this phase would belong to the Wandda Period of occupation. Remains in the lower deposits are more ephemeral, and, again, would be expected to be related to a Late Iron Age occupation. For the site as a whole, the stratigraphy, uniformity of assemblage, and radiocarbon dates indicate that up to two metres of deposition have Wen place in less than 600 years and most of it during the time that the Wandala dominated Doulo. The number of habitation features identified, including floors, pot stands and ash pits, indicates that the areas excavated were used and reused for domestic purposes, which is consistent with the area being employed as the Tlikse's residence from approximately AD1 600 to the early nineteenth century when the capital was shifted to Mom. Bukar Arbaana built his compound on a different site in the mid- nineteenth century when the capital was returned to Doulo. Ceramic analysis discussed in Chapter Five confirms the interpretation of the stratigraphic break between the terminal Iron Age deposits and the Wandala material.

4.8 PMW 678: Doulo 4 Doulo 4 is just north of Doulo inselberg in an area with multiple low mounds. One unit was excavated at this site in 1996. It (Unit 1 A and B, 0-2 10 cm bd) is located on top of a small mound (1-2 metres high) that is surrounded by several small erosional gullies. The pit is 2 x 4 metres in size, oriented lengthwise north-south with Unit I B to the north. The unit is in an area of high surface artifact concentration. The earliest layer includes deposits below 130 cm bd (Figure 4.9 and Table 4.15). Hard packed clay and low artifact densities characterize these deposits. Concentrations of iron-rich balls (CO.5 cm in diameter) were discovered in this clay between 130- 180 cm bd. It was not definitively determined if these are natural or cultural, but their persistence into otherwise almost sterile levels may indicate that they are natural. A pit feature, containing loose dark ashy soil, was discovered within this layer between1 35-1 50 cm bd in the northeastern corner of the unit. Below this feature, the soil remains hard with disintegrating rock and clay minerals throughout. Layer ID, between 80-1 30 cm bd, consists of reddish brown clay. Within this same layer is a substantial ceramic concentration dominating the northern and eastern parts of the unit. The soil within this concentration is hard and dark. Almost all the artifacts fiom this layer were recovered within this ceramic concentration. Layer II consists of a hard sandy loam between 20-80 cm bd. he' top 15-20 cm of the unit are within the hoe zone and include loose silt and ash with roots. Ceramic decoration in this unit is quite consistent fiom top to bottom, revealing TCR as the most common technique, although slipped, burnished and KPR treatments are also common. Other varieties of decoration are present in low frequencies throughout the sequence. A variety of vessel forms were identified in this unit and rim types were equally diverse with an increase in folded varieties in the lower levels. Worked sherds, charcoal, slag and metal objects were present throughout this unit. Several small white glass beads were recovered fiom the top levels of the unit, and shell and fish remains were recovered at approximately 60 cm bd. Two concentrations of bovid bone were discovered at 150 cm bd in the northern half of the unit. . Three samples were submitted for radiocarbon dates from this unit and two dates were successfully obtained. The third failed because the amount of charcoal in the sample was insufficient. The sample taken from layer IV,PMW 678 Unit 1B level 16, gave a modem date (TO-8626). A sample taken fiom level 10, in layer III in the same unit gave a date of 260580 BP (TO-8625) calibrated to AD 1445- 1705. The modern date from the lower level is not easily explained, but some sort of contamination (possibly associated with the mysterious iron-rich deposits [Scott MacEachern, personal communication 200 1I) is to be expected given the earlier date from stratigraphically later deposits, and the amount of accumulation above the sampled area. The date fiom level 10 indicates a Late Iron Age to Wandala Period formation for the mound. Contrary to PMW 63 5, where there is a break in the sequence that can be tentatively attributed to the MayaIWandala transition, the deposits of this mound are relatively uniform. Given the overall assemblage, which includes glass trade beads, spindle whorls and KPR decorated potsherds, it seems more likely that the mound was formed during the later Wandala Period. The potsherd rich concentration, the pit feature in the northeast portion of the unit, and ashy sediment are all consistent with midden deposits. The thick ceramic layer and lower strata slope downwards towards the north. Above this point, the stratigraphy is very horizontal. This indicates that the mound was likely formed on a natural rise and initially used to dump refuse, including the ceramics. The area was then reused f?om time to time for refuse disposal and other purposes, including agriculture, which explains the relatively homogenous deposits above the ceramic concentration.

4.9 PMW 675: Doulo SW This is a site within the Doulo wall and approximately 20 metres fiom the nearest occupied compounds. It is west of the Waza-Mora road and a meander of the present Mayo Doulo stream bed. One unit was excavated on this mound in 1996. It is very recent in age with colonid artifacts to the middle levels, and a probable Muslim burial near the bottom. The excavated pit (Unit 1 A and B, 0-1 80 cm bd) is 2 x 4 metres with the long axis running north-south. Excavations were continued in the northern half of the unit (Unit 1A) to 180 cm bd at which point sterile levels were reached in stream-sorted gravel over clays (Figure 4.10 and Table 4.16). A human burial was recovered at 145 cm bd, in the southern portion of the pit (Unit 1B) in consolidated sandy silts. Only the lower portion of this individual (including the bottom two thirds of the femora, lower legs, feet and a portion of the manual phalanges and left ischiurn) was exposed as the burial continued into the south wall. Plant matter was observed on and around the manual phalanges.and the hands appear to have been bound. The individual was buried in extended position lying on the right side with the head pointed south and facing east. All epiphyses are fbsed indicating that the individual was fully adult at the time of death. The remains were not removed. Sandy silts, and ash and charcoal concentrations continue upwards to approximately 125 cm bd. A layer of alluvial silts begins between 65 - 100 cm bd, and continues to a depth of at least 125 cm bd indicating that, at some point, the stream ran over this area. Above this layer, grey silty sands dominate the matrix. In situ broken ceramic vessels and rock concentrations are common here. One such rock concentration was discovered at 60 cm bd. Feature 1 is associated with some ash and appears similar to modem hearths. It is interesting to note that as the rocks fiom this feature were discarded, several women from the village took them away for reuse in their own hearths. Large broken pots were also visible in situ in the middle levels of this unit (40-90 cm bd). Orange sand was discovered under some of these pots, although the soil is a dark brown-grey sandy loam by this level in general. Termite dirt, commonly used in house construction, was also identified in these levels. The soil in the top levels of the unit is a brown sandy silt over grey sandy silt with a moderate amount of granite-derived gravel. In general, the ceramics from this site are in very good condition and many refit, although frequencies of sherds remain low throughout the sequence and drop off significantly below the alluvial silts. The frequenciesof ceramic decoration, however, remain the same with KPR dominating, and red slipped and TCR wares also well represented. Vessel forms are similar to elsewhere and rim types are largely restricted to unexpanded varieties, either straight or everted. Several French coins dating to the 1920s and 1930s were recovered, including a 1938 coin found at a depth of 70 cm bd. Two rifle cartridge cases were also recovered from above the silts. These colonial era artifacts date the upper portion of the sequence to the first half of the twentieth century. Iron and slag fragments are present throughout the sequence. Small amounts of bone were recovered throughout this unit with chicken and ovicaprid remains tentatively identified by the excavator. Charcoal was also'recovered in large quantities from throughout the unit and worked sherds are also represented. The stratigraphy indicates that the stream originally ran through this area leaving the gravels. Above this, ashy patches in silts represent the first indications of human occupation. The burial is intrusive into this layer. The Islamic orientation of the burial, as presently practised by the Wandala and Shuwa at Doulo (Lyons 1992: 132-133), also indicates that it is of relatively recent age. It is of interest that today the Wandala of Doulo bury their dead to the north and south of the village along the west side of Mayo Doulo. It would seem likely that this riverside custom was also practised prior to the 1920s and 1930s when the village underwent substantial growth and immigration. Above, within the thick alluvial deposits, the cultural material appears to be midden deposits showing signs of repeated flooding (Arlene Rosen, field notes 1996). Dry and flowing stream beds are a common location for dumping of household debris ethnographically and can lead to significant accumulations of refuse in or near stream beds (Jones 1997: 13). The combination of midden and alluvial deposition thus led to very rapid accumulation of sediment in this location. On top of the alluvial deposits, there is refbe and household debris, including rocks, grinding stones, ash-areas, colonial artifacts, and orange sandy patches that are possible floors.

4.10 PMW 609: Doulo Wall 1 Doulo Wall 1, or PMW 609, is a surface scatter of ceramics and lithics located near the Doulo wall and west of the road to Mora. It extends over both sides of Mayo Douio at this point. No features apart fiom the wall itself were discernable at the time the site was discovered. Only a very small surface collection was made (n= 27 sherds) consisting largely of KPR and red slip decorated wares. Mat impressed, TCR, applique and incision are also represented as are four distinctive tripod legs. Three rims were collected. Two are unexpanded and everted, and one is a simple straight rim. The vessel type of most sherds can not be identified fiom the material, however one bowl and one neckless jar are represented.

4.1 1 PMW 610: Mayo Doulo I This site consists of a cut bank exposure on the south side of a bend in Mayo Doulo. It is located approximately 200 m downstream (north) of the point where the water course crosses the southern portion of the Dodo wall. The site is just east of the ethnic Mada ward in Doulo and extends for 40 metres along the bank. At least two occupation levels were observed. The fust beginsjust below the surface and continues to approximately 80 centimetres below surface (bs). A lens of sterile gravelly clay is located below this and a second layer of cultural material is visible to 1.5 metres bs. Surveyors describe the observed ceramic material as mostly TCR and red slip decorated. However, only two'sherds were collected. These were both body sherds, one plain and the second with TCR exterior decoration. In addition to ceramics, a spherical spindle whorl was collected fiom this exposure, although its stratigraphic position was not recorded. Bone, teeth, daub and charcoal were also observed. Although little information can be gleaned fiom the above description, the stratified nature of this site makes it an excellent candidate for hture excavation. 4.12 PMW 611: Mayo Doulo SurCace This site consists of material observed in the Mayo Doulo stream bed just south of the town wall. Only five sherds were collected. All of these have fresh-looking breaks and well- preserved surfaces. No decorative technique dominates; burnishing, TCR, zoned KPR,sgraffito and plain materials are represented. All rim sherds present (n=3) are unexpanded and everted with one clearly from a neckless jar. A fiagmented fired clay tube, a small plastic bead, and three flakes fiom three different lithic raw materials were also collected fiom the stream bed. In contrast to the ceramic materials, the lithics all exhibit patina, but have clear bulbs of percussion and platforms. It would appear that this assemblage does not represent a unified occupation but rather a small sample of materials, both modem and ancient, that were recently washed into the channel.

4.13 PMW 633: Doulo Yagoua Doulo Yagoua is a habitation site consisting of circular hut foundations on terraces located on the inselberg and southeast of the present-day village. The site was surveyed in 1992 and a small surface collection made consisting of 33 potsherds and two grinding stone fragments. Ceramics decorated with KPR and TCR are present as are one example each of punctate and incision. Few vessel forms are identifiable but tripod legs, which are typically associated with jars, are present. Rims are unexpanded and straight, or everted. This may be part of the recently abandoned Mineo/MuktelelPodokwo village described by Lyons (1 992: 293, Figure 6).

4.14 PMW 656: Yawa Tlagama 1 This site was discovered as a result of an oral tradition that names this spot as the location where the chief of Doulo's son was killed as he fled Rabeh's attack. Later, he was washed and buried on the same spot according to the tradition. The site name, Yawa Tlagama, means Water of Tlagama. Tlagama is the title given to one of the most important traditional dignitaries of the Wandala court (Mohammadou 1982: 132). PMW 656 is a surface scatter and cut-bank exposure southwest of the village approximately 400 m away fiom the Dodo wall and immediately east of a dry, ephemeral and unnamed stream.' It is roughly 50 metres long (north to south) and 20 metres wide (east to west), with the cutbank exposure suggesting a deposition depth of approximately 40 cm. The land was under cultivation in 1992 when the site was surveyed. It is not clear whether the stream bed was in its present location at the time of occupation, but no material is present on the west bank of the stream. No surface features are visible, but ceramics were collected fiom this site. These sherds have a high proportion of KPR surface treatment. The cutbank on the east side of the mayo revealed sandy clay to a depth of 80 cm below surface over gravelly sand that continues to approximately 1.5 metres below surface.

4.15 PMW 657: Yawa Tlagama 2 This site consists of multiple surface scatters southwest of the present-day village and 500 m from the town wall. It is 100 m upstream fiom PMW 656 but has no cutbank exposure associated with it. Artifacts, primarily ceramics, are scattered over a 150 x 150 metre area covered in sandy clay. No features are visible but the ceramics are concentrated in numerous areas 4-5 metres wide that may represent habitations. The exterior decoration on these wares is dominated by KPR, red slips and sgdfito. An older Wandala man interviewed near the site said that the area (PMW 656 and 657) was occupied when it became too crowded within the Doulo walls in the nineteenth century (Mahama Adoua 8/8/92). As the site is on good agricultural land, this seems plausible, particularly given that the ceramics are typical of recent occupations in the area.

4.16 PMW 634: Doulo 3 This site is a possible lithic quarry on the west side of the Doulo massif approximately 80 metres above the wall complex of the che&rie (PMW 635). It consists of a rock outcrop and slope washed vein quartz. Possible debitage is scattered over a 1 x 4 metre area. No well- formed flakes, cores or tools are present. Possible shatter was collected, although all examples look natural under the harsh light of the laboratory. Ceramic material was located farther downslope but not recorded or collected. This may be a quarry site as well-formed flakes, tools and ornaments made of the same material are present at PMW 636, PMW 65 1, PMW 652 PMW 635, and PMW 675. This makes it plausible that this site, or another outcrop nearby, was used in the past as a lithic source, even if the material collected at this location is inconclusive.

4.17 Summary The modem village of Doulo is all that remains of the larger town that was the Wandala capital in the seventeenth to nineteenth century. Radiocarbon dates reveal that the area has been inhabited since the very beginning of the Iron Age (Table 4.1 7). Absolute dates also reveal that the area was most intensely occupied in the last few centuries during the Wandala Period. Fifteen sites were surveyed and six excavated at Doulo between 1992 and 1996 by the Projet Maya- Wandala, including habitation, mound, lithic scatter and quarry sites both stratified and single component. Large fragmentary ceramic assemblages make up the bulk of the artifactual material from these sites although iron and stone artifacts, fauna and slag are also common. Differences between the assemblages of these sites were discernable during excavation and in the following chapters the sequences of these sites will be further untangled by examining artifact and attribute distributions. Chapter Five Ceramic Analysis

5.1 Introduction The most plentill artifact class at Doulo is ceramics. Over 100,000 potsherds are present in the excavated and surveyed assemblages. In this chapter, I will make inferences fiom this database to help answer the questions posed about Dodo's past in Chapter One. In particular, the analysis of the ceramics will be instrumental in developing site and intra-site chronologies, and determining the archaeological visibility of the arrival of the Wandala. First, I outline the theoretical orientation of my approach to the ceramics and describe the analysis of the materials fiom the field to the laboratory and beyond. This includes discussion of sampling, the types of information gathered, and methods of statistical analysis. The statistical method chosen for this process is cluster analysis which was used to help identi@ areas of similarity and dissimilarity in the series, and thus shed light on the chron~logicaland socio-economic issues already highlighted. Each excavated unit and site will be discussed in turn in order to expIore the stratigraphic sequence of the ceramics and their spatial distribution. Finally, the sites, both excavated and surveyed, will be compared to recognize trends in the ceramics at Doulo. Some suggestions for fbture research will also be given. Carehl qualitative observationsmade in the field and laboratory indicated that ceramics would be a good indicator of temporal changes and spatial distinctions at DOU~O,and indeed several ceramic variables are suitable for classifying potsherds and identifying trends in the data. Most important among these are surface treatment, rim type, and rim diameter. Using these traits, some breaks in the sequence of individual sites, and evidence of stylistic differences at contemporaneous sites are observable. This confirms the conclusions of other researchers who have examined ceramics fiorn northern Cameroon and found local divergences in what is widely recognized as an extremely homogenous Iron Age sequence (see for examples Bourges 1996; Jones 1985; MacEachem 1998; Wahome 1989; Walde et al. 200 1). In this case, such localized differentiations are likely due to different ethnic or other social units occupying different areas around the inselberg. This conclusion is particularly clear in the historic period where there is also ethnohistoric evidence of contemporaneous occupations by different populations. Likewise, temporal changes in the ceramic sequence are discernable using cluster analysis. In particular, changes are distinguishable between the Early and Late Iron Age and the historic Wandala period. Results of the cluster analysis and comparison with qualitative observations lead to the conclusion that there are additional attributes observed by the archaeologists in the field that are not presently recorded in a standardized fashion, but which hold significant typological information. Some of these traits, such as sherd thickness and vessel shape, are likely sensitive to change.

5.2 Ceramic Analysis The goals of this study are to identify similarities and differences between ceramic assemblages from archaeological sites at Doulo. Once recognized, the significance of homogenous ceramic entities can be interpreted using other forms of evidence including radiocarbon dates, ethnohistoric information and other archaeological data. At the root, the types of groupings that the analysed ceramic assemblage at Doulo reveals fall into two categories: chronological and socio-economic. To use stratigraphy or absolute dating to verifL that the observed differences in a ceramic assemblage represent different time periods is a relatively straightforward endeavour, but to explain contemporaneous differences in assemblages is not nearly so easy. For example, are differing assemblages the result of different site functions, ethnic groups, lineages, economic systems or migration? A variety of approaches have been used to identify social and economic distinctions like ethnicity in the archaeological record, and ethnoarchaeology has played a key role in these discussions. Most of these approaches are contingent on North American concepts of style, or Francophone concepts of techniques et culture or technological style (Arnold 2000: 1 13- 1 14; Stark 1998). The North American style approach, as exemplified by Wiessner (1983) and Wobst (1977), has tended to separate style from function. One exception to this is James A. Sackett's (1982) isochrestic approach to style. He sees style complementing function, and identifies ethnicity with functionally analogous choices. The European school promotes that fhction and style are not that different and cannot be separated (Gosselain 1998: 78). This holistic approach uses the study of operational sequences, or chafnes ophtoires which is a step-by-step observation (or reconstruction) of the sequende of events in artifact manufacture. Advocates of this approach see style in all aspects of artifact production in the fonn of choices made during that process which cannot be explained by functional requirements alone (Dietler and Herbich 1989; Lechtman 1977; Lemonnier 1986). For ceramics, these choices begin with selection of clay source and continue through all steps. of the manufacturing process to decoration and firing. Although this study does not attempt to reconstruct the operational sequences of the ceramics manufactured at Doulo, this approach has been influential in that a method of analysis was sought that could deal with the type of data collected by the PMW and attempt to encompass numerous aspects of technological style. Ethnoarchaeology has played a key role both in developing the concepts of technological style and in understanding the ceramics of northern Cameroon. Gosselain (1 998; 1999) and Smith (2000) have studied the chaines opirafoires of ceramic manufacture among numerous groups of more southerly regions of Cameroon, emphasizing technical variation and identity among potters. David, Sterner and others working with the Mandara Archaeological Project have studied the material culture of various northern Mandara communities (David et al. 1988; Sterner 1989; 1998). MacEachern (1 990; 1992; 1998 ) has also examined material culture and scale of identity in the northeastern part of the mountains and within the Wandala state. Bourges (1 994; 1996) looked at both the archaeology and ethnoarchaeology of the ceramics at Grea. Nick Jones (1985) did the same in the Mora area, while Diane Lyons (1992) studied gender and material culture (primarily architecture) at Doulo. All agree that there are links between material culture and meaningful social boundaries, but these social boundaries are not always directly or exclusively related to ethnicity. This study will rely on the underlying principles of technological style and information from the various ethnoarchaeological projects in the northern Cameroon area to shed light on Doulo's past.

5.2.1 Field Collection and Analysis An estimated 109,861 sherds were collected and recorded fiom the twelve archaeological sites at Doulo that produced pottery. A comprehensive strategy was developed to gather and log this mass of information, not only fiom Doulo but from all sites investigated by the PMW. The first steps in this procedure took place in the field. Potsherds were removed fiom screens, separated fiom other artifact types and bagged. These bags are labelled by site, unit, level and number of bags collected fiom each level (i.e., if two bags were collected fiom PM W 635 Unit 1A Ievel3, they would be label led bag "I of 2", and "2 of 2" respectively). This insured that all bags fiom the same unit, level and feature were analysed together. Normally, one hundred percent of the excavated ceramics were collected for analysis, however there were several exceptions. Where sites were only sdacesurveyed, such as PM W 609, PMW 610, PMW 61 1, PMW 633, PMW 656, and PMW 657. only a small judgmental sample was taken, consisting of sherds that the collector considered diagnostic or interesting. Plain body sherds were typically not collected fiom such sites. The second incidence of deviation from comprehensive collection is in cases where unusually dense concentrations of ceramics were uncovered and transportation of all the material would have been onerous. In such situations, the ceramics were randomly sampled by laying all the sherds out evenly on a mat and hand mixing them. The sherds were then divided in half for a 50% sample (for instance) and the resulting segments numbered (1 and 2). Then a second individual would randomly pick a number and the corresponding ceramics would be collected for analysis. The cases subjected to this technique are listed in Table 5.1. The third circumstance where less than 100Y0 was sampled was when very large quantities of undecorated body sherds were present and field archaeologists elected to weigh these undecorated materials in the field and discard them immediately. This course of action was taken during excavations of layers I and I1 at PMW 636 Unit 1, in 1992. Once the ceramics were brought to the project headquarters in Mora, they were washed, left to dry, and returned to their bags. Ceramic analysts selected all the bags associated with a given provenience and assigned them a lot number for identification purposes. Analysts worked in close proximity to one another and in small groups (usually of 4 or 5) so they could get feedback fiom each other and minimize inter-observer error. The analyst then proceeded to group the sherds from a given lot into subgroups based on similar attributes that are coded and described below. The number of sherds in each grouping and all the shared attributes were recorded. The recording system also allowed for the analyst to make comments about a sherd or a group of sherds. As reconstruction was not part of the research design, this open category allowed the analyst to make some mention of sherds refitting or being fiom the same vessel. Typically, three weights were taken: plain body sherds, burnished body sherds and all other sherds (i-e., decorated and rim sherds). After analysis, the plain sherds were discarded and the remaining portion of the assemblage remains in storage in Maroua, Extreme North, Cameroon. Unique sherds and complete vessels were also recorded separately in a sherd library. This library was brought back to North America dong with the records of the field analysis.

5.2*2 Coding System The coding system was designed to get the maximum amount of information in the minimum amount of time fkom a highly fiagrnented assemblage, where very few complete pots or vessels suitable for reconstruction were recovered. As described above, the sherds were grouped and recorded according to the presence of a number of attributes, and these individual attributes were given standardized numeric codes. This coding system was developed by Dr. MacEachern through experience with the ceramic assemblages in the area during years of archaeological and ethnoarchaeological fieldwork with both the MAP and the PMW. A total of 130 codes are given for seven categories of data. The seven broad categories are: sherd type, vessel type, base type, paste type, rim type, exterior decoration and interior decoration. In addition, rim diameter was estimated. These categories are described, and some of their strengths and limitations in reference to the present analysis are addressed here.

Sherd Type The category sherd type has nine possible choices. These are listed with their numeric code in the table below. This category gives some very basic information about the portion of a vessel represented (i.e., rim, body and base) and the frequency with which certain noncompulsory features such as tripod legs, necks and handles are present. It is potentially useful in determining which portion of a vessel contains certain decorative attributes. However, it can be difficult to specifically identify both base and neck sherds when they are excessively fragmented, thus many are likely misidentified as body sherds. Furthermore, it is quite clear fiom looking at the frequencies of the identified sherd types throughout the Doulo assemblage that the proportions of sherd types identified remain remarkably similar at all sites. Code Sherd Type Code Sherd Type 0 Unidentified 5 Handle 1 Rim 6 Neck 2 Body 7 Full vessel 3 Base 8 Other 4 Tripod Leg

Vessel T'e Vessel type is a category of attributes that broadly defines the morphology/function of a vessel or the vessel fiom which a sherd originates. Seven vessel types are coded in the system (see table below). Basic definitions of these vessel types are defined by Rice (1987: 21 6-2 17). A jar, with or without a neck, is a vessel whose height is greater than its diameter at the widest point. At nearby Grea, jars are primarily used for the storage and transportation of large amounts of liquid, and to store and transport dry goods (Bourges 1996: 86). A bowl contrasts with a jar in that its maximum diameter is equal to or exceeds its height. A bottle can be defined as a small jar having a relatively small mouth and elongated neck. Bottles are typically associated with storage or transport of small amounts of liquid. A dish is basically a particularly shallow bowl where the height of the vessel is very small compared to the diameter (one fifth according to Rice). A lid is meant to cover a vessel, and, in northern Cameroon, is frequently round with a stem-like handle in the centre. It is also interesting to note that, ethnographically, large storage jars are frequently capped with small plain bbwls (Bourges 1996: 87). Necked and neckless jars are the most commonly identified vessel type, followed by bowls, with the other forms only represented in very small numbers. Because it can be very difficult to identify vessel type fiom hgments, only 3.5% of the sherds (n=3800)were assigned to a vessel type. Code Vessel Type Code Vessel Type 0 Unidentified 4 Bowl 1 Nec kless Jar 5 Dish 2 Necked Jar 6 Lid 3 Bottle 7 Other

Base Type Base type describes the morphology of the bottom portion of a vessel, or the area upon which it is designed to sit. Six base types have been included in the coding system (Figure 5.1). Most of these are defmed in a very straightforward manner, but, as I have already mentioned, it is difficult to identify base sherds in a fragmented assemblage. No doubt those that are classified are accurate, but an examination of the data reveals an interesting fact: tripod is by far the most common base type identified. It is unlikely that this is, in reality, the most common base type, as ethnographically they are used only by some Montagnard groups as men's meat cooking vessels and as ceremonial pots. It is far more likely that tripods are being identified because they are highly visible in the archaeological record. In other words, the resulting frequencies are strongly influenced by the visibility of the individual types. This is also true for the 'buried' variety which is a category established for ethnoarchaeological purposes and retained for the possibility of in situ archaeological finds.' However, in practise, buried and pointed types are morphologically indistinguishable.

Paste Type Paste type describes the texture and type of inclusions in the clay, whether the latter occur naturally in the deposits or were added later by the potter. Paste composition can be useful to distinguish clay sources and to study individual styles of manufacture. Seven categories of paste are coded (see table). It is difficult to identify paste type in the field because the analyst must rely on examination of broken surfaces of the sherd with the naked-eye, and must choose between medium and coarse textures if the paste contains organic or quartz inclusions. This is a very subjective procedure. Overall, quartz paste is the most common, even though it is known that none of the present potters in the area add quartz sand to clay as temper (Nicholas David, personal communication 2000). This is not surprising when the geology of the area around Doulo is considered.

Code Paste Type Code Paste Type 0 Unidentified 4 Medium Organic 1 Fine Paste 5 Coarse Organic 2 Medium Quartz 6 Mica 3 Coarse Quartz 7 Multiple >

Rim Type Eighteen different rim types are defined in the PMW classification based on how the clay of the rim is thickened and the direction and degree to which it is everted. These fall into four gross categories (Figure 5.2). The first of these includes unexpanded rims. The subcategories are straight, that is, the rim of the vessel does not angle in .or out; everted (either moderate or extreme) where the rim extends outward from the orifice; inverted, where the rim extends inward at the orifice; carinated; and squared, where the rim is straight and has right angles at both the interior and exterior surfaces. The next two categories are externally expanded, where the rim has been thickened on the outer surface; and internally expanded, where the rim has been thickened on the internal surface. Both of these categories have the same subcategories as the unexpanded class minus the squared variant. The final category is folded, which has only two subcategories. Folding refers to the clay being doubled over on itself at least once. This can be done on the external or internal surface. Rim type is easily discerned in the archaeological material and proves to be quite variable throughout Doulo, although unexpanded types including straight, everted, and inverted variants were common everywhere. Other researchers have found rim morphology to be very sensitive to vessel fhction and ethnicity (Bourges 1996: 1 12; Jones 1985: 10).

Rim Diameter Rim diameter was established by fitting the curve of rim sherds to a diameter - 59 measurement template. In 1992 and 1995, the template used had a maximum diameter of 26 cm while in 1996, the template used measured to 44 cm. Rim diameter data proved to be an extremely variable category at Doulo and was considered important to include in cluster analysis because it can reveal something about vessel size. It is also the only metric variable available for cluster analysis. Vessel size relates to vessel bction and thus sheds light on site function. For example, a number of very large vessels would be indicative of storage facilities. Bourges (1996: 1 11 - 1 12) found some correlation between rim diameter and vessel fimction for ethnographic material at Grea.

Exterior Decorarion Decoration on the exterior of ceramic vessels is ode of the features most employed in archaeological classification. Indeed, in terms of classifying highly fragmentary assemblages, it is also one of the most easily and accurately recordable characteristics used in ceramic analysis. Although the basic suite of ceramic decoration remains the same throughout the Neolithic, Iron Age and historic sequence in northern Cameroon, the frequencies of their usage do change both through time and from site to site. Only a few techniques dominate the decoration of ceramics in the area, but a bewildering amount of variation in their application has led to the development of a rather elaborate list of decorative attributes. The PMW system groups these attributes by decorative technique (identified in the first number of the code) and then identifies individual motifs created using a given technique or combination of techniques (identified in the second number of the code). The basic techniques are described below with the variations and codes given in Table 5.2. Appendix I gives the frequencies of exterior surface treatment at Doulo condensed by technique, along with frequencies of rim types and diameters. These are listed by provenience, giving raw sherd counts for each attribute or group of attributes. The proveniences given in this appendix combine layers found to be contemporaneous by cluster analysis (see sections 5.4 and 5.5). The first grouping of techniques is a catch-all category. The sub-categories in the group all begin with code 1. Plain (10) refers to undecorated sherds. Brushed (1 1) refers to materials that were treated with a brush during the manufacture of the vessel. This is likely more a byproduct of manufacture than a conscious technique of decoration. Most vessels known archaeologically and ethnographically from this region are only decorated in particular zones and some are not decorated at all; thus these two categories are very common and make up one third of the entire Dodo assemblage. Burnishing (12) is also a common technique (roughly 1 1% of the collection) and refers to finishing a surface by rubbing it until it has a fine luster (Figure 5.3). The other techniques in this category are a mismatched lot consisting of rarely identified techniques that do not fit in any other category. They include pinching, coil (where it is possible to discern the coils ofclay used in manufactute), embossing, mat impression, finger impression and corn cob roulette. Twisted cord roulette, or TCR (coded as 2), is the most consistently common technique of decoration used in the region. At Doulo, approximately 49% of the sherds are decorated using some variation on this technique. A roulette is a cylindrical object rolled over the surface of a wet ceramic vessel to create a pattern (Figure 5.4). It can be quickly executed on a large surface areas and applies texture at the same time. A twisted cord roulette is generally made from a round sectioned fibre twisted back on itself to form a cord (Soper 1985: 35). TCR can appear alone and cover most of the surface of a vessel or it can appear with applique, incision or within restricted areas (i.e., zones) on a vessel. It can also vary in its actual execution. This variation can be in the orientation of the roulette, or depend on whether the roulette was actually rolled or simply impressed in the wet clay. The coding system does not allow the analyst to specify some other aspects of the roulette, such as the thickness of the roulette or the degree of precision used to accomplish the design. Such aspects make a big difference in the appearance of the finished product. For example, very fine TCR can look a lot like comb stamp ing . Knotted plait roulette, or KPR, (coded as 3) is the third decorative technique. Although common, and almost on par with TCR in some occupations at Doulo, it is almost completely absent fiom PMW 636 dating to the Early Iron Age. A knotted plait roulette is produced when a strip of fibre is knotted or braided (Soper 1985: 35-38). Gronenborn and Magnavita (2000: 57) point out that this same technique is referred to by numkrous terms including knotted strip roulette by Soper, twisted strip roulette by the Frankfort school, and Nodular Roulette by Conah (1981). In northern Cameroon, KPR usually results in a pattern of regular raised bumps (Figure 5.3). Like TCR, it leaves a roughened texture on a vessel and may have the practical application of giving the surface of a vessel additional grip for carrying. Although the surface treatment resulting fiom a knotted plait roulette is visually distinct from TCR. its application to vessels occurs in similar variations and the coding system has similar limitations. Comb decoration (coded as 4) is a rare technique at Doulo appearing on less than 1% of sherds (Figure 5.5 a and 6). Combs are tools with multiple points used to impress multiple punctations by stamping or rocking. Alternatively, the comb can be dragged across a wet clay surface to create multiple parallel incisions (Rice 1987: L 46). The variation in comb decoration recorded here includes the relative size of the comb used; the combination of comb stamping over black ware known as Mafa (named for the Montagnard group who produce characteristic pots using this motif); the strategy of dragging the comb across the wet clay; angIing the stamp in relation to the rim; doing a combination of stamping qnd dragging; or zoning the comb stamping, whether within incised lines or without accompanying incision; and, finally, wavy line. This technique is at its most common at earlier occupations although it is always relatively rare. Applique (coded as 5) refers to adding shaped pieces of clay to the surface of a vessel (Rice 1987: 148). In the PMW coding system, these appliqueed bands or panels can, in turn, hold decorations including motifs fiom other techniques. Buttons, or small rounded additions, were among the most common appliqui elements. Applique is present on less than 1% of sherds recovered fiom Doulo (Figure 5.6). Incision and grooving are coded as 6. Incision involves cutting lines with a v-shaped profile into the surface of the clay prior to firing. Grooving differs only in that the resulting cross section is u-shaped. Incised or grooved lines can appear alone or in groups, randomly or in parallel rows, or in a variety of patterns like chevron, cross-hatched or zigzag (Figure 5.56 and d). Fingernails and fingers can also be used to make incisions and grooves. Incisions and grooves unaccompanied by other forms of decoration appear on approximately 1% of sherds at Doulo. Punctate (coded as 7) is when a sharp object with only one point is punched into the wet clay (Rice 1987: 145). This is not a very common technique, occurring at Dodo on less than 1% of potsherds recorded (Figure 5.5 c). Slipping and painting are coded as 8 (Figure 5.7). Red and black are the only two coloun that occur with any regularity. Both black and red slips with and without burnishing are common. SgrafZto, as the term is used here, refers to incision or scratching through a slip (usually red) and without glazing, as is the more common use for the term (Rice 1987: 146). Occasional painted designs are also present. Altogether this category makes up just over 5% of the Doulo assemblage, most of that consisting of red slipped and red slipped and burnished wares. The find group (9) of codes refers not to a unified*technique, but is meant to capture some of the more common complex combinations of motifs. This grouping does not represent an exhaustive list of the combinations of motifs present in the Doulo assemblage. However, it is possible for the analyst to specify a second exterior decorative attribute in the database in cases where multiple motifs are present on a sherd and where that combination is not present in category 9. interior Decoration Decoration on the inside surface of the vessel is recorded in this category. The same codes are used as for exterior decoration, however, there is much less variation actually present. As is to be expected, most pots are only decorated on the exterior surface either for reasons of accessibility (i.e., the potter can not easily reach inside a vessel with a narrow orifice to decorate the interior) or because that part of the vessel is not easily seen, and therefore not a tembly high priority location for ornamental additions. Indeed, the most common decorative techniques recorded on the inside are plain or brushed (79%), burnished ( 14%), and slipped and burnished (6%). This is not surprising as plain and brushed are essentially a lack of interior decoration and burnishing and slipping are techniques that give the finished surface properties that retard liquid penetration (Rice 1987: 232). The impressed and rouletting techniques so common on the exterior surfaces of pots are impractical for the interior in that the roughened surfaces they produce are difficult to clean.

5.3 Statistical Analysis My first task in andysing the ceramics fiom Doulo was to decide how best to extract spatial and temporal trends from the collected data. The problem faced is basically one of classification. The same classification questions had been faced by Jones (1985), Wahome (1989) and Bourges (1 996) in the northern Mandara region on both archaeological and ethnoarchaeological material. Both Jones and Bourges had some success at discerning social distinctions based on ceramic assemblages using ciuster analysis. Cluster analysis is an appropriate tool at Doulo as well, because the same variety ofproblem of classification is posed in order to distinguish socio-cultural changes in space and time visible in the ceramic assemblage. Initially, it was also hoped that using similar methods would make the results easily comparable with Bourges's results fiom Grea. Qualitative observation of the assemblage made it clear that there are observable changes in the distributions of some attributes, while others are less sensitive.

5.3.1 Chrer Analysis Cluster analysis is also known as numerical taxonomy, pattern analysis and typing (Lorr 1983: 1). A very simple description of cluster analysis is that its fhction is to group similar objects together. As it is a tool of classification, it is descriptive in nature (Kaufman and Rousseeuw 1990: 37). It has been used in the social sciences and elsewhere (particularly biology) to develop typologies, generate hypotheses, and test hypotheses by attempting to verify the validity of types generated by other means (Aldenderfer and Blashfield 1984: 9). There are two basic types of cluster analysis: partitioning and hierarchical methods. The former requires that the researcher name the number of clusters for the output. This is particularly useful when a large number of cases (or objects) are being classified (Norusis 1992), but decreases the possibility of unsuspected groupings being discovered. Discovery of such unsuspected clusters is one of the goals of the present analysis. It was hoped that clustering would reveal more complex groupings based on numerous traits than are discernible qualitatively or by analysing a single trait (although qualitative observations will not be abandoned completely in the subsequent interpretation). Hierarchical clustering methods fulfill just these criteria. Hierarchical methods can be agglomerative or divisive. Agglomerative methods work on the principle that all the cases start as individual objects and are gradually grouped into hierarchical clusters until they form one large group. Divisive groups work in the opposite direction, starting as one large group and separating the cases until they are all individual units. Both methods can generate results in the form of a dendrogram illustrating the hierarchical relationship of the members of the clusters and their relative distance fiom one another. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering is customarily used in the social sciences and is the variety used in the present study. A disadvantage of agglomerative methods is that as the tree is built, it does not allow for reallocation of poorly-partitioned groups. This means that once a case has been grouped, it cannot be moved to a different cluster even if it proves to be an outlier in terms of the final membership of the cluster. To prepare the data for clustering, errors had to be removed from the database and missing data fixed. In most cases, no counts were recorded'for plain body sherds as these were the most numerous sherd type and only weights were taken to save time. Estimates were made for these missing frequencies based on the fragmentation index (weight in kilograms /number of sherds) using the known number and weight of decorated sherds fiom the same unit and level. The next problem was the structure of the data itself. The original database is set up in such a manner that it is possible to see how many sherds fiom a given provenience share the same group of attributes. Cluster analysis, however, does not look at covariance of attributes at the sherd level but at fiequencies of attributes per case. In this situation, a case is an excavated arbitrary level (or feature) of a given archaeological unit. Thus cross tabulations had to be run on the data for the different variables (rim type, exterior decoration etc.) to extract the frequency of each attribute per case. This resulted in a very large table with 390 cases and approximately 300 attributes. Plain and brushed categories were combined into one group as these are both non-decorative attributes. Rim diameter categories were also reduced in number. Because the rim-diameter templates used were at 2 cm intervals, and most analysts estimated to this interval, a basic 2 cm interval was used for clustering with two exceptions. Because different rim-diameter templates were used in different years of excavation, it was necessary to combine the larger diameters into a category for rims with diameter of 26 cm or more. At the other end of the scale, very few small diameters were recorded (~36)so a larger grouping of -(5 cm was established. Finally, cases with a very small sample size (less than 25 sherds) were removed. The next step in the process was selecting the variables to be used for clustering. The coding system used in the field was not constructed with cluster analysis in mind, and thus it can hardly be expected that all the variables recorded are going to be helpful for discovering chronological and social boundaries. It is also important that the data used for clustering be accurate. Furthennore, since there are so many attributes recorded, it is important that the most sensitive among them be utilized in the analysis, because the ultimate goal of multivariate statistical analysis is to get the best solution using the fewest variables (Tabachnik and Fidell 1996). To fulfill these criteria, numerous variables were eliminated. For the purposes of cluster analysis, sherd type is of limited use. It specifies the portion of a vessel represented but gives little information about morphological variation. Vessel type was also deemed to be of limited use to spatial and temporal analysis because the frequencies of those few sherds that are identified change very little throughout the assemblage. Although vessel morphology is an explicit aspect of this category, it is far too general to be helpfbl in identifying stylistic differences within these ever-present basic types. Attributes of base type were dropped fiom the cluster analysis because bases themselves are difficult to identi@ and thus the frequencies are likely not proportionally representative of actual vessels in the assemblage. Furthermore, the frequencies do not change significantly throughout the assemblage. Paste type was eliminated because of its extremely subjective nature. Interior decoration was discarded because most sherds have either plain interiors or the interior decoration is a direct reflection of the exterior decoration and thus the information becomes largely redundant. For example, 1 1% of sherds have burnished exteriors and approximately 14% have burnished interiors. Likewise, just over 5% of sherds have slipped exteriors and roughly 6% percent have slipped interiors. The slightly higher percentage of slipped and burnished sherds on the interior surface of vessels can be explained by their liquid retaining qualities making them desirable for this purpose. A cross tabulation of exterior versus interior decoration demonstrates that it is, in fact, common for sherds with interior decoration to have the same technique as the exterior (see Appendix II). For cluster analysis, highly correlated variables should be avoided as they will have the affect of giving greater weight to the correlated variables (Aldenderfer and Blashfield 1984: 21). This leaves exterior decoration, rim type and rim diameter as the variables for clustering. Specifically, decoration and rim morphology have both been linked in this region to temporal and ethnic differences in the populations that used the ceramics (Jones 1985; Bourges 1996). For both of these variables, it is possible to see qualitatively that the frequencies of these attributes vary at Doulo. Simple inspection shows that rim diameter varies, although the pattern is not as consistent or as easy to interpret as rim type and decoration. With the variables chosen, the next step was to conduct the tests. The data was standardized to a magnitude of 1 by case so that differences in sample size would be minimized in clustering. In this way, the cluster analysis will group together cases with similar proportions of the same attributes. Using SPSS version 8.0, hierarchical agglomerativeclustering was done by applying Ward's test to measure similarity and a chi-&are test to create links between clusters. The program creates a similarity matrix between possible pairs of cases and then searches for the closest cases for merger. It continues to do so until all cases have been merged. Ward's method calculates the mean for each variable6 then, for each case, the squared Euclidean distance to the cluster mean is calculated and these are summed for each case. The two clusters having the smallest increase are merged at each level (Norusis 1992: 98). The resulting clusters are groups of cases that are similar to one other. Experimentation with the order in which cases were entered into SPSS revealed that this had little to no impact on the resulting dendrograms.

5.4 Results Cluster analyses were run on individual excavated units, groups of units from the same site, and between sites. This elucidated information on the stratigraphy of individual units, the relationship between units within sites, and the relationship between sites. The results of the cluster analysis are laid out below with cohesive ceramic clusters discussed. The dendrograms

'Variables in SPSS are the individual codes from the coding system and should not be confused with the term variable in ceramic typology; the latter comprise a number of attributes, the category types of the present analysis. generated by SPSS reveal how all the cases are clustered, with vertical lines showing how clusters are joined together. The distance between these clusters is readable by looking at the scale above these vertical lines at the top of the tree. The largest grouping includes all cases and is always arbitrarily scaled at 25, as it is the group that combines the most dissimilar clusters. This scale can also be used to see the relative degree of similarity and dissimilarity in lower level clusters. The left column labels the cases by provenience and the second column gives the case number, or order in which the cases were listed in the SPSS database prior to clustering. There is no rule in cluster analysis that establishes which clusters are the most meaningful, but, as the goal of this analysis is to identi@ temporal and spatial trends, certain types of groupings are more telling than others. Clusters that demonstrate stratigraphic trends, for example, are useful for identifLingchanges in the ceramic sequence through time. Clusters that group horizontally separated cases together are offering information about similarities between units or sites. The reader must remember that cluster membership alone does not define spatial or temporal finity but only similarity in the attributes used for classification. Other information such as stratigraphic relationship or radiocarbon dates must be used to interpret meaning in the clusters. First, the excavated sites will be examined, then the surveyed sites that were not systematically collected will be discussed in terms of their diagnostic materials.

5.4.1 Exca vuted Sites 5.4.1.1 PMW 636 Unit 1 Clusters for PMW 636 Unit 1 are not veql well defined in terms of horizontal or vertical trends (Figure 5.8). This may reflect a problem in the estimation of plain body sherds based on the fiagmentation index, as Unit 1 is the only unit at Doulo where all sherds were not collected or randomly sampled, and this may have introduced a unique source of error. In fact, the only stratigraphically well-defined cluster is one that groups together several cases that have particularly low levels of undecorated sherds (typically between 528%) and very high quantities of TCR (usually more than 75%). This trend in decoration is contrary to the descriptions given by excavators. These cases also have a fairly high degree of variation in rim type and diameter with many unexpanded and internally expanded types in particular. Many of these cases also have extremely large sample sizes ( > 1000 sherds). Members of this cluster are all associated with layers I and II that correspond to the dark brown and ashy grey soil in the top 50 cm of the unit. In general, TCR and undecorated sherds dominate the assemblage as elsewhere, except that TCR falls off in the lower levels of the unit. Othexwise, comb stamping is more consistently present here than elsewhere, although still in very low fkequencies (e%),and incision fkequenciesincrease towards the bottom of the unit. In contrast, KPR is conspicuously nearly absent and there is discernibly less slipping (typically less than 2%) and applique. Although there is more variation in rim types in some of the upper levels of the unit, generally here, as elsewhere, unexpanded varieties are most abundant. Rim diameter is difficult to interpret but, similar to rim type, there may be a tendency towards more variation in the upper levels. In summary, there are no clear stratigraphic trends revealed by the cluster analysis despite the observations made by the excavators. As a whole, this unit associated with the Early Iron Age radiocarbon dates has a high percentage of undecorated and TCR decorated material and rim types are varied.

5.4.1.2 PMW 636 Unit 2 Unit 2 is generally quite uniform and does not form neat chronological clusters (Figure 5.9). The lower levels of this unit were not included in the cluster analysis because of small sample size (levels 7-9). Between 10.43% of the assemblage is undecorated and TCR makes up 36-70% of the assemblage. Like Unit 1, comb stamping and incision are consistently present with very small quantities of red slipped, punctate and applique. There are no KPR-decorated or black slipped wares. Rim types are also quite variable, although unexpanded types dominate. Rim diameters vary a great deal but it is likely that levels 5 and 6 cluster together closely because neither one have identified rim diameters and only one identified rim type each (both unexpanded and straight). Elsewhere, there is an unusually high frequency of rim diameters in the 24-25 centimetre range. These make up nearly 30% of the identified rim diameters for the unit which is more than any other category of rim diameter, including the 26 cm plus grouping that is most common almost everywhere else at Dodo. 5.4.1.3 PlMW 636 Unit 3 All levels in Unit 3 were clustered except the lowest level (level 8) which has a very small sample size (n=4). As elsewhere in this site, there is little vertically significant clustering (Figure 5.1 0). The general character of the unit as a whole is different fiom other assemblages seen to date. Undecorated materials dominate strongly (generally between 47- 71% of the assemblage) with TCR-decorated sherds making up a modest 9-29% of the sherds. Red and black slipped materials are also more numerous than in PMW 636 Units 1 and 2. Burnished wares are less than in other parts of the site and KPR,comb stamping, applique, punctate and incision are all present, though only in small quantities. Rim diameters are also varied, and, as elsewhere, unexpanded rims are most common. The only internally expanded rims are straight, although these are very few in number, and are only present in the lower levels (5-6). In conclusion, Unit 3 appears to be distinct fiom the previously examined units at this site, although the unit as a whole maintains a relatively homogenous assemblage as elsewhere at PMW 636.

5.4.1.4 PMW 636 Unit 4 All twelve excavated levels in this unit are included in the cluster analysis (Figure 5.1 1). Only weak chronological clusters are present, but it does seem that the lower levels ( 10- 12) are different fiom those above, although this may be due to relatively small sample sizes near the bottom of the unit (as smaller samples tend to demonstiate less variation). Basically, the amount of undecorated ceramics varies fiom 30-75%in the upper levels, while TCR makes up fiom 4-5894 of each case. There are a few examples of KPR in the upper levels. In the lower levels, only 13-25% is undecorated and fiequencies of TCR are unusually low (2- 13%). At the same time, burnished materials are more numerous (3 7%-60%), and comb stamped and slipped wares become more common in the lowest three levels. Other techniques are represented in characteristically insignificant frequencies. Throughout the unit, rim types are varied but dominated by unexpanded types. Very few rim diameters were recorded, but no diameters greater than 21 centimetres were observed. It appears that Unit 4 has more in common with Unit 3 than other areas at this site by having little TCR and large amounts of undecorated material. 5.4.1.5 P'636Uniz 5 Again, cluster analysis offers little in the way of correspondence to stratigraphy, meaning there is little variation within the unit (Figure 5.12). The assemblage of this unit offers more plain sherds than decorated wares with burnished and TCR 'decorated sherds each representing between 7 -30% of the assemblage. This is similar to the adjacent Unit 3. Ali other techniques of decoration are present in low frequencies, although there is proportionately more black slipped ware here than elsewhere. The rim type distribution is the same as elsewhere in this site, and, again, there is no easily discernible pattern in the rim diameters.

Cluster analysis of all units in this site indicates that, indeed, there is not a great deal of clear differentiation between units at PMW 636 (Figure 5.13). Three clusters do shed some light on the relationships between the units. One cluster largely consists of the upper levels of Unit 1, some of the upper levels of Unit 2 and shovel tests 4 and 6 (identified as 636/4/99 and 636/6/99 in the dendrograms). The second cluster is very entangled, with the remaining cases fkom Units I and 2 as well as one case fiom Unit 3, and numerous cases from Units 4 and 5. The final cluster consists of the remaining cases fiom Units 4 and 5, one case fiom Unit 1, and most cases fiom Unit 3. This suggests that, in general, the upper levels of Units I and 2 are closely related, and Units 3, 4, and 5 are also more closely related to each other than to the remaining units in the site. However, the problem with estimated frequencies of undecorated materid in Unit 1 limits the certainty of this interpretation. Furthermore, the degree of cross- over between units in the second cluster leaves little doubt that this is a relatively homogenous collection. This last factor is consistent with slope wash being a mixing agent at the site. The general lack of structural remains and other cultural features can also be explained in this way, although it is also possible that at the time this site was occupied, in the very Early Iron Age, there were few permanent structures, much like Neolithic components at Daima (Cornah 198 1) and elsewhere. If Units 3,4, and 5 are more closely related to one another, it is also possible that they represent an earlier occupation than Units 1 and 2. This would be consistent with the lower levels of TCR decorated sherds and the corresponding *greater quantities of undecorated ceramics associated with non-roulette decorative techniques. Such techniques, like comb stamping, are more labour intensive and are typically applied to less surface area, leaving more of the pot undecorated. As the radiocarbon dates fiom Unit 1 are already early for the Iron Age in the southern Chad Basin and there are slag and other iron artifacts found in all the units at PMW 636, there is no reason to believe that these units would be substantially earlier than the radiocarbon dates fiom Unit I. However, the assemblage has similarities to Neolithic sites discussed in Chapter Three, fivthering the interpretation of this site as a transitional NeolithicAron Age site. The ceramics fiom this site are not only different in decoration from other sites, but it would seem that sherds are also typically thinner and finer than elsewhere at Doulo. This is also a hallmark ofWeolithic assemblages in the southern Chad Basin. Therefore, it is likely that PMW 636 represents an earlier occupation at Doulo than areas to the west and north of the inselberg.

5.4.1.7 PMW 652 Both shallow units fiom this site were clustered at the same time because so very few cases are present (Figure 5.14). Poor preservation hampers clustering here in that decorations and rims were both hard to identify. Given this, in combination with the small number of cases and relatively small sample sizes within these cases, it is difficult to evaluate the significance of the cluster analysis. It would seem that the two cases in Unit 1 included in the cluster analysis are quite similar and cluster with the bottom level of Unit 2. This cluster is likely formed based on there being very low frequencies of identifiable TCR (<4%). Furthermore, a lack of identifiable rim sherds in these cases makes the rim type and rim diameter categories of little use. The remaining cases in Unit 2 form a relatively tight cluster, with level 3 being an outlier. Similar to the first, this second cluster has very high fiequencies of undecorated sherds (>70%). TCR is present in levels similar to Unit 3 in PMW 636 (20-30%). All other decorative techniques are present in very small amounts in both units. The rim types in the second unit are dominated by unexpanded varieties, especially straight ones, but variations on externally and internally expanded rims are also represented. Likewise, the recorded rim diameters are spread fiom relatively small vessels to larger ones. Despite the poor preservation, high levels of undecorated material, low levels of TCR and the reportedly thin nature of these ceramics make this site more similar to PMW 636 than to other sites excavated around the inselberg. As PM W 652 is located downslope of PM W 636, it increases the chance that slope wash has played a role iu its formation. Regardless, the ceramic assemblage of PMW 652 is consistent with a transitional NeolithicEarly Iron Age occupation.

5.4.1.8 PMW 631 Unit 1 (North and South) Two clusters can be recognized in the dendrogram based on cases in Unit 1 (Figure 5.15). The lowest excavated levels (6 and 7) were not included in the cluster analysis due to their having very low sherd counts, and Unit 1s level 3 is missing from the database. The remaining eleven cases were segregated along stratigraphic lines. Surface to level 3 formed one cluster and levels 4 and 5 formed another. This first cluster largely corresponds to the artifact- dense dark soil zone at the top of the pit. There is little vertical or horizontal ordering within this cluster which is consistent with there being mixing due to farming activities. This cluster is characterized by a very low amount of variation in ceramic decoration with very high rates of TCR decorated sherds and very low levels of other techniques. No KPR is present at all. There is also a lot of variation in rim type. although unexpanded and internally expanded types are both common. Rim diameter distributions tend toward the larger ranks. In the second cluster, there is a horizontal clustering with levels 4 fiom the northern and southern portions of the unit more closely linked with the respective fifth levels fiom the same area. This second cluster has a more varied assemblage with high fiequencies of burnished sherds and noticeably more incision than in the upper levels. TCR has far lower fiequencies here, and there are more red and black slipped sherds. There are very few measurable rim sherds and those that are present are rather small. Most rim types are unexpanded varieties. This cluster corresponds to the yellow sandy matrix. Undecorated sherds are in very low amounts throughout this unit, generally representing less than 10% of the assemblage. Overall, the high frequency of TCR decorated sherds along with the limited stone technology at this site suggest a Late Iron Age occupation. 5.4.1.9 PW631 Unit 1 (East and West) This unit is adjacent to Unit IN/S and has a very similar ceramic assemblage. Overall, there are not very strong stratigraphic clusters in this unit and the top three levels (hoe zone) were not analysed (Figure 5.16). In the western portion of the unit, levels 4 and 5 cluster together strongly and are at least partially associated with the darker upper layer of soil. The same levels in the eastern portion of the unit also cluster together, although these eastern levels appear to be quite distinctive fiom their western counterparts and are part of the burial fill. The lower levels of the eastern unit that are also directly associated with the burial only cluster relatively weakly with each other and the upper portion of the eastern unit. The basic east- west separation is almost certainly due to the eastern portion being associated with the burial. The ceramics in the western part of the unit are distinct in that TCR dominates the ceramics very strongly (93-95 % of the assemblage). Thete is also noticeably less burnished sherd than to the east. Rims are dominated by unexpanded straight and moderately everted varieties, and straight internally expanded varieties. There is also a very high rate of vessels with rim diameters greater than 26 cm. The same levels in the eastern half of the unit, and above the burial, still contain high frequencies of TCR but this technique only makes up about 78% of the assemblage. There is more variation in rim types in general and noticeably more intemally expanded inverted sherds in particular. There are also some rather small vessels in this part of the unit (6-7 cm diameter). The lower levels in the east that are directly associated with the burial are all rather unique entities but they share the common trend of being 55.66% TCR decorated and generally having more incision and grooving than elsewhere in the unit. There is a high frequency of both unexpanded moderately everted rims and intemally expanded inverted rims. Finally, each level has a distinctive distribution of rim diameters, although larger rims still strongly dominate. Like Unit INS, there is a rather low frequency of plain and brushed sherds, and KPR is virtually absent.

5.4. I. I0 PlMW 631 Unit 2 Clustering for this unit illustrates some detectable change through time (Figure 5.17). Generally, the upper five levels form a cluster with levels 8 and 10; levels 6 and 7 form a very separate and distinct cluster; and levels 9 and 1 1-1 3 form a final cluster that is closer in ceramic content to the upper levels than to levels 6 and 7. The upper levels are characterized by rather high frequencies of TCR decorated sherds and a great variety of rim types, including many unexpanded varieties, and internally expanded straight and inverted types. In terms of rim diameter, there is a great deal of variation with very large rim diameters strongly prevailing yet again. The mid levels (6 and 7) have very particular characteristics. These levels contain vast amounts of red slipped (40-54% of total) and black slipped (1 3-1 8%) material compared to other areas of Doulo. Rim types are exclusively unexpande$ with a high frequency of inverted examples among them. The lower levels cluster together based on having more plain, brushed and burnished sherds and proportionately less TCR. These also have mostly unexpanded everted rims. This cluster is also distinctive because it has no members in the 26 cm plus rim diameter category; yet it is in a unit and site that generally has very high frequencies of material in this range. The overall assemblage of this unit is also consistent with a Late Iron Age date. The sherds from the clusters representing the top seven levels of the unit (including the concentration of slipped material) were well-preserved with very high sherd densities. It is possible that these upper levels represent a rather quick accumulation of materials. The lower levels are more eroded and thus the increase in plain material may actually represent an increase in difficulty of discerning decoration on the eroded material. But this sharp contrast in preservation with the upper levels may very well indicate a separate occupation with the intervening slipped wares representing some discrete event at the beginning of the more recent phase. The amount of time between these occupations remains unclear. This interpretation is also supported by the absence of charcoal in the upper levels and its relative abundance in the lower levels, suggesting a different use or different formation processes. Levels 8 and 10 have the highest number of sherds in the lower eroded levels and their clustering with the upper levels is likely a reflection of their greater sample size.

5.4.1.11 PMW 631 Unit 3 Despite rather distinctive stratigraphy, cluster analysis revealed only weak vertical segregation in this unit (Figure 5.18). Throughout the unit, the assemblage is relatively homogenous with brushed and plain sherds making up a much greater portion of the assemblage than elsewhere in PMW 63 1 (between 34078%). Burnished sherds are also well represented. In Unit 3, TCR and KPR represent roughly equal portions of sherds. More applique, and red and black slipped wares are present. Mat impression is also present in small quantities in the upper levels. There is a great deal of variation in both rim type and diameter throughout this unit although unexpanded and internally expanded types dominate the assemblage. Over one third of the rims in this unit are equal to or greater than 26 centimetres in diameter, but this is actually significantly less than in other areas at this site where half or more of the rims are in this size category. It is evident that this unit is very distinctive from the other units at this site. It is known to have been recently occupied by members of the Mum Logone lineage.

5.4.1. I2 PlMW 631 Site Summary When all cases fiom PMW 631 are clustered at the same time, it reveals two large agglomerates (Figure 5.19). The fust one consists of the-upper levels of Unit lN/S, Unit 1 EN,and Unit 2. The second cluster consists ofunit 3 and the lower levels of Unit lN/S. This first cluster illustrates that the PMW 63 1 units located below the inselberg are generally very similar to one another, having high percentages of TCR decorated sherds and many vessels with rim diameters greater than 26 cm. The second cluster verifies the degree of separation between Unit 3 and the rest of the units fiom PMW 63 1 . The lower levels of Uni t 1N/S are also included with this second cluster. This is likely due to the high levels of burnished and slipped material, and smaller rim diameters in these levels. Whatever the similarities between this portion of Unit 1 and Unit 3, there is one very visible difference which is the presence of KPR motifs in Unit 3 and their absence in the lower part of Unit 1. Due to this difference, and the stratigraphic and ethnohistoric information, I do not believe that the clustering of Unit lN/S levels 4-5 with Unit 3 is the result of contemporaneous occupation. The area below the inselberg has an assemblage that is much more consistent with an Iron Age assemblage. The lack ofcomb decorated sherds, lower frequencies of undecorated sherds and other artifactual elements of the assemblage discussed in Chapters Four and Six generally point to a time fbrther removed fiom the Neolithic than PMW 636. In contrast, the distinctive assemblage of Unit 3 is consistent with a recent period where KPR is common. This is compatible with the ethnohistoric information that says the area was occupied into the middle of the twentieth century.

5.4.1.13 PW635 Unit 1 As a result of the excavations having been interrupted, and one case having a very small sample size (635 Unit 1S, surface), only six cases were clustered from this unit (Figure 5.20). From such a small sample, it is difficult to interpret clusters as having a great deal of chronological or spatial meaning. The assemblage basically contains relatively high quantities of undecorated sherds with relatively equal portions of TCR and KPR. Burnished and slipped materials are also represented, with comb stamping, appli-que, incision and punctate all very rare. All rim types identified are unexpanded with straight, moderately everted and inverted types among those present. Like elsewhere, it is difficult to identify patterns in rim diameter. The lowest level to be clustered (Unit 1S level 3) does show some signs of deviating fiom the pattern identified here, having very low frequencies of undecorated sherds, but, as this case has a rather smair sample size (n=67), and there are no Werlower levels with which to compare, it is difficult to say if this represents a significant change in the ceramic assemblage through time. The ceramic assemblage of this unit is, overall, within the range of variation of many occupations associated with the historic era.

5.4.1. I4 PMW 635 Unit 2 PMW 635 Unit 2 forms two clusters along generally vertical (or chronological) lines (Figure 5.2 1). The first cluster contains most cases fiom the surface to level 13 of the unit. The second cluster contains most of the cases beneath this point, making a nice chronological break in the stratigraphy. There are, however, several exceptions. Unit 2A levels 17,18 and 22; and Unit 2B levels 19,22 and 25 cluster with the upper levels largely due to having small sample sizes. This upper cluster is characterized by 25% or less burnished sherds, while undecorated sherds are equal to or more numerous than TCR These two categories combined make up the majority of the overall assemblage. KPR varies fiom >1 - 1 1% of the assemblage, red and black slipped wares are a bit higher than average for Doulo and very small amounts of all other techniques are recorded. Rim types are extremely variable with unexpanded rims most common. Again, it is very difficult to see patterns in rim diameter but smaller diameters are still relatively rare. This first cluster corresponds to the grey-brown sandy upper layers of the unit and likely represents several domestic occupations with multiple floors and ashy pits identified. In the lower part of the unit, the vertical distribution of the second cluster is complicated by a number of cases being eliminated due to small sample size or missing data. From the top half of the unit, Unit 2B levels 4 and 10; and Unit 2A level 5 and level 5 Feature 3 cluster with the lower part of the unit. Basically this second cluster differs fiom that above by having significantly less undecorated materiai (as%),a greater proportion of TCR decorated sherds (50-90%), less KPR and red slipped varieties, and a smaller proportion of rims with diameters greater than or equal to 26 cm (24% of all rims in Cluster I versus 15% in Cluster 11). Other than the burial found in level 23, the nature of the occupation associated with these lower levels is not as easily defined since there are few features or changes in stratigraphy. The cluster analysis of PMW 635 Unit 2 thus supports the interpretation of the stratigraphic and radiocarbon dates given in Chapter Four. Cluster I represents a Wandala Period occupation and Cluster U is associated with a Late Iron Age Period, or Maya occupation.

5-4.1.15 PMW 635 Unit 3 Like Unit 2, Unit 3 forms two clusters that correspond to a stratigraphic break (Figure 5.22). The first of these clusters contains almost all the cases fkom the surface to level 18 with only Unit 3A level 8 and 3B level 12 clustering with the lower levels. The cases represented in this cluster roughly correspond to layers I-III, where features consisting of ceramic, ash and bone concentrations were found. The second cluster consists of all the cases with sufficient sample size to be included in the cluster analysis below level 18 (1 80 cm bd). The descriptions of these clusters are the same as that of the corresponding clusters in Unit 2 with an increase in TCR (50-90%) and subsequent decrease in other decorative forms, modest amounts of undecorated sherds (QS%) and a decrease in large rim diameters marking the transition fiom cluster I to cluster 11. The cases that are associated with Feature 6, the possible granary pit, cluster with the earlier levels which is the opposite of that which would be expected if the pit was allowed to refill naturally &er reiatively recent use. One explanation for this would be that these cases represent material in the floor of the pit and ceramics that fell out of the walls while the granary was empty. The chronological association of the clusters is also expected to be similar to those of Unit 2.

5.4.2.16 PlMW 635 Site Summary PMW 635 maintains two defined clusters when all three units are run in the same cluster analysis (Figure 5.23a and b). As would be expected, Unit 1 groups with Cluster I from Units 2 and 3. There are three exceptions that cluster with the opposite grouping to the unit specific clusters (Unit 3B level 20 feature 6; and Unit 2A level I and level 17). Some crossover like this is to be expected when initial clustering between cases finds greater similarity between members of different units. It would also seem that this first cluster is associated with features consisting of pottery concentrations, ash, floor lens and pits. The second cluster in the lower portion of Units 2 and 3 has far less evidence of these types of structures. The most likely explanation of this distribution is that Cluster I represents Wandala occupations commencing when She established his compound on this site in the seventeenth century, possibly continuing until the end of the nineteenth century, when Rabeh's attack destroyed most of the city. Cluster II would include the terminal Maya occupation at Doulo dating back into the Late Iron Age. This interpretation best explains the distinctive change in the ceramic assemblage and the overlap of the radiocarbon dates associated with the earliest levels of Cluster 1 (300+/-70BP) and Cluster I1 (330+/-80 BP) respectively.

5.4.2.1 7 PMW678 Unit I PMW 678 failed to cluster vertically or horizontally (Figure 5.24). The assemblage of this unit is dominated by undecorated material throughout the sequence. TCR decorated sherds are the next most common variety, generally making up between 10-35% of each case. Frequencies of burnished sherds vary greatly between 3020%. Red and black slips are relatively common, and KPR is consistently present in small quantities (generally less than 5%), but in many cases in the upper levels it is more common (up to 32%). All the other decorative techniques are present quite consistently in this site, even if in low frequencies. Rim types are very diversely represented although most have very low frequencies beyond the unexpanded straight and moderately everted categories. Folded types are well represented in lower levels. Rim diameter, as usual, is difficult to interpret but it does seem that there is more diversity in the lower levels. Overall, the assemblage is most similar to other Wandala Period occupations which does not contradict the radiocarbon dates fiom this unit.

5.4.1.18 PMW675 Unit I Cluster analysis also failed to segregate this unit vekicall or horizontally (Figure 5.25). Despite the presence of a thick layer of stream-sorted silts in the middle levels, the homogenous nature of the ceramics definitely support the view that these deposits were relatively quickly accumulated and all of recent age. The assemblage of the unit consists of roughly a third undecorated sherds with burnished sherds making up one quarter or less of each case. TCR frequencies are generally low with most cases being composed of less than 10% of this technique. KPR,by contrast, makes up a quarter to over half of the assemblage of individual cases. There is also a relatively large amount of red slipped wares with many cases having more than 10% of this category including sgraffito. Other decorative techniques are relatively poorly represented overall. There is some diversity of rim types, but there is a strong leaning towards unexpanded varieties. As is expected, the ceramic assemblage is most similar to that of other recently occupied areas. This is also consistent with the abundant colonial artifacts and Muslim burial uncovered in this unit.

5.5 Inter Site comparisons 5.5.1 Excavated Sites From surveying the descriptions of the assemblages in individual units and sites, it becomes clear that there are certain trends that carry across sites. Three large groups are discernible based on the variables used for cluster analysis, and on qualitative observations made by excavators and myself. Ethnographic data, other archaeological information, and radiocarbon dates converge to show these inter-site groups represent three time periods. These are an Early lron Age Period ( from 500 BC to an indeterminate date), a Late Iron Age Period (to AD 1600) and a Wandala Period (AD 1600-present). All units that were observed to have similar attribute distributions based on the various cluster analyses discussed in the last section were run in three subsequent cluster analyses (Figures 5.26,5.27 and 5.28). All cases, including those that did not cluster as expected in the original tests, were included in this process. The purpose of these tests are to see if further structure can be detected within these chronological units. In some cases, there are fkther internal distinctions.

5.5.1.1 Early Iron Age The Early Iron Age includes the units from PMW 636 and PMW 652 (Figure 5.29a and b). These sites have been assigned this early chronological position and grouped together based on the radiocarbon dates from PMW 636, similarities in sherd thickness that were noted by excavators, and cluster analysis. The decorative characteristics of PMW 636 Units 1 and 2 are very similar to those of the later Iron Age period, with high frequencies of TCR and low fiequencies of undecorated sherds. It is possible that these aspects continue throughout the Iron Age, but as there were some difficulties with the estimating the number of plain body sherds with PMW 636 Unit 1, and the excavators' assertions that this unit was very different from other Iron Age sites to the north and west of Doulo Massif, it is clear that PMW 636 and PMW 652 represent a distinctive and early occupation. Clustering of all cases from the two excavated sites south of the inselberg indicate that PMW 636 Units 3,4,and 5 and PMW 652 cluster together. This is likely due to having very high fiequencies of undecorated sherds. It is not clear if these frequencies are the result of true decorative differences or erosion, so for now no further speculation will be made about the relationship between these sites and units. Comb stamping is also more consistently present here. Rim types are quite varied although unexpanded varieties dominate, but not as strongly as in the Wandala Period. Rim diameters at some units within this period do seem to indicate larger quantities of vessels with small orifices (PMW 636 Units 2 and 4 in particular), but it is not clear if this is related to site function or preservation. 5.5.1.2 Late Iron Age The second temporal grouping is the Late Iron Age. All cases assigned to this group have very low frequencies of undecorated sherds (often less than 25%), very high fiequencies of TCR decorated sherds (typically 50-95%), a greater variety of other forms of decoration (particularly incision and comb stamping) and rim types including unexpanded, exteriorly and interiorly expanded variants. Cluster II from the cheferie, including PMW 635 Units 2 and 3, and the mound area fiom PMW 63 1 (Units INIS, 1E/W and 2) are the components included in this period. Clustering of all these cases suggests that these components are rather uniform with no clear segregation of units, although the lower levels of PMW 63 1 Unit lNlS (levels 4 and 5) remain very distinct, clustering only with a couple of similarly small samples fiom PMW 63 5 Unit 2 (Figure 5.30). Despite this, it is clear fiom examining the data that PMW 63 1 units in this phase have higher frequencies of extremely everted unexpanded rims and internally expanded and inverted rims. They also have very high frequencies of larger rim diameters which may indicate a functional distinction for this area. The failure of the cluster analysis to pick up these features suggests exterior decoration is a much stronger variable for clustering because a larger portion of the sherds are identified for this variable. Other evidence does hint at the possibility that the mound at PMW 63 1 may represent an earlier occupation than the early component at PMW 635. To begin, the oral tradition cited in the last chapter implies that the Maya who occupied Doulo at the time the Wandala arrived were not located on the north side of the inselberg. Furthermore, and more convincingly, there are similarities in the ceramic decoration of PMW 63 1 and PMW 636 Units 1 and 2. This is also visible in the size and type of worked sherds that will be discussed in the next chapter. In contrast, the lower component of PMW 635 is cited as being occupied by the Maya when the Wandala arrive in the seventeenth century. Radiocarbon dates and the presence of some KPR in the assemblage also point to a more recent date for this site. Further absolute dates are needed fiom PMW 63 1 in order to verify the degree of contemporaneity of these components and to define the beginning of this period.

5.5.1.3 Wandala Period This most recent period corresponds to the arrival of the Wandala. The excavated sites and units that are included in this phase are: PMW 63 1 Unit 3, PMW 635 Cluster I (Units 1, 2, and 3), PMW 678 and PMW 675. The exterior surface ireatment of ceramics at these sites are all clearly dominated by undecorated sherds that frequently make up more than 50% of the assemblage. Burnished, TCR, KPR and red slipped sherds &e all common. KPR is in particularly high frequencies, and sgraffiito is found exclusively in these units. Rim types are heavily dominated by unexpanded straight and unexpanded moderated everted varieties. Despite these similarities, cluster analysis between cases in these units illustrates that at least one of the sites in this period is quite distinct fiom the rest (Figure 5.3 la and b). PMW 675 has the most nearly unique assemblage with all member cases, save one, clustering together with relatively few cases from other sites. PMW 675 is unique in that KPR is present in very high frequencies. The former Mura ward at PMW 63 1 Unit 3 failed to segregate itself completely fiom other units assigned to this period, but all cases in this unit save one do cluster in the same sub-group. This failure to completely separate fiom other sites may be because there are relatively few cases from this unit, but for now the degree of differentiation from PMW 678 and PMW 635 remains difficult to evaluate. The remaining large cluster is almost exclusively composed of cases fiom PMW 635 and PMW 678. Based on this cluster, there is very little indication that the Wandala Period assemblages'of these two sites are significantly different fiom one another. While it is not clear why PMW 675 is so distinctive fiom the other units at Doulo, it is clear that Doulo is not now a culturally homogenous village nor was it at the time it served as the capital. It is very possible that the ceramic assemblage at PMW 675 represents a distinctive social unit although the available ethnohistoric data does not allow for a great deal of speculation on who inhabited this part of Doulo. It is now near a predominantly Wandala area.

5.5.2 Survey Sites The final step in the process of building a chronological sequence for the sites around Doulo is to attempt to place the sites that were only surveyed into the sequence. These sites were not included in the original cluster analysis because they were not randomly sampled, nor was 100% of the material collected. For this reason, these assignments must be considered tentative. These sites will now be integrated based on the diagnostic materials that were collected and the descriptions of the assemblages given by the surveyors. The collection for 83 these sites are already described in Chapter Four so this will not be repeated here. Instead, they will be regrouped into the periods given above. PMW 609, PMW 633, PMW 656, PMW 657 and the ceramics fkom PMW 61 1 (found in the stream bed), based on exterior decoration and rim type, are most likely associated with the Wandala Period at Doulo. KPR, red slipped and sgraffito decorated sherds, and unexpanded rims are common at all these sites. The lower portion of PMW 610 is likely part of an Iron Age assemblage as TCR dominated the assemblage. However, it is unclear if the descriptions given by surveyors refer to the surface component, the lower occupation exposed in the river bank, or both. No ceramics were collected or described fiom PMW 634, PMW 65 1, or PMW 674 but the latter two sites can be attributed to an early time based on the lithic assemblages.

5.6 Discussion and Summary Cluster analysis enabled useful discrimination between sites at Doulo based on attribute frequencies, even though only a limited number of aspects of technological style were employed. Elaboration of the present data collection system would allow for greater precision and easier interpretation of results fkom cluster analysis, and to that end, I would like to propose a few suggestions for future study. These suggestions will enhance the type of chronological and social distinction conscious program driven by the holistic concept of technological style that has been attempted here. In the above analysis, the role of rim type and surface treatment is much clearer than that of rim diameter. This is because the variation in rim diameter seems to be much more random and can vary a great deal fiom case to case. Claire Bourges (1996: 1 12) and Diane Lyons (1992: 232) both identified some ranges that various functional types of pots tend to have for rim diameters, but these ranges overlap a great deal and are of limited use for identifjmg vessel fbnction alone. The very high frequency of rims with greater than 26 centimetre diameters in the Late Iron Age units at PMW 63 1 does seem to point to the prevalence of a large number of vessels associated with storage or beer brewing. It would seem very likely that this site and the mound associated with it are closely associated with domestic occupations, since these very large vessels are not typically removed from habitations after their purchase. Rim type only catches certain aspects of morphological variation. It will be useful to find a way to capture more of the morphological variation in the archaeological collection. This could be done by incorporating a formal reconstruction program into the analysis. As it is already the practice of the project to note sherds that refit or look as though they belong to the same vessel it would just be a matter of taking this one step further. Reconstruction can take place in the laboratory in North America and need not take up valuable field time. This would make it possible to reconstruct morphological and size,changes through time within the presently broadly defined 'vessel type' categories. Integration of rim diameter (and other metric information) will no doubt yield correlations that are easier to interpret. In order to overcome the problem of paste type being so subjective and thus of limited analytical use, I suggest taking a small random sample for thin sectioning. Further ethnoarchaeological study of choices made by potters regarding temper and clay, in addition to a better understanding of clay sources in the area, will illuminate other parts of the chaines opiratoires employed at Doulo and elsewhere. Another aspect that is not formally recorded at present that likely has temporal and hctional ramifications is sherd thickness. As noted above, the Early Iron Age material at Doulo, and Neolithic vessels in general, are typically thinner in construction than more recent wares. This type of information could be included in two manners. A sample could be collected and each sherd measured for thickness; or ordinal categories could be set up and groups of sherds could be qualitatively assigned to them. Using the body sherds from Doulo in the sherd library, I determined that body sherds fall between 3- 17 rnm thick. Further research on a larger and more random sample could refine categories sensitive to vessel function and specific time periods. All these suggestions will help develop the basic chronological periods defined here and help identify additional social distinctions within these. Indeed, it is promising that, in such a large and seemingly homogenous assemblage, three periods and evidence of social boundaries in the most recent period were detected using rim diameter, exterior surface treatment and rim type alone. Analysis of these traits using agglomerative cuteralsis led to the identification of homogenous levels within excavated sites and similarities between units at the same site. Descriptions of these cohesive groupings then led to identification of inter-site similarities 85 8 which, with the aid of absolute dates and ethnohistoric information, were further grouped into chronological periods of occupation at Doulo. These periods include an Early Iron Age Period, Late Iron Age Period and a Wandala Period. It was, Mennore, possible to identify differences in the ceramic assemblages of sites known to have been occupied at the same time, meaning the attributes used for clustering were aIso useM for defining social distinctions. In the next chapter, other artifactual evidence will be integrated into the picture of Doulo's past. Chapter Six Small Finds and Lithics

6.1 Introduction The preceding chapters developed the basic chronology of Doulo by interpreting stratigraphy and the ceramic assemblage. Chapter Six examines other artifacts collected at Doulo. This encompasses a diverse set of objects including those made of earth, metal and stone. The chapter is organized so that artifacts made of similar material, and having similar form or function, are discussed together. Therefore, worked sherds, pipes, spindle whorls and other clay objects will be discussed in the first section, metal and metallurgy in a second, beads in a third, and stone technology in a fourth. This review is descriptive and designed to reflect the variation and distribution of these materials at Doulo, and to make comparisons with other sites possible. The distribution of these artifacts complements the interpretation of the ceramic sequence by elucidating detail about economy, site function and social distinctions. For instance, the presence of iron and slag throughout the sequence indicates that occupation at Doulo began, or, at least, significantly intensified, at the very beginning of the Iron Age. Beads are relatively common at Doulo and the materials from which they are manufactured indicate both domestic manufacture and trade for exotic materials throughout the Iron Age and Wandala Period. More support for the archaeological periods defined in Chapter Five is found in the distribution of spindle whorls. These are found in situ exclusively in the Wandala ~ehod which is consistent with the Wandala capital's participation in the weaving industry since the eighteenth century (Barkindo 1989: 184). Similarly, the only evidence of smoking pipes at Doulo date to this late period when tobacco smoking is common in many parts of Afiica. In contrast, excavations have failed to yield some rather common elements typically associated with the Iron Age and historic times in the southern Chad Basin. For example, there is little evidence of copper alloy artifacts or of the clay figurines so closely associated with Sao occupations elsewhere. These absences in the archaeological assemblage allude to Doulo having some distinct socio-economic circumstances. 6.2 Clay Artifacts 6.2.1 Worked Sherds Worked sherds are both the most abundant and most ambiguous small find at Doulo (Table 6.1). These are potsherds with smoothed edges that have been reshaped by use, or by design. Connah (1 98 1: 159) defines two types ofthese sherds, including utilized sherds that are ground smooth on one or more surfaces, and shaped sherds that are chipped into a particular form. Both these types are common at Daima, and Connah speculates that this technological adaptation of sherds is to compensate for the lack of stone, but its popularity at Doulo and elsewhere clearly illustrates that their usage was more widespread than the stoneless firki plain. A total of 243 partial and complete worked sherds are recorded from archaeological sites at Doulo. Wherever possible, the shape, size and decoration of these sherds were recorded. In general, surface treatment varies as much as in the greater ceramic assemblage fkom which the worked sherds are presumably derived. The most commonly identified shape of a worked sherd at Doulo is circular (Figure 6.1 a, c andfik). These number 1 17 in total. The execution of these pieces varies greatly with some having very sharp and regular edges, as though they were shaped prior to firing. Others have very smooth edges, suggesting they were ground; and yet others have very rough edges and are only vaguely circular, implying chipping. These are found in almost all excavated units, and in all periods of occupation. Measurable circular worked sherds have an average diameter of 2.7 cm, ranging from 1-9 cm. Circular worked sherds have also been identified in very low frequencies in the Neolithic sites of Kwsakata, Bomo 38 and Daima (COM~~198 1 :89, 97). Numerous worked sherds, including round ones, were also discovered at Mdaga with a similar range in quality of execution and size (Lebeuf et al. 1980: 140). Although rounded sherds are universal at Doulo, there are some specific trends in their distribution. For example, PMW 636 has the greatest number of complete round sherds and also has the lowest mean diameter (2.4 cm) with many sherds actually measuring less than 2 cm across. PMW 636 also appears to have the thinnest sherds. Many of the roughest and most irregular examples of circular sherds are present in the Chefferie site (PMW 635 Units 2 and 3, in particular). Two circular sherds from PMW 675 have identifiable holes in the centre (Figure 6.1 a and c). The use of these circular sherds is not at all clear, but both the variation in size and execution strongly suggest that they served a variety of functions. Some were likely used for smoothing and shaping ceramic vessels. Gosselain has recorded round calabash fiagments used for the same purpose in more southerly regions of Cameroon (1 999: 83 and 86). Others were, no doubt, used as lids for bottles or other small vessels. This fhction has been suggested for similar finds northeast of Doulo by Lebeuf and colleagues (1980: 140). Yet others, like the miniature examples from Iron Age components at PMW 636 and PMW 63 1 (Figure 6.1 id, are so small that it is difficult to believe that they were used as any type of tool at all. The second most common shape of worked sherd at Doulo was an elliptical to sub- rectangular shape (Figure 6.1 b, d-e,k). These are most common in earlier phases including PMW636 and the Late Iron Age components of PMW 63 1. Examples fiom these sites are also, once again, among the smallest specimens. Sub-rectangular sherds are, however, also present in the Wandala Period, in PMW 635 Unit 3 and at PMW 678, including one with two perforations that may represent a pendant fiagment (Figure 6.1 b). All these sherds have very smooth and regular edges. The larger examples could have also been used for smoothing wet clay vessels or daub walls, or they could have been used as kitchen utensils for stirring or scooping. The role of the smaller and more irregularly shaped pieces is, again, more mysterious. All these proposed uses are highly speculative. The variation in the size and shape of worked sherds and the wide variety of functions they likeiy served is hardly surprising since potsherds would have been readily available, and could have been opportunistically used in countless ways in the past, as they are today. Presently, large fragments of vessels are reused (if not reworked) as vessel covers, finials and chicken coups (personal observation). Small sherds are also saved, or even created by intentionally breaking larger fragments to add to daub to stabilize structures (Fork1 1989: 543; Lyons 1992: 2 10).

6.2.2 Smoking Pl'pes Three identifiable smoking pipe fiagments were collected at Doulo (Table 6.2). These include two from PMW 635 and one from PMW 631 (Figure 6.2 a-c). The first one fiom PMW 635 (Unit 2B level 8) is largely complete with most ~f the bowl and chimney still intact. It is constricted at the top with a slightly rounded bottom, and decorated with very careful fine- line incision. The second pipe, recovered fiom PMW 635 Unit 2A level 8, is only a small hgment consisting ofa portion of the bowl and chimney. The dimensions and curvature of this fragment indicate this pipe was more vertically oriented with a height of approximately 5 cm. Fine-line incision is, again, used to decorate the bowl. Only a smdl fragment was recovered from the third example, found in PMW 63 1 Unit 3. It is burnished with fine-line crosshatched incision, and the chimney is slightly thickened at the rim. All three of these examples were recovered fiom Wandala Period contexts. Furthermore, these finds were collected fiom areas known to have been habitation sites, where one would expect to find such personal items. The first two are from the original Tlikse's compound and the third is fiom the recently abandoned Mura ward on the massif. Pipes have been reported from a recent phase of occupation at Daima, arid at the second millennium AD sites of Houlouf, Makari, Mdaga, Maltam, Perma, Dikwa and elsewhere (Cornah 198 1 : 134; Griaule and Lebeuf 1948: 78; Gronenborn and Magnavita 2000: 53-54; Holl 1988: 206-210; Lebeuf 1962: 58; Lebeuf et al. 1980: 55; Marliac and Delneuf 1984: 73). It would appear that the Doulo pipes are similar to these examples sharing at least the fine-line incision and bow1 shapes, but the hgmentary nature of the sample makes direct comparison difficult.

6.2.3 Spindle Whorls All spindle whorls identified at Doulo are undecorated, spherical or teardrop shaped, and between 1.8 and 3.5 cm in diameter. Fourteen of these were identified fiom confirmed Wandala Period contexts, and one from the cutbank exposure at PMW 61 0 (Figure 6.3). Cotton production including agriculture, thread production, weaving and dyeing became important to the economy of the Wandala state (and the capital, Doulo) fiom the eighteenth century when Kanuri immigrants introduced the industry (Barkindo 1989: 184- 185). Textile production was so significant to the state's economy that cotton strips, known as gubaga in Wandala, were actually used as a medium of exchange in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Barkindo 1989: 190). Moreover, the presence of several spindle whorls in the former Mura ward (PMW 63 1 Unit 3) suggests that not oniy Wandda and Kanuri households were involved in textile production. Teardrop-shaped spindle whorls virtually identical to those found at in the Chefferiesite (PMW 635 Unit 3) were identified fiom nineteenth century Dikwa (Gronenborn and Magnavita 2000: 54). This may reflect the northern Kanuri influence in weaving at Doulo.

6.2.4 Other Fired Clrry Arfifacls Numerous objects of fired clay that do not represent ceramic vessels, worked sherds, pipes or spindle whorls were also collected. Some of these are architectural such as burned earth and daub. Small clay balls, a figurine fragment, miniature vessels and vitrified sherds were also recovered. Material identified as daub was collected in very small quantities fiom various locations associated with the Wandala Period at PMW 635 and PMW 678, as we11 as in the top levels of the Early Iron Age site PMW 636 Unit 1. This material is very coarse with fibrous inclusions, between 1.8 and 3.5 cm thick, and smoothed on both sides. Firing is very uneven and appears to have occurred at low temperatures. In these circumstances, firing may not have even been intentional. These fragments are too thin to be from walls of mud huts, but may represent parts of granaries, hearths or tiunaces. Although Lyons (1 992: 22 1)has commented that granaries are not a traditional form of storage for the Wandala, Montagnard groups at Doulo have traditionally used termite mound soil mixed with straw to build granaries, and the predecessors of the Wandala may have done the same. Numerous other small fired clay objects were identified. These include five fired clay balls approximately 1-1 -5 cm in diameter collected from sites associated with the Wandala Period (Table 6.2). Other clay artifacts include a fiagrnented tube, or possible tuyere fragment, found on the surface at PMW 61 1; and a miniature vessel recovered fkorn a ceramic concentration in the upper levels of the Chefferiesite (Figure 6.2 e). This small vessel has a band of random incisions approximately 1 cm below the rim, and two perforations in the body betow the band of decoration. It may be a pendant. Anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines are very common in the southern Chad Basin and good examples of such figurines have been located at Grea and Aissa Harde by the Projet Maya Wandala. However, the evidence for their presence at Doulo is less than overwhelming. Only one reasonable example of a figurinehas been identified. It was collected fkom the Early Iron Age site of PMW 636 (Figure 6.2 4 and resembles the body of a zoomorphic statuette. It is approximately 7 cm long and appears to have elements broken off where limbs or a head would be expected. Unfortunately, the species of animal is not identifiable. This figurine is fiom a context roughly contemporaneous with the 21 00 +/- 70 BP date. Zoomorphic figurines have been found in association with Neolithic and Early Iron Age sites in Bomo including Kursakata, Daima, Gajiganna (E3;eunig 1994: 99- 10 1 ;Connah 198 1: 97,134), and, in Cameroon, at MAP Site 506, north of the Bama ridge (David and MacEachern 1988: 59). Vitrified sherds were collected from Early and Late Iron Age Sites at Doulo. Vitrification of clay is the result of clay minerals actually losing their structure. This occurs when terracotta clay is fired to temperatures above 900° Celsius (Sinopoli 1991: 30). These conditions are unlikely to occur in the open fires used to produce ceramic vessels in northern Cameroon. For example, Gosselain (1999: 93) found firing temperatures to reach a maximum of 500-850" Celsius among the Koma Ndera of Cameroon. In contrast, a crucible containing iron fiagments was heated to 1200- 1320 "Cduring a smelting re-enactment by Mafa blacksmith Dokwaza in 1989 (Killick 199 1: 52). Iron smelting or fihing are, therefore, the most likely explanations for the presence of the vitrified sherds.

6.3 Metals and Metallurgy 6.3.1 Metal Artifacts Most metal artifacts excavated at Doulo are corroded iron fiagments, and many of these are too small to be identify. However, several identifiable objects were collected including numerous colonial artifacts (Table 6.3). From the Early Iron Age sites, unidentifiable iron fragments are common, and two possible bracelet fragments (Figure 6.4 c) plus an iron bead (Figure 6.10 g) were recovered fiom PMW 636 Units 1 and 2. Unit 4 revealed an iron projectile point (Figure 6.5 a). This point has a tanged head, and, with the intact portion of the stem, is 6.5 cm long. Unit 5 revealed an 11.5 cm long pin with a loop at the end (Figure 6.6 a). No iron artifacts were identified at PMW 651 or PMW 652. The few identifiable artifacts fiom this early period indicate that both utilitarian and ornamental iron objects were being used at Dodo from the onset of the Iron Age. Several iron hgments were recovered from the Late Iron Age Period. PMW 63 1 Unit 2 has two interesting iron objects. The first of these is a small metal clasp still holding a piece of cloth (Figure 6.6 b). This was collected from the hoe zone and is most likely a modem find. The second artifact is a corroded spearhead (Figure 6.5 c). This lanceolate-shaped point is 9.5 cm long and approximately 2 cm across at its widest point. A flat ended pin was also collected fiom the Late Iron Age component in the Chefere site (Figure 6.7 a). In the Wandala Period, the number and variety of identifiable artifacts increases considerably. Although the Chefferie site yielded only unidentifiable iron fragments, PMW 678, the mound site on the north side of the inselberg, has several iron objects including two possible ring or bracelet hgments ( Figure 6.4 a and b), and one pin with a flattened triangular end, similar to the Late Iron Age example above (Figure 6.7 c). PMW 63 1 Unit 3 has several iron fragments. A pin type artifact with a rectangular end (Figure 6.7 b), and an digging stick, or ax blade (Figure 6.8) were recovered fiom level 12. The digging stick is 12 cm long, with a narrow blade approximately 3 cm wide, and a socket for attaching a handle, equivalent to that of modem hoes. This tool is similar to one described by Gronenborn (1997: 436) used in Bomo to break the firki clays. It probably represents a re-sharpened version of the same tool type or a laterally-oriented ax (Nicholas David, personal communication 2000). The identified metal artifacts from PMW 675 are dominated by colonial objects, although some of the same types of iron artifacts found at other sites, presumably of local manufacture, continue here. A rimmed bottleneck rifle cartridge case was found 30 cm bd (Figure 6.6 d). The marking on the base is obscured by corrosion but excavators commented it was likely of European origin, either French or Austrian (Scott MacEachern, personal communication 2001). The length of the case is 5.09 cm, the base diameter 1.40 cm, neck diameter 0.95 cm, and the rim diameter 1.68 cm. There is also a small hole punched in the body of the cartridge less than 1 cm fiom the rim. The base of a second cartridge case was discovered at 60 cm bd. It is very corroded but has a rim diameter of 1.99 cm and a base diameter of at least 1.76 cm. Several pieces of the bottom of a food can were also discovered in this level, although the label is, again, indecipherable due to corrosion. Six French coins were discovered between 40 and 70 cm bd (Figure 6.9). Two of these are French hncsand four are 50 centimes pieces. These date from 1924 to 1938 with the most recent date recovered from the greatest depth (70 cm bd). The distribution of these coins and other twentieth century artifacts is consistent with the interpretation given in Chapter Four that the deposits in this area were very quickly accumulated, largely in the first half of the twentieth century. Other artifacts unique to PMW 675 are two thin copper alloy fragments contemporaneous with the colonial artifacts (Figure 6.6 c). This is the only location at Doulo where copper has been found, despite being common in Iron Age occupations elsewhere in the southern Chad Basin (Connah 198 1; Gauthier 1979: 13 1- 133 ;Lebeuf et al. 1980). A small iron ring, approximately 2.4 cm in diameter, and a possible bracelet fragment were found below the colonial deposits (Figure 6.4 d and e).

6.3.2 Slag Slag is a byproduct of separating metal fiom ore. It has a hardened molten metallic look and can contain varied levels of metals depending on the efficiency of the smelt fiom which it originates. Slag was found in small quantities in all the excavated sites at Doulo and the surrounding areas with most levels containing only 1-3 fiagments weighing less than 50 g. PMW 636 Unit 4 is the exception to this where up to 400 g of slag was collected from one arbitrary level. The amount of slag at Doulo is very small compared to sites such as Mehe Dj iddere, where large quantities of slag were identitied (David and MacEachern 1988: 60-62). Even neighbouring Aissa Harde has produced much greater concentrations, with one pit feature yielding over 12 kg of slag. The presence of slag, in addition to the vitrified sherds and burned daub, is conclusive evidence for iron working at Doulo. The modest quantities of slag recovered so far suggests that Doulo was not a long-standing centre for smelting (where ore is transformed into iron). However, the constant presence of these materials is consistent with small scale occasional smelting, or fining of blooms acquired from smelters elsewhere. This is in agreement with ethnohistoric information which recounts that iron bars and blooms produced by Montagnard smiths were purchased by Wandala smiths who manufactured tools and ornaments for export (Barkindo 1989: 182-1 83). Furthermore, most Wandala smiths have been centred at Kerawa and Manaouatchi, and not at Doulo, at least since the Wandala converted to Islam in the eighteenth century (David and Robertson 1996: 131). Despite this evidence that minimizes Dodo's importance in iron smelting in the Wandala Period, surficial scatters of slag were observed in many localities at Doulo (see Chapter Four), and a sample of magnetite sand, collected from a stream bed at Doulo in 1996, suggests that a source of ore is at hand. Further excavations could reveal iron production was more intensive during the Iron Age than the present finds indicate.

6.4 Beads This category of artifact includes all manner of small perforated objects which are likely primarily ornamental. Beads are made of a variety of materials at Doulo and this artifact type has some of the best evidence for exotic material at Doulo born the very Early Iron Age to the Wandala Period (Table 6.4). Most raw materials were identified by examining the beads under a microscope and comparing them to descriptions and photographs of similar specimens given by Carey (1991) and Francis (1994). Beginning with the Early Iron Age, PMW 636 has a unique bead assemblage. Unit 1 contained 24 disc-shaped unidentified mollusc shell beads (Figure 6.10 a--.These are between 0.7 and 1.2 cm in diameter, and range from less than 1 - 4 mrn thick. Most are ground and polished, but at least three examples have rough edges indicating they have not undergone the final step of manufacture (Carry 1991: 8). These were distributed in all quadrants of the unit between levels 1 and 6. Their distribution roughly corresponds to the levels described by excavators as having a ceramic assemblage heavily dodnated by undecorated materials. However, beads can be very mobile in stratigraphy due to their small size. Level 1 1 feature 1 in the northwest quadrant yielded a single carnelian bead (Figure 6.10 h). This bead is also disc- shaped and less than 1 cm in diameter. Carnelian is an exotic material, although the source is unknown. PMW 636 Unit 2 contains two beads, including another disc-shaped mollusc shell 95

bead, and a sub-spherical iron bead approximately 1.2 cm in diameter found on the surface (Figure 6.10 g). No beads were collected from PMW 65 1 and PMW 652. The carnelian indicates that residents of Doulo had some access to long distance trade goods fiom the very beginning of the Iron Age. The Late Iron Age occupations at Doulo have a very different assortment of beads. A small sub-spherical glass bead recovered fiom the hoe zone is the only bead from PMW 63 1 Unit 1E. Three bone beads were recovered fiom Unit 2. These are made of ovicaprid proximal phalanges with holes drilled laterally through proximal and distal ends of the bone (Figure 6.1 1 b-c). A fourth bead fiom this unit is barrel-shaped and made of carnelian (Figure 6.1 1 a). This carnelian specimen hints at continued, if limited, external trade in the Late Iron Age. Beads fiom Unit 2 were recovered from levels 5-7 which is the bottom of the component containing well-preserved ceramic materials. The only bead recovered fiom the Late Iron Age Period at PMW 635 is an undecorated cylindrical clay specimen. From the Wandala Period, PMW 635 revealed three glass beads fiom Units 1 and 3 (Figure 6.1 1 g-h) .Additionally, a polished quartz sub-spherical bead was collected fiom Unit 3 level 5 (Figure 6.1 1j). It is 1.25 cm in diameter and is ground flat at one end. PMW 678 has a variety of beads collected fiom the top metre of the mound (Figure 6.12). These include sub-spherical, cylindrical, disc-shaped and barrel-shaped glass beads, and an undecorated cylindrical clay bead, similar to the one fiom the Late Iron Age component of PMW 635. PMW 63 1 Unit 3 contains two beads. A perforated cowry shell was recovered from level 2 and a small cylindrical carnelian bead was collected in the lower levels. Cowry shells were introduced into the Wandala area in the mid-nineteenth century as a medium of exchange (Barkindo 1989: 190). They are still common today as an element of decoration and personal adornment (personal observation). At PMW 675, another cowry shell bead was discovered on the surface, and a tiny blue plastic bead was recovered from within the hoe zone (Figure 6.1 1 d-e). A small orange plastic bead was surface collected at PMW 61 1. All three of these are of recent or modem origin given their stratigraphic position and material types. There is no reason to doubt that the iron, quartz and most of the organic beads are of local origin, but the carnelian beads indicate Doulo participated in at least limited external trade during the Iron Age. The appearance of the exotic glass beads and cowry shells is consistent with Doulo, as the Wandala capital, emerging as a centre for trade and wealth in recent centuries.

6.5 Stone Technology In addition to PMW 634, the possible stone quarry site identified in Chapter Four, approximately 212 stone artifacts were collected at Doulo. These include 130 flaked stone tools and detritus, and 82 ground stone artifacts. Flaked stone artifacts are found associated with all time periods at Doulo and are made of a variety of materials including quartz, volcanic tuff, basalt, sandstone, siltstone, fine grained quartzite, chert and agate (Jon Jones, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Calgary, personal communication 2000). Almost all the chipped artifacts fiom Doulo are simple unifacial flakes, although there are some examples ofretouched flakes, bifaces, and axes (Table 6.5). The ground stone artifacts at Doulo include culturally modified materials that were ground, polished, pecked or abraded either during the course of use or as part of the artifacts' design (Adams 1997: 2). Ground stone items of granite, amphibolite, gneiss, gabbro, quartz, basalt, and sandstone were identified at Doulo. The most common ground stone artifacts ak handstones and grinding stones associated with food grinding equipment. Grinding stones were not systematically collected from Doulo due to their size and weight, but their presence was noted, and some fragments were collected. A projectile point was found on the surface of PMW 674 in the modem village (Figure 6.13 a). This point is made of agate, has serrated edges and is basally notched. It is triangular in shape, 3 cm long, 1.9 cm wide at the base, and 0.7 cm thick. Chipped stone projectile points are rare in the southern Chad Basin, and, as evidence from PMW 636 suggests that iron points were used in the area fiom the Early Iron Age, the possibility that this point is associated with a LSA occupation at Doulo cannot be eliminated. There are many examples of flaked stone material'* Early Iron Age sites south of the inselberg. Two roughly shaped ax blanks were recovered fiom the surface of PMW 636, and a tool edge, possibly fiom a retouched ax, was collected from the same site (Figure 6.15 a - c). All these are made of basalt. Two bifaces were also collected from the surface farther south of the inselberg including a small quartzite example @om PMW 65 1, and a large quartz specimen fiom PMW 652 (Figure 6.15 e). A second tool edge was collected here as well. Flakes of vein quartz, quartzite, basalt, tuffand gneiss were recovered fiom PMW 636, PMW 65 1 and PMW 652. Much of the material collected at these early sites is very eroded due to prolonged surface exposure and/or slope washing. In addition to the basalt chipped stone ax blanks recovered fiom the south side of the inselberg, examples showing some degree of polish were collected. These axes are found exclusively at PMW 636 and PMW 652 and most were fragmentary. Those that are somewhat intact are triangular to oval in shape (Figure 6.15 d) . Numerous other examples of axes were observed but not collected by surveyors at PMW 65 1. Elsewhere, these polished axes are most often associated with Neolithic occupations, but they are considered to be of supernatural origin by modem populations and are sometimes curated (Connah 1 98 1 :124; Hervieu 1968: 33). The scattered nature of these finds gives no reason to believe that this is the case at Doulo, therefore, they can be assumed to have been manufactured in the Early Iron Age, or earlier in the case of PMW 65 1. The food grinding equipment fiom the Early Iron Age consists of fragments of grinding stones and handstones. The grinding stones have abraded, concave superior surfaces 1-2 cm deep. Most of these are made of granite, gneiss, and amphibolite. These are similar to the quems used in the northern Mandara Mountains in recent times as described by David (1 998), and by Lyons ( 1992) for modem grinding tables at Doulo. The handstones are also dominated by the same raw materials but quartz and sandstone were also used. Similar to the grinding stones, most of these were too fhgmented to determine th& original shape, but some have an identifiableflat to convex lower surface for grinding grain against the roughened upper surface of the grinding slab (Figure 6.16 6). Two fragments of a granite stone bracelet blank collected fiom PMW 636 Unit 4 round out the Early Iron Age lithic assemblage (Figure 6.16 d). In the Late Iron Age Period, there is much less evidence of flaked stone technology. Only one siltstone biface (Figure 6.1 5fi,and a possible quartz flake were found on the mound at PMW 63 1. PMW 635, likewise, had a very limited amount of chipped stone with only six quartz flakes and one fine grained quartzite example coming fiom the lower layers of Units 2 and 3. The grinding equipment from the Late Iron Age is similarly fragmented, and made of the same material types as that hmthe earlier period. One example of a small (3.5 cm in diameter) globular quartz handstone was recovered fiom the lower levels of PMW 63 5 Unit 3. Modest quantities of flaked stone material continue in the Wandala Period. PMW 635 yielded two sandstone flakes fiom the upper levels of Unit 3. A small fiagment of a possible retouched tool edge was collected fiom the upper levels of PMW 678, as were a fme grained sandstone and chert flake hgments. PMW 61 1 yielded three flakes of siltstone, sandstoneand basalt. All three of these were found in the stream bed and are very eroded. Flaked stone at PMW 675 is limited to a small chert biface found in level 10 (Figure 6.13 b), and three flakes: one of unidentified material, one of quartzite and a third of sandstone. Some or all of this material may be the result of mixing. In particular, the eroded flakes found in the stream bed with Wandala Period ceramics are suspect. Grinding stone fragments continue to appear in the Wandala Period, and several complete handstones were also collected. The dominant shape of a handstone is that of a convex to flat lower surface, and a flattened or even slightly concave upper surface (Figure 6.16 a,c and e). These are round and roughly 6-7 cm in diamete; and 3-4 cm thick. There are three Merglobular examples similar to the one found in the Late Iron Age component. Two of these are fiom the chemie, and a third was fiom the lower levels of PMW 678 (Figure 6.16 j). A fiagment of a flatter and more elongated plano-convex handstone was also collected fiom within the hoe zone at PMW 635. This example is similar to the handstones used in modern times by the Mura and Urza women of Doulo (Lyons 1992: 228). All these types can be comfortably grasped in one hand, and could be used with either shallow basins or grinding slabs as defined by David (1 998). In addition to the remains of portable grinding equipment, shallow grooves ground into granite outcrops of unspecified dimensions are present southeast of PMW 63 1, near the pass between the two peaks of the Doulo massic and north of PIW635 (Lyons 1992: 52 and Fork1 1989: 544). These are similar to those described by David (1998), Mouchet (1948) and Sassoon (1 962) in Nigeria and the Mandara Mountains for grinding food stuffs, crushing bone, preparing grog for potting, fining iron blooms, and manufacturing stone axes. They are of unknown age and usage at Doulo. Several miscellaneous ground stone items are also present in the sequence at Doulo. Three small, broken polished cylinders of quartz were discovered fiom both Early Iron Age and recent contexts (Figure 6.14 a-c). The function of these is not known, but a possible broken labret made of polished quartz was also recovered fiom the Wandala component of PMW 635 (Figure 6.14 4. The cylinders may be blanks for such ornamental objects as this labret and the quartz bead discussed above. Quartz pieces similar to these are also used by some potters to smooth and burnish vessels (Gosselain 1999: 9 1). In addition, polishing stones were collected from Late Iron Age and Wandala Period contexts. These are river-rounded pebbles used for burnishing ceramics and to smooth daub walls. There is limited but enduring use of stone technology at Doulo, although few tools besides grinding equipment seem to continue beyond the'initial phase of the Iron Age. The significantly larger amount of flaked materials, and greater variety of polished artifact types, fiom the earlier southern sites further supports the early dates associated with PMW 636, PMW 65 1 and PMW 652, as more elaborate lithic technology would be expected in the initial phase of the Iron Age when iron technology was still being incorporated into local tool kits.

6.6 Summary Analysis of the ceramic assemblage established the chronology at Doulo. The distribution of the remaining elements of the artifactual assemblage illustrates how other aspects of material culture change through space and time. The most elaborate stone technology is found in the Early Iron Age which is consistent with the radiocarbon dates that tie the southern sites to some of the earliest dates for iron in the southern Chad Basin. It marks a transitional phase where stone technology still had diverse uses not present in later periods. The iron artifacts preserved in the assemblages of the early sites do, however, indicate that metal was integrated into both ornamental and more hctional aspects of material culture fiom an early 100 date. At the other end of the time scale, the presence of smoking pipes and spindle whorls ties the Wandala Period to the end of the second milleMium AD, and hints at the role Doulo played in the cloth trade. Within this period, differences noted in the ceramic assemblages between the twentieth century Wandala occupation at PMW 675 and the Mura occupation on the Massif are also apparent in the small finds. PMW 675 has many colonial era artifacts including coins, cartridge cases and a food can. The Mura assemblage had none of these elements, which suggests the Montagnards at Doulo may have been less incorporated into the cash economy than their mid-century, plains-dwelling counterparts. More generalized trends about the economy of Doulo are also discemable by looking at the small finds. The archaeological evidence supports the historic information that says Doulo was not an important centre for iron smelting in recent times, and confirms that this has likely been the case throughout the Iron Age, with only limited evidence of smelting and fining present. Exotic material in the fonn of carnelian, cowry shells and glass beads illustrate that residents of Doulo have long participated in trade that increased significantly in the Wandala Period. Despite this, the failure of excavations to yield evidence of copper alloys common in other second millennium AD contexts in the region is surprising because, as the capital and the home of the 77ikse fiom the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, Doulo would have been the centre of considerable wealth. Chapter Seven Summary and Conclusions

7.1 Thesis Summary In Chapter One. three questions were posed regarding the culture history of Doulo and subsequent chapters attempted to answer these questions. Cluster anaiysis of ceramics and the use of other archaeological methods made it possible to define three chronological periods. These are the Early Iron Age, the Late Iron Age and the Wandala Period. This third period also establishes that the presence of the Wandala at Doulo is, in fact, distinguishable in the archaeological record. Furthermore, it was possible to delimit some social distinctions between Montagnards and Wandala within the most recent of these periods. Some trends in technology and economic specialization are also detectable. These finds make it possible to comment on the occupation of Doulo as a whole and its place in regional prehistory. It is also feasible, at this point, to suggest some new avenues for research that will lead to a greater understanding of Doulo's past. The chronological sequence at Doulo spans a transitional period between the Late Stone Age/Early Iron Age through to modem times (Table 7.1 ). Evidence of potentially earlier settlement is represented only by ephemeral findings, &e best evidence being an isolated Neolithic projectile point (PMW 674), and a large surface scatter of stone axes and debitage (PMW 651). These finds are potentially dated to the Late Stone Age based on general typological similarities to other finds of this period, and due to a iack of direct association with evidence of metallurgy. Further investigations and more absolute dates will clarify the antiquity of Doulo's occupation and demonstrate whether or not there was a true Stone Age settlement of the area. The Early Iron Age is conclusively manifested in the archaeological record. Occupation at this time was concentrated on the south side of the inselberg at PMW 636 and PMW 652. Many elements commonly associated with the Late Stone Age continue in the Early Iron Age. This includes polished stone axes and other evidence of a substantial stone tool technology, and a relatively high proportion of undecorated, comb decorated and incised ceramic material. Besides the low cultural mounds at PMW 636, no cultural features consistent with habitation sites are evident. At the same time, some elements common in the later Iron Age are already well established by 2500 BP. These include both ornamental and utilitarian objects of iron, and actual evidence of iron production in the form of slag and vitrified sherds. The ceramics also demonstrate a significant proportion of twisted cord roulette decorated material. This Early Iron Age Period begins by 2500 BP, but the closing date of the period is more enigmatic. Elsewhere, the Early Iron Age continues to the middle centuries of the first millennium AD. For example, at Daima, the Early Iron Age is defmed by Cornah (198 1) as AD 50-700; and from 200 BC to AD 700 at Mdaga (Lebeuf et al. 1980: 202). The presence of a radiocarbon date of 21 00 BP associated with the upper layers of PMW 636 Unit 1 may indicate that only a very early transitional phase is present at Doulo. However, as many other areas of this site and PMW 652 have yet to be dated, it is not possible to determine the terminal date of the period, nor whether there is a significant hiatus in occupation at any point during the Early Iron Age.

The beginning of the Late Iron Age at Doulo is similarly undefined in terms of absolute dating, but comparable ceramic assemblages from Aissa Harde have several dates associated with the middle of the first millennium AD and the opening centuries of the second millennium AD (Bourges et al. 1999: 1 I). At Doulo, the absolute date of 330280 BP, affiliated with the lower component in the Cheffrie site, indicates that this period continues right up until the arrival of the Wandala at circa AD 1600. This is a time contemporaneous with the Maya occupation at Doulo and her environs, and a period that post-dates the Late Iron Age on the Chadian Plains to the north, where the historicAslam period begins in the 13"' century AD. Stylistically, this period has pottery decoration strongly dominated by twisted cord roulette motifs with most other motifs and rim types continuing 'from the previous period. Other artifactual elements of the Early Iron Age continue, although the elaborated lithic assemblage is no longer present. The unique large-diameter, straight internally expanded rims, consistent with the presence of large storage vessels, in the PMW 63 1 Late Iron Age component also hints at a distinctive site function. This is the only case at Doulo where a possible difference in site bction can be readily hypothesized based on a unique feature of the ceramics. The Wandala Period is the best defined of the three identified chronological periods, with radiocarbon dates placing the initial phase at a time consistent with historic accounts of a Wandala arrival early in the seventeenth century. The assemblage associated with this period is also marked by other elements commonly associated with recent centuries, such as smoking pipes. As was discussed in Chapter Three, it seems that much of the Maya population was dispersed fiom Doulo at the time of the conquest. What is not so clear is how the Wandala became established at Doulo. Certainly, the TIikse and some other Wandala elite established a presence at Doulo when it became the capital, but the degree to which other migrants to the area in the early seventeenth century identified themselves Wandala is less clear. Although historians do not agree on the exact dates of Sankre's sacking of Doulo, the arrival of Kanuri and other immigrants, or the introduction of Islam (see Chapter 3), Barkindo (1989) illustrates that by the opening years of the 1700s, the Wandala capital was well established at Doulo, and Kanuri and other immigrants were moving to the northern Mandara region. The Kanuri actively introduced and participated in the weaving and dyeing trades (Barkindo 1989: 114) which are represented archaeologically by spindle whorls. Farther north in the southern Chad Basin, many of the ceramic decorative traits that have been defined as part of this period, including knotted plait roulette and sgraffito, are associated with the historic Kanuri peoples of Borno (Gronenborn and Magnavita 2000). At least in very recent times, the Wandala have not manufactured pottery, but purchase it either fiom the Kanuri or Montagnards (Bourges 1996; Jones 1985;and Lyons 1992:93). It is, therefore, very likely that this period, which is identified chronologically by the onset of a Wandala political domination of Doulo is, in fact, defined by artifacts frequently manufactured by non-Wandala. However, it must be remembered that it is not known when the Wandala stopped producing pottery. Despite this, cluster analysis of cases in this period make it possible to see distinctions between the ceramics of the Mura Wa-Dela village (PMW 631 Unit 3) and PMW 675 (presumably occupied by Wandala), both known to have been contemporaneously inhabited in the twentieth century. The Wandala material had very high proportions of KPR decorated ceramics compared to other analysed Wandala Period sites. This demonstrates that at least the twentieth century Waadala at Doulo were purchasing a distinctive set of pottery fiom that procured by their Montagnard neighbours. The ethnohistoric information provided by Lyons (1 992) and others indicates that Dodo was a multiethnic community throughout the Wandala Period and fhher exploration may find more subtle diversity in the ceramic assemblages around the community. It is, therefore, important to bear in mind that the Wandaia Period represents a time when the population of Doulo was dominated by the Wanciala, but the town was not exclusively peopled by them. In addition to the spindle whorls confirming the presence of the cloth trade at Doulo in the Wandala Period, there are some other economic trends apparent in the two and a half millennia of occupation at Dodo. These include a modest increase in exotic material, fiom small amounts of carnelian in ancient times, to glass beads and cowry shells in recent centuries. Despite these finds, the wealth that one would expect to be concentrated at the seat of Wandala power is not present. For example, the only copper artifacts discovered are associated with colonial times (at PMW 675). Similarly, there are few riches fiom the Late Iron Age occupation that might help explain why the Wandala took an interest in Doulo in the first place. Scott MacEachern (2000) has pointed out that, other tha the rather impressive town wall, there is very little archaeological evidence that any economic or politically important centre was ever at Doulo. He and Bourges (1996) have also suggested that the Wandala state was not a geographically stable or monolithic political entity, and that the TIikse fkquently had only rather nominal control of his shifting peripheral territories. This may be the case, but, as the capital, home of the Tlikse, and a focal point for trade and taxation, Doulo itself would have held a considerable concentration of wealth at its peak in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries. No doubt the absence of this material wealth &om the archaeological record is the result of curation and recycling of valuable materials like metals and exotic items, but it still remains to be explained why the assemblage is so poor compared to other sites in the southern Chad Basin like Mdaga and Houlouf. . The inability to see political complexity archaeologically in African societies has also been noted by Susan McIntosh (1 999: 22). She states: In societies where political action and coordination is achieved through assemblies, councils, and other forms of horizontally arrayed or democratic structures, and not through conspicuous vertical control hierarchies, we have relatively little idea how we might recognize the material manifestations of such an organization. For now, the situation at Doulo would seem to corroborate this position, as the Wandala state does not seem to conform to traditional concepts of centralized, vertical hierarchy, lacking at least aspects of archaeologically visible social ranking and stratification in the form of precious metals and other exotic items. Perhaps this does support the view that the 77ikse's powers were not so far reaching, and that this is even reflected at the centre of the state. On the other hand, the sheer amount of Wandala Period material and the presence of the large city wall alone do indicate the situation of recognizing typical hierarchical complexity at Doulo and in the Wandala is far from hopeless. On a more optimistic note, there are traditions that can now be affirmed as continuing throughout Doulo's history. Low cultural mounds are present at PMW 636, PMW 63 1 and PMW 678 fiom each of the three periods defined at Doulo. All these examples, despite their chronological separation, share certain depositional qualities. All have littie in the way of identifiable domestic features like the wall remnants, pot stands or granary bases that are found in off mound localities at the cheferie, in the portion of PMW 63 1 on the massif, and at PMW 675. All three sampled mounds have generally ashy deposits and features that consist of dense concentrations of potsherds, most likely the result of refuse disposal. Generally homogenous deposits from these mounds, and radiocarbon dates fiom PMW 636 and PMW 678 indicate that these are formed over relatively short periods of time. El$ewhere, the observation has been made that sediment fiom abandoned architectural features plays a significant role in the formation of cultural mounds. This has been studied at large settlement mounds on the Chadian plain (Ho11 1987), and has been noted in the smalier mounds at Aissa Harde (Bourges et al. 1999: 9). Many of the ephemeral changes, and sandy and clayey lens found in mound deposits at PMW 678 in particular, may also reflect this phenomenon. The enduring presence of these mounds is likely indicative of a now defunct refuse disposal pattern that resulted in relatively fast accumulations of material which was, no doubt, accelerated by slope washing fiom the inselberg. These areas may have also been intermittently used as agricultural land, hence the uniform nature of much of the associated matrix resulting fiom hoeing; and for domestic purposes, thus the presence of floors and pits.

7.2 Future Research With the basic chronological sequence established, it will be possible to direct We work at Doulo in new directions. Certain areas have great potential to address questions regarding both the Wandala state, and complexity in generil based on the results of this study. One area of interest is in exploring social boundaries and settlement patterns through ceramic assemblages during the Wandala Period. The twentieth century MWandaladistinctions that have been identified are promising. It will be informative to see if such distinctions are also visible in earlier Wandala Period occupations. The ceramics fiom the Cweriesite (PMW 635) and PMW 678 are not differentiated. Nor did they completely segregate in cluster analysis fiom the Montagnard component at PMW 63 1 Unit 3, which is at least partially later. The opposite of this would be expected if the Wandala were making less of their own pottery in the twentieth century and buying more fiom Montagnard and Kanuri sources. This trend from a homogenous ceramic assemblage in Doulo's hey-day to more differentiated assemblages recently warrants further investigation. Untested assemblages fiom the other abandoned Montagnard villages on the massif like PMW 633, the unexplored ruins on Mbata; and pre-colonial Wandala assemblages from the various sites on the plains such as PMW 656 and PMW 657 would be useful for this purpose. This same principle can be applied to earlier periods such as the Late Iron Age in hope of learning more about the nature of the Maya population(s). In the grand scheme of things, distinguishing between contemporaneous and geographically close communities is a potential answer to the problems of how to expose complexity, or at least pluralism, in an mean setting. This would be a step towards finding and defining dense heterogenous populations that may be governed, in whole or in part, by some of the 'horizontal arrays' alluded to by Mchtosh. On a related note, the longevity of the massif occu~)ationsis another realm of interest. The inselberg villages explored to date indicate that these hamlets are of recent, Wandala Period, occupation. Further testing on the massif could determine if inselberg settlement at Doulo is a phenomenon associated uniquely with recent centuries and, no doubt, the result of tensions between the Wandala and the various Montagnard neighbours, or if some Iron Age populations also sought refuge on the massif. It will also be fitful to examine some sites in a more extensive manner since their chronological afinities are now known. The Chefferie is especially promising for this, as its recent function and history is understood and earlier components appear to be intact. Uncovering a larger horizontal area will potentially illuminate new information on areas of life within the Wandala court, including details of the layout of the royal compound. Further exploration of the Late Iron Age component may also clarify the nature of the Maya occupation at Doulo. PMW 6 10 is another potentially stratified site and should be similarly investigated. In conclusion, it can be said that the Wandala captured a town with a long history. It is clear that their arrival brought many changes including an expanded population and greater access to trade and the outside world. Despite this, Iron Age inhabitants also participated in the wider world importing iron blooms fiom nearby, and carnelian fiom farther afield. Future research using both archaeological and ethnohistoric information has the potential to reveal more about the nature of settlement at Doulo through the ages and contribute to the study of the Wandala and of complex societies in general. References Cited

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Interviews Mahama Adoua 8/8/92 Zedzi-gre gwe 14/8/92 Appendix I Exterior Decoration Counts7 Provcnic~ce Undeco Burnish Dcco 13- TCR KPR Comb Deco Applique Incision Punctrte Red Black Dcco Dcco Deco Dcco Complex 18 slip slip 84 85 86 87 Early Iron Age 636 Unit 1 7550 3461 13 17429 1 181 10 328 124 311 62 0 1 69 0 I I 636 Unit 2 488 331 6 1309 0 16 2 58 9 24 0 0 0 0 0 I 636 Unit 3 650 114 4 199 3 6 10 17 5 38 20 0 0 0 I 4 636Unit4 903 257 2 546 9 21 3 25 14 68 36 0 0 0 0 3 636 Unit 5 1081 332 7 577 6 9 12 34 10 44 40 0 0 0 0 6 652 704 9 I 248 1 5 1 12 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 Late l ron age 63 1 Unit l N/S 486 539 6 14 1 II 5 70 22 3 1 30 0 0 0 0 6 631UnitlEIW221 262 3 2070 1 4 2 27 9 I1 5 0 0 0 0 4 631Unit2 1020 133 0 51490 20 7 30 2 574 190 0 0 0 0 2 635 unit 2 718 202 0 2194 38 5 10 44 18 4 8 4 1 0 0 0 3 4 635Unit3 2015 1065 24 13395 41 35 20 138 36 646 238 0 0 I 0 12 Wandala Period 631Unit3 1454 419 9 293 234 2 35 34 5 116 60 5 0 0 38 2 635 Unit 1 629 57 3 160 113 1 2 6 1 48 38 0 0 0 0 0

635 Unit 2 4277 1505 17 4597 217 10 105 ' 93 24 540 207 0 0 0 24 23 635 Unit 3 8092 2676 12 7212 981 22 117 168 34 1076 457 4 0 0 33 14 678 5728 1285 70 2409 540 14 I14 131 21 903 137 9 0 0 60 24 675 1092 420 5 449 1076 1 I3 18 3 441 '184 121 0 0 0 0

'See also Figures 5.26-5.28 Rim Type Counts

Early lron Age 636 Unit 1 419 394 228 104 3 I 40 5 0 48 I 47 11 0 57 9 I 0 636Unit237 27 15 8 0 0 4 I 020 1 006000 636 Unit 3 61 12 8 1 0 2 1 1 000 2 000 0 I 0 636Unit420 14 12 4 0 1 4 0 1 I 0 5 1 00000 636Unit531 30 12 6 0 2 5 4 0 I 1 1 003 000 652 13 9 2 I 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 2 0 0 I 000 Late lron Age

631Unit 47 104 27 14 0 0 8 2 I 6 I 45 1 0 11 2 0 I lNlS 631Unit 33 47 12 4 0 0 4 002 0 I7007000 I E/W 631Unit261 70 50 46 0 0 5 203 0 13 0 0 57 0 I 0 635 Unit 2 75 42 8 6 0 0 3 306060 I 7 0 I 0 635Unit397 59 12 12 0 0 I50020 14 0 0 19 0 I 0 Wandala Period

63lUnit342 104 11 I 0 I 2 20002 300000 635 Unit 1 22 , 21 0 I 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 635Unit2157 191 44 36 3 5 21 4 I 2 1 I6 1 0 12 0 3 1 635Unit3 183 184 32 24 0 I 3 4 12 3 0 6 1 0 9 0 2 0 678 137 229 13 15 0 5 0 2 0 I 0 3 3 0 2 0 77 1 675 85 154 7 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 000000 Rim Diameter Counts

Provenience < 5cm 6-7cm 8-9 cm 10-1 1 cm 12-13 cm 14-15 cm 16-17 cm 18-19 cm 20-21 cm 22-23 cm 24-25 cm 26tcm Early Iron Age 636 Unit I 5 23 7 2 3 4 l 66 6 1 64 56 29 23 228 636 Unit 2 2 0 3 I 3 3 7 8 4 6 19 9 636 Unit 3 0 0 t 3 2 3 I 4 5 0 0 5 636 Unit4 0 I 0 0 4 I I 7 5 I I 5 636 Unit 5 0 I 3 I 5 1 2 5 3 I 2 9 652 0 1 0 0 3 2 1 I 0 0 I 3 Late Iron Age 63 1 Unit I N/S 2 2 3 5 5 9 18 18 15 5 I I 75 63 1 Unit E/W 1 2 0 2 6 3 3 4 4 3 1 4 1 631 Unit 2 0 1 4 7 12 8 9 17 14 16 10 72 635 Unit 2 1 5 6 18 16 9 12 15 I1 5 10 19 635 Unit 3 1 0 4 7 I5 8 10 13 22 18 12 17 Wandala Period 631Unit3 1 6 0 2 2 3 6 I 2 3 10 18 635 Unit 1 1 1 0 0 2 0 I I 2 I I 3 635 Unit 2 10 6 13 32 39 24 25 20 19 2 7 13 7 1 635 Unit 3 4 9 23 44 3 6 35 37 40 38 28 2 1 96 678 3 I 2 42 17 28 24 19 15 9 12 45 675 2 2 2. 8 I5 7 10 . 8 19 2 3 11 35.

Tables

Table 4.1 Deposits at PMW 636 Unit1 Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 3-20 cm hoe zone: loose loamy material dark disc-shaped mollusc shell brown to black beads; high potsherd density sherds; slag and iron I fragments; daub; handstones I I 2 20-30 cm loose grey ashy material same as above and figurine I 3 30-40 cm as abokWith Some gravel hagrnent;2100+/-7OBPdate I 4 40-50 cm 111 5 SWSW50-60 hardgreyashwithgravel Fewer potsherds; handstones cm slag and iron; disc-shaped 5 NE 50-60 cm changes fiom grey to yellow and mollusc shell beads becomes sandy NW 50-60 cm ashy grey with high sandy content 6 NW 60-70 cm IV 6 NE/SW/SE 60- orange to red sand with little ash or same as above without beads 70 cm clay. Hard compacted 7 NE 70-80 cm red sand and decomposing granite 7 SE/SW 70-80 very hard packed yellow/grey clay cm 7 NW 70-80 cm yellow/grey clay with high gravel 2500+/-60 BP content 8 INE/SW SW very hard packed yellowlgrey clay 80-90 cm 8 NW 80-90 cm looser than rest of unit with granite feature I : high density of cobbles to west ceramics and granite 19SW 90- 100 cm stones in west (Feature I) in hard-packed I yellow-beige sandy clay 1 0 NW 100- 1 10 feature 1 : very hard decomposing cm granite mixed with clay, outside feature it is hard sand V 9 N W 90- I00 cm red gravelly clay potsherds, iron 9 SEME 90-100 light yellowlgrey clay with grave[, very I cm hard packed 10 SW/SE/ NE brown sand with grey clay lens 100-1 10 cm 11 1 10- 120 cm hard-packed brown gravelly clay camel ian bead 12 N W SW 120- dark brown very hard gravelly clay 130 cm 13 NW 130- 140 very hard gravelly clay that is light cm brown to yellowish grey in colour with I white clay inclusions. I rabk 4.2 Deposits at PMW 636 Unit 2 Layer Level Depth bs Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 0-1 0 crn grey-brown sand with gravel potsherds; slag and iron including iron bead 2 10-20 cm grey-brown sand with larger gravel mollusc shell bead [I 3 20-30 cm yellow-brown sand with coarse gravel potsherds; slag and iron I11 4 30-40 cm hard, orange to yellow-brown sand with Same as above gravel 5 40-50 cm hard orange-brown sand with gravel and insect burrows 6 50-60 cm hard orange-brown sand with gravel 7 60-70 cm very hard orange-brown sand with large very low artifact density and no amount of gravel iron or slag 8-10 70-100 cm

rable 4.3 Deposits at PMW 636 Unit 3 Layer Level Depth bd Deposits CulturaI remains 1 0- 10 cm grey-brown sand with quartz pebbles low artifact density; potsherds; 2 10-20 cm red-brown sand with quartz pebbles and slag decomposing granite II 3 20-30 cm at 25 bd becomes yellow-grey in east with lower artifact densities; large number of granite pebbles and bedrock potsherds; slag 4 30-40 cm continue to dominate west with grey- brown material to east 5 40-50 crn granite in the west with matrix becoming looser lighter (from dark brown to grey yellow) and sandier to the east 111 6 50-60 crn granite in the west with yellow sandy matrix very low artifact density with to the east potsherds and some stone 7 60-70 cm granite dominates almost all of the west side flakes of the unit and east is harder 8 70-80 cm east end more consolidated with some quartz inclusions 9 80-90 cm solid granite farther eastward and remaining sediment is consolidated 10 90-100 cm very hard material ending in mite Table 4.4 Deposits at PMW 636 Unit 4 ,Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 0-20 cm grey-brown sand very low artifact density with potsherds and slag 20-40 cm grey-yellow sand 3 40-60 cm grey-yellow sand with quartz inclusions 1/Ii 4 60-30 cm grey sand and clayey loam in west at 72 cm same as above with more I bd artifacts in clay than sand 5 80-1 00 cm grey sand and clayey loam in west . 6 100- 120 grey sand and clayey loam in west cm I11 7 120- 140 yellow-grey gravel potsherds; slag; iron projectile cm point; stone bracelet fragment 8 140- 160 grey gravel cm IV 9 160-1 80 very hard clay with quartz low density of sherds, quartz cm flakes and slag 10 180-200 cm 11 200-220

Table 4.5- Debosits- at PMW 636 Unit 5 Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 3- 10 cm grey-brown sandy clay to loam potsherds; slag; stone 2 10-20 cm brown sandy loam flakes 3 20-30 ~m 4 30-40 cm brown sandy loam with ash stain in NW comer 5 40-50 cm Yellow gravel lens in NW corner and brown sandy loam elsewhere I1 6 50-60 cm Yellow gravel lens in north and centre and brown same as above clayey loam elsewhere 7 60-70 cm Yellow gravel lenses and brown sandy clayey elsewhere I 8 70-80 cm yellow-grey grave1 in east and clayey loam in west I 9 80-90 cm gravel with brown clayey loam in SW 111 10 90-100 cm very hard gravel and clay conglomerate with same as above calcium carbonate in NW and gravel elsewhere 11 100- 1 10 very hard gravel and clay conglomerate with cm calcium carbonate 12 110-120 cm 13 120- 130 cm 14 130-140 cm 15 140-150 almost sterile; long iron Table 4.6 Deposits at PMW 652 Unit 1 Layer Level Depth bs Deposits Cultural Remains I I 0-1 0 cm medium brown/reddish sandy clay soil .with eroded potsherds, slag and high gravel content quartz flakes 2 10-20 cm medium browdreddish sandy clay soil with high gravel content and decomposing quartz agglomerations near bottom 3 20-30 cm same as above and very hard

Table 4.7 Demsits at PMW 652 Unit 2 Layer Level Depth bs Deposits Cultural Remains I I 0-10 cm loose, dark brown to black loam with high small and eroded potsherds; I gravel content slag; stone flakes I 2 20-30 cm I I 3 20-30 cm harder, grey-yellow loam with high gravel slight increase in sherd density content 4 30-40 cm 111 5 40-50 cm very hard, grey-yeltow sand with few artifacts decomposing granite 6 50-60 cm

Table 4.8 Deposits at PMW 63 I UnitlN/S m Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains

I 1 N 13-30 cm hoe zone: very loose dark brown-black soil 1959 Nigerian penny; many with high organic content potsherds; slag 1 S 10-30 cm same as above with orange and yellow mottles 2 30-40 cm very loose dark brown-black soil with high organic content with some granitic pebbles 1/11 3 N40-50 cm top has dark organic material grading to potsherds and slag I sandy yellow-orange material with little I organic content L II 3 S40-50 cm yellow sandy matrix with gravel content same as above with lower increasing with depth artifact density 4 50-60 cm coarse-grained yellow sand with very little organic content 5 N 60-70cm cranium in wall 6 70-80 cm sterile 7 N 80-90 cm very hard, coarse-grained sand yellow sand 7 S 80-90 cm very hard, coarse-grained tan-yellow sand with decomposine: mnitic material Table 4.9 Deposits at PMW 63 1 Unit 1 E/W ,Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 0- 10 cm hoe zone: very loose dark brown-black soil potsherds; glass bead with high organic content 2 10-20 cm hoe zone: same as above with orange and high sherd density; bone; slag; yellow mottles I1 3 20-30 cm transition to yellow-tan sand potsherds; slag; bone 4 30-35 cm coarse-grained sand yellow sand with very little organic content; dark soil continues in the west 5 W 35-40 same as above and dark soil in southwest cm comer 5 E 35-40 crn burial pit outline present with dark organic potsherds and faunal remains matter still present in the north and yeilow associated with burial sand elsewhere I 6-9 E 40-68 cm

Table 4.10 Debosits' at PMW 63 1 Unit 2 I Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I I 0-1 5 cm plow zone: dark brown silty sand with gravel charcoal; metal clasp; bone; large I potsherds (25% sample) 2 15-20cm ceramic layer (25% sample); stone flakes 3 20-30cm same as above with granite cobbles dense ceramic layer (25% sample) 4 30-4Ocm less dense ceramic layer (50% sam~fe) I1 5 40-50 light brown to red silty sand with some ceramics as above with bone and cm gravel mollusc shell; phalange bead 6 50-60 dense ceramic layer (25% cm samp1e);bone with accretion; stone bead; phalange bead less dense ceramic layer (50% cm sample); phalange bead 111 8 70-80 light brown-grey sand with gravel less sherds (100% sample); bone; crn slag; charcoal 9 80-90cm same as above and mollusc shell 10 90-100 very few potsherds; iron point; cm charcoal; bone 1 I 100-1 10 few potsherds; charcoal; some cm bone 12 110-120 dark brown sand with gravel, very hard few eroded potsherds; charcoal; cm bone; mollusc shell 13 120-140 burial; few eroded potsherds cm 14 140-150 dark brown sand with disintegrating granite ground stone fragments cm gravel in north 15 150-170 sterile Table 4.1 1 Debosits at. PMW. 63- 1- Unit- --. 3 L Layer Level Depthbd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 10-30 cm ashy grey silt with rocks potsherds; bone; 2 30-40 cm charcoal; spindle whorl; iron fragments; cowry shell; potsherds; top of rock from wall feature I1 3 40-50 cm sandy silt with gravel with stone wall continues; bovid bone; I concentration charcoal; mollusc shell; I potsherds; grinding stone 4 50-60 cm as above and digging stick I11 5 60-70 crn red sandy silt with gravel iron; potsherds; charcoal I 6 70-80 cm ovicaprid skull fragment; handstone; 7 80-90 8 90-1 00 cm same as above but harder smoking pipe IV 9 100- 1 10 fine brown sand charcoal; burnt bone; I cm potsherds; handstone; slag; iron 10 1 10- 120 brown fine sand with orange clay in cm northeast comer 11 120- 130 cm 12 1 30- 140 hard fine sand with disintegrating granite cm 13 140-1 50 largely bedrock hard fine sand in east cm 14 1 50- 1 60 bedrock with fine sand in SE comer few potsherds and bone fragments charcoal; iron fragment; slag

Table 4.12 Deuosits at PMW 635 Unit 1 Layer Level Depth bs Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 0-1 0 cm loose grey-brown gravelly soil potsherds; bone; grinding stone; glass beads 2 10-20 cm grey clayey soil and gravel, with yellow area along north wall 3 20-30 cm same as above but more consolidated 2 Table 4.1 3 De~osits1 at PbfW 635 Unit Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 10-20 cm hoe zone: loose ashy sand with gravel potsherds; bone; slag 2 20-30 cm hoe zone: same as above and brown at 28cm bd I1 3 30-40 cm yellow-brown clayey sand and ash staining same as above with charcoal; throughout; top of feature I(2A) pit features and potsherd concentrations yellow-brown loamy sand and ash staining; top of Feature 2 and 3 (2B) brown loam with quartz gravel 160+/-70 BP brown loam with quartz gravel with ash labret staining as above and 50% ceramic sample from Unit 2A brown loam with quartz gravel with qh as above and smoking pipe; staining and burnt earth of feature 4 appear grinding stone in 2B as above plus smoking pipe (feature 4); bead; brown silty sand with ash staining and potsherds; bone; grinding stone black and red patches fragments same as above with orange and black patches brown sandy loam and grey sandy silt around Feature 5 (2AXblack and orange patch) I11 13 130- 140 cm light brown silty sand with gravel 14 140-150cm complete pot 15 150- 1 60 cm same as above but harder 16 160-170cm 17 170-180cm 18 1 80- 190 cm same as above with degraded quartz fragments 19 190-200 cm small number of potsherds on14 20 200-2 1 0 cm sandy gravel 21 210-220 cm small number of potsherds; charcoal and bone 22 220-230 cm same as above with some brown silty sand small number of potsherds 23 230-240 cm clayey sand and gravel with many quartz burial; quartz flakes; small cobbles number of potsherds 24 240-250 cm flakes; potsherds 25 250-260 cm 330+/-80 BP 26 260-270 cm clay with quartz gravel and cobbles; hard 27 270-280 cm same as above sterile Table 4.14 Deposits at PMW 635 Unit 3 Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 0-10 cm hoe zone: brown silty sand with some gravel potsherds; slag; handstone 2 10-20 cm hoe zone: grey silty sand with some gravel same as above with some I mollusc shell fragments and I bone I1 3 20-30 cm same as above with yellow clayey mottle potsherds; iron; slag; hand and granite cobbles stone; grinding stone; feature l(3 8) 4 30-40 cm red clay and ashy patches in light brown silt same as above with bead and over dark brown silt with gravel spindle whorl 5 40-50 cm grey fine sand with gravel same as above with daub 6 50-60 crn 7 60-70 cm red clay with ashy and orange sandy lens same as above; spindle whorl and feature 2 8 70-80 cm ashy patches and brown to grey sandy silt same as above with small with gravel ceramic vessel; spindle whorl; top of feature 6 9 80-90 cm grey silty sand with charcoal concentrations same as above; bird bone and Feature 3 10 90-100cm 1 1 100-1 10 cm same as above with ashy, soft silty and fine sand patch 12 I 10- 120cm grey silty sand with gravel 13 120- 130 cm grey silty sand with gravel, some burned earth 111 14 130- 1 40 cm dark grey sand Feature 4 (including ovicaprid and bird bone) grey sand Feature 5 Features 7 and 8 same as above with soft spor grey sand

clay bead

24 230-240 cm hard grey sand with gravel IV 25 240-250 cm hard yellow brown clay 26 250-260 cm few potsherds, bone fragment 27 260-270 cm 28-30 270-300 cm 38 SE: hard yellow brown clay Table 4.15 Deposits at PMW 678 Unit 1 Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 7- 20 cm hoe zone: fme sand with charcoal potsherds; iron fragments; slag; concentration bone I1 2 20-40 cm hard brown sandy loam 3 40-50 cm very hard brown sandy loam same as above with iron bracelet hgment and glass beads 4 50-60 cm sandy loam with black ashy concentration in NW 5 60-70 cm hard sandy loam and black patch with small potsherds; fish bone; mollusc ash concentration is SW shell 6 70-80 cm hard sandy loam Feature 1 : ceramic concentration begins towards the bottom of level 111 7 80-90 cm brown-red sandy loam with charcoal Feature 1 continues; bone concentration in NE 8 90-100 cm reddish brown loam and dark in ceramic Feature 1 continues; iron ring, concentration beads 9 100-1 10 cm Feature 1 10 110-120cm Feature 1; slag; bone fragments; 260+/-80 BP I I I 120-1 30 cm same as above with charcoal concentrations few potsherds in feature 1; I throughout bone; slag; 1V 12 130- 140 cm hard clay with one orange patch with some bone; charcoal; potsherds; slag; 'iron-rich balls' feature 2 13 140-150 cm hard clay with gravel, granite cobbles and feature 2; potsherds; bone; iron 'iron-rich balls'; black ashy patch hgrnents; charcoal 14 150- 160 cm hard red clay with disintegrating granite, few potsherds; handstone 'iron-rich balls' 15 160-170crn few potsherds; charcoal 16 170-180cm few potsherds; modem "C date 17 180-190cm Table 4.1 6 De~ositsat PM\IK 675 Unit 1 Layer Level Depth bd Deposits Cultural Remains I 1 3- 10 cm hoe zone: grey silty sand with granitic potsherds; bone; charcoal gravel 10-20 cm potsherds; bone; flake; iron 1 fiagrnent; fiench coin I 3 20-3 0 hoe zone: same as above with ash patch potsherds; charcoal; bone; slag; cartridge casing;; french coin I1 4 30-40 cm grey silty sand to orange sand feature 1; bone; potsherds; fiench coins 5 40-50 cm grey-orange silty sand feature 2; charcoal; bone; potsherds; rocks 6 50-60 cm same as above with ashy patch slag; potsherds; bone; charcoal; spindle whorl; french coins 7 60-70 cm same as above with termite dirt; orange silt potsherds; bone; fiench coin; in east iron fragment; slag 8 70-80 cm grey-orange silty sand with orange sand feature 3; potsherds; bone; under feature; orange silts in east charcoal; slag 9 80-90 cm potsherds; bone; rock; charcoal 10 90-100cm potsherds; bone; slag; iron Fragments; biface , I1 I I 1 100- I 10 cm brown-orange silt with ashy patches charcoal; bone; potsherds; iron hgments; spindle whorl 12 1 10-120 cm brown-orange silt charcoat; pots herds; handstone; I bone I

IIIAV 13 120-1 30 crn brown-orange silt changing to brown silty potsherds; slag;- charcoal; bone sand; ashy and black patches IV 14 130- 145 cm brown silty sand feature 4 (burial); handstone; 1 charcoal; 15 1A 140-150 I potsherds; charcoal; bone; slag cm

I 16 I A 150- 160 light brown silty sand potsherd cm V 1 7 I A 160- 170 sandy silt and gravel sterile cm 18 1A 170-180 silty clay

Table 4.17 Radiocarbon dates fiom Doulo Site Unit Level Material Lab # Date BP Calibrated range 678 !B 10 charcoal TO-8625 260+/-80 BP AD 1445- 1 705 I678 1B 16 charcoal TO-8626 100.74+/- AD 1955- 1959 (Modern) 1 I -30pMC 635 2B 5 charcoal TO-8629 160+/-70 BP AD 1635-1 955 635 2A 12 charcoal TO-8627 300+/-70 BP AD 1440-1675 635 2A 25 charcoal TO-8628 330+/-80 BP AD 1425- I675 636 INW 2 bone TO4788 2 1OO+/-70 AD 105 BC (260 BC-AD 65) 636 1NW 6 charcoal TO-4422 2500+1- 60. 760-555 BC (800-400 BC) rable 5.1 List of cases where ceramics were ran omly sampled in the field Sitelunit/ Level Percentage Collected

PMW 63 1 Unit 2 Level 2 25% PMW 63 1 Unit 2 Levei 3 25% PMW 63 1 Unit 2 Level 4 50% PMW 63 1 Unit 2 Level 5 50% PMW 63 1 Unit 2 Level 6 25%

PMW 63 1 Unit 2 Level 7 50% PMW 635 Unit 2A Level 7 50% PMW 635 Unit 3B Level 22 50% PMW 635 Unit 3B Level 23 50% PMW 678 Unit 1B Level 5 50% PMW 678 Unit 1A Level 10 50% PM W 678 Unit 1 B Level 14 50% Table 5.2 Codes for Ceramic Decoratic , Code Decoration Code Decoration 0 Unidentified 50 Applique BandIPanel Plain Plain Applique with TCR Brushed Applique with KPR Burnished AppliquC with Incision Pinched Applique with Combing Coil Applique with Punctate Embossed Buttons Mat Impressed Applique with Impression Finger Impressed Rough Random Applique Corn Cob Roulette SingleIRandom Incision or Grooving Twisted Cord Roulette (TCR), Plain Multiple/Random TCR with lncision Parallel Rows TCR with Applique Chevron String Wrapped Zig Zag Random Fingernail Angular Cross-hatched

Zoned TCR Finger grooved ' Zoned TCR with incised border Lines with Punctate impressed Zoned TCR with Burnish Zoned Cross-Hatching Zoned TCR with Incision and Incised Single Punctate Border Plain KPR Multiple Punctate KPR incision Dragged Punctate KPR with Applique Angled Punctate String Wrapped Zoned Punctate with Incised Border Random Zoned Punctate Angular Red Slip Zoned KPR Red Slip and Burnish Zoned KPR with Incised Border Black Slip Zoned KPR with Burnish Black Burnish Zoned KPR with lncision and Border Sgrafflto Small Comb Stamp Painted Design Medium Comb stamp Red Paint Large Comb Stamp Stucco/Smear Mafa Zoned Cross-Hatched Band with Incised Line Border 44 Dragged Comb Pinched with lncised Lines 45 Angled Comb Stamp Incision with Red Slip 46 Dot-Dash-Dot Zoned TCR and Red Slip 47 Banded Combing with Incised line Zoned TCR and Plain Applique border 48 Zoned Combing 95 Bichrorne Black-Red slip with Line Grooving 49 Wavy Line 96 Cross-hatched Zoned with Raised Appliqub Border 97 Zoned TCR & Zoned Chevron Incision 98 Miniature Cross-hatching Sided & Angle Punctate 99 Wide Incised Parallel Rows with Burnish Table 6.1 Distribution of Worked Sherds at Doulo Early Imn Age 1 Late Iron Age I Wandala Period Site / Unit Shape n Sitanit Shape n Sitelunit Shape n PMW 636 circular 2 63 1 survey circular 1 PMW 6391 circular 1 survey unidentified 4 PMW circular IS subrectangular 2 63 1/I PMW 636/1 circular 5 1 subrectangular 5 irregular 2 sub- 8 irregular 3 unidentified 2 rectangular unidentified 42 1 unidentified 3' 1 PMW 6350 circular 3 PMW 63612 circular 8 PMW circular 6 subrectangular 1 63 112 sub- I unidentified 3 rectangular PM W 63614 circular 2 PM W63512 circular 14 PMW 6393 circular 14 sub- 1 subrectangular 2 unidentified 17 rectangular unidentified 2 unidentified 8 PMW 678/1 circular I PMW 65U2 unidentified 2 PMW circular 3 subrectangular 1 63 5/3 subrectangular 1 unidentified 5 PMW 63 1 /3 circular 1 unidentified 2 PMW 67511 circular I irregular I unidentified 2

Total 123 Total 61 Total 59 Table 6.2 Clay Artifacts at Doulo I Site Unit Level Pipes Spindle Daub Chy Tuyere Amulet Figurine Vitrified Misc whorls balls sherd Early Iron Age

652 2 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Late Iron Age 63 1 I1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 635 2A 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 635 2B 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Wandala Period

675 1 5-11 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Total 3 15 18 5 1 1 1 6 37 . Table 6.3 Distribution of Metal Artifacts at Dodo Site Unit Level Jewellery Pins Points Digging Copper ColoniaY Unidentified Iron stick Modem Fragments Early iron Age ' 636 1 1-1 1 636 4 6-8 636 5 14 636 ST4 I Late Iron Age 63 1 1 14 63 1 2 1-10 635 3 19- 25 Wandala Period 635 2 5-13 635 3 4-18 678 I 1-13 63 1 3 2- 12 675 I 1-11 4 0 0 0 2 9 28 Total 6 4 1 1 1 9 178 Table 6.4 Distribution of Beads at Doulo , Site Unit Level Mollusc Carnelian Iron Phaianees Clay Quartz Glass Cowry Plas Early Iron Age 636 1 0-6 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 636 2 0-2 1 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 636 1 11.1 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 , Late Iron Age 63 1 2E 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 63 1 2 5-7 0 I 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 635 3 22 0 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 Wandala Period 635 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 635 3 4-5 0 0 0 0 0 1 I 0 0 678 I 1-8 0 0 0 0 1 0 8 0 0 63 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 63 1 3 11 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 675 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 675 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 61 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Total 25 3 12 2 1 12 2 -7 Table 6.5 Distribution of Collected Stone Artifact Types at Doulo l~lakedStone I Ground Stone I Provenience Projectile Ax Biface Tool Edge Flakes Pro- Axes Grinding Hand- Hand or Stone Polishing Polished Hammer points blank venience stones stones grinding bracelet stones quartz stone stone cylinders 6741010 Early Iron Age Early lron Age 6361010 6361010 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6361 111-1 1 6361111-8 3 10 5 I 0 0 0 I 636/3/7-1 0 '6361311-2 0 0 I 2 0 0 I 0 6361419- 12 6361418-10 2 0 I 1 2 0 I 0 6361510-9 6361510-1 5 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 636 ST3 6521010 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 636 ST4 65 11010 6521010 6521 111 -2 652121 1-6

Late Iron Age Late lron Age 63 112 Wl5 63ll113-4 0 1 0 0 0 I 0 0 63 11212 63512124 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 63512123- 26 0 0 0 0 9 63513119- 0 0 I 2 0 0 0 0 24 63513122-25 0 0 0 0 2 Wandala Period Wandala Period 6351010 0 0 0 0 I 6351010 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 6351111 0 0 0 0 I 6351111 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 6351212- 10 0 0 0 0 2 6351214-10 0 0 2 0 0 I 0 0 6351318- 13 0 0 0 0 2 6351313-18 0 0 4 1 0 I I 0 6781 114-8 0 0 0 1 2 6781115-14 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 67511-1 1 0 0 I 0 3 6311313-10 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 ,6 1 11010 0 0 0 0 3 6751111-14 0 0 3 0 0 0 I 0 Table 7.1 Chronolow of Doulo Site Date BP Calibrated Period Assemblage 675 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds worked sherds; spindle whorls; iron bracelets; copper fragments; colonial artifacts; plastic bead; grinding I stones 678 260+/-80 BP AD 1445- 1705 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds worked sherds; spindle whorl; iron bracelets; clay and glass beads; grinding stones 100.74+/- AD1955-1959 I .30pMC (Modern) 609 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds 61 1 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds piastic bead 633 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds 656 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds 657 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds 6 10 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds spindle I to Late whorl i Iron Age 635 160+/-70 BP AD 1635-1955 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds; smoking pipes; spindle whorls; glass and quartz beads; grinding stones 300+/-70 BP AD 1440-1675 330+/-80 BP AD 1425- 1675 Late Iron TCR decorated potsherds; worked sherds; clay bead; Age grinding stones

63 1 Wandala Plain, TCR and KPR decorated potsherds; worked sherds; spindle whorls; smoking pipe; digging stick; cowry shell bead; grinding stones

Late lron TCR decorated potsherds; worked sherds; iron point; Age carnelian, glass and bone beads; grinding stones

636 2 loo+/-70 AD 105 BC Early lron Plain, TCR and comb decorated potsherds; iron point; (260 BC-AD Age slag; mollusc shell, iron and carnelian beads; worked 65) sherds; zoomorphic figurine; iron bracelets; stone 2500+/- 60 axes; grinding stones; stone bracelet 760-555 BC (800-400 BC) 652 Early Iron Plain and TCR decorated potsherds; worked sherds;

Age stone axes 3 65 1 Early Iron stone axes and debitage Age or Neolithic 674 Neolithic Stone projectile point, slag, modem village (to modern) 634 Unknown Possible quartz debitage Figure 1.1 Communities and archaeological sites mentioned in text. Figure 2.1 : Map of southern Chad Basin. ! Legend Q ~odmoocupion r ~oulo Sera

I --. wall ---N

. / . _, - Harde

Figure 2.2 Map of Doulo and surrounding terrain (adapted from Map Mora la 1:50,000). ---

Kanuri Garnergu Shuwa

G lavda,,, Doulo, I u/. \ \ 7' Wandala

Hide \ ad;; ,-ineo/;\- -. ,, Muyan I Mafa ',', 'Y' --- , \ West \ Mafa

- /- -. > Wula, -- &Mokoio East - - __ 'Dugwor ,Fulfu'lde 4 ' Mefele ., ;- --'North Mofu~-,_ i; \ i! North Giziga 1'

\,A/ I Kapsiki Maroua i . ," South Moh -. _-- i 3 /

Figure 3.1 Simplified map of language distributions in the northern Mandara region of Cameroon.

Excavated site Surveyed site I 0 ~odemoccupation at DOUIO fi I Seasonal Stream 1 Inselberg - Road ---o Wall I Contours at 20 metre interval

Figure 4.1 Map of PMW Archaeological sites at Doulo. -n;*; a Gravel 0/. ~oam Potsherds -_ Sand Bioturbation Rock silt Ash a Charcoal

Figure 4.2 Profile of PMW 636 Unit 4. -me*- Gravel Loam Potsherds

silt Ash

Clay charcoal

Figure 4.3 Profile of PMW 636 Unit 5.

.;*; .;*; Gravel Loam Potsherds Rock - #' Sand @ Bioturbation Silt Ash clay Charcoal

Figure 4.5 Profile of PMW 63 1 Unit 2. q30a uol]eq~o!~181 pms

SPJ~WO~ ' lanw~ @ m07 .'.'- ,

...... -.-.. ..--.--...-...... +. ,...... -...... :.::...:.I .....:....:.i.:.;.i._.:.t._. :.-.__:_:__.?.:_..-

IPM WON 1 Gravel Loam '21( Potsherds Sand Bioturbation Rock Silt Ash

Clay Charcoal

Figure 4.7 Profile of PMW 635 Unit 2. I I

Feature 6

-*;*; Gravel Loam Potsherds - Sand Bioturbation Rock

...... Silt Ash a Clay Charcoal

Figure 4.8 Profile of PMW 635 Unit 3. we-*- Gravel Loam Potsherds Sand Silt Ash

Clay Charcoal

Figure 4.9 Profile of PMW 678 Unit 1. -*;*; a Gravel jLoam Potsherds

Silt Ash Clay Charcoal Figure 4.10 Profile of PMW 675 Unit 1. I Globular 2w Pointed 3 Pedestal 3 5 Other 6 Flat 7 Buried

Figure 5.1 PMW base types and codes. Unexpanded

Stmightr~ I ' 712 13 r(-lnvmed 14 Carinated 1 5 rSquared everted everted

I Exterior Expansion

20 Straight 2 1 Moderately 22 Extremely 23 Inverted 24 Carinated Everted Everted I Interior Expansion I

30 Straight 3 1 Moderately 32 Extremely 33 Inverted 34 Carinated Everted Everted

1 Folded

140 Folded Exterior 41 Folded Interior I Figure 5.2 PMW rim types and codes. Figure 5.3 Tripod jar with moderately everted rim and zoned KPR with burnished exterior from PMW 63 5/28/5.2, Wandala Period. / / Figure 5.4 Large rim sherd with zoned TCR and moderately everted rim from PMW 6361211, Early Iron Age. Figure 5.5 Comb stamped pattern (a); chevron incision with comb stamped border (b); punctate (c); and, cross-hatched incision (d).

Figure 5.6 Appliqud band on burnished vessel with moderately everted rim from PMW 63 S/3B/ 1 9.8, Wandala Period . Figure 5.7 Sherds with sgral%to design (scratching through red slip). Case labels indicate PMW site, unit, level, and decimalized features. Thus 636/1NW/10.1refers to feature 1 in level 10 of Unit I NW at site 636. Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label @Jm+------+------+------+----- t----- + 4 High fiequtmcies of TCR and bw 4-+ frequencies of undeorated sherds 4 +---+ -+-+ I 4 +-+ --+ I I 4----+I 4 +------A------+ 4-+ I I 4 1 I I ---+----- + I -- + I 4 Remaining cases I 4-+ I -+ +---+ I 4-+ I I -+ I I

Figure 5.8 Dendrogram of PMW 636 Unit 1. Case Label

636/2/4 5 ------+ - - -.------. - - - . .- -.- - . - - - - . - . Figure 5.9 Dendrograrn of PMW 636 Unit 2.

- Case 0 5 10 1'5 20 25 I 1 Label N~~ +------+------+------+------+------+

3 I 636/3/3 ------+ I------. Figure 5.10 Dendrogram of PMW 636 Unit 3.

Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Na +------+------+------+------+------+

636/4/5 5 -+--- + 636/4/6 6 -+ +------+ 636/4/7 7 -----+ I 636/4/2 2 -+---- + I Upper levels 636/4/4 4 -+ +---i- +------+ 636/4/3 3 ------+ +-+ I I 636/4/9 g ------+ +----- + I I 636/4/8 8 ------+ +-----+ I 636/4/1 1 ------+ I 636/4/10 10 ------+------+ I Lower levels 636/4/12 12 ------+ +------+ 636/4/11 11 ------+

Figure 5.1 1 Dendrogram of PMW 636 Unit 4. ------Case 0 5 10 15 20 25

Label N~~ +------+------+------+------+------+

[ 636/5/6 6 ------+------+ -- - - - .------. -.-- - Figure 5.12 Dendrogram of PMW 636 Unit 5, Case LabcI

44 -4- I +--t-+ -+XI ---+ +3 -4- f X -4- I I -+-----t I Dominated by Units 1 and 2 3 ------4 t -r

$ Mixed ' -C +----3f ------a-+ I 3--+ I I I I -+ I I I I I 4 I I I I I 4 1 I I I I 4-+I I I I I 4x1 I I I I 4 f3 I I I: I 4-+ I I I I 4 I +---4 I I ---+ I I I 4 I I I -+4 r I I 4 I I I I --+ +-+ I I I 411 I I I -+-+ ~f r r r -+ I I +------.+ -+ +-----+ I -+ I I -+ I I -+ I I -+-+ I I -4 +-+ I -+-+ I -4 I I ---+ I ---+-+ I ---+ +4 I ----++------+ I -----3 I' I -+ I I -+-+ I I -+ +-+ I I -+-+ I I I -+ I I +------+ ---+ I XDominatcd by Units 3. 4 and 5 -+-+ +--3 I -+I1 I I -+-+ I I I -+ +-+ I I --+ I +------+ ---+I I ----+ I ---+ I ---+--+ I: ---+ 4----4- ---- +

Figure 5.13 Dendrogram of PMW 636. Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Nm +------+ ------+------+------+------+

652/1/1 1 -+ Unit 1 and lowest level of Unit 2 652/2/6 8 -+------,-,-,--,--- + 652/1/2 2 -+ I 652/2/1 3 -+-+ Unit 2 (0-50 cm bs) I 652/2/2 4 -+ +---+ I 652/2/4 6 ---+ +------+ I 652/2/5 7 ------+ +------+ 652/2/3 5 ------+

2

Figure 5.14 Dendrogram of PMW 652. Case 0 5 10 15 20 25

Label Nm +------3------4 ----- +--).------+ 631/1N/l 2 -+---+ 631/1S/2 9 -+ +----- + 631/1N/O 1 ---+-+ I 631/1S/1 8 ---+ +------Levels 0-3------+ 631/1N/2 3 ---+-4 I I 631/1N/3 4 ---+ +---+ I 631/1S/O 7 ------+ I 631/1N/4 5 ------I-----+ I 631/1S/4 10 ------+ +------Levels 4-5------+ 631/1N/5 6 ------t----+ 631/13/5 11 ------+

Figure 5.15 Dendrogram of PMW 63 1 Unit 1 N/S. 2 Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label N~~ +------+------+------+------+------+

631/1E/4 1 -+ ---- -East ------+ 631/1E/5 2 -+ +--- + 631/1E/6 3 ------+ +------+ 631/1E/7 4 ------+ +.-----+ 631/1E/8 5 ------+ ------+ I 6 ------+ I 7 -----+-v!kSL -,,,,,------+ 631/1W/5 8 ----- +

Figure 5.16 Dendrogram of PMW 63 1 Unit lE/W.

Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +------+------+ ------+ ------+------+

631/2/3 3 -+---+ 631/2/4 4 -+ i---+ 631/2/2 2 -----+ +---+ 631/2/1 1 -+-+ I Jhminated by upper levkls 631/2/10 10 -+ +----- + +------+ 631/2/8 8 ---+ I I 631/2/5 5 ------+ +------+ 631/2/9 g --- +-+ I I 631/2/11 11 ---+ +----- + I I 631/2/12 12 ----- + +------Lower ----- levels------+ I 631/2/13 13 ------+ I 631/2/6 6 ------+------Middle------levels + 63i/2/7 7 ------+

Figure 5.17 Dendrogram of PMW 63 1 Unit 2. Case 0 5 10 I5 20 25 : Label Nm + ------+ ------+ ------+------+ ------+

Figure 5.1 8 Dendrogram of PMW 63 1 Unit 3. > Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num + ------+ ------+ ------+------+------+

63i/lN/1 2 -+ 631/18/2 9 -+ 631/2/5 16 -+-+ 631 8 -+ I 631/1W/4 31 -+ +-----+ 631/1N/O 1 -+ I I 631/1N/2 3 -+-+ +-+ 631/lW/S 32 -+ I I 631/2/6 17 -+------+ I 631/2/7 18 -+ I 631/1N/3 4 -+ I Dominated by Units 1 and 2 631/1E/5 26 -+ + ------+ 631/1E/4 25 -+----- + I I 631/2/12 23 -+ I I I 631/1E/7 28 -+ I I I 631/1E/6 27 -+ I I I 631/1E/8 29 -+ I I I 631/2/1 12 -+ +---+ I 631/2/10 21 -+ I I 631/2/8 19 -+--- + I I 631/2/3 14 -+ I I I 631/2/4 15 -+ I I I 631/2/2 13 -+ +-+ I 631/2/9 20 -+ I I 631/2/11 22 -+-+ I I 631/1S/O 7 -+ +-+ I 631/1E/9 30 -+ I I 631/2/13 24 ---+ I /631/1N/5 6 ---+-+ I 631/1S/5 11 ---+ +------+ I 631/1N/4 5 -+-+ I I I 631/1S/4 10 -+ +-+ I Dominated by Unit 3 I 631/3/12 43 ---+ + ------+ 631/3/5 37 --- + f 631/3/14 44 --- +-+ I 631/3/8 40 --- + I I 631/3/3 35 -+ +------+ 631/3/11 42 -+-+ 1 631/3/7 39 -+ I I 631/3/9 41 -+ +-+ 631/3/1 33 -+ I 631/3/4 36 -+-+ (631/3/2 34 -+ 631/3/6 38 -+

*

Figure 5.19 Dendrogram of PMW 63 1. ------Case 0 5 10 Label Num

Figure 5.20 Dendrograrn of PMW 63 5 Unit 1. Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num + ------+------+------+------+ ------+

635/2B/3 22 -+-+ 635/2B/6 28 -++-+ 635/2A/8 8 -+-+ +-+ 635/2A/10 11 -+ I1 635/2B/2 21 ---+-+ +----- + 635/2B/5 25 ---+ I I 635/2A/9.4 10 -+---+ I 1 635/2B/8 30 -+ +-+ I 635/2B/12 34 -+-+ I I 635/2B/22 41 -+ +-+ +-+ 635/2A/6 6 -+-+ I I 635/28/7 29 -+ I I I 635/2A/9 g --- + II 635/2A/4 4 -+ II 635/2B/9 31 -+-+ I1 635/2A/7 7 -+ + ------+ +---+ 635/2B/11 33 -+ I I I 635/2A/18 18 ---+ I I 635/2A/13 13 -+-+ I1 635/2A/17 17 -+ +-+ I I Cluster I 635/28/19 40 --- + +-+ 1 + ...... + 635/28/25 42 -----+ +------+ I -T 635/2/1 1 -----+-+ I I 635/2A/2 2 -----+ I I 635/2A/3 3 ------+-+ I I 635/2A/22 1g ------+ +---+ I I 63!j/2B/4 -2 24 ------+ +-----+ I 635/2B/5.2 26 ------+ I 635/2A/16 16 -----+--- + I 635/2B/5.3 27 ----- + I Cluster I1 I 635/2A/23 20 -+ +------...... + 635/28/18 39 -+----- + I 635/2A/14 14 -+ I I 635/2B/13 35 -+---+ +-+ 635/28/16 37 -+ 1 I 635/2A/5 5 -+-+ +-+ 635/28/10 32 -+ I I 635/2A/12 12 -+ +-+ 635/28/17 38 -+-+ 635/2A/15 15 -+ I 635/28/14 36 -+ I 635/2B/4 23 . --- +

Figure 5.21 Dendrograrn of PMW 635 Unit 2. 182 Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label N~~ +---+---+-+--+---I-

/635/3A/22 21 -+ 635/3B/23 48 -+ 635/3A/24 22 -+-+ 635/3B/22 46 -+ + ------+ 635/3A/20 19 ---+ I 635/3A/26 23 ---+-+ I Cluster I1 635/38/20.6 45 ---+ +-+ + ------+ 635/3A/8 g -+---+ I I I 635/3B/12 35 -+ 1 I I I 635/3A/21 20 -+ 1+ ------+ I 635/3B/19 43 -+---+ I I 635/3B/20 44 -+ I I 635/3B/24 49 -+ 1 I 635/3B/22.6 47 ------+ I 635/3A/3 4 -+ I 635/3B/13 36 -+ I 635/3A/12 13 -+-+ I 635/3A/17 17 -+ +---+ I 635/3B/14 37 ---+ I I 635/3A/13 14 -+ + ------+ I 635/3A/15 15 -+ I I I 635/3A/9 10 -+-+ I I I 635/3A/16 16 -+ +---+ I I 635/3B/17 40 -+-+ I I 635/3B/17.4 41 -+ I I 635/3B/16 39 -+-+ +---+ I 635/3B/18 42 -+ I I I I 635/3A/7 8 -+ + ------+I I I 635/3B/10 33 -+I I1 I I 635/3B/8 30 -+-+ I1 I I 635/3~/6 28 -+ 11 r r 635/3A/ 10 11 -+-+ I1 I I 635/3B/3 26 -+ I +-+ I I 635/3A/11 12 -+ +----- + I I I 635/3~/18 18 -+-+ I I I r 635/3~/1 2 -+ I 11 I Cluster I I 635/3B/15 38 ---+ I I + ------+ 635/3A/6 7 -+ +---+ I 635/3B/1 24 -+ I I 635/3A/4 5 -+--- + I I 635/3B/2 25 -+ I I I 635/3A/5 6-+I1 I 635/3A/0 1 -+ +---+ I 635/3A/2 3 -+ I I 635/3B/9 31 -+ 1 I 635/38/5 27 -+---+ I 635/3B/7 29 -+ I 635/38/11 34 -+ I 635/3B/9.3 32 ------+

Figure 5.22 Dendrogram of PMW 635 Unit 3, Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +------+------+ ------+------+ ------+

635/2A/4 10 -+ 635/3A/12 61 -+ 635/3A/17 65 -+ 635/2B/3 28 -+-+ 635/3A/3 52 -+ I 635/3B/13 84 -+ I 63 5/38/14 85 -+ +-----+ 635/28/9 37 -+ I I 635/3B/17 88 -+ I I 635/38/17.4 89 -+-+ I 635/2A/18 24 -+ I 635/19/2 5 -+ +-+ 635/3A/0 49 -+-----+ I I 635/1N/0 1 -+ I11 635/18/1 4 -+ 111 635/3A/2 51 -+ 111 635/3B/9 79 -+ 111 635/28/6 34 -+ +-+ I ' 635/3A/4 53 -+---+ I I 635/3B/2 73 -+ 11 I 63 5/3A/5 54 -+ I I I 635/38/5 75 -+ 11 I 635/3B/7 77 -+ I I I 635/38/11 82 -+ +-+ I 635/3A/13 62 -+ I I 635/3A/15 63 -+ I I 635/3A/9 58 -+ I I 635/2A/7 13 -+ I +-+ Cluster 1 635/23/8 36 -+---+ I1 635/3A/6 55 -+ 11 635/38/1 72 -+ I1 635/2A/9.4 16 -+ I1 635/2B/2 27 -+ I I 635/38/18 90 -+ I1 635/28/5 31 -+----- + I1 635/3A/7 56 -+ 111 635/38/8 78 -+ I I1 635/38/10 81 -+ I I1 635/3B/16 87 -+ I I1 635/3B/6 76 -+ I I1 635/2A/8 14 -+ I I1 635/3A/11 60 -+ I I1 635/2A/10 17 -+ I I1 635/3A/18 66 -+-+ +---+ I 635/2A/6 12 -+ I I I 635/2B/7 35 -+ I I I 635/28/22 47 -+ I I +------+ 635/3A/1 50 -+ +-+ I I I 635/2A/13 19 -+ I 1 I I I 635/38/15 86 -+-+ I I I I

Figure 5.23a Dendrograrn of PMW 635 Cluster I. Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +------+------+ ------+ ------+ ------+ 635/2B/13 41 -+ I 635/28/16 43 -+-+ X 635/38/22 94 -+ I I 635/2A/16 22 -+-+------+ I 635/3A/20 67 -+ I I I 635/3A/22 69 -+ I I I 635/36/23 96 -+-+ I I 635/3A/24 70 -+ I I I 635/2B/5.3 33 ---+ I I 635/2A/17 23 -+ I Cluster I1 I 635/3B/24 97 -+ I I 635/2B/19 46 -+-+ +------+ 635/3A/26 71 -+I I 635/2A/5 11 -+-+-+ I 635/28/10 38 -+ I I I 635/3A/8 57 -+ I I I 635/38/12 83 -+-+ I I 635/2B/4 29 -+I1 1 635/2/1 7 --- + I I 635/2A/23 26 -+ +----- + 635/2B/18 45 -+-+ I 635/2A/14 20 -+ I I 635/2B/17 44 -+ +-+ 635/3B/20 92 -+ I I 635/2A/12 18 -+I1 635/2B/14 42 -+-+ I 635/38/19 91 -+ I 635/3A/21 68 -+ I 635/2A/15 21 -+ I 635/3B/22.6 95 ----- +

Figure 5.23b Dendrogram of PMW 635 Cluster II. -- - -- Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label N~~ +------+------+------+------+------+

Figure 5.24 Dendrogram of PMW 678, -- Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label NU +------+------+------+------+------+

Figure 5.25 Dendrogram of PMW 675. Exterior Decoration

.- - - 636 Unit 1 636 Unit 2 636 Unit 3 636 Unit 4 636 Unit 5 652

~ndcrorafMBurnished DECO!~-I~TCR OWRm~mb Applique mlncision Red slip Black DECO 84

DECO 85 DECO &6 OECO 87 COMPLEX

Rim Type

Rim Diameter

Figure 5.26 Distribution of clustered attributes in Early Iron Age sites. 100% 80% 60% Exterior Decoration 40% 20%

0% 0 63 1 UnitlNIS 631 Unit IUW 63 1 Unit 2 635 unit 2 635 Unit 3

Mu- Mm, IDECOII-18 ~TCR OKPR Comb ~ppliquc 0lncision Punaafion Rld slip I DECO 84 DECO 85 DECO 16 IDECO 87 COMPLEX

Rim Type

63 1 Unit INS63 1 Unr IUW 631 Unit 2 635 Unrt 1 635 Unlt 3

Rim Diameter

Figure 5.27 Distributions of clustered attributes from Late Iron Age sites. 100% 80°h 60% Exterior Decoration 40°h 20% 0% 63 1 Unrt 3 635 Una l 635.Unit 2 635 Unit 3 678 675

10O0h 80°h 60% Rim Type 40% 20% 0% 63 I Unrt 3 635 Unit I 635 Unit 2 635 Un~t3 678 675

Rim Diameter

-- - . -- 63 1 Unrt 3 - 635 Unlr 1 '635 Unit 2A' 635 Unit 3 ' 678 675

Figure 5.28 Distributions of clustered attributes fiom Wandala Period sites. .

Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Labe 1 Num +------+------+ ------+ ------+---- +

652/1/1 79 -+ 652/2/6 86 -+-----+ 652/1/2 80 -+ I 636/3/1 48 --- + +--- + 636/4/9 63 --- +-+ I I 636/5/9 75 ---+ +-+ I 636/4/1 55 ----- + I 636/5/4 70 -+-+ I 636/5/5 71 -+I +------+ 636/3/7 54 -+-+ I I 636/5/7 73 -+ +-+ I I 636/3/5 52 ---+ I I I 636/4/8 62 ---+ I I I 636/3/4 51 -----+ I I 652/2/1 81 -+ +----- + 5 Dominated by PMW 652 and 652/2/2 82 -+---+ I PMW 636 Units 3,4 and 5 652/2/4 84 -+ I + ------+ 636/4/4 58 -+ I I I 652/2/5 85 -+-+ I I I 636/5/13 77 -+ +-+ I I 636/4/2 56 -+-+ I I 636/5/1 67 -+ I I I 636/3/2 49 ---+ I I 636/4/10 64 ---+-+ I I 636/4/12 66 ---+ +-+ I I 636/3/3 50 -----+ + ------+ I 636/4/11 65 ------+ I

Figure 5.29a Dendrogram of Early Iron Age sites. Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 hbcl N,Jm +------+ ------+ ------p-+----+ 636/1NW/IO 10 -+ I

636/lSW/_1 33 -+-+ i 636/1NW/2 13 -+ +-+ I 636/iSW/5 35 -*Ii L 636/.?/ 1 4 2 -+-+ 1 I 636/?/? 43 -+ I Upper levels of PMW 636 Units I and 2 : 636/1NW/1 11 -+ + ------+ r 636/1SW/l 31 -+ I I 636/1SE/2 34 -+---+ I I 636/1SE/4 26 -+ I I I 636/1SE/l 23 -+ I I

636/!SE/3 25 -+-7 i I I 636/:SW/: 33 -- 1 1 1 i 636/1!1E/3 j ---t-+ T I 6 36/?SW/I 31 -- I i I ' 636/1/4 45 ---+ I I 636/iSW/7 37 -+ I I

636/5/3 69 -+ I I 636/5/2 68 -+-+ I I 636/3/6 53 -+I +------+ 636/1tlE/1 3 ---+-+ I 636/L,/Il 76 ---* I I 636/?SW/6 36 -+ I I 636/1SW/9 39 -+ + ------+ I 636/1NW/6 16 -+-+I I I 636/1NE/9 10 -+I1 1 I 636/1SW/10 40 -+I1 I I 636/1CIE/7 8 -+ +-+ I I 636/2/ 5 46 -+-+ I I 636/2/6 47 -+I I I 636/ZNW/8 18 -+I I I 636/2/3 44 -+-+ I A 636/1NE/9 9 -+ I Mixed ct user E 636/1NW/9 '9 ---+ .,.------+ 636/?NE/O 1 -+-T T 636/1551./0 30 -+ +-+ I 636/1NE/2 3 ---- I I 636/1/3 57 -+-+ I X 636/5/20 78 -+I1 I 636/4/7 61 ---+-+-----+ I 636/5/8 74 ---+ I I X 636/5/6 7' -----+ I I 636/1NW/O 11 -+ I I &36/4/5 59 -+-+ I I 636/'4/6 60 .-+ I +---+ 636/1SE/7 19 -t +-+ I 636/2/0 41 -*I1 I 636/1NE/5 6 -+-+ I I 636/1NW/4 15 -+ I I 636/1SE/5 27 -+ I I 636/1NE/4 5 + +-----+ 636/1NW/3 14 -+ I 636/1SE/O -7-1 - -+ I 636/1SE/6 ?a -+-+ I 651/2/3 83 -+I1 636/1NW/10.1 21 -+ 7-t 636/1SW/6 38 -+-+ 636/1NW/7 17 -+ I 636/1NE/6 7 ---+

Figwe 5.29b Dendrogram of Early Iron Age sites (continued). Case 0 5 10 IS 20 25 Label Nun +------+ ------+------+------+----+

631/1N/1 2 -+ 631/15/2 9 -+-+ 631/2/5 16 -+I 635/3A/22 50 -+ +-+ 635/36/23 58 -+-+ I 635/3A/24 51 -+If 631/1S/1 8 -+-+ I 631/2W/4 31 -+I1 631/1P1/0 1 ---+ + ------+ 635/2A/16 35 -+---+ I: 635/3A/20 48 -+ I + ------+ 631/1N/2 3 -+---+ I I 631/2W/5 32 -+ I i 631/2/6 17 ---+ ------+ I 631/2/7 18 ---+ I 635/26/22 46 ---+-+ 1 635/28/25 47 ---+ +---+ I 635/38/20.6 55 -----+ I I 635/2B/17 43 -+ I I 635/3B/20 54 -+---+ I + ------+ 635/3B/24 59 -+ +-+ + ------+ I I 635/2A/17 36 ---+-+ 1 I I I 1 635/23/19 45 --- + +-+ I I I 631/1S/O 7 ---+ I I I I I 631/2E/9 30 ---+-+ 1 1 I I I 635/3A/26 52 ---+ +-+ 1 I I I 631/2/9 20 -+-+ I 1 I 1 I 631/2/11 24 -----I I I I 631/2/13 24 ---+ I I. I I 635/3B/22.6 57 ------+ +------+ I 631/1N/3 4 -+ I I 63 1 /2E/5 26 -+---+ I I 631/2E/4 25 -+ + ------+ I I 631/2/12 23 --- + I I I I 631/2E/7 28 ---+-+ I I I 631/2E/6 27 ---+ I I I 631/2E/8 29 ---+ I I I 631/2/8 19 -+-+ I I I 635/2A/14 33 -+ I +-----+ I 635/28/14 41 -+I I I 635/38/19 53 -+-+-----+ I I 635/2A/15 34 -+ I 1 I I 635/2A/23 39 -+-+ I I I 635/28/18 44 -+ I I L I 631/2/1 12 -+ I +-----+ I 635/3A/21 49 -+-+ I I 631/2/10 21 -+ I I 635/28/13 40 -+-+ I I 635/28/16 42 -+ I I I 631/2/3 14 -+ +-----+ I 631/2/4 15 -+-+ I 635/38/22 56 -+ 1 I 631/2/2 13 ---+ I 631/1S/5 11 ---+---+ I 635/2A/18 37 ---+ +-+ I 631/1N/4 5 -----+-+ I Dominated by lower levels ofUnit lN/S I 631/19/4 10 -----+ +------+ 631/1N/5 6 ------+ 635/2A/22 38 ------+

Figure 5.30 Dendrogram of Late Iron Age sites. Case 0 5 10 ' 15 20 2s Label Nu", + ------+ ------+ ------+ ------+ ----+

635/28/6 39 -+ 67 8 /LA/ 5 114 -+ 635/3A/2 48 -+ 635/3B/9 71 -+ 678/1B/ 1 123 -+---+ 635/3A/4 50 - I 635/3B/t 65 -+ I 635/3A/5 53. -+ I 635/38/5 67 -+ I 635/3B/7 69 - I 635/38/11 74 + + ------+ 635/2A/9.4 28 -+-+ I I 678/1A/14 122 -+ I I I 635 /38/ 1 64 -+ I I I 678/18/5 127 -+-+ I 1 635/3A/6 52 -+ I 1 I 635/3A/9 55 -+ 1 1 I 63 5 /28/ 8 41 -+ +-+ I 678/1B/10 131 -+ I I 678/lB/13 135 -+ I I 678/18/14 137 -+-+ I 67 0 /1A/ 10 119 -+ I I 678/1A/12 120 -+ I 7 Dominated by PMW 635 and PMW 678 678/1A/8 117 -+ I + ------+ 670/18/15 138 ---+ I I 635/2A/ 2 20 -+ I I 678/lA/9 118 -+-----+ I I 678/1A/3 112 -+ +---+ I I 635/26/5 -3 38 -+-----+ 1 I I 675/1A/8 -2 90 -+ I I 1 63 5 /3A/ 8 54 -+ I I I 635/36/12 75 -+ I I I 635/28/4 34 -+---+ I I I 635/28/10 43 - 1 I I I 635/26/3 33 -+ I f I I 635/3A/3 19 -+ I I I I 635/3B/13 76 -+ +---+ I1 I 631/3/12 11 -+-+ I 1 +-+ I 635/3B/14 77 -+ I I 1 1 I 63 5 /2a/ 9 42 -+ I I I 1 I 635/3B/17 80 -+I 1 1 I 635/2A/4 22 -+I-+ I I I 635/3A/ 12 58 -+ I 1 f I 635/3A/ 17 62 -+ I 11 I 635/28/4 -2 35 ---+ 1 I I 635/26/5 36 -+ I1 I 63 5 /3A/ 7 53 -+ I I I 635/3B/8 70 -+ 11 I 635/38/10 73 -+-+ +-+ 1 635/3B/16 79 -+ I X I 635/3B/6 68 -+ I I I 63S/ZA/S 23 -+ .r---+ I I 678/18/13.2 136 -+ I I I 635/2B/2 32 -+ I 11 I 635/3B/ 18 82 - I I I I 635/2A/6 24 - I I I I 635/28/7 40 -+ I I I I 635 /tA/8 26 -+-+ I I I 635/3A/ll 57 -+ I1 1 635/Zk/ 10 29 -+ XI I 635/3A/18 63 -+ +-+ I 635/3A/1 47 -+ I I 635/3A/13 59 -+ I I 635 /3A/15 60 -+ I 1: 635/3A/16 61 -- I I 635/2A/7 25 -+ +-+ I I 635/2A/12 30 -+ I I I I 635/28/11 44 -+-+ I I f 635/38/17. 4 81 -+ I I I 678/1A/13 121 -+ +-+ I 635/tA/13 31 -+ I I 635/38/15 78 -+ I I 635/28/12 45 -+-+ I I 63 5/2A/ 9 27 -+ 1 1 I 635/3A/lO 56 -+ +-+ I 635/1N/1 14 -+ X I 678/18/12 133 ---+ I

Figure 5.3 la Dendrograrn of WandaIa Period sites. Case 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num + ------+ ------+ ------+ ------+ ---- + 1635/3B/3 66 -+ I 678/1A/2 111 -+-+ I 635/1N/2 15 -+ I I 678/1A/4 113 -+ +---+ I 678/1A/6 115 -1 I I 678/1A/7 116 -+-+ I I 678/1B/16 139 -+ I I 635/1N/0 13 -+ I I 635/1S/1 16 -+ I I 635/3A/0 46 -+ I 1

678/1B/4 12 6 - + I Cluster contains all cases from PMW 63 1 Unit 3 I 635/18/2 17 + 1 +------+ I 678/18/6 128 -+ I I I I 678/18/7 129 -+ +--- + I I 631/3/3 3 -+I I I I 631/3/11 10 -+ I 1 I 631/3/7 7 -+ I I I I 631/3/9 9 -+ I I I I 631/3/1 11I f I 678/1B/11 132 -+ I I 1 I 631/3/4 4 -+-+ I I I 631/3/2 2 -+ I I I 631/3/6 6 -+ I I I 678/18/12.2 134 -+ I I I 631/3/5 5 -+-+ I 1 I 675/1A/l 83 -+ +-+ I I I 631/3/8 8 ---+ I I + ------+ 631/3/14 12 -- -*-+-+ I 635/2A/3 21 -- -+ I 1 635/28/5.2 37 -----+ I 675/18/5 101 -+ I 678/18/3 125 -+-+ I 675/1A/4 86 -+ I I 675/1A/3 85 -+-+ ------+ I 675/1A/14 96 -+ I I I 675/1S/6 102 -+ 1 I . I 675/18/7 103 -+ I I I 675/1A/5 87 -+-+ I I 678/1B/2 124 -+ I I I 675/1A/11 93 -+ I I I 675/1B/1 98 -+ I I I 675/1B/12 108 -+ I I I 675/1A/13 95 -+-+ +------+ 675/1A/12 94 -+ I Dominated by PMW 675 675/1A/10 92 -+-+ I 675/18/11 107 -+ I I 675/1B/3 100 -+ I I 675/18/10 106 -+ +-----+ I 675/1A/6 88 -+ I I I 675/1A/2 84 -+-+ I1 675/18/2 99 -+ I I I 675/1B/14 109 ---+ I1 675/1A/9 91 -+ +---+ 675/1B/8 104 -+-+ I 675/18/9 105 -+ +- I 675/1A/7 89 ---+ I I 635/2/1 19 -+-+ +-+ 1 678/1A/1 110 -+I111 635/13/3 18 ---+-+ +-+ 678/18/8 130 ---+ I I 675/1B/O. 3 97 -----+ I 635/38/9.3 72 ------+

Figure 5.3 1b Dendrogram of Wandala Period sites (continued) Figure 6.1 Examples of Worked Sherds from Doulo: (a)675/1 BI11, (b)635/3A/10, (c)675/1A/8, (d)636/4/5, (e)636/4/8, (f) 63 11211 3.1, (g)63 1/26 @)63111 S/2, (i)63 112/8,(j-k)63 1/2/5.

Figure 6.2 Smoking pipes (a-b) 635/2/8, (c)63 1/3/8; figurine hgment (d)636/1W2; and perforated miniature vessel (e)635RB/5.2. Figure 6.3 Spindle whorls fiom Wandala Period.

Figure 6.4 Radiograph of bracelet and ring hgments from Doulo:(a)678/1B/4, (b)678/1A/3, (c)636/1NE/5, (d)675/1B/14 (e)675/1A10. Figure 6.5 Radiograph of iron projectile points and pin fiagment at Doulo:(a)636/4/8, (b)635/3B/12,(c)63 1/2/10.

Figure 6.6 Iron pin fiom (a) PMW 636/5/14, and historic metal objects (b) 63 1/2A/1, (c) 675/1B/6and (d) 675/1A/3. Figure 6.7 Radiograph of pin hgments fiom Doulo: (a)635/3A/25,(b)63 1/3/12, and (c) 678/1A/S.

Figure 6.8 Digging stick (or ax) blade from PMW 63 I/ 3/341. Figure 6.9 Some French coins fiom PMW 675, Units 1A and 1 B, levels 2-7.

Figure 6.10 Beads fiom Early Iron Age site PMW 636: (a-f) shell beads from 6361111 -6; (g) iron bead fiom 6361210; (h) carnelian bead fiom 63611NW/ll. Figure 6.1 1 Assortment of beads £kom Doulo: (a) carnelian 63 1 1216; (b-c) phalanges 63 1/2/5&7; (d) cowry shell 63 11312; (e) plastic 67511 A11 ; (f) quartz 635/3B/5;(g-h) glass 63511 S/2.

Figure 6.12 Figure 6.13 Agate projectile point from PMW 674 and small biface from PMW 675.

Figure 6.14 Polished quartz cylinders and labrets: (a) 635/3B/5;(b)636/3/1; (c)636/4/8; and (d)63 512A.16. Figure 6.15 Examples of flaked stone artifacts from Doulo : (a) tool edge 63611NWl9; @- d)sub-rectangular stone ax fiagment, oval stone ax fiagment, and triangular polished stone ax 636/010;(e) quartz biface 6521010; and (f) siltstone biface 63 1/212. Figure 6.16 Examples of ground stone artifacts from Doulo: (a-c and e) handstones; (d) stone bracelet hgment 636/4/8; and (f) granite ball 678/1B/14.