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Questioning the Unquestioned: Scale Development to Assess Ecotourist Ethics by Agnes M.K. Nowaczek a Thesis Presented to The

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Questioning the Unquestioned: Scale Development to Assess Ecotourist Ethics by Agnes M.K. Nowaczek a Thesis Presented to The Questioning the Unquestioned: Scale Development to Assess Ecotourist Ethics by Agnes M.K. Nowaczek A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Recreation and Leisure Studies Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2009 © Agnes Magda Kinga Nowaczek 2009 I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii ABSTRACT While most ecotourist definitions and typologies have relied on concepts ingrained in traveler behaviours or destinations, none has benefited from a consideration of personal ethics. The study of ecotourism has virtually ignored theoretical considerations of ethics, other than making comparisons with the broader tourism sector. An additional shortcoming is the general lack of methodological sophistication, where the bulk of research concerning ecotourism has remained exploratory and descriptive, and has not sought to understand and explain the role that ethics have played, or not, in ecotourist behaviour and developmental practices. The assumption that ecotourists possess a higher level of ethical beliefs than mass tourists, and in fact exhibit ethical behaviour, has not been contested to a sufficient degree. Consequently, this dissertation addresses a need for more conceptually-based research to identify core ethics underlying ecotourist behaviour, with the potential to reveal where quite diverse groups, including those with different cultural orientations, are positioned on these Western philosophical stances. Upon building a conceptual understanding of ecotourist ethics, I have developed a conceptually-driven, multi-dimensional scale – the Ecotourist Ethics Scale (EES) – based on a conceptual framework that draws on classic theories of ethics (Deontology, Teleology, and Existentialism) and on dominant components of ecotourism definitions, frameworks, and typologies (Nature, Culture, Education, and Conservation). This first phase of scale development was followed by a second phase of testing the EES for its validity and reliability with a sample of 1,544 students, and additionally, testing its concurrent validity in relation to four other established scale measures conceptually related to ecotourist ethics. The results of employing the EES indicate ethics based on Deontology and Teleology define the prevalent ethical stances held by individuals where the focus appears to be on rules or principles and consequences, and not on the authenticity of the experience or activity. The development of a profile of travelers based on ethics, as opposed to typologies based simply on settings, behaviours, or occasionally psychographics, could not only advance our understanding of these travelers, but also provide a means for ecotour companies to implement management strategies for a more sustainable operation in response to the array of positive and negative beliefs and behaviours driven by core ethics. The dissertation concludes with a discussion of findings and their implications from analyses of an assortment of the factors related to the sample’s travel and demographic characteristics. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It seems in some ways that just yesterday I sat with my undergraduate Professor, Dr. Fennell, who has inspired me to pursue graduate studies and to believe in my abilities as he has done. And in other ways it seems that I have come full circle from that of an aspiring naïve student, to a soon-to-be faculty member. One who wants to inspire others to fulfill their potential, and contribute in some way to make this world a little better, while stirring the proverbial pot in the process. I am indebted to several people who were central throughout my studies in my academic and professional development as a scholar, and also in my development as a person throughout the endeavours of life. I was very fortunate to incorporate my passion for nature into my studies, to grow both academically and personally, and to gather a few gems of true friendship on the way. My advisor, Dr. Bryan Smale, deserves my deepest thanks for his continuous support and great patience with my progress, his immense knowledge on statistics and a unique manner of communicating his knowledge in simple yet successful ways, and his words of wisdom and encouragement throughout some difficult moments. Perhaps even more valuable than the toolbox of the variety of new academic skills, his words of wisdom and life lessons will assist me in all of my future endeavours of my professional and personal life. He has fostered in me a respect for a variety of methodological and philosophical approaches in the academe; the value of seeing my every paper not as a student, but as a scholar who wants to share with the academic community; the need for contributing to creating a collegial atmosphere in the workplace; and most importantly, the gift of a richer vision, capable of distinguishing between the shades of grey as opposed to seeing only black and white. My warm thanks go also to my unwavering committee members, Dr. Dave Fennell and Dr. Heather Mair, who provided their solid expertise throughout the entire length of the dissertation process. Most importantly, their thoughtful comments and stern focus helped immensely with staying on course with my research, from the initial research proposal which left much to be desired, to the much-improved final dissertation. iv Outside of academia, I wish to acknowledge my parents who were especially committed in their tireless support of me through the most demanding last stretch of my studies. To my mother, who has learned alongside, the multitude of ways to love and support, and to my father who bravely embarked on moving to a new country to pursue a better life. His courage opened the doors to a myriad of opportunities I found in Canada, while my courage helped me walk through. Another person who deserves my deepest thanks for his steadfast support and advice is my friend, William, who has taught me more about myself than I was able to see on my own, and who has enriched my life in ways that will serve me for the rest of my life. Last, but not least, I am very fortunate to come out of this lengthy process with a close friend and colleague, Lisa Sailor, whose friendship was just as precious as it was unexpected, and absolutely indispensable. My warmest thanks go also to her entire family who became my own for the last couple years of my studies. The childhood words of wisdom from the Little Prince suddenly ring true: “Water can also be good for the heart…[and] what makes the desert beautiful, is that it hides a well somewhere… Whether it’s a house or the stars or the desert, what makes them beautiful is invisible! …But eyes are blind. You have to look with the heart.” v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES x LIST OF TABLES xi CHAPTER 1 THE “ETHIC-LESS” OR “ETHIC-FULL” SOUL OF ECOTOURISM? 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...............................................................................................4 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.............................................................................................7 1.4 IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH..................................................................................9 CHAPTER 2 THE UNION OF ECOTOURISM AND ETHICS 11 2.1 INTRODUCTION TO MAIN ETHICS TRADITIONS .............................................. 11 2.1.1 THEORETICAL ETHICS...........................................................................................14 2.1.1.1 Metaethics.............................................................................................................14 Existentialism .........................................................................................................15 2.1.1.2 Normative Ethics..................................................................................................17 Teleology................................................................................................................18 Deontology .............................................................................................................21 2.1.2 APPLIED ETHICS ......................................................................................................24 2.1.2.1 Environmental Ethics ..........................................................................................26 2.1.3 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................32 2.2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF ECOTOURISM ........................................ 34 2.2.1 DEFINITIONAL ISSUES AND ECOTOURIST TYPOLOGIES..............................35 2.2.2 ENVIRONMENTALISM AS A PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF ECOTOURISM............................................................................................................52 2.2.3 THE ROLE OF VALUES ...........................................................................................56 2.2.4 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................67 2.3 INTRODUCTION TO ECOTOURIST ETHICS ......................................................... 68 2.3.1 ECOTOURISM ETHICS STRATEGIES ...................................................................69
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