Energies for the 21St Century

Home , Concentrated solar power, Solar power in France

THE collection

1 w The atom 2 w Radioactivity 3 w Radiation and man 4 w Energy 5 w Nuclear energy: fusion and fission 6 w How a nuclear reactor works 7 w The nuclear fuel cycle 8 w Microelectronics 9 w The laser: a concentrate of light 10 w Medical imaging 11 w Nuclear astrophysics 12 w Hydrogen 13 w The Sun 14 w Radioactive waste 15 w The climate 16 w Numerical simulation 17 w Earthquakes 18 w The nanoworld 19 w Energies for the 21st century

ISSN 1637-5408. w Low-carbon energies for a sustainable future

FROM RESEARCH TO INDUSTRY

19 w Energies for the 21st century

Innovating for nuclear energy Domesticating solar power Biofuel production Developing batteries and fuel cells Thermonuclear fusion 2 w Contents century © Jack Star/PhotoLink st

Innovating for nuclear energy 6 The beginnings of nuclear energy in France 7 The third generation 8 Generation IV: new concepts 10 Developing batteries and fuel cells 25 Domesticating solar Lithium-ion batteries 26 power 13 A different application for Thermal solar power 15 each battery 27 Photovoltaic solar power 16 Hydrogen: an energy carrier 29 Concentrated solar power 19

Thermonuclear fusion 31 Biofuel production 20 Tokamak research 33 Biomass 21 ITER project 34 Energies for the 21 2nd generation biofuels 22

Designed and produced by: MAYA press - Printed by: Pure Impression - Cover photo: © Jack Star/PhotoLink - Illustrations : YUVANOE - 09/2010

Low-carbon energies for a sustainable future 19 w Energies for the 21st century w> IntroINTROdDuctUCTiIonON 3

The depletion of fossil resources and global warming are encoura- ging the development of research into new energy technologies (on the left, Zoé, France’s first nuclear reactor, on the right, the national institute for solar power). © F.Vigouroux/CEA F.Vigouroux/CEA © © C.Morel/CEA © P.Dumas/CEA

C.Morel/OurPolarHeritage/CEA

or a century now, the ability to manage Climate and energy are closely intertwined and energy resources (coal, oil, gas and, to a the issues are global. As a result of the conclu- Fcertain extent, nuclear energy), has led to a sions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate considerable increase living standards, especially Change (IPCC), the Kyoto protocol – which was in the developed countries. signed in 1997 – required 159 industrial- Between now and the year 2025, the world’s ised countries to reduce their GHG emissions population will rise from 6.7 to 8 billion hu- by 2012. In December 2008, the European man beings. Union signed the undertaking for the 20-20- The consumption of primary energy will rise from 20 targets by 2020: 20% renewable energies, 12 Gtoe to 17 Gtoe*. China and India alone 20% reduction in GHG, 20% greater energy will account for 40% of this growth. Fossil fuel efficiency, plus 10% biofuels. The energy mix energy stocks are estimated at 50 years for oil, will comprise fossil and nuclear energies plus 60 years for gas and uranium and 150 years for renewables: wind, hydro-electric, biofuels and coal. Emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) will geothermal. rise from 27 to 42 Gt.eq.CO2**. In France, three new technology platforms The world is therefore faced with a two-fold are being developed: the first concerns solar energy threat. Firstly, the threat of not having power, the second biofuels and the third marine sufficient, reliable supplies at acceptable prices power. (depletion of resources) and, secondly, the threat The CEA is associated with the first two. It is of damage to the environment (increased green- working in parallel on the topic of hydrogen as an house effect) through excessive consumption. energy carrier and on the storage of energy, while continuing with research into the fourth generation of nuclear reactors and fusion energy.

* billion tons equivalent oil, see page 21

** billion tons equivalent CO2

Low-carbon energies for a sustainable future 19 w Energies forfor the 21st century 4 w Energies for the 21st century

THE ENERGY MIX FOR THE 2030 TIME-FRAME

Hydroelectric dam

Local control and communication centre

Solar power plant supplying electricity

Hydrogen distribution station Thermal power plant with CO2 sequestration

Micro network HV grid Electricity transformer

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Wind farm

Wave energy

Nuclear power Fuel cells and plant large-scale electricity storage

Hydrogen production plant Solar panels and thermal storage Biomass plant producing heat, electricity and biofuels

Photovoltaic solar panels and storage batteries

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Nuclear energy has been used for civil purposes for half a century. The third generation of reactors offers optimised use of resources. For the fourth generation, researchers are working on totally innovative concepts. Innovating for nuclear energy

OSIRIS EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR The nuclear reaction is characterised by the blue light due to the Cherenkov effect. © P. Allard/REA/CEA

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ÉOLE REACTOR The operator is removing a fuel rod for spectrogamma- metry inspection. This very low power reactor is designed for neutron studies on moderated lattices, in particular those of industrial PWRs.

Nuclear fuel

Uranium produces more energy than a fossil fuel (coal or oil), in fact, 10,000 times more. This ore cannot be used in its pure state and has to undergo a series of processing and

© P.Stroppa/CEA enrichment operations before it can be used as fuel (see booklet entitled “The fuel cycle”). However, once it has been used in a reactor for Nuclear energy was born at the end of the 1930s, the first time, the fuel can then be reprocessed. with the discovery of the fission reaction. But it was The uranium and plutonium, which can still be used, are recovered in order to produce a new not until December 1953, with the world gripped fuel: MOX (Mixed Oxides). Since the 1990s, by the Cold War, that nuclear energy was first used EDF has been using MOX fuel in 20 pressurised for civil purposes. The American President, Dwight water reactors (PWR) around France. D. Eisenhower, urged the development of this new form of energy “to serve the peaceful pursuits of mankind” during his Atoms for Peace speech to the During the course of these sixty years, techno- United Nations. Other countries also followed suit at logical progress has led to improvements, cost the same time: Russia, France and Great Britain. reductions, greater electricity production and enhanced safety. Three generations of nuclear The beginnings of nuclear power reactors have thus succeeded each other, while a fourth is currently being studied. energy in France Construction of the first generation of nuclear For its part, France initiated a nuclear power de- power plants started in 1956 and the last one velopment programme in 1945, when General was shut down in 1994. This natural uranium, de Gaulle created the Commissariat à l’énergie gas-graphite reactor (gas-cooled reactor – GCR) atomique (French Atomic Energy Commission). Its had a capacity of 70 to 540 MWe. Construction aims were, and indeed still are, to meet the grow- of the second generation, using pressurised wa- ing need for electricity, with complete independ- ter reactors (PWR), started in France in 1977. ence and at low cost. This goal was made all the 58 of these reactors are still operating. They more pressing by the first oil crisis in 1956. provide greater power than the previous genera- Today, 76% of our country’s electricity is nuclear tion, from 900 to 1,450 MWe, depending on in origin. the plant unit.

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CARTE DES UNITÉS ÉLECTRONUCLÉAIRES GRAVELINES MAP OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS PENLY GRAVELINECHOOZS EN FRANCE AU 01/01/2010 IN FRANCE ON 01/01/2010 PENLY CHOOZ PALUEL CATTENOM PALUEL CATTENOM

NOGENT FLAMANVILLE SITUATION DES UNITÉS NOGENT Installées FLAMANVILLE STATUS OF PLANTEn constructionS BELLEVILLE InstalleTranched déclassée DAMPIERRE UnderArrêtée construction BELLEVILLE Decommissioned DAMPIERRE FESSENHEIM FILIÈREShut DE dowRÉACnTEUR MONTS D’ARREE UNGG Gaz - eau lourde FESSENHEIM REACTOR TECHNOLOGSurgénérateuYr BUGEY St LAURENMONTST D’ARREE GCRREP refroidissement circuit ouvert GasR –EP heavy refroidis watersement CREYS-MALVILLE BUGEY Fastcir breedercuit fermé (tours) CHINOSt LAURENN T PWR once-through PALIERcooling REP STANDARDISPWR closed-circuitÉ CRUAS CIVAUX CREYS-MALVILLE cooling34 - REP (towers 900 MW) e CHINON 20 - REP 1300 MWe 4 - N4 STANDARDISED PWR LE BLAYAIS TRICASTIN FLEET CRUAS CIVAUX 34 – 900 MWe PWR GOLFECH MARCOULE

20 – 1,300 MWe PWR St ALBAN, St MAURICE 4 - N4 LE BLAYAIS TRICASTIN

GOLFECH MARCOULE

St ALBAN, St MAURICE

The third generation standardised, which means that the cost per kWh2 produced is no more than three euro The third generation of nuclear reactors is the cents, hence the benefits to be gained from direct descendant of the PWR reactors of the following this management model; previous generation. • the fuel cycle, with better burnup fraction. Research and development work on this plant It will be easier to use MOX (a mixture of ura- series has enabled all stages of the energy pro- nium and plutonium) and reprocessed enriched duction process to be improved, ensuring that uranium, thereby optimising the basic fuel, it is both more economical and safer. uranium. In relation to the previous genera- Its design aims to achieve significant gains in tions, the uranium consumption savings are the following areas: estimated at 17%; • safety, for example by means of a double • the quantity of waste will be reduced by 15 to concrete containment with internal steel liner, 30%; a corium catcher under the reactor core; • electricity production will increase by 30% 1 High temperature • power: 1,600 MWe as op- per year; liquid mixture at posed to 1,450 for the PWR; • plant lifetimes will raise from 40 to 60 (2,500 to 3,000°C) consisting of materials • economic competitiveness years. originating in the through increased stand- nuclear fuel, the fuel cladding, the ardisation and architectural 1. MWe: unit of power, one electrical megawatt repre- core structural steel simplification. The second senting one million watts. and the concrete breakdown products. generation power plants in 2. . kWh: unit of measurement of energy, one kilowatt-hour operation in France are fully corresponding to 1,000 watts of energy consumed in one hour.

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How does it work?

To produce electricity on an generated. But while a thermal industrial scale a turbine is used. power plant burns carbon, oil, or It transmits sufficient force gas, a nuclear reactor produces to a generator to initiate rapid heat from the fission reactions of rotation. atomic nuclei such as those of The generator then converts the uranium. mechanical energy communi- Any boiler needs a «coolant» or cated to it into electricity. The heat-transfer fluid to remove the turbine can be driven in a variety heat to be transmitted. In the of ways: in a hydroelectric plant, nuclear power plants currently in water falling from the dam transfers its energy to it. In a thermal service, this fluid is quite simply power plant and in a conventional water. nuclear power plant, this is done In the «nuclear systems of the by pressurised steam. future», the role of coolant could In this case, we have to use a be played by a liquid metal, such PHÉNIX POWER PLANT «boiler», which produces the heat as sodium or lead, or by a gas The turbine in this power plant, which is from which the steam is in turn such a helium. a sodium fast reactor prototype. F.Vigouroux/CEA

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SODIUM-COOLED FAST REACTOR

Steam generator

Reactor core Turbine Generator

Control rods Electrical power Heat exchanger Condenser

Primary Heat sink sodium Pump (hot) Secondary sodium pump Pump Pump COMPACT THERMAL Primary sodium (cold) EXCHANGER TEST Studies carried out by Areva for future VHTR reactors.

In Europe, two EPRs (European Pressurized tory or administrative. They proposed actions Reactor) are currently under construction: one to facilitate short-term deployment of these in Finland, at Olkiluoto (decided at the end third-generation nuclear reactors. of 2005) and the second at Flamanville in • the second is the initiative of the Generation IV France (since mid-2007), with commissioning International Forum, launched in 2000. scheduled for 2014. Another EPR is planned in France for Penly. In February 2009, Italy signed an agreement with Areva to build four EPRs. Generation IV: new concepts In August 2008, China identified Taishan as The founding principle of the Generation IV the site for two plants of this type. International Forum is to create R&D synergy With a view to anticipating the risk of short- in order to design nuclear reactors which could ages and ensuring medium-term energy inde- enter industrial service as of 2040. pendence, the US Department of Energy (DoE) decided to modernise its electricity production The member countries agreed on the benefits of resources. nuclear power, on the one hand to meet growing energy needs around the world, and on the other Two complementary measures concern the nuclear to guarantee sustainable development and take energy sector: account of climate change factors. • the first is a study of the feasibility of building new reactors in the United States. Under the Today, the members of this forum are: Argen- Nuclear Power 2010 (NP 2010) Programme, tina, Brazil, Canada, China, Euratom, France, American experts evaluated the reactors that Japan, Republic of Korea, Russia, South Africa, could be built and identified any problems that Switzerland, United Kingdom and the United needed to be solved, whether technical, regula- States.

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Helium Gas-cooled Fast Reactor

Generator Electrical power Helium

Turbine

Reactor Heat recuperator

Control rods Precooler

Intercooler Compressor

“The member countries agreed on the benefits of nuclear energy.”

Given the varied needs and the particular con- In France, the CEA is working on two technolo- text of each country, there cannot be just one gies: the Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) fourth-generation reactor system. In 2002, and the Gas-cooled Fast Reactor (GFR - in this six technologies were chosen, all representing case the gas being helium). Fast neutron nu- major advances in terms of the development clear reactor technology will enable uranium of sustainable energy, economic competitive- reserves (currently estimated at 60 years) to ness, safety and reliability, non-proliferation be used for several millennia. The CEA is thus and protection against external hazards. The working on the design of an innovative sodium- six technologies are: cooled reactor prototype. The aim is to prepare for industrial deployment of this technology in 1 - Helium-cooled VHTR (Very High Tempera- France by about 2040, with the research focus ture Reactor) (1,000°C/1,200°C), designed being on innovation. for the production of hydrogen or for hydrogen/ electricity cogeneration; The materials used will need to be particularly resistant to very high temperatures (about 2 - GFR (Helium Gas-cooled Fast Reactor); 550°C for the first and 850°C for the second). 3 - SFR (Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor); Studies are therefore under way into special 4 - LFR (Lead-cooled Fast Reactor); steels and composite ceramics, as well as into 5 - SCWR (Supercritical Water-cooled Reactor); the nanostructure of these materials. Ceramic 6 - MSR (Molten Salt Reactor). matrices are being tested as a replacement

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for the cladding and have the advantage of For this generation, uranium oxides would be better thermal conductivity and the ability to replaced by uranium nitrides or carbides, taking withstand very high temperatures. To carry out the form of particles, rods or rings. According these research projects, scientists are relying on to the research teams, 2012 will constitute an experimental reactors such as Osiris in Saclay initial milestone and the opportunity to take near Paris and soon, in 2014, the Jules Horowitz stock of the first experiments, fuel and ma- reactor (RJH) in Cadarache near Marseille. terials research and innovative technologies. For each technology, fuel studies are also in In the light of these results and depending on progress in order to determine the characteris- the Government’s decision, a single prototype tics, reactor core geometry and materials. will be built in 2020, with the goal of achieving greater performance, greater safety, more The reactors in operation use pellets consisting economic operation, less risk of proliferation of compressed and baked enriched uranium and less waste. powder (uranium oxide). The pellets are stacked in cladding and are also known as fuel rods.

Characterising fuels of the future

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The Sun is an inexhaustible source of energy… but one that is unequally distributed depending on the region and only available intermittently. Effective tools need to be developed in order to create heating and electricity generation systems compatible with these conditions. Domesticating solar power

INES solar panels Test frame for photovoltaic cells and UPS (uninterruptible power supplies) C.Dupont/CEA

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Solar power is available everywhere on Earth and, rectly transforms solar radiation into heat and, for in theory, corresponds to 900 times global energy electricity production, Concentrated Solar Power demand. Each square metre receives an average of plants (CSP) and solar photovoltaic. 2 to 3 kWh per day in northern Europe, 4 to 6 kWh In the 1970s, the CEA became involved in ther- in the south of France or in the tropics. Seasonal mal applications. In the Pacific, it developed the variations only reach 20% in the regions receiving world’s first solar homes, hospitals and hotels. most sunshine, but are far greater (by a factor of 2.5) Since the 1980s, it has been continuing with in northern Europe. its thermal activities for buildings and has ex- Solar power can play a vital role in local produc- panded its research to include photovoltaic ap- tion of heat and electricity, in particular for indi- plications. vidual and collective residential buildings, which This research is today being further developed need less energy than industry. This energy can within the context of INES. be used in three ways: solar thermal, which di-

INES The French national solar energy institute (INES) was created in 2006. This ambitious project, supported External view of the building by the General Council of Savoy, the Rhone-Alpes Re- gion and the CEA, brings together researchers from the CEA, the CNRS, the building industries scientific centre (CSTB) and the University of Savoy. What is its goal? It’s to promote and develop solar power in France and become a European leader and global benchmark in this field. On the Savoie Technolac site near Cham- bery, INES is home to more than 250 researchers and engineers, instructors and industrial personnel. They are spread over three different platforms: • a «research, development, industrial innovation» (RDI) platform, which constitutes the core of its international expertise, • a «demonstration» platform for characterising the equipment and systems produced by the RDI platform, • an «education» platform with four roles: information,

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Thermal solar power Thermal solar power is mastered today both technologically and economically. The principle is simple: sensors absorb solar photons and transform them into heat. This heat is then transmitted to a liquid or gas (coolant) which carries it to an energy storage reservoir. Thermal solar energy is primarily used to heat water (sanitary facilities or swimming pools) or buildings. In Europe, solar hot water repre- sents 90% of the thermal solar market. Most homes in some southern countries (Greece, Israel, etc.) are equipped with solar water © P.Avavian/CEA heaters and they are also extensively used in Germany. Efficiency has reached from 30 to ARTIFICIAL SUNSHINE BENCH 60%. 4 m2 of thermal sensors can meet the Performance testing of thermal solar sensors. hot water needs of a family of four and 10 m2 can heat a 100 m2 home in our latitudes. Use of this technology is on the increase, because it offers energy independence at moderate cost, without needing network connection or sophisticated installation expertise. In 2004, China was the most active market with 75% of the new solar sensors installed worldwide. At INES, an R&D platform has been installed for optimisation of thermal solar systems. It is developing and characterising innovative components and systems.

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Photovoltaic improved by about 4% every 10 years, firstly in solar power the laboratory before being industrialised. Major technological breakthroughs will nonetheless be Photovoltaic solar power has the advantage of essential if the cost per photovoltaic kilowatt is directly converting the Sun’s energy into elec- to be further reduced and the performance of tricity. Applications began in the early 1960’s, photovoltaic systems (cells, modules, storage, in satellites and in consumer products such as electronics, etc.) improved. The research teams watches and calculators. are thus working in three main areas: This is a decentralised power source that is ideal 1 - Improving the efficiency of light energy con- for electricity production on isolated sites, where version and reducing the cost of photovoltaic it avoids the need to invest in kilometres of cell production. power lines for connection to the grid. Some scenarios predict that photovoltaic solar power Current research is aiming for efficiency levels of could, within the next 40 to 50 years, become about 20 to 25%, by means of technologies which one of the two main sources of energy. The an- have to be industrially viable in economic terms. nual growth rate of the market has been increas- This entails the development of new concepts. ing for the past 15 years and reached 40% in Silicon, the basic material used in the cells, is 2007 (4,000 MW installed that year worldwide). present on Earth in very large quantities, whether In France, the Grenelle domestic environment in forests or on beaches. At present, 95% of the summit anticipated a major contribution by solar market relies on this source. The silicon used photovoltaic power by the year 2020. It is a must be of «electronic» quality, in other words promising option for meeting rising residential extremely pure, making for relatively expensive demand, provided that it can be made economi- production. To bring this cost down, researchers cally competitive. are looking at a number of potential avenues: The main focus of current research is to improve using lower purity silicon, reducing the quantities efficiency and bring down the cost of photo- needed for operation of the cell through innovative voltaic cells. The conversion of light energy in technologies, developing new plastic or polymer a photovoltaic cell is from 15 to 20%, which organic materials which, being cheaper, degra- easily offsets the energy used in its manufacture dable and easy to handle, would open up new and allows the production of surplus electric- possibilities for cell design while complying with ity. These efficiency levels are being constantly the constraints of sustainable development.

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Photovoltaic modules assembly line on which the process uses: • proven double-glazing technology • seamless cell intercon- nection • vacuum encapsulation © P.Avavian/CEA

2 - Reducing the cost of energy storage (for example for portable applications). HOW DOES A PHOTOVOLTAIC Although the electricity produced by photovoltaic CELL WORK? solar power can be connected to the grid, it can Silicon atoms also be used on the production site itself. Boron atoms replaced by replacing phosphorus atoms However, the Sun is not always available (night- silicon atoms time, clouds) so it is essential to have a storage Silicon atoms system capable of restoring the energy when it is needed. This is the weak link in the system and the existing lead batteries will need to be improved to allow better long-term storage. 250 microns Nickel-cadmium and especially lithium-ion thick batteries are also being tested. The latter offer (0.25 mm) improved efficiency and longer life and are more Electrical suitable for solar power because of their compact- contacts 15 cm ness. The CEA is helping develop these batteries and optimise their management systems. 3 - Optimising energy management in the home, with the aim of eventually creating energy self-sufficiency. Modules producing both electricity and heat, offering the most efficient possible combination of solar thermal and photovoltaic power, are currently being developed. In 2008, Germany accounted for 40% and Japan 25% of the photovoltaic solar capacity installed worldwide. These two countries also account for With an electrical contact, the On passing through the pho- half of global production of cells. The price per electrons move through the circuit tovoltaic cell, the photons strip and generate an electric current. electrons from the silicon atoms. kWh is still high and its competitiveness depends on the amount of sunlight. When connected to

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Solar house

In France, buildings account for 46% of final energy is responsible for 25% of the country’s CO2 emissions, consumption (energy delivered to the consumer for or about 120 million tons of CO2. final use), about two-thirds for residential purposes It is thus a priority application for the use of solar and one-third for the service sector. This consumption power.

Control box UPS Charger Storage Thermal solar Photovoltaic solar

Domestic appliances TV Compact fluorescent light-bulb

the grid, it is between 30 and 60 euro cents with 900 hours of sunshine per year and half that Owing to the amount of sunshine in the price if the ratio of sunshine is twice is high. Its South of France, the Valéco group in 2008 cost is however coming down by 5% per year inaugurated the first ground photovoltaic power plant, at Lunel in the Hérault region. and it will become competitive in 2020 for 60 to It comprises 6,732 modules and produces 90% of the European market. A self-contained between 600 and 750 MWh annually, which photovoltaic system is more expensive, because corresponds to the average consumption of storage capacity has to be included. The price 242 homes. per kWh is then between 0.75 and 1.5 euro. In EDF Energies nouvelles built a plant of the same type in Narbonne, in the Aube region, the developing countries, this price is nonethe- comprising 95,000 modules producing less competitive when compared with the use 9.2 GWh per year. of generators or batteries.

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“The largest thermal power plant in the world is in California.”

Concentrated Solar Power The Sun’s thermal energy can also be used to installation is from a few megawatts to about a produce electricity thermodynamically: the most hundred megawatts. In France, at Font-Romeu in industrially mature technology is to concentrate the Pyrenees, the Themis prototype solar power light using cylindrical parabolic mirrors. This type tower was operated from 1983 to 1986. Its of mirror, about a hundred metres long, concen- output was 2.5 MW. trates the heat on a receiver tube containing At present, 2,000 MW are under construction a heat transfer fluid; the fluid then generates and 11,000 MW are planned around the world. steam which drives a turbine to produce elec- Industrial plants are in service in Spain, in par- tricity. The largest thermal power plant in the ticular near Seville. In France, plans for the world is in California and its electrical power 12 MW Solenha power plant are being studied. output is 350 megawatts. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) is the most li- There is another technology and that is to use kely technology for large-scale deployment of hundreds of mirrors (heliostats) which focus solar solar power in North Africa. The cost per kWh radiation on a tall tower containing a boiler. In is still high and depends on the level of sunlight this boiler, heat transfer fluids store the heat, received on the chosen site, but on the whole transport it to a water tank and exchange their this cost will drop until in line with the cost of heat with the water, which turns into steam the fossil fuel kWh in about 2020. The CEA is and drives the turbines to produce electricity, working on a number of problematical issues for in the same way as in conventional thermal this technology (heat exchangers, management, power plants. The power output of this type of energy storage).

Left Alignment of solar panels. centre Laboratory for testing, accelerated ageing and characterisation of lead batteries. right Solar power plant in Barstow, California. © Eyewire,Inc C.Dupont/CEA © Eyewire,Inc

Low-carbon energies for a sustainable future 19 w Energies for the 21st century 20 production Biofuel Low-carbon © C.Borland/Photolink As a pr imary source of energy, Research energies for a sustainable is out to day out carried being future

cal or thermochem ical or biological biomass is into back ofuels produce biofuels in favour 19 w Energies in the for the 21 WAYS. West. st century by w Biofuel production 21

Biocarb Programme Lignocellulosic biomass samples. © P. Avavian/CEA

Biomass is the energy stored in organic matter. when the entire production chain is taken into More than 90% of this energy is of plant origin. account. For 3 billion individuals, or half of all mankind, To avoid creating conflict with the other agricul- traditional biomass (taking the form of wood, tural sectors and compromising the population’s plant waste, charcoal, and not forgetting dried food needs, the second generation of biofuels cow dung) is the main, if not the only, source aims to make optimum use of little utilised of energy. plant resources, in particular all the waste. The collection potential is estimated at 2.4 Gtoe*, Biomass or equivalent to the world’s fuel demand.

Biomass is a renewable resource for producing 5th December 2008, Dalkia inaugurated a synthetic fuels for use in traditional engines, biomass preparation platform in Velaine-en-Haye primarily for land vehicles. These “biofuels” are (Meurthe et Moselle). at present mainly produced from agricultural It will pool the resources of the entire Lorraine crops such as beet, wheat or sugar cane. They region and will deliver fuel within a 60 km radius. only use a part of the plant and their efficiency Surface area 21,000 m2 – 80,000 t/year depends on the crop variety used. One hectare 1.6 million euros investment. of wheat produces 2,500 litres of ethanol, one hectare of beet produces 6,500 litres and one hectare of rapeseed produces 1,300 litres of *toe: ton oil equivalent. In the transport sector, oil ester. It is also estimated that one litre of etha- currently dominates the energy market and is used as the unit of measurement. A toe is the quantity of energy nol produces 75% less greenhouse gases than obtained by burning 1 ton of oil, which would enable a car one litre of a petroleum-based product, even to travel about 11,000 km.

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Launch of a 2nd generation biofuels production project

Biofuels Two areas are being explored: the biological solution which produces bio-ethanol, and the thermochemical solution which directly produces biodiesel fuel. This new technology has

to follow the logic of sustainable development, © DR ensuring that its net balance shows no greenhouse gas emissions. To achieve this, the CEA The CEA and its industrial and financial partners are launching the first project phase to build a Btl and the IFP (Institut Français du Pétrole) are («Biomass to Liquid») demonstrator, for production conducting a programme on the second genera- of 2nd generation biofuels, on the Bure-Saudron site, at the boundary between the Haute-Marne and tion of biofuels. Meuse départements. The aim is to demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of a complete The researchers are thus studying the thermo- BtL production line in France, from biomass col- chemical way to produce biofuels from biomass- lection to synthesis of the fuel. The introduction of es comprising wood and agricultural produce hydrogen into the process in order to optimise the mass yield, will be a world first. and residues. This research comes under the Biocarb programme, the aim of which is to use The pilot unit will be the first of its kind in France, with a single installation combining the various “lignocellulosic” biomass (wood/straw, specific components, or «technological bricks» for produc- crops) to produce a high-purity synthetic gas tion of this biofuel. On a pre-industrial scale, the consisting of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. demonstrator will experiment with BtL by “thermochemical” production of biofuel. Expected output is This synthetic gas can then be used to produce about 23,000 t/year of biofuel (diesel / kerosene / a high-quality liquid biofuel for transport vehi- naphtha). This technology produces very high-quali- cles (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of diesel oil or ty biofuel, in terms of both engine operation and pol- lutant emissions. It is one of the answers preferred synthesis of methanol). by France and the European Union to the transport energy challenges for the 2020 time-frame. The bio-refinery concept is used to demonstrate that the biomass can be utilised for various The strong points of the BtL solution products. Conventional gasifiers are suitable for • Gasification making use of the entire plant small power levels (maximum 10 MW), produce (lignocellulose) a relatively lean gas but one that requires no • Solution with considerable potential: 10 to 18 Mtoe depending on the technological options external energy input. The new technologies, • Use of current distribution infrastructures known as high-temperature fluidised beds, • Meets the needs of the European automobile fleet use rapid pyrolysis to produce a richer gas and (80% diesel) • High-quality Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel, less Thermal breakdown of a material one that is more under the effect of heat without suited to higher polluting than petroleum-based diesel (no oxygen. sulphur, no aromatics)

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BIOCARB HTFB INSTALLATION This installation is used to obtain data on operating and controlling a high- temperature fluidised bed (HTFB) between 800 and 1,000°C, to test technology components (biomass feed and filtration), to study vapour gasification of the biomass and to character- ise the efficiency and yield of the system.

Falling production costs In 2007, 1 euro per litre oil equivalent, for the two solutions being studied. By the 2010-2015 time-frame, the objective is to bring this down to 0.40 euros per litre oil equivalent for ethanol (biochemical solution) and 0.70 for BtL (thermochemical solution). © P. Avavian/CEA

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“France is in a good position to use biomass for energy purposes.” © CEA Micro-algae These micro-algae are used to produce biofuels (biolipids).

power levels (10 to 200 MW). One particular term, the CEA is carrying out R&D into the third aim is to produce as much biofuel as possible generation of biofuels produced from photosyn- from a given quantity of biomass, in particular thetic micro-organisms, such as micro-algae and by examining processes which require an input cyanobacteria. of external energy (hydrogen, electricity, heat). The research teams are working on the one hand For example, by using the hydrogen produced on the capacity for synthesising these energy-rich by nuclear power or renewables, it is possible to carbonaceous compounds, usable as source of improve the balance of the operation, without de- biofuels (biolipids, bioethanol, etc.) and on the pro- grading its carbon balance. The European Union duction of catalytic converters using alternatives has set a target of 2% inclusion of biofuel into to platinum, for use in fuel cells (see page 30). existing fuels in 2005 and 5.75% in 2010. For the time being, it is not economically competitive Development of these processes will require fun- with oil, but the constant upward trend in crude damental research into chemistry (biomimetic or prices and the inclusion of external parameters bio-inspired catalysis) and photosynthesis, but (greenhouse gas, health, impact on employment, also into new advances in biology (genomics, etc.) should gradually reduce this gap and make proteomics, metabolomics, genetics, systems biofuels competitive. biology ...). With its low population density when compared Several years will be needed before industrial with other European countries, France is in a good production becomes possible. position to use biomass for energy purposes. At present this stands at about 10 Mtoe/year and could be increased to 25 Mtoe without chang- ing soil use allocations and using only the mean Héliobiotec annual growth of the plants. Biomass must be The HélioBiotec platform was created in 2008 with utilised in units with a collection radius not ex- the aim, by 2011, of creating a centre of expertise with high innovation potential in the biotechnology of ceeding a hundred or so kilometres and forest and photosynthetic micro-organisms (micro-algae, bacteria) grasslands must not be touched, as this could for production of biofuels (biohydrogen, biodiesel). release some of the stored carbon! For the longer

Low-carbon energies for a sustainable future 19 w Energies for the 21st century and fuel cells fuel and batteries Developing characterisation. Silicon wafersundergoingelectrochemical Lithium micro-batteries Low-carbon energies for a sustainable universal future

on can react ion chemical same The ty. But the But electricty. store to or produce battery

st; there must there exist; not does on for each applicaton! each for solution

19 w Energies to used be for the 21 st e a be century

The CEA is a stakeholder in half of the Ademe’s «low greenhouse gas emissions road vehicles» projects. For example: - EILISup with Irisbus and EDF: hybrid bus and A different application all-electric coach for each battery - Forewheel with Michelin and Heuliez: electric vehicle demonstrator For nomad or transport applications, it is es- - DHRT2 with Toyota, EDF and the Ecole des Mines: hybrid vehicle and solar habitat-transport sential to be able to store electrical energy. The convergence correct management of tomorrow’s electrical - Velecta with Aixam and the INRETS for light and networks also means storing electricity. One of heavy quadricycles requiring no driving license - Hydole with PSA, Freescale, EDF for a primarily the most flexible methods is electrochemical electric hybrid vehicle. storage in batteries. There is no such thing as a universal battery, as it has to adapt to the requirements of each application, as well as to material, technical PROTOTYPE KART and safety constraints. The PVE (small elec- For mobile phones and laptop computers, tric vehicle) project is an application of what is important is the quantity of energy this type of battery.. stored per unit volume. Lithium, cobalt and graphite are used. However, cobalt is a costly material and this type of battery can lead to overheating, which disqualifies it from use in automobiles. For this application, researchers are turning more towards other materials such as manga- © Artechnique/CEA nese oxides and other spinel oxides, improving battery performance Crystalline structure common to a group of minerals, and safety. corresponding to a close-packed The first French Hybrid vehicle con- cubic lattice. automobile application straints are slightly different and demands on prototype dates from 2006

the battery are high in an urban driving cycle. A large part of CEA It is required to rapidly provide the current research into PEMFC required and recharge during braking. was done under a partnership with PSA In this case, the electrodes are based on iron Peugeot Citroën and in early 2006 led to and phosphates, such as LiFePO4 (lithium iron phosphate), suitable for these «high-power» the presentation of the © P.Stroppa/CEA GENEPAC prototype. At applications. Since 2001, the CEA has filed 4 80 kW, this is the most powerful cell produced in Europe and offers an excellent patents on synthesis of boron doped LiFePO4, power/compactness ratio: 1.1 kW/kg and 1.5 kW/l. and in 2008 transferred this know-how to the Belgian company Prayon.

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REACTION IN A PEMFC

Fuel cells complement each other, but their constraints are extremely different. The principle of the fuel cell is relatively simple: PEMFC cells, which operate at low tempera- simultaneous production of electricity and heat ture, are particularly well-suited to transport by electrochemically recombining oxygen and and nomad applications. In the short-term, hydrogen, with the only «emission» being water. PEMFC will first of all be industrially produ- There are several types of fuel cells, differing ced in micro-cells for mobile phones, owing only in their electrolyte. This electrolyte defines to the low power requirements and the large Element responsible the operating temperature of for carrying ions production runs involved. The gradual develo- the cell and, to an extent, its between the pment of PEMFC cells makes them suitable electrodes. application. for use in backup generators or fleets of small CEA research concerns the two most promi- professional vehicles. By the 2020 time-frame, sing fuel cell technologies: PEMFC (Proton deployment to the general public automobile Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell) and SOFC sector will begin. (Solid Oxide Fuel Cell). Their applications

Low-carbon energies for a sustainable future 19 w Energies for the 21st century 28 w Developing batteries and fuel cells

REACTION IN AN SOFC

SOFC cells are intended for more stationary The cost of the cell remains a major obstacle to applications and cogeneration (electricity and wider deployment. In order to reduce the cost heat) or as auxiliary power sources for transport of the platinum catalytic converter, research vehicles. They are more tolerant of the fuel and is being carried out into the use of platinum offer greater efficiency than PEMFC cells but they nanoparticles, allowing a significant reduction have not yet reached the technological objectives in the amount of platinum used without any ap- (cost and lifetime) necessary for development on preciable loss of electrochemical performance. ® a large scale, in particular owing to the very high Replacing the Nafion membrane with other Fluorinated ion competitive materials is temperatures involved (higher than 800°C). exchanger resin, used Research is currently under way in several areas: as an electrolyte mem- also being examined. brane in fuel cells. The aim is to achieve 45 $/kW and 30 $/kW • Reducing the cost of the cell in particular the in 2015 (on the basis of 500,000 units/year catalytic converter. in the general public automobile market). For

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© D.R. Electric power for sailing boats In 2006, a sailing boat was fitted with a PEMFC type fuel cell electricity generator, called EPICEA, with an electric power rating of 2 kW. The on- board energy supply is seven times greater than with traditional batteries.

“Zéro CO2” was presented in 2009. This 12-metre © DR yacht is fitted with an electric motor powered by a fuel cell developed by the CEA’s Liten institute, which is responsible for the entire electrical architecture, comprising the 400 V auxiliary electric motor propulsion, the on-board 12 V DC supply, which is the standard for leisure boating, and the 220 V AC to power the measuring instruments.

niche markets, these goals are somewhat less Hydrogen: an energy carrier ambitious and target prices of 1,000 to 1,500 In terms of energy, hydrogen has a number of € /kW could be envisaged. advantages: it is present in large quantities on • Increased lifetime and real conditions Earth, for example in combination with oxygen testing. to form water (H2O) or with carbon to form hydrocarbons (HC), as well as in biomass. Today’s cells have a limited lifetime, of between It has three times the energy potential of 3,000 and 5,000 hours, depending on the ap- conventional fuels and is also «ecological»: it plication. To improve this performance, 8 test releases its chemical energy by combustion, benches were used to run 16,000 hours of tests producing heat and water and with no emission in normal operating conditions (variable tem- of greenhouse gases. perature, pressure, humidity, gas supply, etc.) However, unlike the other energy sources (Sun, and degraded conditions. oil, coal, gas), it does not exist naturally on its own and therefore has to be synthesised. The researchers are working on modelling and Hydrogen is an energy carrier but in order to detailed characterisation of the elements that be competitive with other energy sources and could disrupt the correct working of the cell: help combat global warming, hydrogen must mechanisms involved in membrane degrada- guarantee the absence of pollution at each step, tion and ageing of the assemblies, effects of from production, to storage, to transport, to humidification, transfers, etc. distribution.

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• Production • Storage Hydrogen is a gas commonly used in the che- The hydrogen atom is very small and the lightest mical and petroleum industries and in other of all the elements: one litre of dihydrogen (H2) sectors (micro-electronics, steelmaking, ae- weighs 90 milligrams, or the weight of 3 postage rospace, etc.). At present, virtually all of this stamps. When unconfined it disperses extremely hydrogen is produced using processes that are rapidly into the atmosphere. Hydrogen gas is breaking up hydrocarbons, steam reforming, all flammable and explosive and therefore conside- of which emit green- Hydrogen production process rable care is required to ensure safe utilisation house gases. Only based on the separation of carbonaceous molecules and storage. 4% of this produc- (methane, etc.) in the tion comes from the presence of water vapour The CEA research teams are looking at two ways and heat. breaking up of water of storing hydrogen: by electrolysis. With the aim of achieving hydrogen production with no emission of greenhouse • High-pressure gas storage uses composite gases, the CEA is working on thermochemical containers with a lightweight gastight polymer processes which directly use the heat from liner able to withstand high pressures. This type sources such as geothermal, concentrated so- Interior coating of container gets round the pro- providing a lar power or high-temperature electrolysis of hydrogen-tight blems of wear and weight encoun- steam, coupled with a nuclear or concentrated barrier. tered with metal containers, which solar power plant. The aim is to bring hydrogen makes them hard to incorporate into a vehicle. production costs down to 2 €/kg. Another potential area of study, photobiology, would enable hydrogen to be produced from micro-algae and hydrogenases. GECOPAC, long-duration

In 2005, the CEA launched the BioH2 pro- operation gramme, to boost research into the production In early 2008, an SOFC fuel cell worked for of bio-hydrogen. Two main research areas were more than 1,000 hours at 900°C, producing a covered in this programme: power output of 300 Watts. This technological achievement marked a milestone in the Gecopac • Exploring the capacity of micro-organisms to project, the aim of which is to build a prototype produce hydrogen from water and sunlight; cogeneration system based on an SOFC cell. • Using a biomimetic approach to develop The purpose of this demonstrator is to explain catalysts for the photo-catalytic production of how a domestic cogeneration system of a few kilowatts works. Apart from its performance, hydrogen by converting solar energy. the advantage of this system is that is recovers the hydrogen not used during operation of the cell. This hydrogen is then sent for burning in a boiler, thus enhancing the energy efficiency of the system.

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“Hydrogen has three times more energy potential than conventional fuels.”

In gaseous state, hydrogen is voluminous: the • Solid phase low-pressure storage involves absor- energy output by 4 litres of gasoline requires bing hydrogen in materials capable of restoring it 10 m3 of hydrogen at normal atmospheric pres- on demand while also offering safety and compac- sure. It therefore has to be compressed between tness; for example, hydride. This solution however 350 and 700 bar if it is to be transportable in has one major drawback and that is weight. a reasonable volume.

Rotational moulding, braiding and winding

Pressurised hydrogen can be stored in two types of multi-layer system, for example 5 to 8 mm thick, wound tanks: required to withstand a pressure of 300 to 700 bar • composite tank (pressure-resistance) + aluminium and temperatures of 80°C, and provide a barrier to bladder (for leaktightness). This solution involves hydrogen molecules. problems of cycle ageing. The braiding-winding installation produces a stack of • composite tank + plastic bladder; a thermoplastic layers to build the tanks. © P.Stroppa/CEA © P.Stroppa/CEA

Low-carbon energies for a sustainable future 19 w Energies for the 21st century 32 fusion Thermonuclear Low-carbon © P.Stroppa/CEA TORE SUPRA TOKAMAK energies nergy can Energy for a sustainable nucleus such as such nuclei lightweght either retrieved be future

on, or fisson, nuclear two, into ng a large atomic large a splittng by tri tium. and deuterium 19 w Energies ng two fusing by for the 21 st century w Thermonuclear fusion 33

Principle of a tokamak Poloidal Toroidal magnetic magnetic coils coils

Thermonuclear Deuterium-Tritium fusion releases considerable energy from very little fuel: with less than two kilograms per day of deuterium and tritium, it would be possible to produce 1,000 MW of electricity continuously, whereas more than Plasma 6,000 tons of petroleum fuels would be needed Central magnetic coil to achieve the same output with a thermal power ©CEA/Yuvanoe plant. The fuel used is abundantly available and What is a tokamak? deuterium reserves are infinite on the scale of the life of the planet (chiefly obtained from seawater). Tokamak Tokamak is a Russian acronym: toroïdalnaïa kame- The Earth’s reserves of lithium, required to manu- ras magnitnymi kakushkami, which means «toroidal facture tritium, are finite but would be sufficient chamber with magnetic coils». This torus shaped for several thousand years and are contained in chamber is capable of confining plasma using magnetic fields and thus create the conditions large quantities in the sea (170 mg/l). necessary for fusion reactions. Another advantage of fusion is that it produces Plasma energy without generating either greenhouse gases Gas consisting of electrons and ions (atoms which or long-lived highly radioactive waste. Finally, an have lost one or more electrons). Its temperature varies from several tens of thousands of degrees to uncontrolled chain reaction is impossible as the several hundred million degrees and its density is reaction can be immediately stopped simply by one million times less than that of air. interrupting the fuel supply or the plasma heating, leading to shutdown in just a few seconds. However, there are many challenges involved in achieving sustainable containment of the turbu- Tokamak research lent universe of a plasma heated to more than Research is continuing and progressing in the 100 million degrees, in taming this reaction and world’s various tokamaks. The CEA centre in turning it into a reliable, profitable and continuous Cadarache contains a major fusion science and means of producing electricity. Although the road technology platform employing nearly 270 re- ahead is still a long one, it should be possible to searchers working on the fundamental physics deploy industrial reactors before the end of the of fusion, in the fields of plasmas, materials, century, provided that there is a sustained R&D cryogenics and even diagnostics, in particular and industrialisation effort. on the Tore Supra installation.

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“Tore Supra and JET are two European tokamaks on which experiments are a valuable source of much data.”

ITER Picture of the ITER Tokamak, the experi- Tore Supra is the first ever large super-conducting mental fusion reactor tokamak and made it possible to achieve «long in which 800 m3 of plasma would be discharges» for which it holds the world record, achieved. and develop concepts, systems and materials to support the «continuous» operating mode needed for an electricity generating reactor. Construction of the machine began in 1982 under a contract between Euratom and CEA, and obtained its first plasma in 1988. Since then, it has produced more than 40,000 plasma discharges and its eighteen superconducting coils have functioned extremely reliably. The plasma consists only of deuterium, rather than a mixture of deuterium and tritium. In 2008, the installation entered its twentieth year of ITER project operation. Of the range of energy solutions, fusion is therefore At Culham in Great Britain, the Joint European asserting itself as a major long-term option. Torus (JET) is the world’s largest fusion installa- The stakes are so high that research on the sub- tion and the only one as yet capable of operating ject knows no frontiers and a large part of the with the mixture of D+T fuel. JET set the power international community is involved in building record in 1997, when it produced 16 MW of the ITER (International Thermonuclear Experi- fusion power. mental Reactor) installation – an experimental Tore Supra and the JET are in many respects thermonuclear fusion reactor utilising magnetic precursors and their longevity has been a rich confinement. Construction of the ITER is ex- source of data for the design of the future in- pected to take several years. Physicists will have stallations. access to a plasma ring of 840 m3, ten times

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ITER: the stakes China, South Korea, the United States, India, Japan, Russia and the European Union are fir- mly committed to this multi-billion euro project. In 2005, the decision was taken to build ITER at Cadarache, in France. According to its designers, the goal is to produce thermal fusion power of 500 MW for 400 seconds, by injecting a power of 50 MW to heat the plasma. The stakes are to demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of fusion energy with magnetic confinement to produce electricity on an industrial scale by the end of the century.

on the mesh. Verdict: the heat should be suffi- ciently confined inside the plasma core, exactly where it is of use if the fission reactions are to take place. Research in this installation should take about twenty years. This will provide the scientific and technical knowledge needed to control the production of peak fusion power of about 500 million watts for several hundred seconds and about 200 million watts for several tens of minutes, objectives more voluminous than that obtained with today’s considered to be key milestones on the road to largest machines. The aim will be to raise the building an electricity generating reactor. temperature of the plasma to about 150 million Commissioning of a 1,500 MW demonstrator, degrees in order to produce thermonuclear fu- already named DEMO, is scheduled for about sion reactions. 2040. It will then take about twenty years of Thanks to the power of the CEA’s Tera10 su- research with DEMO to examine the industrial percomputer at Bruyères-le-Châtel, the Gysela feasibility of producing electricity from nuclear computer code was able to model the exchanges fusion. The construction of an initial industrial inside a plasma of a similar size. The number prototype, with an electrical power of about 1,500 of particles, their position and their speed had gigawatts, could thus be imagined for around to be calculated at each time step (about one 2060 and lead to the deployment of industrial microsecond), at each of the ten billion points scale reactors towards 2070-2080.

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