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THE WORLDWATCH INSTITUTE 2 0 1 0 STATE OF THE WORLD Transforming Cultures From Consumerism to Sustainability Other Norton/Worldwatch Books

State of the World 1984 through 2009 (an annual report on progress toward a sustainable society)

Vital Signs 1992 through 2003 and 2005 through 2007 (a report on the trends that are shaping our future)

Saving the Planet Who Will Feed China? Beyond Malthus Lester R. Brown Lester R. Brown Lester R. Brown Christopher Flavin Gary Gardner Sandra Postel Tough Choices Brian Halweil Lester R. Brown How Much Is Enough? Pillar of Sand Alan Thein Durning Fighting for Survival Sandra Postel Michael Renner Last Oasis Vanishing Borders Sandra Postel The Natural of Nations Hilary French Full House David Malin Roodman Eat Here Lester R. Brown Brian Halweil Hal Kane Life Out of Bounds Chris Bright Power Surge Inspiring Progress Christopher Flavin Gary T. Gardner Nicholas Lenssen 2 0 1 0 STATE OF THE WORLD Transforming Cultures From Consumerism to Sustainability

A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society

Erik Assadourian, Project Director

Mona Amodeo Joshua Farley Pamela Miller Robin Andersen Susan Finkelpearl Kevin Morgan Ray Anderson Kate Ganly Peter Newman Cecile Andrews Gary Gardner David W. Orr Judi Aubel Amy Han Michael Renner Jim Hartzfeld Jonah Sachs Walter Bortz Toby Hemenway Ingrid Samuelsson Robert Costanza Yoshie Kaga Juliet Schor Cormac Cullinan Ida Kubiszewski Michael H. Shuman Jonathan Dawson Susan Linn Roberta Sonnino John de Graaf Johanna Mair Wanda Urbanska Robert Engelman Michael Maniates

Linda Starke and Lisa Mastny, Editors

W . W . NORTON&COMPANY NEWYORKLONDON Copyright © 2010 by Worldwatch Institute 1776 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W. Suite 800 Washington, DC 20036 www.worldwatch.org All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.

The STATE OF THE WORLD and WORLDWATCH INSTITUTE trademarks are registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Worldwatch Institute; of its directors, officers, or staff; or of its funders. The text of this book is composed in Galliard, with the display set in ScalaSans. Book design, cover design, and composition by Lyle Rosbotham; manufacturing by Victor Graphics.

First Edition ISBN 978-0-393-33726-6

W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110 www.wwnorton.com W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/ 76 Wells Street, W1T 3QT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 This book is printed on recycled paper. Worldwatch Institute Board of Directors

Tom Crain James Cameron Akio Morishima Chairman UNITED STATES Cathy Crain Sam Myers, MD, MPH Robert Charles Friese UNITED STATES UNITED STATES Vice-Chairman James Dehlsen Ajit Nazre UNITED STATES UNITED STATES UNITED STATES Geeta B. Aiyer Treasurer Christopher Flavin Izaak van Melle UNITED STATES THE NETHERLANDS UNITED STATES

Nancy Hitz Ed Groark Wren Wirth Secretary UNITED STATES UNITED STATES UNITED STATES Satu Hassi Emeritus: Ray Anderson FINLAND Øystein Dahle UNITED STATES Jerre Hitz NORWAY L. Russell Bennett, Esq. UNITED STATES Abderrahman Khene UNITED STATES Jeffrey Lipton ALGERIA Marcel Brenninkmeijer UNITED STATES Andrew E. Rice SWITZERLAND UNITED STATES Worldwatch Institute Staff

Erik Assadourian Yingling Liu Mary Redfern Senior Researcher China Program Manager Director of Institutional Relations Benjamin Block Trudy Loo Staff Writer Director of Individual Giving Michael Renner Senior Researcher Amanda Chiu Lisa Mastny Project Associate Senior Editor, World Watch Lyle Rosbotham Art Director Juliane Diamond Alice McKeown Development Assistant Vital Signs Online Director Janet Sawin Assistant to the President Senior Researcher John Mulrow Robert Engelman MAP Sustainable Patricia Shyne Vice President for Programs Fellow Director of Publications and Marketing Barbara Fallin Danielle Nierenberg Director of Finance and Senior Researcher Molly Theobald Administration Research Fellow Alexander Ochs Christopher Flavin Director of Climate and Julia Tier President Energy Communications Associate Gary Gardner Prugh Senior Researcher Editor, World Watch Brian Halweil Darcey Rakestraw Senior Researcher Communications Director

Worldwatch Senior Fellows

Zoë Chafe Mia MacDonald Payal Sampat Anna da Costa Eric Martinot Molly O’Meara Sheehan Hilary French Sandra Postel Acknowledgments

This book was conceived in the fall of 2008 as well, which complement the longer articles during a conversation over dinner with former and add more voices and views to the report. Worldwatch Board Chair Øystein Dahle. Over Many thanks to these authors as well for their pasta in Oslo, the two of us discussed how time and thoughtful contributions: Yann much consumer cultures will need to change Arthus-Bertrand, Eduardo Athayde, Almut for the species to truly thrive. Upon Beringer, Michael Braungart, Raj Chengappa, returning to Washington, I proposed the idea Patrick Curry, Øystein Dahle, Anne H. Ehrlich, of confronting this issue head-on in State of the Paul R. Ehrlich, Gregory C. Farrington, Satish World 2010. Somewhat to my surprise, the Kumar, , William McDo- Worldwatch staff and Board of Directors gave nough, Julie Ozanne, Lucie Ozanne, and me the green light to proceed. First, a thank Alexander Rose. you to all of them for trusting that such a Those who helped with the research over topic would be a valuable theme for our flag- the past year deserve special attention here. I ship publication, even if it proves controversial. am grateful for the ideas shared and the assis- Thanks especially to Worldwatch President tance given in making this book . Christopher Flavin for trusting me to run with Thanks to , Diane this idea. Assadourian, Andrew Balmford, Beam, After that brief moment of elation, the long Guy P. Brasseur, Gene Brockhoff, Brian Burke, process of building this book began. A State of Tony Carr, Robert Corell, Joel Cowan, Scott the World committee was formed and the coun- Denman, Nancy Durkee, , Hilary sel of its members proved essential throughout. French, Jim Freund, Nina Frisak, Marcin Ger- Many thanks to all of you for the hours spent win, Alex Hallatt, Harry Halloran, Jody Hey- discussing the newest ideas as they developed, mann, Yes¸ne Iren, Chris Jung, Hayrettin for suggesting authors and topics, and for help- Karaca, William Kilbourne, Lynne LaCar- ing the project move forward. rubba, Shawna Larson, , Annie Much of last spring was devoted to recruit- Leonard, Ling Li, Lisa Lucero, Jan Lund- ing the highly talented group of authors who are berg, Mia MacDonald, Michael Maniates, listed on the Contents page. I want to especially Susanne Martikke, Marc Matthieu, Jim thank these individuals—all of whom agreed to McDonough, Krystal McKay, Bill McKibben, freely share their knowledge and insights with Olivier Milhomme, Molly O’Meara Sheehan, State of the World readers. Without their gen- Pete Palmer, Nadina Perera, Barbara Petruzzi, erosity, this book would not have been possible. Andrea Prothero, Paul Reitan, Joan Roberts, This year we have a number of short Boxes Regina Rowland, Peter Sawtell, Vernon Scar-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES vii Acknowledgments STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 borough, Blair Shane, David Stoesz, Robert Helene Gallis—intern of many countries, Welsch, and, at UNESCO, Aline Bory-Adams, candid, and creative—started when this project Bernard Combes, Hans d’Orville, Mark Rich- was still formless and played an important mond, and Ariana Stahmer. I am grateful to early role in molding it. She then continued to all of you! prove herself invaluable as she helped out to the I’d also like to thank Muhammad Yunus, very end, researching, reviewing, and writing. who kindly shared his wisdom and his story Eddie Kasner, when not studying public with us in this year’s Foreword. His support for health and farmers’ use of pesticides in China, our humble book is quite an honor. helped recruit several authors and research One other special contributor I’d like to sustainable dietary norms and health care. acknowledge is artist Chris Jordan, whose Amy Han was truly a “Jill-of-all-trades,” cheer- beautiful image graces our cover. Gyre is one fully becoming the creator and Webmaster of of the most striking portrayals of the threat of the Transforming Cultures Web site, doing consumerism and the possibility of this research, writing blog posts, and finishing off moment to change course that I have seen, and with a captivating article on music’s role in we are very happy to have the chance to dis- building sustainable societies. play it on the cover. Valentina Agostinelli of Italy also enthusi- Behind the scenes, there were three special astically assisted with research and assiduously people without whom this project would not monitored the year of environmental events, have succeeded. First and foremost, Linda helping to produce this year’s timeline. Kevin Starke, editor extraordinaire and State of the Green was a data-finding machine, which at a World elder, who was a joy to work with and place like Worldwatch is a compliment of the selflessly put this project over herself time and highest order. Without Kevin’s diligent again. She was an exemplar of calm through- research, the overview chapter would not be so out the stressful concluding months and, con- chockful of useful information. sidering the challenges, was truly a role model Mami Shijo, coming from our partner orga- for me. Thank you, Linda. nization Worldwatch Japan, played an impor- A large thanks also to Gary Gardner for tant role in finding several bits of data and helping to improve several of the contributions, helping to explore the Japanese blogosphere— including my own. While surely a thankless job a project intern Emiko Akaishi expanded fur- at times, I appreciate the many hours of the ther in her month here. The message of State summer that Gary sacrificed to get this book of the World 2010 is one that will need to be from manuscript to finished product. Thanks heard in Japan—a leading consumer culture— as well to Lisa Mastny, who also spent several as much as in North America and , so weeks this summer helping to polish several thanks to both of you for helping start that articles and produce a fascinating chronology conversation. of the environmental events of the past year. And finally, in the last month of produc- Even further behind the scenes, but with- tion, Fulbright Fellow Stefanie Bowles out whom this book would have been signif- swooped in and helped finalize the book, icantly weaker, are the eight project interns who expanded its content, and kept me on task. this year pursued hard-to-find data, examples, Good timing, Stefanie! and ideas, helped recruit authors, and even My wife, Aynabat Yaylymova, deserves a contributed several interesting Boxes and an special note for putting up with me these last article. In order of their appearance, let me several months, as I increasingly lived in the express my appreciation for each one. office—and all the ideas of

viii WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Acknowledgments discussed in these pages started to fade from to Corey Perkins for keeping Worldwatch’s practice and even memory. electronic infrastructure humming. At Worldwatch, I’d like to acknowledge Beyond the Institute, I’d like to extend my the staff and the many ways they contributed gratitude to our many publishing partners. to this book. First, thanks to Robert Engelman, First, in the United States, we appreciate the Gary Gardner, and Michael Renner for shar- dedication of W. W. Norton & Company, ing their expertise in their articles and expand- which has published State of the World in all 27 ing the breadth and depth of this volume. A years of its existence. Thank you Amy Cherry, special thanks to Alice McKeown, who Erica Stern, and Devon Zahn for your work in reviewed many articles and raised the bar in producing the book and ensuring that it gets every case. Juliane Diamond, Brian Halweil, distributed broadly in bookstores and univer- Danielle Nierenberg, Thomas Prugh, Molly sity classrooms across the United States. Theobald, and senior fellow Zoë Chafe also Without our strong network of interna- helped with reviewing—thank you. tional publishing partners, we would have a While the words of this book come from the limited international audience and lessened authors, its beauty comes from Worldwatch Art effect. We very much appreciate the work that Director Lyle Rosbotham. Lyle designed this all of them do to get Worldwatch’s findings book from cover to cover and found the gor- translated and disseminated as quickly and as geous pictures to grace many of its pages. If a widely as possible. We give special thanks to picture is worth a thousand words, then he sin- Eduardo Athayde of the Universidade Mata glehandedly added a hundred rich pages to Atlântica in Brazil; Sylvia Shao of Environ- State of the World 2010, all without destroying ment Science Press in China; Tuomas Seppa of a single extra tree! Gaudeamus & Otatieto in Finland; Klaus Milke Thanks to Patricia Shyne for all her work and colleagues at Germanwatch, Ralf Fuechs with our partners around the world to ensure and colleagues at the Heinrich Böll Founda- that the ideas and examples of State of the tion, and Jacob Radloff of OEKOM in Ger- World are dispersed far and wide. And to our many; Yiannis Sakiotis and Michalis Probonas communications team, Darcey Rakestraw and of the Evonymos Ecological Library in Greece; Julia Tier, for spreading this message even fur- Zsuzsa Foltanyi of Earth Day Foundation in ther, both through press outreach and through Hungary; Kartikeya Sarabhai and Kiran helping to coordinate the new Transforming Chhokar of the Centre for Environment Edu- Cultures blog. cation in ; Anna Bruno Ventre and Gian- A big bow of gratitude goes as well to the franco Bologna of WWF Italy; Soki Oda of development team—Courtney Berner, Trudy Worldwatch Japan; Melanie Gabriel Camacho Loo, Meghan Nicholson, and Mary C. Red- and Cecilia Geiger of Africam Safari and Diana fern—for helping ensure the support needed Isabel Jaramillo and Fabiola Escalante of to make this book a success. UDLAP in Mexico; Marcin Gerwin of Earth Thanks also to Ben Block, Amanda Chiu, Conservation in Poland; Monica Di Donato of Anna da Costa, Yingling Liu, and Janet Sawin Area Sostenibilidad CIP Ecosocial and Anna for suggesting topics and authors. And to John Monjo of Icaria Editorial for the Castilian ver- Mulrow and summer intern Ben Gonin for sion and Helena Cots of the Centre UNESCO help in analyzing just how little we can con- de Catalunya for the Catalan version in Spain; sume before hitting unsustainable levels. Sang-ik Kim of the Korean Federation of Envi- Finally, thanks to Barbara Fallin for ensuring ronmental Movement in South Korea; Øystein the smooth administration of this project and Dahle, Hans Lundberg, and Ivana Kildsgaard

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES ix Acknowledgments STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 of Worldwatch Norden in Norway and Swe- Wallerstein Institute; the Winslow Founda- den; George Cheng of Taiwan Watch Institute tion; and the World Wildlife Fund–Europe. in Taiwan; Yes¸im Erkan of TEMA in Turkey; State of the World 2010 would not exist Professor Marfenin and Anna Ignatieva of without the generous contributions of the Center of Theoretical Analysis of Environ- many individuals who support the Institute mental Problems at the International Inde- as Friends of Worldwatch. These gifts make up pendent University of Environmental and nearly one third of the Institute’s annual oper- Political Sciences in Russia; and Jonathan Sin- ating budget and are indispensable to our clair Wilson, Michael Fell, Gudrun Freese, work. We are profoundly grateful to all the and Alison Kuznets of Earthscan in the United Friends of Worldwatch for their commitment Kingdom. to the Institute and its vision for a sustainable Our great customer service team at Direct world. And thanks to the many Worldwatch Answer, Inc. also helps ensure that our readers supporters who invested directly in this year’s are effectively served and their questions are report when they learned about it through a swiftly answered. We are grateful to Katie fundraising appeal this spring. Your generos- Rogers, Katie Gilroy, Lolita Harris, Cheryl ity—even at a time when this project was still Marshall, Valerie Proctor, Ronnie Hergett, just a concept—is much appreciated. Marta Augustyn, Heather Cranford, Colleen Finally, saving the most important acknowl- Curtis, Sharon Hackett, and Karen Piontkowski edgment for last, I want to thank you. If you for providing first-rate customer service. are reading this, I can assume that you are We want to express our deep appreciation interested in digging deeply into this topic— to the many foundations and institutions whose as who else would plow through four pages of support over the past year has made State of the names? The goal of this book is to help get World 2010 and Worldwatch’s many other human cultures back on track before we under- projects possible: The Heinrich Böll Founda- mine the ecological systems that we as a species tion; The Casten Family Foundation of the depend on. Your help in changing cultures is Chicago Trust; the Compton essential. As the book indicates, there are Foundation, Inc.; the Del Mar Global Trust; countless ways to get involved. Many more will the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation; the be discussed on our Web site, at blogs Goldman Environmental Prize; the Richard .worldwatch.org/transformingcultures. And and Rhoda Goldman Fund; the Good Energies while visiting the Web site, consider starting a Foundation; the Hitz Foundation; the W. K. discussion group about the report or mobi- Kellogg Foundation; the Steven C. Leuthold lizing your own network to bring about the Family Foundation; the Marianists Sharing change you want to see. This is how new cul- Fund of the USA; the Netherlands Environ- tures start! ment Ministry; the V. Kann Rasmussen Foun- dation; the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Erik Assadourian Foreign Affairs; the Shared Earth Foundation; Project Director The & Energy Efficiency Partnership; the Shenandoah Foundation; Worldwatch Institute Stonyfield Farm; the TAUPO Fund; the 1776 Massachusetts Ave., NW United Nations Environment Programme; the Washington, DC 20036 United Nations Fund; the UN www.worldwatch.org Foundation; the Wallace Genetic Foundation, blogs.worldwatch.org/transformingcultures Inc.; the Wallace Global Fund; the Johanette [email protected]

x WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Contents

Acknowledgments ...... vii Foreword ...... xv Muhammad Yunus, Founder, Grameen Bank, and 2006 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate

Preface ...... xvii Christopher Flavin, President, Worldwatch Institute

State of the World: A Year in Review ...... xxi Lisa Mastny with Valentina Agostinelli

THERISEANDFALLOFCONSUMERCULTURES ...... 3 Erik Assadourian

TRADITIONSOLDANDNEW ...... 21 Engaging Religions to Shape ...... 23 Gary Gardner

Ritual and Taboo as Ecological Guardians ...... 30 Gary Gardner

Environmentally Sustainable Childbearing ...... 36 Robert Engelman

Elders: A Cultural Resource for Promoting ...... 41 Judi Aubel

From Agriculture to ...... 47 Albert Bates and Toby Hemenway

EDUCATION’S NEW ASSIGNMENT: SUSTAINABILITY ...... 55 Early Childhood Education to Transform Cultures for Sustainability ...... 57 Ingrid Pramling Samuelsson and Yoshie Kaga

Commercialism in Children’s Lives ...... 62 Susan Linn

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES xi Contents STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Rethinking School Food: The Power of the Public Plate ...... 69 Kevin Morgan and Roberta Sonnino

What Is Higher Education for Now? ...... 75 David W. Orr

BUSINESSANDECONOMY:MANAGEMENTPRIORITIES ...... 83 Adapting Institutions for Life in a Full World ...... 85 Robert Costanza, Joshua Farley, and Ida Kubiszewski

Sustainable Work Schedules for All ...... 91 Juliet Schor

Changing Business Cultures from Within ...... 96 Ray Anderson, Mona Amodeo, and Jim Hartzfeld

Social Entrepreneurs: Innovating Toward Sustainability ...... 103 Johanna Mair and Kate Ganly

Relocalizing Business ...... 110 Michael H. Shuman

GOVERNMENT’SROLEINDESIGN ...... 117 Editing Out Unsustainable Behavior ...... 119 Michael Maniates

Broadening the Understanding of Security ...... 127 Michael Renner

Building the Cities of the Future ...... 133 Peter Newman

Reinventing Health Care: From Panacea to Hygeia ...... 138 Walter Bortz

Earth : From Colonization to Participation ...... 143 Cormac Cullinan

MEDIA:BROADCASTINGSUSTAINABILITY ...... 149 From Selling Soap to Selling Sustainability: Social Marketing ...... 151 Jonah Sachs and Susan Finkelpearl

Media Literacy, Citizenship, and Sustainability ...... 157 Robin Andersen and Pamela Miller

Music: Using Education and Entertainment to Motivate Change ...... 164 Amy Han

xii WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Contents

THEPOWEROFSOCIALMOVEMENTS ...... 171 Reducing Work Time as a Path to Sustainability ...... 173 John de Graaf

Inspiring People to See That Less Is More ...... 178 Cecile Andrews and Wanda Urbanska

Ecovillages and the Transformation of Values ...... 185 Jonathan Dawson

Notes ...... 191 Index ...... 231

BOXES 1. Do High Levels Improve Human Well-being? by Erik Assadourian . . . 9 2. The Essential Role of Cultural Pioneers, by Erik Assadourian ...... 19 3. A Global Ecological Ethic, by Patrick Curry ...... 28 4. Deepening of Time, by Alexander Rose ...... 34 5. Dietary Norms That Heal People and the Planet, by Erik Assadourian and Eddie Kasner ...... 49 6. Sustainability and the Human-Nature Relationship, by Almut Beringer ...... 58 7. Toy Libraries, by Lucie Ozanne and Julie Ozanne ...... 66 8. Transformation of the California Academy of Sciences, by Gregory C. Farrington . . 68 9. Unresolved Questions in Environmental Education, by David C. Orr ...... 77 10. Maximizing the Value of Professional Schools, by Erik Assadourian ...... 78 11. A New Focus for Scientists: How Cultures Change, by Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne H. Ehrlich ...... 81 12. The Folly of Infinite Growth on a Finite Planet, by Øystein Dahle ...... 87 13. Upgrading the Corporate Charter, by Kevin Green and Erik Assadourian . . . . . 102 14. Cradle to Cradle: Adapting Production to Nature’s Model, by William McDonough and Michael Braungart ...... 106 15. A Carbon Index for the Financial , by Eduardo Athayde ...... 108 16. The U.N. Marrakech Process on and Production, by Stefanie Bowles ...... 120

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES xiii Contents STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

17. Making Social Welfare Programs Sustainable, by Kevin Green and Erik Assadourian ...... 141 18. Principles of Earth Jurisprudence, by Cormac Cullinan ...... 144 19. The Evolving Role of Environmental Journalism in India, by Raj Chengappa . . . 162 20. Lights, Camera, Ecological Consciousness, by Yann Arthus-Bertrand ...... 165 21. Art for Earth’s Sake, by ...... 166 22. Growing a Movement, by Serge Latouche ...... 181 23. The Movement, by Helene Gallis ...... 182

TABLES 1. Sustainable at Different Consumption Levels ...... 6 2. How Industries Have Shifted Cultural Norms ...... 14 3. Media Access by Global Income Group, 2006 ...... 15 4. Reference Works on Religion and Nature ...... 24 5. Selected Religious Perspectives on Consumption ...... 26 6. Economic Precepts of Selected Religious and Spiritual Traditions ...... 29 7. Childhood Marketing Efforts from Around the World ...... 64 8. Examples and Features of Choice Editing ...... 122 9. Health Care Performance, Selected Countries, 2006 ...... 139 10. Selected Successful Product and Social Marketing Campaigns ...... 153 11. Efforts to Promote Media Literacy, Selected Countries ...... 160

FIGURES 1. Humanity’s , 1961–2005 ...... 5 2. Aspirations of First-Year College Students in the United States, 1971–2008 . . . 10 3. U.S. Gross Domestic Product versus Genuine Progress Indicator, 1950–2004 . . . 88 4. Annual Hours of Work in Selected Countries, 2007 ...... 92 5. Culture Change Model ...... 98

xiv WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Foreword

Muhammad Yunus Founder, Grameen Bank, and 2006 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate

I am pleased that the Worldwatch Institute has conventional banks are not people-worthy. chosen to tackle the difficult issue of cultural So we set out to create a different kind of change in State of the World 2010. Over the bank, one geared to serve the poor. Conven- past three decades, at the heart of my work tional banks are built around the principle that with microfinance, I had to challenge the “the more you have, the more you can get.” centuries-old belief that poor, illiterate women We reversed that principle to the less you have, cannot be agents of their own prosperity. the higher your priority for receiving a loan. Microfinance rejects this fundamental cul- Thus began a new culture of finance and tural misconception. poverty alleviation, in which the poorest are Culturally rooted fallacies are difficult to served first and a fistful of capital could turn slay. My early requests to established bankers abject poverty into a livelihood. to lend to poor women were met with clear After years of careful cultivation, these ideals and strong objections. “Poor people are not became Grameen Bank, which today lends a bankable. They’re not creditworthy,” a local billion dollars annually to 8 million borrowers. banker insisted, adding for good measure, Our average loan is $360, and 99 percent of “You can say goodbye to your money.” The funds are paid back on time. Programs now initial experiment was highly encouraging— include lending to beggars, micro-savings our borrowers turned out to be excellent cus- accounts, and micro-insurance policies. And we tomers who repaid their debts on time. The are proud to note that microcredit has conventional bankers were unimpressed, call- expanded worldwide. ing the results a fluke. When we were suc- A financial industry for impoverished peo- cessful in multiple villages, they shrugged ple, mostly women. That is a cultural change. their shoulders. Now I know that cultural assumptions, I realized that their cultural presumptions even well-established ones, can be overturned, about the poor would not budge easily, no which is why I am excited about State of the matter how many successes we earned. Their World 2010. It calls for one of the greatest cul- minds were made up—Poor people are not cred- tural shifts imaginable: from cultures of con- itworthy! My job, I realized, was to sow the sumerism to cultures of sustainability. The seeds of a new financial culture by turning book goes well beyond standard prescrip- this false notion on its head: the truth is not tions for clean and enlightened that the poor are not creditworthy, but that policies. It advocates rethinking the founda-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES xv Foreword STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 tions of modern consumerism—the practices nized. Readers may not agree with every idea and values regarded as “natural,” which para- presented here. But it is hard not to be doxically undermine nature and jeopardize impressed with the book’s boldness: its initial human prosperity. assumption is that wholesale cultural transfor- Worldwatch has taken on an ambitious mation is possible. I believe this is possible agenda in this volume. No generation in his- after having lived through the cultural trans- tory has achieved a cultural transformation as formation of women in Bangladesh. Culture, sweeping as the one called for here. The book’s after all, is for making it easy for people to many articles demonstrate that such a shift is unleash their potential, not for standing there possible by reexamining core assumptions of as a wall to stop them from moving forward. modern life, from how businesses are run and Culture that does not let people grow is a what is taught in classrooms to how weddings dead culture. Dead culture should be in the are celebrated and the way cities are orga- museum, not in human society.

xvi WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Preface

Christopher Flavin President, Worldwatch Institute

The past five years have witnessed an unprece- Strikingly, anthropologists report that many dented mobilization of efforts to combat the traditional cultures have at their core respect world’s accelerating ecological crisis. Since for and protection of the natural systems that 2005, thousands of new government policies support human societies. Unfortunately, many have been enacted, hundreds of billions of of these cultures have already been lost, along dollars have been invested in green businesses with the languages and skills they nurtured, and infrastructure, scientists and engineers pushed aside by a global consumer culture have greatly accelerated development of a new that first took hold in Europe and North generation of “green” technologies, and the America and is now pressing to the far corners mass media have turned environmental prob- of the world. This new cultural orientation is lems into a mainstream concern. not only seductive but powerful. Economists Amid this flurry of activity, one dimension believe that it has played a big role in spurring of our environmental dilemma remains largely economic growth and reducing poverty in neglected: its cultural roots. As consumerism recent decades. has taken root in culture upon culture over the Even if these arguments are accepted, there past half-century, it has become a powerful can be no doubt that consumer cultures are driver of the inexorable increase in demand for behind what Gus Speth has called the “Great resources and production of that marks Collision” between a finite planet and the our age. Of course, environmental impacts on seemingly infinite demands of human society. this scale would not be possible without an More than 6.8 billion human beings are now unprecedented population explosion, rising demanding ever greater quantities of mater- affluence, and breakthroughs in science and ial resources, decimating the world’s richest . But consumer cultures support— , and dumping billions of tons of and exaggerate—the other forces that have heat-trapping gases into the atmosphere each allowed human societies to outgrow their envi- year. Despite a 30-percent increase in resource ronmental support systems. efficiency, global resource use has expanded Human cultures are numerous and 50 percent over the past three decades. And diverse—and in many cases have deep and those numbers could continue to soar for ancient roots. They allow people to make sense decades to come as more than 5 billion peo- of their lives and to manage their relation- ple who currently consume one tenth as many ships with other people and the natural world. resources per person as the average Euro-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES xvii Preface STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 pean try to follow the trail blazed by the sance of cultures of sustainability is already world’s affluent. well under way. State of the World has touched on the cul- To ensure that this renaissance succeeds, tural dimensions of sustainability in the past— we will need to make living sustainably as nat- particularly in State of the World 2004, which ural tomorrow as consumerism is today. This focused on consumption. But these discus- volume shows that this is beginning to happen. sions have been brief and superficial. Early last In Italy, school menus are being reformulated, year, my colleague Erik Assadourian convinced using healthy, local, and environmentally sound me that the elephant in the room could no foods, transforming children’s dietary norms longer be ignored. At Worldwatch, no good in the process. In suburbs like Vauban, Ger- idea goes unpunished, and Erik became the many, bike paths, wind turbines, and farmers’ Project Director for this year’s book. markets are not only making it easy to live While shifting a culture—particularly one sustainably, they are making it hard not to. At that is global in scope—sounds daunting if the Interface Corporation in the United States, not impossible, the chapters that follow will CEO Ray Anderson radicalized a business cul- convince you otherwise. They contain scores ture by setting the goal of taking nothing from of examples of cultural pioneers—from busi- Earth that cannot be replaced by Earth. And ness leaders and government officials to ele- in Ecuador, rights for the planet have even mentary school teachers and Buddhist monks. entered into the Constitution—providing a These pioneers are convincing their customers, strong impetus to safeguard the country’s eco- constituents, and peers of the advantages of cul- logical systems and ensure the long-term flour- tures based on nurturing the natural world ishing of its people. and ensuring that future generations live as well While sustainability pioneers are still few in or better than the current one. number, their voices are growing louder, and Religious values can be revitalized, busi- at a moment of profound economic and eco- ness models can be transformed, and educa- logical crisis, they are being heard. As the tional can be elevated. Even world struggles to recover from the most seri- advertisers, lawyers, and musicians can make ous global economic crisis since the Great cultural shifts that allow them to contribute to Depression, we have an unprecedented oppor- sustainability rather than undermine it. tunity to turn away from consumerism. While the destructive power of modern Forced deprivation is causing many to cultures is a reality that many government and rethink the benefits of ever-greater levels of business decisionmakers continue to willfully consumption—and its accompanying debt, ignore, it is keenly felt by a new generation stress, and chronic health problems. In early of environmentalists who are growing up in 2009, Time Magazine proclaimed the “end an era of global limits. Young people are of excess” and called for Americans to push the always a potent cultural force—and often a “reset” button on their cultural values. In fact, leading indicator of where the culture is many people are already questioning the cow- headed. From modern Chinese who draw boy culture, buying smaller cars, moving into on the ancient philosophy of to Indi- less grandiose homes, and questioning the ans who cite the work of , suburban sprawl that has characterized the from Americans who follow the teachings of postwar era. And in poor countries around the new Green Bible to Europeans who draw the globe, the disadvantages of the “American on the scientific principles of , State model” are being discussed openly. In Blessed of the World 2010 documents that the renais- Unrest, Paul Hawken has documented the

xviii WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Preface recent rise of a plethora of diverse non- as most people assume. Our cultures are in fact governmental movements that are working to already sowing the seeds of their own destruc- redefine human beings’ relationships to the tion. In the end, the human instinct for survival planet and each other. must triumph over the urge to consume at While consumerism remains powerful and any cost. entrenched, it cannot possibly prove as durable

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES xix State of the World: A Year in Review

Compiled by Lisa Mastny with Valentina Agostinelli

This timeline covers some significant announce- ments and reports from October 2008 through September 2009. It is a mix of progress, setbacks, and missed steps around the world that are affect- ing environmental quality and social welfare. Timeline events were selected to increase aware- ness of the connections between people and the environmental systems on which they depend.

Click here to see notes for this section.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES xxi State of the World: A Year in Review STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

MARINE SYSTEMS CLIMATE Study reports that UNEP reports that carbon dioxide is “brown clouds” of raising ocean acidity soot, smog, and at least 10 times toxic chemicals are faster than was absorbing sunlight previously thought, and heating the air, with negative effects aggravating impacts on shellfish species. of . Miraceti Critically endangered African Wild Ass

IUCN warns that an WATER Photodisc “extinction crisis” is UN draft treaty calls on FORESTS under way, with one in countries with shared Brazil initiates a crackdown four mammals at risk of aquifers to cooperate to on illegal timber businesses disappearing because of protect these waters and in the Amazon after loggers habitat loss, hunting, to prevent and control ransack government offices and climate change. their pollution. and steal contraband wood.

OCTOBER NOVEMBER 2 0 0 8 STATEOFTHEWORLD:AYEARINREVIEW

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RELIGION CLIMATE ENERGY U.S. publisher releases Study says ice loss at the The Vatican activates a Green Bible to spread the poles can best be explained system to message of Creation Care by the human-caused power key buildings to both religious and non- buildup of greenhouse and commits to using religious readers. FORESTS gases, rather than by renewable energy to Provincial governors natural shifts. meet 20 percent of its agree to protect needs by 2020. Sumatra’s Polar ice extent endangered forests, 9/17/09 a move that could MARINE SYSTEMS help cut greenhouse Study warns that fisheries gases from targeting small-to-medium Indonesia, the third- sized “forage fish” to feed largest emitter. farmed fish, pigs, and poultry are affecting both marine ecosystems and NSIDC human .

xxii WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 State of the World: A Year in Review

BIODIVERSITY CLIMATE Report says some 15,000 EU approves package to of the world’s 50,000 reduce greenhouse gas medicinal plant species emissions by 20 percent, now face extinction, improve energy efficiency threatened by habitat by 20 percent, and achieve loss, overharvesting, a 20-percent share for and pollution. renewables by 2020.

Jessica Flavin CLIMATE NATURAL DISASTERS Researchers say ice loss Venice, Italy, suffers its worst from Greenland in summer flooding in 22 years as high 2008 was nearly three waters reach 1.6 meters, times greater than in 2007, submerging most of the city spanning the area of before gradually receding. two Manhattans. Forest & Kim Starr Hibiscus kokio

DECEMBER JANUARY 2 0 0 9

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MARINE SYSTEMS NATURAL DISASTERS CLIMATE Report says nearly a fifth of Re reports that in 2008, Japan launches world coral reefs are dead the number of devastating the world’s first and the rest may be lost in weather-related natural satellite dedicated 20–40 years because of disasters increased to 40—a to monitoring rising water temperatures, record high—and killed more greenhouse gas ocean acidification, than 220,000 people. emissions. and other threats.

POLLUTION Study reports that CLIMATE “light pollution” from California commits skyscrapers, cars, to the first and other reflective comprehensive surfaces is disrupting U.S. plan to slash

China Earthquake Administration wildlife behavior greenhouse gases, Sichuan earthquake of 12 May 2008 and ecosystems. pledging to cut Camilla Sharkey emissions to 1990 levels by 2020.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES xxiii State of the World: A Year in Review STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

CONSERVATION U.S. President Barack FOOD Obama signs U.S. White House protecting some breaks ground on its 8,000 square kilo- first garden meters in nine states NATURAL DISASTERS since World War II, in Officials say more than as wilderness areas, an effort to highlight off limits to resource 4 million people and 2 healthy eating. million cattle in north- exploitation and development.

ern China face drinking NASA water shortages due CLIMATE to the worst drought NASA’s Orbiting Carbon in half a century. Observatory satellite, intended to help track the sources and sinks of carbon dioxide, crashes into the Pacific Ocean. Samantha Appleton

FEBRUARY MARCH 2 0 0 9 STATEOFTHEWORLD:AYEARINREVIEW

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CLIMATE CLIMATE Study warns that NASA reports that black climate change due to carbon is responsible for increased atmospheric 50 percent of the increase NATURAL carbon dioxide is in warming from DISASTERS largely irreversible 1890 to 2007. Southern Africa is for 1,000 years after hit by the worst emissions stop. floods since 1965, Unkky mercury killing more than GOVERNANCE 100 people Environment minis- and displacing ters from more than thousands. 140 countries agree to create a new international treaty NOAA, Harley D. Nygren to address emissions and discharge of mercury.

xxiv WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 State of the World: A Year in Review

FORESTS Sierra Leone and Liberia HEALTH announce a new Report reveals that 6 out of 10 Transboundary Peace NATURAL Americans, or 186 million Park to protect the shared DISASTERS people, live in areas where air Gola forests, one of the Magnitude 6.3 WATER pollution endangers lives. largest intact rainforests earthquake tears Scientists report in West Africa. through L’Aquila that in roughly a in central Italy, third of the world’s devastating historic largest rivers, mountain towns decreases in water and killing nearly flow outnumber 300 people. increases by 2.5 to 1. Massimo Catarinella World Resources Institute Los Angeles in smog

APRIL MAY

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HEALTH MARINE SYSTEMS Swine flu virus outbreak Six Asia-Pacific countries claims up to 68 lives in launch an initiative to Mexico, leading WHO protect the 5.7 million- to declare a “public CONSUMPTION square-kilometer Coral health emergency of Reports says U.S. sales Triangle, home to 76 percent international concern.” of organic products of known coral species. reached $24.6 billion in 2008, a 17-percent increase over 2007 ENERGY despite tough World’s largest economic times. commercial tower plant begins operations near Seville, Spain, with a capacity of 20 megawatts. Robert Young

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FOOD CLIMATE FAO says world Study reports that some hunger will reach a 160 villages in northern historic high in 2009, Syria were deserted in WILDLIFE with 1.02 billion 2007–08 because of severe EU ministers people—about one drought, hinting at future approve a seventh of humanity— climate change impacts regulation that going hungry in the Middle East. forbids the every day. marketing of seal products in the European Union, in FORESTS Harmen Piekema response to animal Indigenous residents BIODIVERSITY welfare concerns protesting oil and gas Study says the global about seal hunting. exploration on their trade in frogs for pets and lands battle police in food is spreading two Peru’s Amazon, with severe diseases blamed reports of 9 police and for driving amphibians 25 protester deaths. toward extinction. Jared Tarbell

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TOXICS FOOD Survey finds that adopts thousands of landmark food policy to everyday products improve access to healthy and materials in food while supporting the United States local agriculture and MARINE SYSTEMS and worldwide CLIMATE reducing shipping-related Study finds that fish contain harmful Study says that greenhouse gas stocks are beginning radioactive metals. hydrofluorocarbons, emissions. to rebuild in 5 of long hailed as a substitute 10 large marine for ozone-depleting gases, ecosystems under are a growing greenhouse intensive management, threat, given their suggesting that efforts large atmospheric- to curb warming capacity. are succeeding. Barb Howe San Francisco farmers’ market

xxvi WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 State of the World: A Year in Review

CLIMATE U.S. agency reports that the world ocean FOOD surface temperature Researchers in Japan was the warmest identify two genes that on record for any make rice plants grow June–August season longer stems and since 1880. survive floods, USDA NRCS SECURITY potentially enabling AGRICULTURE U.N. Security Council farmers to grow high- Study reveals that nearly half unanimously commits yielding species in the world’s farmlands have to the goal of a world flood-prone areas. at least 10 percent tree without nuclear cover—more than 10 million weapons, as both the square kilometers in total— United States and suggesting widespread use Russia pledge to of agroforestry. slash arsenals. NOAA

AUGUST SEPTEMBER See page 191 for sources.

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GOVERNANCE FAO countries agree on the first-ever global treaty that aims to close CLIMATE fishing ports to vessels Study says involved in illegal, has surpassed the unreported, and BIODIVERSITY United States as unregulated fishing. WWF reports the the world’s biggest discovery of 163 new ENERGY per capita producer species in the Greater G-20 leaders meeting in of carbon emissions. Mekong region in 2008, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, many of which are at commit to phasing out risk of extinction due nearly $300 billion in to climate change. fossil fuel subsidies while providing targeted support for the world’s poorest households. ogwen Australian road train

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES xxvii 2 0 1 0 STATE OF THE WORLD Transforming Cultures From Consumerism to Sustainability The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures

Erik Assadourian

In the 2009 documentary The Age of Stupid, asking people who live in consumer cultures to a fictional historian who is possibly the last curb consumption is akin to asking them to man on Earth looks at archival film footage stop breathing—they can do it for a moment, from 2008 and contemplates the last years in but then, gasping, they will inhale again. Dri- which humanity could have saved itself from ving cars, flying in planes, having large homes, global ecological collapse. As he reflects on the using air conditioning…these are not deca- lives of several individuals—an Indian busi- dent choices but simply natural parts of life— nessman building a new low-cost airline, a at least according to the cultural norms present British community group concerned about in a growing number of consumer cultures in climate change but fighting a new wind turbine the world. Yet while they seem natural to peo- development in the area, a Nigerian student ple who are part of those cultural realities, striving to live the American dream, and an these patterns are neither sustainable nor innate American oilman who sees no contradiction manifestations of human nature. They have between his work and his love of the out- developed over several centuries and today are doors—the historian wonders, “Why didn’t actively being reinforced and spread to millions we save ourselves when we had the chance?” of people in developing countries. Were we just being stupid? Or was it that “on Preventing the collapse of human civiliza- some level we weren’t sure that we were worth tion requires nothing less than a wholesale saving?” The answer has little to do with transformation of dominant cultural patterns. being stupid or self-destructive but This transformation would reject con- everything to do with culture.1 sumerism—the cultural orientation that leads Human beings are embedded in cultural people to find meaning, contentment, and systems, are shaped and constrained by their acceptance through what they consume—as cultures, and for the most part act only within taboo and establish in its place a new cultural the cultural realities of their lives. The cul- framework centered on sustainability. In the tural norms, symbols, values, and traditions a process, a revamped understanding of “nat- person grows up with become “natural.” Thus, ural” would emerge: it would mean individual

Erik Assadourian is a Senior Researcher at the Worldwatch Institute and Project Director of State of the World 2010.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 3

Click here to see notes for this section. The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 and societal choices that cause minimal eco- As consumption has risen, more fossil fuels, logical damage or, better yet, that restore minerals, and metals have been mined from the Earth’s ecological systems to health. Such a earth, more trees have been cut down, and shift—something more fundamental than the more land has been plowed to grow food adoption of new technologies or government (often to feed livestock as people at higher policies, which are often regarded as the key income levels started to eat more meat). drivers of a shift to sustainable societies— Between 1950 and 2005, for example, metals would radically reshape the way people under- production grew sixfold, oil consumption stand and act in the world. eightfold, and natural gas consumption 14- Transforming cultures is of course no small fold. In total, 60 billion tons of resources are task. It will require decades of effort in which now extracted annually—about 50 percent cultural pioneers—those who can step out of more than just 30 years ago. Today, the aver- their cultural realities enough to critically exam- age European uses 43 kilograms of resources ine them—work tirelessly to redirect key cul- daily, and the average American uses 88 kilo- ture-shaping institutions: education, business, grams. All in all, the world extracts the equiv- government, and the media, as well as social alent of 112 Empire State Buildings from the movements and long-standing human tradi- earth every single day.4 tions. Harnessing these drivers of cultural The exploitation of these resources to main- change will be critical if humanity is to survive tain ever higher levels of consumption has put and thrive for centuries and millennia to come increasing pressure on Earth’s systems and in and prove that we are, indeed, “worth saving.” the process has dramatically disrupted the eco- logical systems on which humanity and count- The Unsustainability of Current less other species depend. Consumption Patterns The Ecological Footprint Indicator, which compares humanity’s ecological impact with In 2006, people around the world spent $30.5 the amount of productive land and sea area trillion on goods and services (in 2008 dollars). available to supply key services, These expenditures included basic necessities shows that humanity now uses the resources like food and shelter, but as discretionary and services of 1.3 Earths. (See Figure 1.) In incomes rose, people spent more on consumer other words, people are using about a third goods—from richer foods and larger homes to more of Earth’s capacity than is available, televisions, cars, computers, and air travel. In undermining the resilience of the very ecosys- 2008 alone, people around the world pur- tems on which humanity depends.5 chased 68 million vehicles, 85 million refrig- In 2005 the Millennium Ecosystem Assess- erators, 297 million computers, and 1.2 billion ment (MA), a comprehensive review of scien- mobile (cell) phones.2 tific research that involved 1,360 experts from Consumption has grown dramatically over 95 countries, reinforced these findings. It found the past five decades, up 28 percent from the that some 60 percent of ecosystem services— $23.9 trillion spent in 1996 and up sixfold climate regulation, the provision of fresh water, from the $4.9 trillion spent in 1960 (in 2008 waste treatment, food from fisheries, and many dollars). Some of this increase comes from the other services—were being degraded or used growth in population, but human numbers unsustainably. The findings were so unsettling only grew by a factor of 2.2 between 1960 and that the MA Board warned that “human activ- 2006. Thus consumption expenditures per ity is putting such strain on the natural functions person still almost tripled.3 of Earth that the ability of the planet’s ecosys-

4 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures tems to sustain future genera- Figure 1. Humanity’s Ecological Footprint, 1961–2005 tions can no longer be taken for 6 granted.” 2.0 The shifts in one particular Source: Global Footprint Network —climate reg- ulation—are especially disturb- ing. After remaining at stable 1.5 levels for the past 1,000 years at Ecological Footprint about 280 parts per million, World’s Biocapacity atmospheric concentrations of 1.0 carbon dioxide (CO2) are now at 385 parts per million, driven by a growing human popula-

Number of0.5 Planet Earths tion consuming ever more fos- sil fuels, eating more meat, and converting more land to agri- 0 culture and urban areas. The 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- mate Change found that climate change due to human activities is causing major potentially submerge entire island nations. The disruptions in Earth’s systems. If greenhouse one sixth of the world who depend on glacier- gas emissions are not curbed, disastrous changes or snowmelt-fed rivers for water would face will occur in the next century.7 extreme . Vast swaths of the Ama- A May 2009 study that used the Integrated zon forest would become savanna, coral reefs Global Systems Model of the Massachusetts would die, and many of the world’s most vul- Institute of Technology found that unless sig- nerable fisheries would collapse. All of this nificant action is taken soon, median temper- would translate into major political and social ature increases would be 5.1 degrees Celsius by disruptions—with environmental refugees pro- 2100, more than twice as much as the model jected to reach up to 1 billion by 2050.9 had projected in 2003. A September 2009 And climate change is just one of the many study reinforced that finding, stating that busi- symptoms of excessive consumption levels. ness as usual would lead to a 4.5 degree Cel- Air pollution, the average loss of 7 million sius increase by 2100, and that even if all hectares of forests per year, soil erosion, the countries stuck to their most ambitious pro- annual production of over 100 million tons of posals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, hazardous waste, abusive labor practices dri- temperatures would still go up by 3.5 degrees ven by the desire to produce more and cheaper Celsius. In other words, policy alone will not consumer goods, obesity, increasing time be enough. A dramatic shift in the very design stress—the list could go on and on. All these of human societies will be essential.8 problems are often treated separately, even as These projected levels of temperature many of their roots trace back to current con- change mean the odds would be great that sumption patterns.10 ocean levels would increase by two or more In addition to being excessive overall, mod- meters due to the partial melting of Greenland ern consumption levels are highly skewed, or Western Antarctica ice sheets, which in turn leading to disproportionate responsibility for would cause massive coastal flooding and modern environmental ills among the rich.

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According to a study by Princeton ecologist Indeed, if everyone lived like Americans, Earth Stephen Pacala, the world’s richest 500 mil- could sustain only 1.4 billion people. At slightly lion people (roughly 7 percent of the world’s lower consumption levels, though still high, the population) are currently responsible for 50 planet could support 2.1 billion people. But percent of the world’s carbon dioxide emis- even at middle-income levels—the equivalent sions, while the poorest 3 billion are respon- of what people in Jordan and Thailand earn on sible for just 6 percent. These numbers should average today—Earth can sustain fewer people not be surprising, for it is the rich who have than are alive today. (See Table 1.) These num- the largest homes, drive cars, jet around the bers convey a reality that few want to confront: world, use large amounts of electricity, eat in today’s world of 6.8 billion, modern con- more meat and processed foods, and buy sumption patterns—even at relatively basic more stuff—all of which has significant eco- levels—are not sustainable.12 logical impact. Granted, higher incomes do A 2009 analysis of consumption patterns not always equate with increased consump- across socioeconomic classes in India made tion, but where consumerism is the cultural this particularly clear. Consumer goods are norm, the odds of consuming more go up broadly accessible in India today. Even at when people have more money, even for eco- annual income levels of about $2,500 per per- logically conscious consumers.11 son in purchasing power parity (PPP), many In 2006, the 65 high-income countries households have access to basic lighting and a where consumerism is most dominant fan. As incomes reach about $5,000 per year accounted for 78 percent of consumption PPP, access to television becomes standard expenditures but just 16 percent of world pop- and access to hot water heaters grows. By ulation. People in the United States alone $8,000 a year PPP, most people have an array spent $9.7 trillion on consumption that year— of consumer goods, from washing machines about $32,400 per person—accounting for and DVD players to kitchen appliances and 32 percent of global expenditures with only 5 computers. As incomes rise further, air condi- percent of global population. It is these coun- tioning and air travel become common.13 tries that most urgently need to redirect their Not surprisingly, the richest 1 percent of consumption patterns, as the planet cannot Indians (10 million people), who earn more handle such high levels of consumption. than $24,500 PPP a year, are now each respon-

Table 1. Sustainable World Population at Different Consumption Levels

Per Capita Income, Biocapacity Used Sustainable Population Consumption Level 2005 Per Person, 2005 at this Level (GNI, PPP, 2008 dollars) (global hectares) (billion) Low-income 1,230 1.0 13.6 Middle-income 5,100 2.2 6.2 High-income 35,690 6.4 2.1 United States 45,580 9.4 1.4

Global average 9,460 2.7 5.0

Source: See endnote 12.

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sible for more than 5 tons of CO2 emissions even eliminating the use of certain goods, such annually—still just a fifth of American per as cars and airplanes, that have become impor- capita emissions but twice the average level of tant parts of life today for many. Habits that are 2.5 tons per person needed to keep tempera- firmly set—from where people live to what tures under 2 degrees Celsius. Even the 151 they eat—will all need to be altered and in million Indians earning more than $6,500 per many cases simplified or minimized. These, person PPP are living above the threshold of however, are not changes that people will want 2.5 tons per person, while the 156 million to make, as their current patterns are com- Indians earning $5,000 are nearing it, pro- fortable and feel “natural,” in large part ducing 2.2 tons per person.14 because of sustained and methodical efforts to As the Ecological Footprint Indicator and make them feel just that way.17 Indian survey demonstrate, even at income In considering how societies can be put on levels that most observers would think of as sub- paths toward a sustainable future, it is impor- sistence—about $5,000–6,000 PPP per person tant to recognize that human behaviors that are a year—people are already consuming at unsus- so central to modern cultural identities and tainable levels. And today, more than a third of economic systems are not choices that are fully the world’s people live above this threshold.15 in consumers’ control. They are systematically The adoption of sustainable technologies reinforced by an increasingly dominant cultural should enable basic levels of consumption to : consumerism. remain ecologically viable. From Earth’s per- spective, however, the American or even the Consumerism Across Cultures European way of life is simply not viable. A recent analysis found that in order to produce To understand what consumerism is, first it is enough energy over the next 25 years to necessary to understand what culture is. Cul- replace most of what is supplied by fossil fuels, ture is not simply the arts, or values, or belief the world would need to build 200 square systems. It is not a distinct institution func- meters of solar photovoltaic panels every sec- tioning alongside economic or political sys- ond plus 100 square meters of solar thermal tems. Rather, it is all of these elements—values, every second plus 24 3-megawatt wind tur- beliefs, customs, traditions, symbols, norms, and bines every hour nonstop for the next 25 years. institutions—combining to create the overar- All of this would take tremendous energy and ching frames that shape how humans perceive materials—ironically frontloading carbon emis- reality. Because of individual cultural systems, sions just when they most need to be one person can interpret an action as insulting reduced—and expand humanity’s total eco- that another would find friendly—such as mak- logical impact significantly in the short term.16 ing a “thumbs up” sign, which is an excep- Add to this the fact that population is pro- tionally vulgar gesture in some cultures. Culture jected to grow by another 2.3 billion by 2050 leads some people to believe that social roles are and even with effective strategies to curb designated by birth, determines where peo- growth will probably still grow by at least ple’s eyes focus when they talk to others, and another 1.1 billion before peaking. Thus it even dictates what forms of sexual relation- becomes clear that while shifting technolo- ships (such as monogamy, polyandry, or gies and stabilizing population will be essen- polygamy) are acceptable.18 tial in creating sustainable societies, neither Cultures, as broader systems, arise out of the will succeed without considerable changes in complex interactions of many different ele- consumption patterns, including reducing and ments of social behaviors and guide humans at

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actors and institutions and by the partici- pants in the cultures themselves. Today the cultural paradigm that is dominant in many parts of the world and across many cultural systems is consumerism.21 British economist Paul Ekins describes con- sumerism as a cultural orientation in which “the possession and use of an increasing num- ber and variety of goods and services is the principal cultural aspiration and the surest per- ceived route to personal happiness, social sta- tus, and national success.” Put more simply: consumerism is a cultural pattern that leads people to find meaning, contentment, and Hegariz Grub to go: Sago grubs, a gourmet delicacy in New acceptance primarily through the consump- Guinea. tion of goods and services. While this takes dif- ferent forms in different cultures, consumerism an almost invisible level. They are, in the words leads people everywhere to associate high con- of anthropologists Robert Welsch and Luis sumption levels with well-being and success. Vivanco, the sum of all “social processes that Ironically though, research shows that con- make the artificial (or human constructed) suming more does not necessarily mean a bet- seem natural.” It is these social processes— ter individual quality of life. (See Box 1.)22 from direct interaction with other people and Consumerism has now so fully worked its with cultural artifacts or “stuff” to exposure to way into human cultures that it is sometimes the media, , religions, and economic sys- hard to even recognize it as a cultural con- tems—that shape people’s realities.19 struction. It simply seems to be natural. But in Most of what seems “natural” to people is fact the elements of cultures—language and actually cultural. Take eating, for example. symbols, norms and traditions, values and All humans eat, but what, how, and even institutions—have been profoundly trans- when they eat is determined by cultural sys- formed by consumerism in societies around the tems. Few Europeans would eat insects world. Indeed, “consumer” is now often used because these creatures are intrinsically repul- interchangeably with person in the 10 most sive to them due to cultural conditioning, commonly used languages of the world, and though many of them would eat or most likely in many more.23 snails. Yet in other cultures, bugs are an impor- Consider symbols—what anthropologist tant part of cuisine, and in some cases—like the Leslie White once described as “the origin and Sago grub for the Korowai people of New basis of human behavior.” In most countries Guinea—bugs are delicacies.20 today people are exposed to hundreds if not Ultimately, while human behavior is rooted thousands of consumerist symbols every day. in evolution and physiology, it is guided pri- Logos, jingles, slogans, spokespersons, mas- marily by the cultural systems people are born cots—all these symbols of different brands into. As with all systems, there are dominant routinely bombard people, influencing behav- paradigms that guide cultures—shared ideas ior even at unconscious levels. Many people and assumptions that, over generations, are today recognize these consumerist symbols shaped and reinforced by leading cultural more easily than they do common wildlife

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Box 1. Do High Consumption Levels Improve Human Well-being?

Ultimately, whether high consumption levels electric rice cookers as essential goods for a make people better off is irrelevant if they lead satisfactory living standard. In due course, a to the degradation of Earth’s systems, as eco- car, an air conditioner, and a color television logical decline will undermine human well- were added to the list of “essentials.” And in being for the majority of society in the long the United States, 83 percent of people saw term. But even assuming this threat were not clothes dryers as a necessity in 2006. Even looming, there is strong evidence that higher products around only a short time quickly levels of consumption do not significantly become viewed as necessities. Half of Ameri- increase the quality of life beyond a certain cans now think they must have a mobile point, and they may even reduce it. phone, and one third of them see a high- First, psychological evidence suggests that speed Internet connection as essential. it is close relationships, a meaningful life, eco- A high-consumption lifestyle can also have nomic security, and health that contribute many side effects that do not improve well- most to well-being. While there are marked being, from increased work stress and debt to improvements in happiness when people at more illness and a greater risk of death. Each low levels of income earn more (as their eco- year roughly half of all deaths worldwide are nomic security improves and their range of caused by cancers, cardiovascular and lung opportunities grows), as incomes increase this diseases, diabetes, and auto accidents. Many extra earning power converts less effectively of these deaths are caused or at least largely into increased happiness. In part, this may influenced by individual consumption choices stem from people’s tendency to habituate to such as smoking, being sedentary, eating too the consumption level they are exposed to. few and , and being over- Goods that were once perceived as luxuries weight. Today 1.6 billion people around the can over time be seen as entitlements or even world are overweight or obese, lowering their necessities. quality of life and shortening their lives, for By the 1960s, for instance, the Japanese the obese, by 3 to 10 years on average. already viewed a fan, a washing machine, and Source: See endnote 22. species, birdsong, animal calls, or other ele- particular interest is diet. It now seems natural ments of nature. One study in 2002 found to eat highly sweetened, highly processed that British children could identify more foods. Children from a very early age are Pokémon characters (a brand of toy) than exposed to candy, sweetened , and other common wildlife species. And logos are rec- unhealthy but highly profitable and highly ognized by children as young as two years old. advertised foods—a shift that has had a dra- One investigation of American two-year-olds matic impact on global obesity rates. Today, found that although they could not identify fast-food vendors and soda machines are found the letter M, many could identify McDonald’s even in schools, shaping children’s dietary M-shaped golden arches.24 norms from a young age and in turn rein- Cultural norms—how people spend their forcing and perpetuating these norms leisure time, how regularly they upgrade their throughout societies. According to a study wardrobes, even how they raise their chil- by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and dren—are now increasingly oriented around Prevention, nearly two thirds of U.S. school purchasing goods or services. One norm of districts earn a percentage of the revenue from

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vending machine sales, and a third receive average spent $942, $721, and $581 on gifts, financial awards from soda companies when a respectively. Increasingly, even many non-Chris- certain amount of their product is sold.25 tians celebrate Christmas as a time to exchange Traditions—the most ritualized and deeply gifts. In Japan, Christmas is a big holiday, even rooted aspects of cultures—are also now shaped though only 2 percent of the population is by consumerism. From weddings that cost an Christian. As Reverend Billy of the tongue-in- average $22,000 in the United States to funeral cheek consumer education effort The Church norms that pressure grieving loved ones to of Stop Shopping notes: “We think we are purchase elaborate coffins, headstones, and consumers at Christmas time. No! We are being other expensive symbolic goods, consumerism consumed at Christmastime.”27 is deeply embedded in how people observe Consumerism is also affecting peoples’ val- rituals. Choosing to celebrate rituals in a sim- ues. The belief that more wealth and more ple manner can be a difficult choice to make, material possessions are essential to achieving whether because of norms, family pressure, the good life has grown noticeably across or influence.26 many countries in the past several decades. Christmas demonstrates this point well. One annual survey of first-year college stu- While for Christians this day marks the birth of dents in the United States has investigated Jesus, for many people the holiday is more ori- students’ life priorities for more than 35 years. ented around Santa Claus, gift giving, and Over this time the importance of being well- feasting. A 2008 survey on Christmas spend- off financially has grown while the impor- ing in 18 countries found that individuals spent tance of developing a meaningful life hundreds of dollars on gifts and hundreds more philosophy has fallen. (See Figure 2.) And on socializing and food. In Ireland, the United this is not just an American phenomenon. A Kingdom, and the United States—the three study by psychologists Güliz Ger and Russell with the largest expenditures—individuals on Belk found high levels of materialism in two thirds of the 12 countries they surveyed, including several Figure 2. Aspirations of First-Year College Students transitional economies.28 in the United States, 1971–2008 While consumerism is now found in nearly all cultures, it is 100 Source: HERI not without consequences. On this finite planet, defining suc- cess and happiness through how 80 To be well off financially much a person consumes is not sustainable. Moreover, it is 60 abundantly clear that this cul- tural orientation did not just happen to appear as a byprod- 40 To develop a meaningful uct of growing incomes. It was philosophy of life engineered over several cen- 20 turies. Today, since con- sumerism has been internalized by many societies, it is self-per- 0 ecnaesayingPercentage “Very or Important” “Essential” 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 petuating to some extent, yet institutions within society—

10 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures including businesses, the media, governments, goods. Workers whose increased productivity and educational facilities—continue to prop up resulted in greater pay tended to favor more this cultural orientation. These institutions leisure time rather than the wealth that a full day also are actively working to expand markets at increased pay might have brought them.31 around the world for new consumer goods But over time the emerging consumerist and services. Understanding the role of these orientation was internalized by a growing institutional drivers will be essential in order to share of the populace—with the continued cultivate new cultures of sustainability. help of merchants and traders—redefining what was understood as natural. The universe Institutional Roots of Consumerism of “basic necessities” grew, so that by the French , Parisian workers were As long ago as the late 1600s, societal shifts in demanding candles, coffee, soap, and sugar as Europe began to lay the groundwork for the “goods of prime necessity” even though all but emergence of consumerism. Expanding pop- the candles had been luxury items less than ulations and a fixed base of land, combined 100 years earlier.32 with a weakening of traditional sources of By the early 1900s, a consumerist orienta- authority such as the church and community tion had become increasingly embedded in social structures, meant that a young person’s many of the dominant societal institutions of customary path of social advancement—inher- many cultures—from businesses and govern- iting the family plot or apprenticing in a father’s ments to the media and education. And in trade—could no longer be taken for granted. the latter half of the century, new innovations People sought new avenues for identity and like television, sophisticated advertising tech- self-fulfillment, and the acquisition and use of niques, transnational corporations, franchises, goods became popular substitutes.29 and the Internet helped institutions to spread Meanwhile, entrepreneurs were quick to consumerism across the planet. capitalize on these shifts to stimulate purchase Arguably, the strongest driver of this cultural of their new wares, using new types of adver- shift has been business interests. On a diverse tising, endorsements by prominent people, set of fronts, businesses found ways to coax creation of shop displays, “loss-leaders” (sell- more consumption out of people. Credit was ing a popular item at a loss as a way to pull cus- liberalized, for instance, with installment pay- tomers into a store), creative financing options, ments, and the credit card was promoted heav- even consumer research and the stoking of ily in the United States, which led to an almost new fads. For example, one eighteenth-century 11-fold increase in consumer credit between British pottery manufacturer, Josiah Wedg- 1945 and 1960. Products were designed to wood, had salespeople drum up excitement for have short lives or to go out of style quickly new pottery designs, creating demand for (strategies called, respectively, physical and newer lines of products even from customers psychological obsolescence). And workers were who already had a perfectly good, but now encouraged to take pay raises rather than more seemingly outdated, set of pottery.30 time off, increasing their disposable incomes.33 Still, traditional social mores blocked the Perhaps the biggest business tool for stok- rapid advance of a consumerist mindset. Peas- ing consumption is marketing. Global adver- ants with extra income traditionally would tising expenditures hit $643 billion in 2008, increase landholdings or support community and in countries like China and India they works rather than buy new fashions or home are growing at 10 percent or more per year. furnishings—two of the earliest consumer In the United States, the average “consumer”

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In addition to direct advertising, product placement—intentionally showing products in television programs or movies so that they are positively associated with characters—is a growing practice. Companies spent $3.5 bil- lion placing their products strategically in 2004 in the United States, four times the amount spent 15 years earlier. And, like advertising, product placements influence choices. Research has found, for example, a causal relationship between cigarette smoking in the movies and the of this behavior in young adults in a “dose-response” manner, meaning that the more that teenagers are exposed to cigarette smoking in the movies, the more likely they are to start smoking.35 Other clever marketing efforts are also increasingly common tools. In “word of mouth” marketing, people who are acting as unpaid “brand agents” push products on unsuspecting friends or acquaintances. In 2008, U.S. businesses spent $1.5 billion on this kind of marketing, a number expected to grow to $1.9 billion by 2010. One company, content: a comic book ad from 1964. BzzAgent, currently has 600,000 of these brand agents volunteering in its network; sees or hears hundreds of advertisements every they help to spread the good word about day and from an early age learns to associate new products—from the latest fragrance or products with positive imagery and messages. fashion accessory to the newest juice bever- Clearly, if advertising were not effective, busi- age or coffee drink—by talking about them to nesses would not spend 1 percent of the gross their friends, completing surveys, rating Web world product to sell their wares, as they do. sites, writing blogs, and so on. In Tokyo, And they are right: studies have demonstrated Sample Lab Ltd. recently brought this idea to that advertising indeed encourages certain a new level with a “marketing café” specifically behaviors and that children, who have diffi- created to expose consumers to samples of culty distinguishing between advertising and new products. Companies now even harness content, are particularly susceptible. As one anthropologists to figure out what drives con- U.S. National Academy of Sciences panel sumers’ choices, as Disney did in 2009 in found, “food and beverage marketing influ- order to better target male teens, one of their ences the preferences and purchase requests of weaker customer bases.36 children, influences consumption at least in the Any of these marketing strategies, taken short term, is a likely contributor to less health- alone, stimulates interest in a single good or ful diets, and may contribute to negative diet- service. Together these diverse initiatives stim- related health outcomes and risks among ulate an overall culture of consumerism. As children and youth.”34 economist and marketing analyst Victor Lebow

12 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures explained in the Journal of Retailing over 50 materialistic aspirations, whether directly by years ago, “A specific advertising and promo- extolling the high-consumption lives of tional campaign, for a particular product at a celebrities and the wealthy or more subtly particular time, has no automatic guarantee of through stories that reinforce the belief that success, yet it may contribute to the general happiness comes from being better off finan- pressure by which wants are stimulated and cially, from buying the newest consumer gad- maintained. Thus its very failure may serve to get or fashion accessory, and so on. There is fertilize this soil, as does so much else that clear evidence that media exposure has an seems to go down the drain.” Industries, even impact on norms, values, and preferences. as they pursue limited agendas of expanding Social modeling studies have found connec- sales for their products, play a significant role tions between such exposure and violence, in stimulating consumerism. And whether smoking, reproductive norms, and various intentionally or not, they transform cultural unhealthy behaviors. One study found that for norms in the process. (See Table 2.)37 every additional hour of television people The media are a second major societal insti- watched each week, they spent an additional tution that plays a driving role in stimulating $208 a year on stuff (even though they had consumerism, and not just as a vehicle for mar- less time in a day to spend it).40 keting. The media are a powerful tool for trans- Government is another institution that often mitting cultural symbols, norms, customs, reinforces the consumerist orientation. Pro- myths, and stories. As Duane Elgin, author and moting consumer behavior happens in myriad media activist, explains: “To control a society, ways—perhaps most famously in 2001 when you don’t need to control its courts, you don’t U.S. President George W. Bush, U.K. Prime need to control its armies, all you need to do is Minister Tony Blair, and several other western control its stories. And it’s television and Madi- leaders encouraged their citizens to go out son Avenue that is telling us most of the stories and shop after the terrorist attacks of Septem- most of the time to most of the people.”38 ber 11th. But it also happens more systemically. Between television, movies, and increas- Subsidies for particular industries—especially ingly the Internet, the media are a dominant in the transportation and energy sectors, where form of leisure time activity. In 2006, some 83 cheap oil or electricity has ripple effects percent of the world’s population had access throughout the economy—also work to stoke to television and 21 percent had access to the consumption. And to the extent that manu- Internet. (See Table 3.) In countries that facturers are not required to internalize the belong to the Organisation for Economic Co- environmental and social costs of production— operation and Development, 95 percent of when pollution of air or water is unregulated, households have at least one television, and for example—the cost of goods is artificially people watch about three to four hours a day low, stimulating their use. Between these sub- on average. Add to this the two to three hours sidies and externalities, total support of pol- spent online each day, plus radio broadcasts, luting business interests was pegged at $1.9 newspapers, magazines, and the 8 billion movie trillion in 2001.41 tickets sold in 2006 worldwide, and it becomes Some of these government actions are dri- clear that media exposure consumes anywhere ven by “regulatory capture,” when special from a third to half of people’s waking day in interests wield undue influence over regulators. large parts of the world.39 In 2008, that influence could be observed in During those hours, much of media output the United States through the $3.9 billion reinforces consumer norms and promotes spent on campaign donations by business

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Table 2. How Industries Have Shifted Cultural Norms

Industry Shift Bottled water This $60-billion industry sold 241 billion liters of water in 2008, more than double the amount sold in 2000. Through its global advertising efforts, the industry has helped create the impression that bottled water is healthier, tastier, and more fashionable than publicly supplied water, even as studies have found some bottled water brands to be less safe than public tap water and to cost 240 to 10,000 times as much. Fast food Fast food is now a $120-billion industry in the United States, with about 200,000 restaurants in operation. Among major restaurant chains, half are now hamburger joints. In the early 1900s, the hamburger was scorned in the United States as a dirty “food for the poor,” but by the 1960s the hamburger had become a loved meal. By spending an annual $1.2 billion in advertising, promoting convenience and value, and providing play places for children, McDonald’s in particular has helped transform dietary norms. It now serves 58 million people every day in its 32,000 restaurants spread across 118 countries. Disposable From paper towels and plates to diapers and facial tissue, the disposable paper prod- paper uct industry has cultivated the belief that these products provide convenience and products hygiene. In China, the market for these goods hit $14.6 billion in 2008, up 11 percent from the previous year. For many around the world, use of these products is today seen as a necessity, although this is a belief actively cultivated over many years by the industry. In China, when the disposable diaper industry entered the market it worked aggressively to make the use of “split-pants” taboo and instead to have disposable diapers be a symbol of affluence and sophistication. Vehicles Car companies are the second largest advertiser in the United States. They spent $15.6 billion on ads in 2008 and actively pushed the image of cars as sexy, exciting, and liberating. Since the 1920s, car companies have played an aggressive role in shifting the American culture to be car-centric, lobbying for increased road support, supporting organizations that fought against regulating car usage, even buying up several public trolley systems and dismantling them. Today car companies everywhere continue to promote auto-centric societies. In 2008, they spent $67 million on lobby- ing and $19 million on campaign contributions in the United States alone. Pet industry Views of specific animal species are primarily determined by cultures. The pet indus- try, which earns $42 billion globally each year on pet food alone, is a driving force in making it seem natural to view dogs, cats, and several other animals as friends and even members of the family. The “humanization” of these animals is a stated strategy of the industry and in 2005 was backed by over $300 million in advertising in the United States. As these pets are increasingly humanized, consumers become more willing to spend greater sums on expensive foods, veterinary services, clothing, and toys. Pets, however, consume considerable ecological resources. For example, two pet German Shepherds use more resources in a year than the average Bangladeshi does.

Source: See endnote 37.

interests (71 percent of total contributions) A clear example of official stimulation of and the $2.8 billion spent by business inter- consumption came in the 1940s when gov- ests to lobby policymakers (86 percent of total ernments started to actively promote con- lobbying dollars).42 sumption as a vehicle for development. For

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Table 3. Media Access by Global Income Group, 2006

Household Households Consumption with Internet Income Group Population Expenditure Per Capita Television Users (million) (PPP 2008 dollars) (percent) (per 100 people) World 6,538 5,360 83 21 High-income 1,053 21,350 98 59 Upper-middle-income 933 6,090 93 22 Lower-middle-income 3,619 1,770 80 11 Low-income 933 780 16 4

Source: See endnote 39.

example, the United States, which came out of to be increasingly susceptible to business influ- World War II relatively unscathed, had mobi- ence. Today schools accept classroom materi- lized a massive war-time economy—one that als sponsored by business interests, like the was poised to recede now that the war was “bias-balanced” energy education materials over. Intentionally stimulating high levels of by groups representing oil companies in consumption was seen as a good solution to Canada. And Channel One News, a 12-minute address this (especially with the memory of the daily “news” program with 2 minutes of com- Great Depression still raw). As Victor Lebow mercials and some segments sponsored by explained in 1955, “our enormously produc- products or companies, is now shown in 8,000 tive economy demands that we make con- middle and high schools across the United sumption our way of life, that we convert the States, exposing 6 million students—nearly a buying and use of goods into rituals, that we quarter of all American teens—to marketing seek our spiritual satisfactions, our ego satis- and product placements with the tacit support factions, in consumption.” 43 of educators.45 Today, this same attitude toward con- Perhaps the greatest critique of schools is sumption has spread far beyond the United that they represent a huge missed opportunity States and is the leading policy of many of the to combat consumerism and to educate stu- world’s governments. As the global economic dents about its effects on people and the envi- recession accelerated in 2009, wealthy coun- ronment. Few schools teach media literacy to tries did not see this as an opportunity to help students critically interpret marketing; shift to a sustainable “no-growth” economy— few teach or model proper nutrition, even essential if they are to rein in carbon emis- while providing access to unhealthy or unsus- sions, which is also on the global agenda—but tainable consumer products; and few teach a instead primed national economies with $2.8 basic understanding of the ecological sci- trillion of new government stimulus pack- ences—specifically that the human species is ages, only a small percentage of which focused not unique but in fact just as dependent on a on green initiatives.44 functioning Earth system for its survival as Finally, education plays a powerful role in every other species. The lack of integration of cultivating consumerism. As with govern- this basic knowledge into the school curricu- ments, in part this is because education seems lum, coupled with repeated exposure to con-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 15 The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 sumer goods and advertising and with leisure to change include that more stuff makes peo- time focused in large part on television, helps ple happier, that perpetual growth is good, reinforce the unrealistic idea that humans are that humans are separate from nature, and separate from Earth and the illusion that per- that nature is a stock of resources to be petual increases in consumption are ecologically exploited for human purposes.47 possible and even valuable. Although paradigms are difficult to change and societies will resist efforts to do so, the Cultivating Cultures result of such a change can be a dramatic trans- of Sustainability formation of the system. Yes, altering a system’s rules (with legislation, for instance) or its flow Considering the social and ecological costs rates (with taxes or subsidies) can change a sys- that come with consumerism, it makes sense to tem too, but not as fundamentally. These will intentionally shift to a cultural paradigm where typically produce only incremental changes. the norms, symbols, values, and traditions Today more systemic change is needed.48 encourage just enough consumption to satisfy Cultural systems vary widely, as noted ear- human well-being while directing more human lier, and so too would sustainable cultures. energy toward practices that help to restore Some may use norms, taboos, rituals, and other planetary well-being. social tools to reinforce sustainable life choices; In a 2006 interview, Catholic priest and others may lean more on institutions, laws, ecological philosopher Thomas Berry noted and technologies. But regardless of which tools that “we might summarize our present human are used, and the specific result, there would be situation by the simple statement: In the 20th common themes across sustainable cultures. century, the glory of the human has become Just as a consumerism paradigm encourages the desolation of the Earth. And now, the people to define their well-being through their desolation of the Earth is becoming the des- consumption patterns, a sustainability para- tiny of the human. From here on, the primary digm would work to find an alternative set of judgment of all human institutions, profes- aspirations and reinforce this through cultural sions, and programs and activities will be institutions and drivers. determined by the extent to which they Ecological restoration would be a leading inhibit, ignore, or foster a mutually enhancing theme. It should become “natural” to find human-Earth relationship.” Berry made it value and meaning in life through how much clear that a tremendous shift is necessary in a person helps restore the planet rather than society’s institutions, in its very cultures, if how much that individual earns, how large a humans are to thrive as a species long into the home is, or how many gadgets someone has. future. Institutions will have to be funda- Equity would also be a strong theme. As it mentally oriented on sustainability.46 is the richest who have some of the largest How can this be done? In an analysis on ecological impacts, and the very poorest who places to intervene in a system, environmen- often by necessity are forced into unsustainable tal scientist and systems analyst Donella Mead- behaviors like deforestation in a search for ows explained that the most effective leverage fuelwood, more equitable distribution of point for changing a system is to change the resources within society could help to curb paradigm of the system—that is to say, the some of the worst ecological impacts. Recent shared ideas or basic assumptions around which research also shows that societies that are more the system functions. In the case of the con- equitable have less violence, better health, sumerism paradigm, the assumptions that need higher literacy levels, lower incarceration rates,

16 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures less obesity, and lower levels of teen preg- nancy—all substantial bonus dividends that would come with cultivating this value.49 More concretely, the role of consumption and the acceptability of different types of con- sumption could be altered culturally as well. Again, while the exact vision of this will vary across cultural systems, three simple goals should hold true universally. First, consumption that actively undermines well-being needs to be actively discouraged. The examples in this category are many: con- suming excessive processed and junk foods, tobacco use, disposable goods, and giant houses that lead to sprawl and car dependency and to such social ills as obesity, social isolation, long commutes, and increased resource use. Through strategies such as government regu- lation of choices available to consumers, social pressures, education, and social marketing, certain behaviors and consumption choices can be made taboo. At the same time, creat- Back for more: Factory farm freedom fighters ing easy access to healthier alternatives is impor- from The Meatrix II. tant—such as offering affordable, easily accessible fruits and vegetables to replace cars is a cultural norm, not a natural fact—cul- unhealthy foods.50 tivated over decades by car interests. But this Second, it will be important to replace the can once again be redirected, extracting cars private consumption of goods with public con- from cities, as Masdar in Abu Dhabi, Curitiba sumption, the consumption of services, or in Brazil, Perth in Australia, and Hasselt in Bel- even minimal or no consumption when possi- gium have already started to demonstrate. For ble. By increasing support of public parks, example, the Hasselt city council, facing rapid libraries, transit systems, and community gar- growth in car usage and budget shortfalls, dens, much of the unsustainable consumption decided in the mid-1990s to bolster the city’s choices today could be replaced by sustainable public transit system and make it free for all res- alternatives—from borrowing books and trav- idents instead of building another expensive eling by bus instead of by car to growing food ring road. In the 10 years since then, bus rid- in shared gardens and spending time in parks. ership has jumped 10-fold, while traffic has less- The clearest example of this is transporta- ened and city revenues have increased from an tion. Reorganizing infrastructure to support enlivened city center.51 walkable neighborhoods and public transit Third, goods that do remain necessary could lead to a dramatic reduction in road should be designed to last a long time and be transportation—which pollutes locally, con- “cradle to cradle”—that is, products need to tributes about 17 percent to total greenhouse eliminate waste, use renewable resources, and gas emissions, and leads to 1.3 million deaths be completely recyclable at the end of their from accidents each year. The centrality of useful lives. As Charles Moore, who has fol-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 17 The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 lowed the routes of plastic waste through act of walking to and from school is being oceans, explains, “Only we humans make used to teach children to live sustainably, as waste that nature can’t digest,” a practice that “walking buses” in Italy, , and will have to stop. The cultivation of both psy- elsewhere demonstrate. In Lecco, Italy, for chological and physical obsolescence will need example, 450 elementary school students walk to be discouraged so that, for example, a com- with a “driver” and volunteering parents along puter will stay functional, upgradable, and 17 routes to 10 different schools each day. fashionable for a decade rather than a year. There are no school buses in the city. Since Rather than gaining praise from friends for their creation in 2003, these “piedibuses” have owning the newest phone or camera, having prevented over 160,000 kilometers of driving an “old faithful” that has lasted a dozen years and thus have reduced carbon emissions and will be celebrated.52 other auto pollutants. Along with reducing Having a vision of what values, norms, and the ecological impact of children’s commutes, behaviors should be seen as natural will be the piedibuses teach road safety (in a supervised essential in guiding the reorientation of cultures setting), provide exercise, and help children toward sustainability. Of course, this cultural connect with nature on the way to school.54 transformation will not be easy. Shifting cultural The basic role of business is also starting to systems is a long process measured in decades, be readdressed. Social enterprises are chal- not years. Even consumerism, with sophisti- lenging the assumption that profit is the pri- cated technological advances and many mary or even sole purpose of business. More devoted resources, took centuries to become businesses—from the Grameen Bank in dominant. The shift to a culture of sustain- Bangladesh to a restaurant chain in Thailand ability will depend on powerful networks of called Cabbages and Condoms—are putting cultural pioneers who initiate, champion, and their social missions front and center, helping drive forward this new, urgently needed par- people while being financially successful as adigm. (See Box 2.)53 well. New corporate charters—like the B Cor- As the spread of consumerism also demon- poration (the B stands for Benefit)—are even strates, leading cultural institutions can be har- being designed to ensure that businesses over nessed by specific actors and can play a central time are legally bound to consider the well- role in redirecting cultural norms—whether being of Earth, workers, customers, and other government, the media, or education. stakeholders as they make business decisions.55 The good news is that this process has In government, some innovative shifts are already started, as discussed in the 25 articles taking place. A long-standing government that follow this chapter. Significant efforts are role known as “choice editing,” in which gov- being undertaken to redirect societies’ cul- ernments encourage good choices while dis- tural orientation by harnessing six powerful couraging bad ones, is being harnessed to institutions: education, business, government, reinforce sustainable choices—everything from and the media, which have played such pow- questioning perverse subsidies to outright erful roles in driving consumerism, plus social bans of unsustainable technologies like the movements and sustainable traditions, both incandescent lightbulb. And more than that, old and new. entire ideas are being reassessed, from security In the realm of education, there are early to law. New concepts like Earth jurisprudence, signs that every aspect is being transformed— in which the Earth community has funda- from preschool to the university, from the mental rights that human laws must incor- museum to the school lunch menu. The very porate, are starting to take hold. In September

18 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures

Box 2. The Essential Role of Cultural Pioneers

Considering that consumerism is such a pow- agents who now volunteer to surreptitiously erful force and that the majority of resources promote the newest consumer product, indi- and wealth are still overwhelmingly being viduals who recognize the dangerous ecologi- used to stimulate it, how realistic is it to think cal and social disruptions arising from that the pattern can shift? James Davison unsustainable consumerism need to mobilize Hunter’s analysis of how cultures change is their networks to help spread a new paradigm. instructive. As Hunter, the Director of the These networks, tapping whatever resources Institute for Advanced Studies in Culture at they have—financial, cultural, political, or the University of Virginia, explains, cultural familial—will play essential roles in pioneering change can best be understood not through a new cultural orientation. the Great Man approach (whereby heroic indi- The story of the documentary The Age of viduals redirect the course of history), but Stupid illustrates this point. The filmmakers through the Great Network approach. “The raised funds from small investments by key actor in history is not individual genius friends and supporters, and they marketed the but rather the network.” film and organized 600 showings in over 60 When networks come together, they can countries by tapping into a global network of change history. But not always. Change concerned individuals. They then channeled depends on “overlapping networks of leaders” the momentum of the film to build a climate of similar orientation and with complementary change campaign. This campaign, 10:10, resources (whether cultural clout, money, polit- encourages people to commit to reduce their ical power, or other assets) acting “in common carbon emissions by 10 percent in 2010 and purpose.” Networks can spread many ideas, to mobilize policymakers to do the same. By whether consumption patterns, habits, political October 2009, some 900 businesses, 220 views, or even a new cultural paradigm. schools, 330 organizations, and 21,000 indi- But as Hunter notes, as culture is driven by viduals had signed the 10:10 pledge. institutions, success will depend on pulling And if all these networks of pioneers fail? ideas of sustainability into the center of these As scientist James Lovelock notes, “Civiliza- institutions, not allowing them to remain on tion in its present form hasn’t got long.” the periphery. This means that as individuals Consumerism—due to its ecological impos- internalize new norms and values personally, sibility—cannot continue much longer. The they also need to actively spread these ideas more seeds sown by cultural pioneers now, along their networks. They need to bring these the higher the probability that the political, ideas directly to the center of leading human social, and cultural vacuum created by the institutions—spreading them through all decline of consumerism will be filled with available vehicles—so that others adopt this ideas of sustainability as opposed to other orientation and use their own leadership less humanistic . capacities to spread it even further. Like brand Source: See endnote 53.

2008, Ecuador even incorporated this into tions and its evolutionary processes” and that its new constitution, declaring that “Nature or “every person, community, and nation will Mother Earth, where life is reproduced and be able to demand the recognition of nature’s exists, has the right to exist, persist, maintain rights before public institutions.”56 and regenerate its vital cycles, structures, func- Film, the arts, music, and other forms of

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 19 The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 media are all starting to draw more attention and living more simply, the Slow Food move- to sustainability. Even a segment of the mar- ment, Transition Towns, and are all keting community is mobilizing to use the inspiring and empowering people to redirect knowledge of the industry to persuade people both their own lives and broader society to live sustainably. These “social marketers” are toward sustainability.58 creating ads, videos for the Internet, and cam- Finally, cultural traditions are starting to be paigns to drive awareness about issues as reoriented toward sustainability. New eco- diverse as the dangers of smoking, the impor- friendly ways to celebrate rituals are being tance of , and the problems established, for instance, and are becoming associated with factory farming. One social socially acceptable. Family size norms are start- marketing campaign by Free Range Studios, ing to shift. Lost traditions like the wise guid- The Meatrix, spoofed the global blockbuster ance of elders are being rediscovered and used movie The Matrix by following a group of to support the shift to sustainability. And reli- farm animals as they rebel against factory gious organizations are starting to use their farms and the ecological and social ills these mighty influence to tackle environmental operations cause. This generally unpalatable issues—printing Green Bibles, encouraging their message, treated in a humorous way, spread congregations to conserve energy, investing virally across the Internet. It has reached an institution funds responsibly, and taking a stance estimated 20 million viewers to date while against abuses of Creation, such as razing forests costing only $50,000, a tiny fraction of what and blowing up mountaintops for coal.59 a 30-second TV ad would have cost to reach Perhaps in a century or two, extensive an audience of the same size.57 efforts to pioneer a new cultural orientation will A host of social movements are starting to no longer be needed as people will have inter- form that directly or indirectly tackle issues of nalized many of these new ideas, seeing sus- sustainability. Hundreds of thousands of orga- tainability—rather than consumerism—as nizations are working, often quietly on their “natural.” Until then, networks of cultural own and unknown to each other, on the many pioneers will be needed to push institutions to essential aspects of building sustainable cul- proactively and intentionally accelerate this tures—such as social and environmental jus- shift. Anthropologist Margaret Mead is often tice, corporate responsibility, restoration of quoted as saying: “Never doubt that a small ecosystems, and government reform. “This group of thoughtful, committed citizens can unnamed movement is the most diverse move- change the world. Indeed, it’s the only thing ment the world has ever seen,” explains envi- that ever has.” With many interconnected cit- ronmentalist Paul Hawken. “The very word izens energized, organized, and committed to movement I think is too small to describe it.” spreading a sustainable way of life, a new cul- Together these have the power to redirect tural paradigm can take hold—one that will the momentum of consumerism and provide allow humanity to live better lives today and a vision of a sustainable future that appeals to long into the future.60 everyone. Efforts to promote working less

20 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Traditions Old and New

ountless choices in human lives uals, and even daily actions that can be redi- are reinforced, driven by, or stem rected from moments that stimulate con- from traditions, whether religious sumption to those that reconnect people with CC traditions, rituals, cultural taboos, the planet and remind them of their depen- or what people learn from elders and their dence on Earth for continued well-being. families. Taking advantage of these traditions Traditions shape not just day-to-day activ- and in some cases reorienting them to reinforce ities but major life choices, such as how many sustainable ways of life could help make human children to have. Tapping into traditions— societies a restorative element of broader eco- families’ influence, religious teachings, and logical systems. As many cultures throughout social pressures—to shift family size norms to history have found, traditional ways can often more sustainable levels will be essential in help enhance rather than undermine sustain- global efforts to stabilize population growth. able life choices. Robert Engelman of Worldwatch points out This section considers several important that the prerequisite of this will be to ensure traditions in people’s lives and in society. Gary that women have the ability to control their Gardner of Worldwatch suggests that religious reproductive choices and that their families organizations, which cultivate many of human- and governments let them make these choices ity’s deepest held beliefs, could play a central in ways that respect their decisions. role in cultivating sustainability and deterring Another important and unfortunately consumerism. Considering the financial diminishing force for sustainability is the wis- resources of these bodies, their moral author- dom of elders. Through their long lives and ity, and the fact that 86 percent of the people breadth of experience, elders traditionally held in the world say they belong to an organized a place of respect in communities and served religion, getting religions involved in spread- as knowledge keepers, religious leaders, and ing cultures of sustainability will unquestion- shapers of community norms. These roles, ably be essential.1 however, have weakened as consumerism and Rituals and taboos play an important role in its subsequent celebration of youth and rejec- human lives and help reinforce norms, behav- tion of tradition have spread across the planet. iors, and relationships. So Gary Gardner also Recognizing the power of elders and taking looks at rites of passage, holidays, political rit- advantage of all they know, as Judi Aubel of the

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Click here to see notes for this section. Traditions Old and New STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Grandmother Project describes, can be an brated to reflect a changing reality—one in important tool in cultivating traditions that which 6.8 billion people live on Earth, another reinforce sustainable practices. 2.3 billion are projected to join by 2050, and Finally, one long-lived tradition that has the ecological systems on which humanity been dramatically altered in the past several depends are under serious strain. Cultures in the generations is farming. Albert Bates of The past have also faced ecological crises. Some, like Farm and Toby Hemenway of Pacific Univer- the Rapanui of Easter Island, failed to alter sity describe how sustainable societies will their traditions. The Rapanui continued, for depend on sustainable agricultural practices— example, to dedicate too many resources to systems in which farming methods no longer their ritual building of Moai statues—until deplete soils and pollute the planet but actu- their society buckled under the strain and Easter ally help to replenish soils and heal scarred Island’s population collapsed. Others have been landscapes while providing healthy food and more like the Tikopians, who live on a small livelihoods. island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. When Several Boxes in these articles also discuss they saw the dangers they faced as ecological important traditions, including the need for systems became strained, they made dramatic ethical systems to internalize humanity’s depen- changes in social roles, family planning strate- dence on Earth’s systems, the value of rekin- gies, and even their diet. Recognizing the dling an understanding of geologic-scale time, resource-intensive nature of raising pigs, for and the importance of reorienting dietary instance, they stopped raising them altogether. norms to encourage healthy and sustainable As a result, Tikopia’s population stayed stable food choices. and continues to thrive today.2 These are just some of the many traditions —Erik Assadourian that need to be critically examined and recali-

22 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Engaging Religions to Shape Worldviews

Gary Gardner

When Yue, Vice-Minister of China’s Min- yet new vocabulary.”2 istry of Environmental Protection, wants to The Chinese Taoists are not alone in their advance these days, he often . Bahá’ís, Christians, Hindus, Jews, reaches for an unusual tool: China’s spiritual and Muslims—encouraged by a partnership heritage. Confucianism, Taoism, and Bud- of the United Nations and the Alliance for dhism, says Pan, can be powerful weapons in Religions and Conservation (a U.K. non- “preventing an environmental crisis” because profit)—developed seven-year climate and of each tradition’s respect for nature. Mary environment plans that were announced in Evelyn Tucker, a Confucian scholar at Yale November 2009, just before the start of the University, elaborates: “Pan realizes that the U.N. climate conference in . The ecological crisis is also a crisis of culture and of plans are the latest religious efforts to address the human spirit. It is a moment of re-con- the sustainability crises of our time, including ceptualizing the role of the human in nature.”1 climate change, deforestation, water scarcity, Religious groups have responded with inter- and species loss. By greening their activities and est to Pan’s overtures. In October 2008, a uncovering or re-emphasizing the green group of Taoist masters met to formulate a for- dimensions of sacred texts, religious and spir- mal response to climate change, with initiatives itual groups are helping to create sustainable ranging from solar-powered temples to a Taoist cultures.3 environmental network. Inspiration came from How influential such efforts will be is the Taoist concept of yin and yang, the inter- unclear—in most faiths, environmental play of opposites to create a balanced whole, activism generally involves a small minority. which infuses the climate crisis with transcen- But in principle, religious people—four out of dent meaning. “The carbon balance between every five people alive today identify them- Earth and Sky is off-kilter,” explains a U.N. selves as this—could become a major factor in official who attended the meeting, interpret- forging new cultures of sustainability. There ing the Taoist view. “It is…significant that the is plenty of precedent. The anti-apartheid and current masters of Taoism in China have started U.S. civil rights movements, the Sandinista to communicate precisely through this ancient revolution in Nicaragua, the Jubilee 2000

Gary Gardner is a senior researcher at the Worldwatch Institute who focuses on sustainable economies.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Engaging Religions to Shape Worldviews STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 debt-reduction initiative, the nuclear-freeze gesting broad latitude for religious activism.5 initiative in the United States in the 1980s— More specific data from the United States all these featured significant input and support suggest that faith communities are potentially from religious people and institutions. And an influential gateway to discussions about , drawing on an intimate environmental protection. A 2009 poll found and reciprocal relationship with nature, help that 72 percent of Americans say that religious people of all cultures to reconnect, often in a beliefs play at least a “somewhat important” role spiritual way, with the natural world that sup- in their thinking about the of the ports all human activity.4 environment and climate change.6 Another marker of the cultural influence The Greening of Religion of religious and spiritual traditions is the emer- gence of major reference works on religion Over the past two decades, the indicators of and sustainability, giving the topic added legit- engagement on environmental issues by reli- imacy. Over the past decade, an encyclopedia, gions and spiritual traditions have grown two journals, and a major research project on markedly. And opinion polls reveal increased the environmental dimensions of 10 world interest in such developments. The World Val- religions have documented the growth of reli- ues Survey, a poll of people in dozens of coun- gions in the environmental field. (See Table 4.) tries undertaken five times since the early 1980s, Dozens of universities now offer courses on the reports that some 62 percent of people world- religion/sustainability nexus, and the 2009 wide feel it is appropriate for religious leaders Parliament of the World’s Religions had major to speak up about environmental issues, sug- panels on the topic.7

Table 4. Reference Works on Religion and Nature

Initiative Date Appeared Description “Religions of the World and 1995–2005 A Harvard-based research project that produced 10 Ecology” Project volumes, each devoted to the relationship between a major world religion and the environment Encyclopedia of Religion 2005 A 1,000-entry reference work that explores relation- and Nature ships among humans, the environment, and religious dimensions of life The Spirit of Sustainability 2009 One volume in the 10-volume Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability, examining the values dimension of sustainability through the lens of religions Green Bible 2008 The New Revised Standard Version, with environ- mentally oriented verses in green and with essays from religious leaders about environmental topics; printed on recycled paper using soy-based ink Worldviews: Global Religions, 1995, 1996 Journals devoted to the linkages among the spheres Culture, and Ecology and of nature, spirit, and culture Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature, and Culture

Source: See endnote 7.

24 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Engaging Religions to Shape Worldviews

Religious activism on behalf of the envi- initiative of the San Francisco–based Regen- ronment is now common—in some cases, to eration Project, helps U.S. faith communities the point of becoming widespread, organized, green their buildings, conserve energy, educate and institutionalized. Three examples from about energy and climate, and advocate for cli- the realms of , forest con- mate and energy policies at the state and fed- servation, and energy and climate illustrate eral level. Led by Reverend Sally Bingham, an this broad-based impact. Episcopal priest, IPL is now active in 29 states First, His All Holiness, Patriarch Bartholo- and works with 10,000 congregations. It has mew, ecumenical leader of more than 300 mil- developed a range of innovative programs to lion Orthodox Christians, founded Religion, help faith communities green their work and Science and the Environment (RSE) in 1995 worship, including Congregations, which to advance religious and scientific dialogue features an online carbon calculator and which around the environmental problems of major in 2008 awarded $5,000 prizes to both the rivers and seas. RSE has organized shipboard congregation with the lowest emissions per symposia for scientists, religious leaders, schol- congregant and the congregation that reduced ars, journalists, and policymakers to study the emissions by the greatest amount.11 problems of the Aegean, Black, Adriatic, and These and other institutionalized initiatives, Baltic Seas; the Danube, Amazon, and Mis- along with the thousands of individual grass- sissippi Rivers; and the Arctic Ocean.8 roots religious projects at congregations world- In addition to raising awareness about the wide—from Bahá’í environmental and solar problems of specific waterways, the symposia technology education among rural women in have generated initiatives for education, coop- India to Appalachian faith groups’ efforts to eration, and network-building among local stop mountaintop mining and the varied envi- communities and policymakers. Sponsors have ronmental efforts of “Green nuns”—suggest included the Prince of Wales; attendees include that religious and spiritual traditions are ready policymakers from the United Nations and partners, and often leaders, in the effort to World Bank; and collaborators have included build sustainable cultures.12 Pope John Paul II, who signed a joint decla- ration with Patriarch Bartholomew on human- Silence on False Gods? ity’s need to protect the planet.9 Second, “ecology monks”—Buddhist In contrast to their active involvement in envi- advocates for the environment in Thailand— ronmental matters, the world’s religious tra- have taken stands against deforestation, ditions seem to hold a paradoxical position shrimp farming, and the cultivation of cash on consumerism: while they are well equipped crops. In several cases they have used a Bud- to address the issue, and their help is sorely dhist ordination ritual to “ordain” a tree in an needed, religious involvement in consumerism endangered forest, giving it sacred status in is largely limited to occasional statements from the eyes of villagers and spawning a forest religious leaders. conservation effort. One monk involved in Religious warnings about excess and about tree ordinations has created a nongovern- excessive attachment to the material world are mental organization to leverage the monks’ legion and date back millennia. (See Table 5.) efforts by coordinating environmental activ- Wealth and possessiveness—key features of a ities of local village groups, government agen- consumer society—have long been linked by cies, and other interested organizations.10 religious traditions to greed, corruption, self- Third, Interfaith Power and Light (IPL), an ishness, and other character flaws. Moreover,

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Table 5. Selected Religious Perspectives on Consumption

Faith Perspective Bahá’í Faith “In all matters moderation is desirable. If a thing is carried to excess, it will prove a source of evil.” (Bahá’u’lláh, Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh) “Whoever in this world overcomes his selfish cravings, his sorrow fall away from him, like drops of water from a lotus flower.” (Dhammapada, 336) Christianity “No one can be the slave of two masters….You cannot be the slave both of God and money.” (Matthew, 6:24) Confucianism “Excess and deficiency are equally at fault.” (Confucius, XI.15) “That person who lives completely free from desires, without longing…attains peace.” (Bhagavad Gita, II.71) Islam “Eat and drink, but waste not by excess: He loves not the excessive.” (Qur’an, 7.31) Judaism “Give me neither poverty nor riches.” (Proverbs, 30:8) Taoism “He who knows he has enough is rich.” (Tao Te Ching)

Source: See endnote 13.

faith groups have spiritual and moral tools Religion” led by Carl Sagan and signed by 32 that can address the spiritual roots of con- Nobel Laureates.14 sumerism—including moral suasion, sacred Despite the logic for engagement, religious writings, ritual, and liturgical practices—in intervention on this issue is sporadic and addition to the environmental arguments used rhetorical rather than sustained and program- by secular groups. And local congregations, matic. It is difficult to find religious initiatives temples, parishes, and ashrams are often tight- that promote simpler living or that help con- knit communities that are potential models gregants challenge the consumerist orienta- and support groups for members interested in tion of most modern economies. (Indeed, an changing their consumption patterns.13 extreme counterexample, the “gospel of pros- Moreover, of the three drivers of environ- perity,” encourages Christians to see great mental impact—population, affluence, and wealth and consumption as signs of God’s technology—affluence, a proxy for consump- favor.) Simplicity and anti-consumerism are tion, is the arena in which secular institutions largely limited to teachings that get little sus- have been least successful in promoting tained attention, such as Pope Benedict’s July restraint. Personal consumption continues 2009 encyclical, Charity in Truth, a strong upward even in wealthy countries, and con- statement on the inequities engendered by sumer lifestyles are spreading rapidly to newly and the harm inflicted on both peo- prospering nations. Few institutions exist in ple and the planet. Or simplicity is practiced by most societies to promote simpler living, and those who have taken religious vows, whose those that do have little influence. So sustain- commitment to this lifestyle—while often ability advocates have looked to religions for respected by other people—is rarely put forth help, such as in the landmark 1990 statement as a model for followers.15 “Preserving and Cherishing the Earth: An Advocating a mindful approach to con- Appeal for Joint Commitment in Science and sumption could well alienate some of the faith-

26 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Engaging Religions to Shape Worldviews ful in many traditions. But it would also address arettes, or alcohol. Why not also steer funds directly one of the greatest modern threats to toward sustainability initiatives, such as solar religions and to spiritual health: the insidious power and microfinance (the via positiva, in message that the purpose of human life is to the words of the Archbishop of Canterbury)? consume and that consumption is the path to This is what the International Interfaith Invest- happiness. Tackling these heresies could nudge ment Group seeks to do with institutional reli- many faiths back to their spiritual and scriptural gious investments. In addition, why not stress roots—their true source of power and legiti- the need for personal portfolios (not just insti- macy—and arguably could attract more fol- tutional ones) to be guided ethically as well? In lowers over the long run. the United States alone the value of investment portfolios under professional management was Contributions to a Culture more than $24 trillion in 2007, only 11 percent of Sustainability of which was socially responsible investment.18 Express the sacredness of the natural world Most religious and spiritual traditions have a in liturgies and rituals. The most important great deal to offer in creating cultures of sus- assets of a faith tradition are arguably the intan- tainability. gible ones. Rituals, customs, and liturgical Educate about the environment. As reli- expressions speak to the heart in a profound way gious traditions embrace the importance of that cognitive knowledge cannot. Consider the natural environment, it makes sense to the power of the Taoist yin and yang framing include ecological instruction in religious edu- of climate change, or of Christian “carbon cation—just as many Sunday Schools include a fasts” at Lent, or of the Buddhist, Hindu, and social justice dimension in their curricula. Jain understanding of (non-harming) as Teaching nature as “the book of Creation,” and a rationale for . How else might environmental degradation as a sin, for exam- religious and spiritual traditions express sus- ple—positions adopted by various denomina- tainability concerns ritualistically and liturgically? tions in recent years—is key to moving people Reclaim forgotten assets. Religious tradi- beyond an instrumentalist understanding of tions have a long list of little-emphasized eco- the natural world.16 nomic teachings that could be helpful for Educate about consumption. In an increas- building sustainable economies. These include ingly “full world” in which human numbers prohibitions against the overuse of farmland and and appetites press against natural limits, intro- pursuit of wealth as an end in itself, advocacy ducing an ethic of limited consumption is an of broad risk-sharing, critiques of consumption, urgent task. Religions can make a difference and economies designed to serve the common here: University of Vermont scholar Stephanie good. (See Table 6.) Much of this wisdom Kaza reports, for example, that some 43 percent would be especially helpful now, as economies of Buddhists surveyed at Buddhist retreat cen- are being restructured and as people seem open ters were vegetarians, compared with 3 per- to new rules of economic action and a new cent of Americans overall. Such ethical influence understanding of .19 over consumption, extended to all wisdom tra- ditions and over multiple realms in addition to Coming Home food, could be pivotal in creating cultures of sus- tainability. (See Box 3.)17 Often painted as conservative and unchanging Educate about investments. Many religious institutions, many religions are in fact rapidly institutions avoid investments in weapons, cig- embracing the modern cause of environmen-

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Box 3. A Global Ecological Ethic

The modern global ecocrisis is a strong signal value—they stabilize the climate, air, and soil that “environmentally at least, all established upon which people ultimately depend. Further- ethics are inadequate,” in the words of ethicists more, it would show that an old-growth forest Richard Sylvan and David Bennett. Most ethi- is vastly richer (in terms of biodiversity) than a cal systems today are indifferent to the steady planted monoculture and can never, as such, degradation of natural systems and need to be be replaced; that it has value in and of itself reformed or replaced. Ecological ethics is a regardless of its use-value to humans; and that complementary ethical system that gives the its conversion into, say, cardboard and toilet natural world a voice in ethical discourse. paper would be despicable or even mad. A specifically ecological ethic is “ecocentric” When this full toolbox of arguments is given (perceiving and protecting value in all of standing, the ecological point of view has a nature), not “anthropocentric” (restricting decent chance of prevailing. The paradox is value to humanity alone). It recognizes that that ecological ethics, though infused with humans are only a part of life on Earth, that nonhuman dimensions, greatly increases the humans need the rest of the planet and likelihood of humanity’s survival. its inhabitants vastly more than they need The prospects for institutionalizing ecolog- humans, and that there is an ethical dimension ical ethics may be growing as humanity recog- to all human relationships with the planet. nizes its radical dependence on the environ- Indeed, a truly ecocentric ethic recognizes that ment. To advance the cause will require work in certain situations, the needs or rights of on many fronts. To begin, it will be necessary Earth or its other inhabitants take precedence to replace the sense of self as consumer with over purely or narrowly human ones. a sense of self as green citizen. This implies An ecological ethic is distinct from ethics developing some limits to consumption— rooted in enlightened human self-interest, the fewer disposable items, for example. basis for virtually all ethical philosophies until It will also require appreciating and adopt- now. Anthropocentric ethics encourages rather ing many of the principles emerging from than counters the human inclination toward “traditional ecological knowledge”—local or short-termism, greed, and limited sympathies. bioregional ecological wisdom, spiritual It also denies any responsibility for the effects values, ritual practices, and ethics—that has of human behavior on the millions of other sustained traditional peoples for millennia. species and living individuals on this planet. Where such knowledge survives, it must be Suppose, for example, that a company protected and encouraged; where it does not, wants to cut down a forest of old-growth hard- it must be rediscovered and re-embodied in wood trees and convert them into paper prod- “invented traditions” that re-root humans in ucts. Company officials argue that local jobs the natural world. depend on the logging, that the public needs Finally, developing an ecological ethics will the logs for paper and wood products, that the require the help of the world’s spiritual and old-growth trees can be replaced by purpose- religious traditions, which are highly influen- grown ones that are just as good, and so on. tial in shaping the ethical sensibilities of a This is anthropocentric ethics at work. large share of humanity. An argument based on ecological ethics —Patrick Curry would assert that undisturbed trees are more University of Kent, Canterbury, U.K. useful to society because of their ecological Source: See endnote 17.

28 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Engaging Religions to Shape Worldviews

Table 6. Economic Precepts of Selected Religious and Spiritual Traditions

Economic Teaching or Principle Description Buddhist Whereas market economies aim to produce the highest levels of production and economics consumption, “” as espoused by E. F. Schumacher focuses on a spiritual goal: to achieve enlightenment. This requires freedom from desire, a core dri- ver of consumerist economies but for Buddhists the source of all suffering. From this perspective, consumption for its own sake is irrational. In fact, the rational person aims to achieve the highest level of well-being with the least consumption. In this view, collecting material goods, generating mountains of refuse, and designing goods to wear out—all characteristics of a consumer economy—are absurd inefficiencies. Catholic At least a half-dozen papal encyclicals and countless bishops’ documents argue that economic economies should be designed to serve the common good and are critical of unrestrained teachings capitalism that emphasizes profit at any cost. The July 2009 encyclical Charity in Truth is a good recent example. Indigenous Because indigenous peoples’ interactions with nature are relational rather than economic instrumental, resource use is something done with the world rather than to the world. practices So indigenous economic activities are typically characterized by interdependence, reciprocity, and responsibility. For example, the Tlingit people of southern Alaska, before harvesting the bark of cedar trees (a key economic resource), make a ritual apology to the spirits of the trees and promise to use only as much as needed. This approach creates a mindful and minimalist ethic of . Islamic Islamic finance is guided by rules designed to promote the social good. Because money finance is intrinsically unproductive, Islamic finance deems it ethically wrong to earn money from money (that is, to charge interest), which places greater economic emphasis on the “real” economy of goods and services. Islamic finance reduces investment risk— and promotes financial stability—by pooling risk broadly and sharing rewards broadly. And it prohibits investment in casinos, pornography, and weapons of mass destruction. Sabbath The biblical books of Deuteronomy and Exodus declare that every seventh (“Sabbath”) economics year, debts are to be forgiven, prisoners set free, and cropland fallowed as a way to give a fresh start to the poor and the imprisoned and to depleted land. Underlying these economic, social, and environmental obligations are three principles: extremes of con- sumption should be avoided; surplus wealth should circulate, not concentrate; and believers should rest regularly and thank God for their blessings.

Source: See endnote 19. tal protection. Yet consumerism—the opposite that happiness is found in self-emptying, that side of the environmental coin, and tradi- satisfaction is found more in relationships than tionally an area of religious strength—has in things, and that simplicity can lead to a received relatively little attention thus far. fuller life—is urgently needed today. Com- Ironically, the greatest contribution the world’s bined with the newfound passion of many religions could make to the sustainability chal- religions for healing the environment, this lenge may be to take seriously their own ancient wisdom could help create new and ancient wisdom on materialism. Their special sustainable civilizations. gift—the millennia-old paradoxical insight

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 29 Ritual and Taboo as Ecological Guardians

Gary Gardner

“Keeping kosher,” the ancient Jewish practice to internalize and communicate deep-seated of observing dietary laws, has great practical and values. And taboos—the cultural prohibition symbolic value for many Jews. It promotes of specific acts and products—might also help awareness of the abundant generosity of the to proscribe human activities in an environ- divine and prescribes a particular, respectful mentally degraded world.2 relationship with the fruits of God’s creation. Although commonly associated with spiri- Some observant Jews are now working to estab- tual practices, rituals and taboos are as much lish an “eco-kosher” tradition: right eating and a secular as a religious phenomenon. A prime right consumption to preserve environmental minister or president singing the national health. Eco-kosher would infuse Jewish com- anthem, hand over heart, is engaged in a pow- mandments with modern meaning: Bal Tash- erful ritualistic behavior that speaks deeply to chit, the injunction not to waste, might apply compatriots, for example. And disrespecting a to excessive or non-recycled food packaging; flag or other national symbol is a common Tzaar Baalei Chayyim, the commandment to taboo in many countries. avoid cruelty to animals, could speak to con- Whether secular or religious, political or per- fined livestock operations; and Shmirat Haguf, sonal, rituals and taboos in a consumer culture the requirement that people take care of their often reinforce that culture and the environ- bodies, might prohibit foods that have been mental problems it brings. But increasingly these sprayed with pesticides. The environmental practices are being used to bring mindfulness to framing of ancient kosher rituals and prohibi- modern habits of consumption, as the example tions adds a powerful transcendent dimension of eco-kosher suggests. Ritual and taboo could to environmental protection.1 become powerful, if largely intangible, tools for Transforming cultures of consumerism into building cultures of sustainability. cultures of sustainability will require a broad set of tools, including, perhaps surprisingly, ritual The Power of Ritual and taboo. Rituals—defined here as formal acts, repeated regularly, that have deep mean- Ritual communication has long had an impor- ing for a community of people—help people tant role in protecting the natural environ-

Gary Gardner is a senior researcher at the Worldwatch Institute who focuses on sustainable economies.

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Click here to see notes for this section. STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Ritual and Taboo as Ecological Guardians ment. Cultural ecologist E. N. Anderson examples of cultures that use ritual and taboo for observes that in indigenous societies that have environmental protection. The Tsembaga peo- managed resources well for sustained periods, ple of New Guinea, for instance, use elaborate the credit often goes to “religious or ritual pig festivals that include ritual slaughters and pig- representation of resource management.” This eating rituals to achieve ecological balance. Rit- is in part because of the nature of ritual. Anthro- ual pig slaughtering, which occurs when pig pologist Roy Rappaport and others suggest have grown too large, lowers eco- that ritual is a more powerful form of com- logical pressures, redistributes land and pigs munication than even language and that this among people, and ensures that the neediest are advantage is useful for environmental protec- the first to receive limited supplies of pork.6 tion, especially in cultures like indigenous ones Ethnographers tell similar stories. In Ghana, that are deeply embedded in the natural envi- the traditional beliefs and taboos of the Ningo ronment. Rituals express deep, culturally people protect turtles, which are viewed as accepted truths in ways that language, which is gods, and mollusks, whose habitat is found in easily manipulated and often used in service of a sacred lagoon. Harvesting each species is for- falsehoods, cannot.3 bidden, but no such taboos exist in neighbor- As an example of the power of ritual, ing Ghanaian coastal cultures. As a result, some Swedish historian of religions Anne-Christine 80 percent of turtle nesting areas along the Hornborg cites the effort by the Mi’kmaq Ghanaian coast are found in Ningo protected people on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, to areas, and mollusks are up to seven times more stop development of a quarry proposed for a prevalent in areas protected by taboo than in Mi’kmaq sacred mountain in the early 1990s. neighboring areas.7 While a range of groups, including environ- These examples are not isolated cases of mentalists, stepped up to oppose the project, conservation. A 1997 analysis of species-spe- most of them used data, analysis, and rhetoric cific taboos found strong overlap between to highlight environmental and other impacts taboos and official assessments of species of the quarry. The quarry company easily par- endangerment: some 62 percent of reptiles ried these arguments with its own statistics and 44 percent of mammals protected by and analyses.4 indigenous rituals and taboos were also iden- The Mi’kmaq, however, took a different tified as threatened in the World Conservation approach, relying on ritual, including a sweat Union’s Red List of endangered species, sug- lodge, drumming, and pow-wows, as their gesting that indigenous peoples are skilled “argument,” and documenting that the moun- monitors of species endangerment. And as the tain was a traditional Mi’kmaq sacred site. The examples just cited suggest, indigenous peoples company had a difficult time countering the have also developed strategies for protecting Mi’kmaq rituals because, as Hornborg explains species, perhaps through co-evolutionary it, rituals are “immune to bureaucratic con- processes whereby human practices, includ- trol.” Or, as another scholar eloquently sum- ing taboos, change in step with threats to the marized it, “You cannot argue with a song.” well-being of various species.8 In the end, the company dropped its bid. While many reasons are given by different par- Rituals of Consumerism ties for the company’s decision, the Mi’kmaq rituals, says Hornborg, were a powerful and Rituals in consumer cultures may be powerful possibly decisive influence.5 carriers of meaning, just as they are in indige- Rappaport and other scholars cite many nous cultures, but many also help to spread

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Modern funerals, too, can carry an unnecessary ecologi- cal footprint. Today funerals in western countries typically involve an elaborate casket, embalming, flowers, and a cemetery plot with a concrete liner and marble headstone. The materials requirements for funerals in the United States— some 1.5 million tons of con- crete and 14,000 tons of for funeral vaults, and 90,000 tons of steel and nearly 3,000 tons of copper and bronze for caskets—is not huge as a share of all concrete and metals used in the country. But many of the features of modern funerals are

McKay Savage recent innovations that are Less toxic than most: In Chennai, India, a statue of Ganesh is made entirely unnecessary. After all, almost entirely of fruits and vegetables. just a few generations ago, even in industrial countries, the body consumerist values. Consider modern rites of of the deceased was prepared at home— passage—weddings, funerals, bar/bat mitz- wrapped in a shroud or placed in a simple vahs, and quinceañeras, for example—which in wooden box. And in some cultures today the many cases have become events marked by ritual has scarcely any environmental impact: heavy consumption, compared with their old- in the Tibetan “sky burial” the body of the fashioned predecessors. deceased, believed to be an empty vessel now The Wedding Report, a market research devoid of a soul, is cut up and left for vultures firm, says that weddings are a $60-billion to feed on. However unpalatable to the west- industry in the United States, with the average ern mind, this ritual is environmentally restora- celebration in 2008 costing nearly $22,000. tive and does not spread consumerist values.10 The expenditures cover a range of goods and Traditional holidays and feasts can be occa- services—invitations, gifts, meals, paper goods, sions of heavy consumption and environ- flowers, rings, guest travel, and attire, to name mental impact. Christmas is a commonly cited a few—each with its own ecological footprint. example, but other holidays make the point Guests who in for the event, for instance, as well. In India the festival of Ganesh have an extraordinary . The Chathauri—which honors Ganesh, the god reception can have a large impact as well, espe- that is half-elephant, half-man—typically cially if meat is served and if the food was not involves the use of thousands of large idols grown locally. And the two new gold rings painted in bright colors. At the festival’s end, that the celebrants exchange required the these are immersed in rivers, lakes, and the sea, removal of tons of ore and earth, along with where the paints and other materials conta- toxic flows of chemicals to extract the gold.9 minate the water. In the Bangalore area,

32 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Ritual and Taboo as Ecological Guardians where an estimated 25,000–30,000 idols have common rituals. New Year’s Day, for instance, been used in festivals in recent years, a test of is celebrated in many cultures, whether on the four lakes found increased acidification, a Gregorian, Chinese, Hebrew, Islamic, or doubling of dissolved solids, a tenfold increase other calendar. For many people, entering a in iron content, and a 200–300 percent new year is foremost about marking the pas- increase in copper in sediments. Many sage of time. And in this era of civilizational observers have called for alternative ways of transition—an epoch akin to the shift from marking Ganesh Chathauri—using biodegrad- hunter-gatherers to farmers, or from agrarian able materials for the idols, for example, or rit- to industrial societies—the new year may be ually sprinkling them in lieu of immersing a time to reflect in a long-term sense. (See them in water bodies.11 Box 4.)14 Shopping itself has become a major ritual But New Year’s Day is also a time to set a around some holidays. In the United States, new direction. In Peru and other Latin Amer- “Black Friday”—the day after Thanksgiving ican countries, for example, people make effi- and a non-working day for most people—is a gies to represent all that was bad in the year shopping extravaganza that marks the opening past, then burn them at midnight. In Japan, of the Christmas shopping season. A Web site Bonenkai or “forget-the-year parties” are held promoting Black Friday deals is up months in December to prepare for the new year by before the day arrives, and people line up out- bidding farewell to the concerns of the past side of malls and major stores, many of which year. Would annual cleansing rituals be an open their doors before dawn. Black Friday has appropriate time to review personal and com- become a popular shopping ritual in itself, munity failures to respect and preserve the with extensive media coverage. And it now natural world—and to vow to do better in the stands as a symbol of excess, with some stores new year? experiencing violence, injuries, and even death Earth Day is a relatively new calendar-based as shoppers rush the doors at opening time.12 ritual that was established specifically to pro- mote environmental awareness and care for Rituals and Taboos for the planet. Since its founding in 1970, Earth Sustainable Consumption Day has become a global celebration, with more than a billion people participating, Modern rituals for sustainability can be devel- according to the Earth Day Network. The oped out of virtually any dimension of the group claims to work with more than 15,000 human experience. “Green funerals” are organizations in 174 countries to create “the increasingly common, in which families can only event celebrated simultaneously around choose an environmentally benign end-of-life the globe by people of all backgrounds, faiths ritual that foregoes embalming, uses a simple and nationalities.” Such a global platform wooden box or even a shroud for the deceased, could become a powerful place from which to avoids use of a burial vault, and in some cases lead the entire human family in ritual appreci- marks the grave with shrubs, trees, or a stone ation of the planet.15 native to the area, leaving the burial field or for- , a ritual discipline practiced in many est in an entirely natural state. According to the religions, is being used by many people to Centre for Green Burial in the United King- raise consciousness about personal practices dom, green burials are now available in Aus- that might be used for a more sustainable tralia, Canada, Europe, and the United States.13 world. In 2009 the bishops of Liverpool and Holidays are another opportunity to green London called on Christians to undertake a

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Box 4. Deepening Perceptions of Time

The Long Now Foundation was founded in Since its inception in 02002, bets have covered 01996 to help change long-term thinking from a diverse set of topics, from when the human being difficult and rare to common and easy. population will peak to when solar electricity (The foundation uses five-digit dates; the extra will become cheaper than fossil fuels. zero is to solve the deca-millennium bug that The Rosetta Project is a compendium of will come into effect in about 8,000 years.) It all the world’s documented languages micro- started with an idea from Danny Hillis, who etched as readable text onto a three-inch wafer pioneered the massive parallel logic of today’s of pure nickel. The disk was designed to last fastest super-computers. Hillis wanted to for millennia and act as a key to languages build an all-mechanical 10,000-year clock as that may become lost or extinct. In 02009, an icon to long-term thinking. one of the disks was accepted into the Smith- Hillis was inspired by a story relayed to him sonian’s National Anthropological Archive. by Whole Earth Catalog editor Stewart Brand: Just as discovery of the original Rosetta Stone “I think of the oak beams in the ceiling of Col- allowed researchers to decipher ancient Egypt- lege Hall at New College, Oxford. Last century, ian hieroglyphics in the 1800s, this modern when the beams needed replacing, carpenters version could provide the same service for used oak trees that had been planted in 1386 future civilizations. when the dining hall was first built. The 14th- All these projects, as well as a monthly century builder had planted the trees in antici- seminar series about long-term thinking pation of the time, hundreds of years in the hosted by Stewart Brand, are attempts to future, when the beams would need replacing.” change the conversation. If society only works Over the last 14 years, several prototypes on problems that can be solved in a four- to and material studies have been completed of eight-year election cycle, then none of the truly the clock, and the monument-scale version is large issues can be tackled. Solving problems now being built. It will be located at one of the in education, hunger, health care, macrofi- foundation’s high desert sites and stretch out nance, population, and the environment all through several hundred feet of underground require a diligence and responsibility over caverns. Hillis hopes that a clock “that ticks decades, if not centuries. If the right time once a year, bongs once a century, and the frame is used to solve these issues, what cuckoo comes out once a millennium” will was once intractable can become possible. help reframe the way people look at the future. Humans are a tenacious species. Chances Since that first inspiration, the foundation has are that 10,000 years from now, just like embarked on several projects to promote 10,000 years ago, there will be people walking long-term thinking. on Earth. Just what kind of Earth, and just Long Bets is an online wagering site where what kind of life those people may be living, anyone can make bets and predictions of will likely depend on the acorns we sow today social and scientific consequence. All the pro- that grow into the great oaks of our future. ceeds plus half the interest go to the charity Alexander Rose of the winner’s choice; the rest of the interest Long Now Foundation goes to Long Bets to maintain the service. Source: See endnote 14. carbon fast as a way to demonstrate restraint ported by Ed Milliband, the Minister of Energy in consumption and solidarity with people and Climate Change in the United Kingdom, affected by climate change. The call was sup- and promoted by a development agency, Tear-

34 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Ritual and Taboo as Ecological Guardians fund, which had enlisted more than 2,000 and a vow not to waste before every act of people for the 2008 fast. Similarly, Muslims in modern consumption. Such a private ritual Chicago are being asked to “green Ramadan” would likely bring mindfulness to a person’s by expanding their understanding of the annual use of resources.19 ritual fast to include eating locally grown food, One example of a more mindful approach reducing their household ecological footprint to personal consumption comes from Peter by 25 percent, switching to cleaner sources of Sawtell, a minister in Colorado who explores energy, and stepping up the practices of recy- the link between and environ- cling and walking.16 mentalism. He has proposed that long-dis- Fasting can be conceived more broadly to tance travel, especially flying, become a include a wide range of activities in modern ritualized experience, with the Muslim ritual consumer societies. Many possibilities for set- of the Hajj—the once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage ting aside consumerist habits already exist. to Mecca—being the gold-standard model. World Carfree Day, for example, established in Acknowledging that travel is enlightening, 2000 to help people experience life without an broadening, and even life-changing, Sawtell automobile, is now celebrated in more than 40 nevertheless suggests that because of the high countries. Bike to Work day is a similar effort. environmental impact of trips by air, travel Earth Hour, which involves turning off lights may need to be intentional and sacred now. at a designated time, has become a worldwide And while a once-in-a-lifetime trip may be too phenomenon in the past few years. And TV strict a standard for most people, Sawtell sug- Turnoff Week encourages families to watch gests that once a decade or “once a life-stage” less television and spend more time together.17 (adolescence, adulthood, retirement) might Meanwhile, in the United States, Buy Noth- be helpful in thinking about long-distance ing Day now stands as a counteroffer to Black travel. In the process, he suggests, people Friday, and Take Back Your Time Day offers may find that less is more: they might appre- people the chance to say no to overwork and ciate travel and use it more meaningfully than overscheduling and instead reclaim their time when it was cheap and the environmental for meaningful activities. Any of these “fasts” impact was ignored. Moreover, intentional could conceivably become ritualized by reli- travel could easily be ritualized, says Sawtell. gious or secular groups to give them deep “Imagine what it would be like in our meaning and impact.18 churches if we celebrated the value of excep- At a personal level, there are many oppor- tional trips with special blessings for those tunities to ritualize consumption and increase who are embarking on this sort of once-in-a- mindfulness about consumption habits. lifetime pilgrimage.”20 Indigenous practices could be a useful model In sum, ritual and taboo figure into many here, especially the ritual of offering a small act aspects of any human life and help to transmit of repentance or gratitude before using a and shape cultural values. While resistant to resource. The Tlingit people of Alaska, for cynical manipulation, these ancient human example, who use the bark of cedar trees to practices will likely find a place in development make clothing and other items, ask permission of new cultures of sustainability. In this epoch of the spirits of the tree before harvesting the that cries out for rapid and comprehensive bark and promise to use only as much as they cultural transformation, human societies need need. Imagine saying a silent prayer of thanks to use every tool in the cultural toolbox.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 35 Environmentally Sustainable Childbearing

Robert Engelman

Although the idea seems pessimistic and is lit- shrinks in the near future? And if so, how tle discussed, it is possible that world popula- could that be accomplished in ethical and tion—at 6.8 billion people today and growing acceptable ways? by 216,000 a day—has already surpassed sus- The influence of modern culture on child- tainable levels, even if everyone on Earth bearing varies widely. The range of modern achieved merely modest European rather than human fertility suggests this diversity, with lavish North American consumption levels.1 women in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the Estimates of what could be an environ- Republic of Korea having barely more than one mentally “optimal” population are speculative child each on average while women in and contentious. It could even be risky to ven- Afghanistan and Uganda average more than ture a number, since some people might take six. Women around the world also vary greatly, it as a target worth aiming at by any means nec- however, in their access to family planning, essary, voluntary or not. Nonetheless, it is which can help them decide whether any given clear that with its current range of behavior pat- sex act should or should not be open to con- terns, humanity is hazardously raising the heat- ception and pregnancy.2 trapping capacity of the atmosphere, So it is not clear which is the larger deter- decimating the planet’s biological diversity, minant of fertility: culture and women’s (and and risking future food scarcity by depleting men’s) response to its influence or simply the freshwater supplies and degrading soils. accumulation of chance pregnancies that result What if today’s widely varying per capita from sexual activity not effectively protected consumption rates worldwide met in some against the risk of pregnancy. Yet with the narrow and modest range—but climate change notable exception of China, where shortages and environmental deterioration continued of natural resources are sometimes invoked to anyway? Might it then be time, or is it time justify the government’s one-child policy, it already, to evolve cultures that actively pro- would be hard to identify a significant culture mote an average number of children born to in which very small families are promoted to each woman so low that world population assure environmental sustainability.

Robert Engelman is vice president for programs at Worldwatch Institute and the author of More: Pop- ulation, Nature, and What Women Want.

36 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG

Click here to see notes for this section. STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Environmentally Sustainable Childbearing

Paradoxically, according to United Nations Twenty-six years after the Tehran confer- surveys, many developing-country govern- ence, in 1994, another U.N. gathering ments believe population growth is too rapid expanded on reproductive rights when repre- in their countries. And out of 41 National sentatives of almost all the world’s nations Adaptation Programmes of Action submitted agreed that encouraging healthy and effective by developing countries to the secretariat of the reproductive decisionmaking by women and United Nations Framework Convention on their partners was the sole legitimate basis for Climate Change in recent years, 37 mentioned governments to try to influence fertility levels population density or pressure as hindering and family size within their borders.5 the success of adaptation to the impacts of climate change. Out- side of China, Viet Nam, and some individual states in India, however, such governmental concerns do not translate into actual pressure on individuals to limit their procreation.3 For the people who work most closely with population and reproduction—especially health care providers who help women and their partners pre- vent pregnancy or enjoy it in good health when they want a child—this is as it should be. In fact, if there is any dominant global cultural paradigm around

childbearing, it centers on USAID reproductive health and rights— Afghan girls get a meal along with their education. a social recognition that it is women and their partners, and no one else, Abuses of reproductive rights have been who should choose when to bear a child and more the exception than the rule in six decades should do so in good health. or so of global family planning experience. The closest thing to consensus on the per- But those abuses—from incentive payments for petually divisive topic of human population is sterilization to forced abortion documented in a principle first put in writing at a U.N. con- India and China and a handful of other coun- ference on human rights in Tehran in 1968 that tries—have soured policymakers and health “parents have a basic human right to determine care providers on population policies, pro- freely and responsibly the number and spacing grams, or media messages aimed at convincing of their children.” The adverb “responsibly” women and couples to have fewer children has sparked some debate, though not much in than they would otherwise choose to have. recent years. It could, nonetheless, become Absent momentous changes in culture and the basis for discussion of what the word might politics around the world, it is difficult to mean in a world where environmental sus- imagine substantial professional or public sup- tainability is challenged by human activities.4 port evolving for aggressive promotion of fam-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 37 Environmentally Sustainable Childbearing STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

ilies of just one child or at most two children. route to lower fertility requires vigilance so The scope for new cultural efforts aimed at that the ultimate childbearing choice remains convincing couples to forego a wanted second, with women and their partners, not with other third, or fourth child for the sake of the envi- family members, the government, or the ronment seems small.6 broader society. Surprisingly, it is likely that global fertility levels would fall low enough to shrink world population if unintended pregnancies could be eliminated, although the reversal of growth would take some time to occur. By the best available estimate, nearly two out of five preg- nancies worldwide are not planned or sought by the women who become pregnant. The figures are generally somewhat higher in low- fertility industrial countries than in high-fertility developing ones.7 Current average human fertility (2.5 children per woman) is only slightly above the fertility that would yield a stable human population size. (This is currently just above 2.3 children; stubbornly high death rates among the young in many developing countries push the global average above the usually cited figure of 2.1.) Moreover, all countries that offer women and their partners a range of choices of contracep- tion, backed up by access to safe abortion, © 2006 Helen Hawkings, courtesy Photoshare A young family visits a mobile health clinic have fertility rates low enough to end or reverse offering family planning services and basic population growth in the absence of net immi- health care to members of marginalized rural gration. A world of fully intentional child- communities in the Dominican Republic. bearing might begin to lose population within two or three decades, perhaps sooner.8 Does this mean that no conceivable cultural Moreover, demographic research over sev- transformation could help shrink the world’s eral decades makes clear a strong correlation population through lower birth rates? Not at between levels of education and fertility. The all. (And, given the misunderstanding that number of children women have in fact falls accompanies this topic, it’s worth stating the roughly in proportion to their advancement obvious: population shrinkage based on higher through school. According to calculations by death rates is not something to hope for.) demographers at the International Institute There is much in today’s culture that pro- for Applied Systems Analysis, women with no motes pregnancies that individual women do schooling worldwide have on average 4.5 chil- not seek or want, and these cultural aspects are dren each. Those with some primary school an easy immediate target for elimination or average 3 children, while those who complete reversal. Similarly, there is scope for cultural at least one year of secondary school average change that might lead couples to change 1.9 children. And after just one or two years their views about family size, though this of college, fertility drops to 1.7 children per

38 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Environmentally Sustainable Childbearing woman—a rate well below population-main- traceptive use and small family norms are taining “replacement” fertility.9 introduced, perceptions on ideal family sizes Given the force with which access to con- can fall. For example, after the radio soap traception and education for girls reduces fer- opera Apwe Plezi (derived from a Creole say- tility, it seems obvious that any cultural ing, “after the pleasure comes the pain”) was constraints on these should be given first pri- aired in St. Lucia, of the 35 percent of the sur- ority in any move for reform. Unfortunately, veyed population who had heard it, listeners such constraints are deeply rooted in human were more likely to trust family planning unease with both sexuality and the idea of workers, view extramarital sex as less accept- gender equality. Cultural transformation must able, and favor families that averaged 2.5 chil- tackle these and advance the principle that all dren as opposed to 2.9 children for those women should have control over their own who had not heard the show. While of course bodies and fertility and that all should have other factors also contributed to this shifting opportunities equal to those of men—through norm—such as parallel increases in access to education, media messages, and the work of family planning resources—it is clear that the policymakers at all levels. Limitations on access media can play an important role in shaping to contraception, such as requirements for family size norms.12 parental permission or physician prescriptions Another area ripe for cultural transforma- for routinely safe options, are open to public tion is the dominant political view that any pressure for legislative or regulatory change. jurisdiction in which population stops grow- The use of sex and women’s bodies for ing is headed, in the words of a recent Wash- advertising or easy laughs in television situation ington Post news story, for “slow-motion comedies fortifies the lower status of women demographic disaster.” A national election in and makes it even more likely that unintended late 2009 in Japan, for example, seemed to pregnancies will boost population growth revolve in large part on a proposed payment rates—not to mention complicate the lives of $276 per month to parents for each child and undermine the aspirations of young peo- younger than high school age. In Russia, ple. One study found that the level of exposure politicians have urged citizens to skip work to to sexual content on television strongly pre- have sex and have offered prizes—from refrig- dicted subsequent teen pregnancy, with the 10 erators to a Jeep—to women who have a baby percent of teenagers most exposed to television on Russia Day, June 12th. Both countries sex more than twice as likely to become preg- have declining populations.13 nant within three years of the exposure as the There is some evidence that incentives like 10 percent with the lowest exposure.10 these can modestly boost a country’s fertility, Such findings illustrate the power of cul- with a greater effect among women with lower ture—and of media culture in particular—to incomes. Tax benefits targeted at parents on a boost fertility or at least accelerate sexual ini- per child basis, such as those in the United tiation and subsequent childbearing. Com- States, may have a similar impact—and, in fact, bating such cultural influences thus can play an U.S. fertility has risen modestly in recent years, important role in lowering fertility and con- as has that in other wealthy countries. (In the tributing to slower population growth. More- case of the United States, fertility has recently over, there is evidence that media such as risen to roughly the replacement value, which television and radio may contribute to lower for that country is 2.1 children per woman.)14 fertility just as easily as to higher.11 Politicians justifiably worry that extremely Where soap operas designed to model con- low birth rates will ultimately make it more

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 39 Environmentally Sustainable Childbearing STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 challenging to support aging populations. But mentioned the influence on their own repro- these and similar risks are manageable social ductive ambitions of television soap operas challenges that pale in comparison to those the depicting small North American families. world faces in addressing human-caused cli- While satellite television may not be consid- mate change, the depletion of renewable fresh- ered by many as a positive agent of cultural water supplies, and the loss of the planet’s transformation, in this case it may play a con- biological diversity. Anyone who takes these structive role by spreading an idea—a small environmental problems seriously has good family norm—that contributes to environ- reason to oppose the efforts of politicians, mental sustainability more powerfully than economists, and the media to promote higher the messages about wealth and consumption birth rates—as well as those of religious lead- might undermine it. ers, members of extended families, and others The sharp fall of fertility around the world who urge pregnancy on women who have not in recent decades is proof that culturally influ- chosen it for themselves. enced reproductive behaviors can change sur- Finally, there is the constructive role that prisingly fast. A family with roughly two education and open discussion about the children is already a cultural ideal in most changing environment and the relation of pop- industrial countries, albeit no doubt mostly ulation to its sustainability can play in shaping for reasons unrelated to environmental sus- reproductive decisionmaking. Studying a lob- tainability. If nations soon reach a point where ster-fishing village in Quintana Roo, Mexico, greenhouse gas emissions are actually capped geographer David Carr of the University of and food and energy prices are high due to a California, Santa Barbara, found that cultural rising mismatch of supply and demand, there attitudes about childbearing had changed as the is no telling how cultural norms about child- lobster resource declined. The use of contra- bearing and family size might evolve. It is ception was universal, and the community’s nonetheless hard to imagine that environ- birth rates were comparable to those of such mentally concerned citizens seeking curbs in low-fertility countries as Italy, , and human population growth will ever gain much Russia. The villagers Carr interviewed explic- public support for limiting reproductive rights. itly tied their modest family size intentions, so But the potential for cultural change that different from those of their parents and grand- would slow and eventually reverse population parents, to the importance of preserving the growth—supporting or at least not under- fishing resource for their children.15 mining individual reproductive choice—is sig- Perhaps significantly, many villagers also nificant and worth pursuing.

40 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Elders: A Cultural Resource for Promoting Sustainable Development

Judi Aubel

There is considerable discussion in western mining positive traditions and values of more industrialized societies of the need to reex- collectivist sociocultural systems. In many cases, amine the predominant global cultural para- these traditions and values provide the basis for digm of consumerism, which is clearly the society’s sustainable use and development unsustainable. In efforts to address current of both natural and human resources. challenges to survival, the focus has been on halting environmental degradation and pro- Respecting the Wisdom of Elders moting the economic survival of communities around the globe. Unfortunately, the degra- A community elder in southern Senegal dation of the social environment and the break- recently lamented the fact that development down in social connectedness have received programs rarely pay attention to local cultural much less attention.1 values: “There have been so many programs Another less frequently considered issue is carried out in our community: to build more the relevance of the global cultural model of school classrooms; to construct a health cen- consumerism for other societies that face not ter; to teach us how to grow more vegetables, only environmental and economic challenges how to prevent disease, about the importance but also problems specific to their history and of sending girls to school, and of planting cultural worldviews. Non-westernized and trees.” His testimony reflects the trend toward unindustrialized societies in Africa, Asia, Latin carefully targeted development programs that America, and the Pacific are threatened by less aim to produce “tangible and quantifiable tangible forces that are undermining cultural results” corresponding to donor and govern- identities and decreasing social cohesion. ment priorities but that may fail to address One negative consequence of globalization other less tangible cultural parameters that is that western individualistic, consumer-ori- may be equally important for the survival of the ented, youth-focused values—communicated communities the programs aim to support. In through multiple international and national spite of rhetoric about the need for “culturally media and institutional channels—are under- adapted” approaches, development policies

Judi Aubel, a specialist in community development and health in developing countries, is executive direc- tor of the Grandmother Project.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 41

Click here to see notes for this section. Elders: A Cultural Resource for Promoting Sustainable Development STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

community members who are holding on to more traditional ones. The tension between the two cultural orientations is seen in the decreased communica- tions and learning between young people and elders. In the past, for example, throughout Africa members of different generations would sit under a large tree in the community to discuss the past, the present, and the future. In French, the designated tree was referred to as “l’arbre à palabres.” Today in

Judi Aubel many communities, while elders Elder and infant in a village in Rajasthan,India. still sit and discuss under such trees, young people are more and programs often unknowingly convey a set likely to gather around a radio or television to of western values that may be counterproduc- look at images and hear stories of other places. tive to the long-term social development and Yet continuing respect for the wisdom of survival of non-western societies.2 elders is reflected in a proverb heard widely One specific and decisive facet of non- across Africa, “What an elder sees sitting on the western cultures that is rarely even dealt with ground, a younger person cannot see even if in discussions on culture and development is he/she is up in a tree.” In a study in Senegal, the central role played by elders in socializing community respondents of various ages stated younger generations, passing on indigenous that knowledge is related to age and, conse- knowledge and cultural values, and ensur- quently, elders are viewed as “knowledge ing the stability and survival of their soci- providers” in key domains such as agriculture eties. The late Andreas Fuglesang, a and health. And in India, Narender Chadha of well-known leader in development commu- the University of Delhi finds that, in spite of nication, referred to the essential role played vast economic and social changes, elders con- by elder community members in more tradi- tinue to command high respect as “they are tional societies as the “information process- considered as the storehouses of knowledge and ing unit” of a community. As Malian wisdom within the family and community con- philosopher Amadou Hampâté Bâ notes, texts.” This respect for traditional wisdom is “When an elder person dies in Africa, it is as similarly found in other collectivist, non-west- though a whole library had burned down.” 3 ern societies in the Pacific and Latin America.4 There is clearly incongruity between the Respect for the wisdom of elders is also centrality of elders in non-western societies evident in a new effort at the international and the centrality of young people in devel- level to help find solutions to global problems opment programs—a problem that has gone that was initiated in 2007 by Nelson Man- largely unnoticed. There is a growing clash of dela. He brought together a small number of cultures between younger members of society, distinguished world leaders and established a who embrace more global values, and older group called The Elders. Mandela’s idea was

42 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Elders: A Cultural Resource for Promoting Sustainable Development inspired by the role of elders in traditional the loss of linguistic, historical and spiritual tra- societies: to bring people together, to encour- ditions, the break down of family support age dialogue, to provide guidance based on structures and the loss of a locally organised their experience. The Elders are currently political voice.” 7 working on helping to solve several complex Similar concern about the negative effects of and conflict-ridden problems, including the globalization on young people in particular Israeli-Palestinian situation.5 are expressed by Akopovire Oduaran of the In western individualist societies, however, University of Botswana, who laments the loss attitudes toward elders are generally tainted by of “the rich African tradition of intergenera- negative images of aging. With the globaliza- tional relationships…daily being weakened by tion of culture, increasingly ageist attitudes the increasing change in our value systems as are being disseminated and slowly permeating our communities are opened up to cultural non-western cultures as well. And it has been globalization.” He argues that with con- observed that older women suffer from ageist sumerism has come the loss of cultural tradi- biases even more than men do: they are said to tions and weakened bonds and cooperation be a bad influence on children and families, illit- between family and community members—all erate and therefore unintelligent, or too old to disturbing signs of diminished social cohesion.8 learn and to change.6 Yet there is some evidence that young peo- ple perceive the dangers of globalization. Mem- Threats to Intergenerational bers of a Ghanaian youth club noted that Relationships “globalisation has brought us a life surrounded by mass-production and mass-consump- Globalization involves a virtually one-way dis- tion.…We see our own cultures giving way to semination of western cultural images and val- a consumerist monoculture. There is an urgent ues toward non-western societies. Only recently need to revisit, appreciate and participate in the has there been some concern at the interna- evolution of our own cultures, which are com- tional level about globalization’s role in spread- munity-oriented, non-materialistic, eco-friendly ing consumerist cultural images and values and holistic in their .” Mamadou, a and the resulting breakdown in intergenera- 20-year-old Senegalese man, stated: “I am tional relationships in non-western societies. part of a whole generation of young people The 2005 World Youth Report from the who are lost. We play soccer and watch tele- United Nations cautioned, “Young people vision but we don’t really belong to the west- are increasingly incorporating aspects of other ern world. Our parents sent us to school but cultures from around the world into their there we didn’t learn about our culture and our own identities. This trend…is likely to widen parents didn’t teach us where we came from the cultural gap between the younger and either. We are lost between two worlds.”9 older generations.” Similarly, an analysis of How are consumerist values communicated the impact of globalization by the Youth Com- to society at large and specifically to young peo- mission on Globalisation calls attention to an ple in developing countries? Three major insti- alarming situation: “The youth of the devel- tutions are responsible: the mass media and oping world are attracted, lured or forced advertising, development organizations and into non-traditional ways of being by a great programs, and formal schools. many factors…and alienated from their tradi- Mass media and advertising are the major tional communities. Such cultural disintegra- vehicles for diffusion of western values into tion is the primary cause of problems such as non-western societies. While there is increased

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 43 Elders: A Cultural Resource for Promoting Sustainable Development STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 national production of television programs, tices. This notion is diametrically opposed to and even greater local radio programming the attitude of hierarchical and collectivist that integrates local opinions and values, the non-western cultures, in which young people predominant force remains the global media are expected to learn from their elders, and it beamed into the tiniest of villages. The Youth undermines their culturally designated role.12 Commission on Globalisation report notes the media’s prevalent role in spreading individu- Programs Involving Elders Promote alist and consumerist values, stimulated by Intergenerational Learning transnational corporations: “Youth are bom- barded by advertisements, programming and Numerous intergenerational preschool pro- other media that invite them to seek happi- grams across the United States and Canada ness through the accumulation of wealth and involve older adult community members who commodities.” 10 share their knowledge and provide social sup- Development programs aim to make a pos- port to young children on a volunteer basis. itive contribution to communities. But pro- The results include increased self-confidence on gram planners are not always aware of the the part of children and an increased sense of underlying western values that such programs self-worth on the part of older adults, many of are inadvertently conveying. A older Malian whom are retired but who have extensive woman and leader in her community described knowledge and compassion to share.13 what happens: “Before the development In , the Elders in Resi- agents get out of their four-wheel-drive vehi- dence program at the Lelum’uy’lh Child cles, we know who they want to talk to, those Development Centre has helped integrate who have gone to school and who know how cultural values and traditions of the Cowichan to write, i.e. the youth. They almost never ask Tribes into the curriculum with the support to see us.” While working to improve hygiene of elders through activities such as story- or schooling, the attitudes of local develop- telling, language teaching, and basket-weav- ment agents like these are inadvertently com- ing. The program has contributed to greater municating culturally foreign values regarding appreciation of Cowichan culture and to who is valued (young people) and who is not respect for elders’ knowledge of Cowichan (elders). Maternal and child health programs, traditions.14 for instance, invariably focus on women of But in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the reproductive age and rarely involve their cul- Pacific, few organizations or programs explic- turally designated advisors: the senior women itly involve elders and promote intergenera- (or grandmothers).11 tional communication. Some that do take this Schools are also key institutions in passing approach are described here. on cultural values in society. In a World Bank In Ghana, in a program supported by the report, Deepa Srikantaiah maintains that in United Nations Population Fund entitled many countries school curricula do not reflect “Time with Grandma,” grandparents serve the cultural values and knowledge of local as resource persons in educational activities communities. In Botswana, for example, Pat with adolescents dealing with HIV/AIDS Pridmore of the University of London analyzed prevention and teenage pregnancy. Both the child-to-child approach used in many devel- young people and elders find these intergen- oping countries, in which schoolchildren are erational activities beneficial as they build on expected to learn and then teach their par- the traditional role of elders as teachers and ents about “modern” health and hygiene prac- promote positive cultural values, including

44 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Elders: A Cultural Resource for Promoting Sustainable Development abstaining from sex before mar- riage and respecting elders.15 In Malawi, the Ekwendeni Hospital trains grandparents to promote improved family prac- tices related to prenatal care for women and care of newborns. A project review showed that the elder-inclusive strategy has con- tributed to improved family health–related practices while at the same time improving communication between younger and older community members. This is the first pro- gram in which elders have been actively involved, and they say that it has restored their place in society as “teachers of the 16 younger generations.” Judi Aubel In Australian Aboriginal An elder of the village Olo Ologa, Mauritania, shares a story. communities, building on the traditional teaching role of elders, senior own cultural systems.18 women leaders in the Yolngu tribe work with In Mali (with Helen Keller International) alcoholic and drug-addicted teens to increase and Senegal (with the Christian Children’s their pride in their cultural identity by teach- Fund), GMP guided development of grand- ing them about Yolngu history and practices, mother-inclusive non-formal health educa- such as hunting and weaving.17 tion activities. In both cases these led to Over the past 10 years, grandmother-inclu- improvements in the advice older women gave sive and intergenerational approaches have to pregnant women regarding diet and rest been developed by the Grandmother Project during pregnancy and infant feeding prac- (GMP), a small U.S. nonprofit, and imple- tices. In Mauritania, in both rural and peri- mented in various countries, including Laos, urban areas, GMP in with World Uzbekistan, Djibouti, Senegal, Mali, and Mau- Vision has trained informal grandmother lead- ritania. The programs have dealt with various ers to promote positive nutrition and health aspects of women’s and children’s health and practices in their communities.19 development that older women, or grand- In Senegal, in a program with World Vision mothers, are heavily involved in, including to discourage FGM, participatory educational nutrition, newborn care, home care for sick activities with grandmothers and intergenera- children, early childhood development, and tional dialogue are key elements of an approach female genital mutilation (FGM). GMP has to promote holistic development of young developed an approach in which multigener- girls. Most programs aimed at decreasing ational groups analyze community problems female genital mutilation focus on young peo- and identify actions that can lead to ple and do not involve grandmothers, who positive and sustainable changes within their are usually those who do the cutting. In GMP’s

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 45 Elders: A Cultural Resource for Promoting Sustainable Development STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 approach, grandmothers are key actors in pro- we become adults we will be empty inside.” 21 moting abandonment of this practice, while As the urgency to deal with global chal- recognizing their positive role within the fam- lenges increases, UNESCO has called for giv- ily as guardians of tradition and a stabilizing fac- ing more attention to existing cultural realities tor within the community. One leader in and resources: “When development recog- Senegal noted at the end of a two-day work- nizes culture it produces change rooted in a shop that “we never practiced cutting mali- community’s own values, knowledge and ciously but rather to educate the girls. Now we lifestyle and thus tends to be more successful. understand that as grandmothers we have a When development imposes external cultural responsibility to put an end to this practice.” 20 values it damages the operating system by Even in rural villages in Senegal, western val- devaluing indigenous knowledge, and local ues related to consumerism and sexuality are capacity on which the community is felt through western-produced television, films, built.…the challenge is to find ways of unlock- and the Internet. GMP activities have encour- ing the cultural resources and assets of the aged the use of traditional communication community, to connect with people’s own media, such as story-telling, music, and dance ways of being and enable them to use these in schools and communities in activities that creative capacities as a route out of poverty, bring young people and elders together. exclusion and dependency.” 22 Recognition of grandmothers’ story-telling Programs that explicitly involve elders and skills has greatly increased this after-dinner that promote intergenerational learning cap- activity, and it is reported that children’s knowl- italize on two valuable assets of non-western edge of traditional stories has increased while societies. As the few efforts in developing their television watching has declined. Broad- countries just described have shown, pro- casts of grandmothers’ telling stories on the grams that have built on these cultural local radio station have also increased the resources have contributed to positive and women’s self-esteem and young people’s inter- sustainable changes in nutrition, health, and est in traditional knowledge. A young girl education practices while at the same time named Fatoumata said, “We are happy because curbing the spread of consumerism and now we are learning the traditional stories. If strengthening the cultural identities and social we don’t spend time with our grandmas, when cohesion of families and communities.

46 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG From Agriculture to Permaculture

Albert Bates and Toby Hemenway

Above the door lintels of the cultural museum by the domestication of emmer wheat, einkorn, of Tlaxcala, Mexico’s oldest state capital, are barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, and bitter murals depicting the rise of civilization. First vetch. Humans had begun to alter their land- there appear the hunters, clad in furs, with scapes in profound ways, clearing forests for bows and spears. A woman discovers a small fields, building larger villages and cities, and grassy plant and begins to cultivate it. After a redirecting rivers for irrigation and flood con- time, everyone is planting it, and the newly trol. By 7,000 years ago, many, if not most, domesticated plants grow as tall as a person. people in the world were farmers.2 Special tools appear to prepare the ground, This might have continued until humanity plant, harvest, and process the . In the entered the next Ice Age—a world of cold wall panels that follow, civilization arrives, in deserts, land bridges, and massive mountains all its complexity. of ice. But civilization changed that trajectory Something similar to this story is told in by harnessing the coal, gas, and oil that fueled most, if not all, cultures. In the Fertile Cres- the Industrial Revolution. Once more, people cent of the upper Tigris and Euphrates Rivers altered the planet’s rhythms in ways they could there are ancient coins bearing images of a not fully grasp. plow drawn by oxen. Images of planters and In the span of a single century—the present plows appear on pottery from Egypt and Ana- one—Earth’s climate may warm more rapidly tolia and on rice paper from Japan and China, and to a greater degree than in the previous some of it more than 14,000 years old.1 20,000 years. Agricultural systems will be pro- As the ice retreated and the climate warmed foundly challenged, beset by a perfect storm of 20,000 years ago, the area of fertile soil and diminishing fuel supply for tractors, fertilizer, suitable growing seasons expanded, even as and transportation; by crop-destroying heat wild game retreated and mammoths and other waves, expanding pestilences, and declining large animals went extinct. About 8,000 years water supplies for irrigation; by growing and ago, began to be augmented migrating populations clamoring for food,

Albert Bates is the director of the Global Village Institute for and the Training Center at . Toby Hemenway is Scholar-in-Residence at Pacific University and a biol- ogist consultant for the Biomimicry Guild.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 47

Click here to see notes for this section. From Agriculture to Permaculture STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 especially for meat and processed foods (see Box the landscape—all while productively using a 5); and by the financial instability borne of steadily compounding supply of human labor. exceeding Earth’s limits and having to retrench In short, a . to an earlier stage of industrial development.3 Before the mid-twentieth century, most Defining Sustainable Agriculture crops were produced largely without the use of chemicals. Insect pests and weeds were Fortunately, for the past half-century some controlled by crop rotations, destruction of pioneers have been preparing the agriculture crop refuse, timing of planting to avoid high of the future, and their ideas are now moving pest population periods, mechanical weed to center stage. Organic no-till, permaculture, control, and other time-tested and regionally agroforestry, perennial polycultures, aquapon- specific farming practices. While these are ics, and biointensive and biodynamic farm- still in use, changes in technology, prices, ing—long considered fringe ideas—are now cultural norms, and government policies have converging as serious components of a sus- led to today’s industrially intensive agriculture. tainable agriculture.5 The dominant system of agriculture now One of the foundation stones was laid early practiced throughout the world, referred to in the twentieth century, when Franklin Hiram as “conventional agriculture,” is character- King journeyed to China, Korea, and Japan to ized by mechanization, monocultures, the learn how farms there had been worked for use of synthetic chemical fertilizers and pes- thousands of years without destroying fertility ticides, and an emphasis on maximizing pro- or applying artificial fertilizer. In 1911 King ductivity and profitability. published Farmers of Forty Centuries: or Per- This type of agriculture is unsustainable manent Agriculture in China, Korea and because it destroys the resources it depends Japan, which described composting, crop rota- on. Soil fertility is declining due to erosion, tion, green manuring, intertillage, irrigation, compaction, and destruction of organic matter; drought-resistant crops, aquaculture and wet- water supplies are being depleted and polluted; lands farming, and the transport of human finite fossil energy supplies are being exhausted; manure from cities to rural farms.6 and the economies of rural communities are left King’s work was inspiration for many, in shambles as agricultural outputs are shipped including Sir Albert Howard. In 1943 he to distant markets. The shortage of productive published An Agricultural Testament, which cropland, decreasing soil fertility, and the enor- described building piles, mous waste and imprecise management asso- waste materials, and creating soil humus as a ciated with industrial-scale food economics are “living bridge” between soil life, such as myc- responsible for the world’s recurrent and accel- orrhizae and bacteria, and healthy crops, live- erating food and water shortages, malnutri- stock, and people. At the heart of Howard’s tion, mass starvation, and loss of biodiversity. work was the idea that soils, nutritious crops, In addition, agriculture accounts for about 14 and organisms in general are not just arrays of percent of greenhouse gas emissions, and from minerals but are parts of a complex ecology of 1990 to 2005 global agricultural emissions cycling organic matter, and that these life- increased by 14 percent.4 supporting cycles are critical for a self-regen- Humanity now confronts a critical challenge: erative agriculture.7 to develop methods of agriculture that sequester Howard became embroiled in a mid-twen- carbon, enhance soil fertility, preserve ecosystem tieth century conflict. On one side were disci- services, use less water, and hold more water in ples of chemists such as Carl Sprengel and

48 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 From Agriculture to Permaculture

Box 5. Dietary Norms That Heal People and the Planet

While many different combinations of foods should avoid food-like products with so many will meet a person’s dietary needs, dietary additives, preservatives, flavors, and fillers that norms are for the most part shaped by the their nutritional value may be compromised. individual’s culture, typically very early in life. And by eating fewer calories (while ensur- Traditionally, these preferences were in large ing those calories are high in nutrients), over- part shaped by the foods that were available to all health and longevity can be increased—a people in their bioregion. finding that has been borne out in several dif- In today’s globalized world, however, more ferent animal species, including humans. people can choose from a wide array of foods. Moreover, eating fewer calories means having While increased choice is theoretically a good a smaller ecological impact. For example, if a thing—giving people variety and the opportu- person starts adhering to an 1,800-calorie-a- nity to choose diets that are healthy and have day diet at age 30, he could live to the age of little ecological impact—dietary norms have 81 before consuming the same amount of been reshaped in an increasingly unhealthy calories as a person who follows the typically and unsustainable manner. Easy access to recommended 2,600-calorie diet would by the high-fat, high-sugar foods combined with bil- age of 65. lions of dollars spent annually on marketing Eating “mostly plants”—not necessarily have dramatically shifted what is considered a completely vegetarian but, as in many cultures “normal” diet—from the number of calories throughout history, eating meat infrequently or per meal to the amount of meat, sugar, and perhaps even just ritually—will have significant refined flour consumed. All of these in turn ecological benefits. According to agricultural have contributed to rising obesity levels and researcher David Pimentel, a vegetarian diet have had significant ecological impacts. needs one third fewer fossil fuels than a meat- Today 1.6 billion people are either over- based diet. Another study found that produc- weight or obese, and 18 percent of green- ing just 1 kilogram of beef involves as much house gases are produced by livestock that carbon dioxide emissions as the average Euro- are raised to feed humanity’s growing demand pean car being driven 250 kilometers. for meat. In 2007, people ate 275 million tons Unfortunately, today the dietary norm that of meat, about 42 kilograms per person world- is spreading around much of the world—dri- wide and 82 kilograms in industrial countries ven by the media, government subsidies, (2.7 servings every day). advertising, and even by parents—is the con- By cultivating new dietary norms, food can sumer diet of high quantities of meat, contribute to good health and possibly even processed foods, refined flours, and sugar. help heal the planet. A study of several of the What is needed is the intentional cultivation longest-lived peoples in the world found that of sustainable dietary norms—an effort that is they ate just 1,800–1,900 calories a day, no getting started, thanks to books like In Defense processed foods, and minimal amounts of of Food, documentaries like Food Inc., govern- animal products. By comparison, the average ment programs that promote healthier eating, American consumes 3,830 calories a day. social enterprises selling healthier food, and Food writer Michael Pollan explains suc- movements like “Slow Food” that enourage cinctly what a healthy, restorative diet could people to consider carefully what they eat. look like: “Eat food, not too much, mostly —Erik Assadourian and Eddie Kasner plants.” By food, Pollan means that people Source: See endnote 3.

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Justus von Liebig, who advocated fertilizing world energy production. The style called principally with nitrogen, phosphorus, and “conventional” depends for nearly all of its potassium minerals and promoted a mechan- workings on a dwindling and increasingly ical approach, arguing that plant growth is expensive supply of fossil fuels.10 boosted by adding the scarcest, or limiting, Sustainable agriculture, in contrast, can be mineral. This soon became a widely accepted pursued indefinitely because it does not agronomic principle and the basis for the Green degrade or deplete the resources that it needs Revolution. On the other side were the organic to continue. Since most of Earth’s arable land advocates, adhering to Howard’s view that is already under cultivation and human popu- crop health depends on maintaining soil ecol- lations are continuing to expand, an even bet- ogy by returning to the soil not just the min- ter goal would be to actually improve the erals lost in farming but also the organic matter capacity of the land to produce. that supports the nutrient cycles of soil life. Some net gain approaches are coming into Howard’s position was, in the words of biol- view, but they are not elixirs. While ogist Janine Benyus, that it is life that best optimized farming practices can increase the creates the conditions conducive to life.8 capacity of the land to produce over the long term, they cannot be considered in isolation; a robust solution to humanity’s continued existence on this planet must include adopting sustainable lifestyles and maintaining human population at sustainable numbers.

Organic Agriculture: An Overview

Key features of organic agriculture are the use of biologically produced fertilizers such as car- bon-enhanced manures instead of manufac- tured inorganic nitrates and phosphates, infrequent use of biologically derived pesti- cides rather than routine application of synthetic Courtesy Maya Mountain Reasearch Farm and systemically toxic compounds, and—most The face of agroforestry at the Maya Mountain Research Farm, . critically—maintenance of soil ecology and organic matter through cover crops, green Howard lost that battle but may yet have manures, crop rotation, and composting.11 won the war, as it becomes apparent that many A long-term comparison done by the aspects of industrial agriculture are unsustain- Rodale Institute from 1981 to 2002 found that able, from the topsoil loss that approaches 75 organic systems provided crop yields equivalent billion tons annually to the looming deple- to those of conventional methods. The trials tion of the critical fertilizer phosphorus and the showed that when rainfall was 30 percent less negative returns typified by crops that use 10 than normal—typical drought levels—organic calories of fuel energy to produce one calorie methods yielded 24–34 percent more than of food energy.9 standard methods. The researchers attribute Twentieth-century agriculture has badly the increased yields to better water retention degraded nearly every ecosystem it has encoun- due to higher soil carbon levels.12 tered while consuming roughly 20 percent of Data gathered from the trial have revealed

50 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 From Agriculture to Permaculture that soil under organic agriculture manage- loans, or government subsidies are.15 ment can accumulate about 1,000 pounds of Land Institute research shows that com- carbon per acre-foot each year. This is equal to pared with annuals, perennial food plants pro- about 3,667 pounds of carbon dioxide per vide more protection against soil erosion, acre (4,118 kilograms per hectare per year) manage water and nutrients more effectively, taken from the air and sequestered into soil sequester more carbon, are more resilient to organic matter. Also, organic methods used pests and stresses, and require less energy, 28–32 percent less energy and were more prof- labor, and fertilizer. Yields are currently low itable than industrial methods. These results compared with annual crops, but they are ris- suggest that organic methods offer great ing. Studies performed in Africa suggest that promise for reducing fossil fuel use and green- many , fruits, and vegetables now farmed house gas emissions. The study suggested that in annual monocultures will produce similar converting the 64 million hectares of U.S. results when farmed in perennial polycultures.16 cropland currently planted in corn and soy- beans to organic methods would sequester Agroforestry 264 million tons of carbon dioxide; this is the equivalent of shutting down 207 (225- Agroforestry combines trees and shrubs with megawatt) coal-fired power plants, about 14 annual crops and livestock in ways that amplify percent of the installed coal electric capacity in and integrate the yields and benefits beyond either the United States or China.13 what each component offers separately. Like other methods of sustainable agriculture, it is Perennial Polycultures based on observing productive natural ecosys- tems and mimicking the processes and rela- Wes Jackson and his colleagues at The Land tionships that make them more resilient and Institute in Salina, Kansas, have been devel- regenerative. oping new perennial crops to replace annual In one form of agroforestry, called alley grains that must be replanted every year. These cropping, grains or other non-woody crops grains are grown in polycultures, mixed with are planted in strips between rows of nut, , other perennial species that fix nitrogen for fer- timber, or fodder trees. Cattle, poultry, or tility, and produce seed oil for food, fuel, and other livestock can be pastured in the alleys or lubricants. These polycultures mimic the plant fed from the crop yields. communities that make up wild prairie.14 Near the town of San Pedro Columbia, in “Here’s where we have to be thinking Southern Belize, Christopher Nesbitt has been deeply,” Jackson says. “Agriculture had its growing food crops in this traditional forest beginning 10,000 years ago. What were the style at his Mayan Mountain Research Farm for ecosystems like 10,000 years ago, after the the past 20 years. He mixes some fast-growing retreat of the ice? Those ecosystems featured native tree species, some annual crops, and material recycling and they ran on contempo- some intermediate and long-term tree crops to rary sunlight. Humans have yet to build soci- build soil and produce continuous harvests. eties like that. Is it possible that embedded in Some of his trees are leguminous and hold nature’s economy are suggestions for a human nitrogen by the microbial attraction of their economy in which conservation is a conse- roots. Some are pollinator-friendly and attract quence of production?” Ecological wealth, bees and hummingbirds to transfer the fertile Jackson argues, is a more reliable sponsor of pollen of important food plants. Understory human food systems than fossil fuels, bank trees like coffee, cacao, cassava, allspice, noni,

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 51 From Agriculture to Permaculture STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 ginger, and papaya benefit from intercropping bicides altogether, which is something we can with high canopy trees like breadfruit, açai achieve through fine-tuning and successful and coconut palm, cashew, and mango. Fast- recruitment of the right grasses.”20 yielding crops such as avocado, citrus, banana, Long-term research studies reveal average bamboo, yams, vanilla, and climbing squashes losses of 328 pounds of organic matter per acre provide an income for the farm while waiting per year with plowing, whereas no-till studies for the slower harvest of samwood, cedar, teak, report an average increase of 956 pounds of chestnut, and mahogany to mature.17 organic matter per acre per year. Erosion from The World Agroforestry Centre reports that a conventionally tilled watershed has been methods like these can double or triple crop found to be 700 times greater than that from yields while reducing the need for commercial a no-till watershed. No-till systems that use fertilizers. A U.N. Environment Programme high-residue cover crops build soil organic report estimates that if best management prac- matter content and slow the movement of tices were widely used, by 2030 up to 6 giga- water over the soil surface, allowing more of tons of CO2 equivalent could be sequestered it to penetrate. In New South Wales, Maurice each year using agroforestry, which equals the reports his most interesting finding: soil carbon current emissions from agriculture as a whole.18 levels were significantly higher in areas of perennial grass in the remnant vegetation— No-till and Low-till about 4 percent, compared with 1.5 percent in paddocks coming out of the old continuous- Some of the nutrient-accumulating and -con- cropping system.21 serving features that allow natural ecosystems to build and sustain soil fertility include min- Permaculture imum soil disturbance, the presence of a pro- tective layer of plant residues covering the soil The term permaculture, a contraction of “per- surface with no large bare areas for any length manent agriculture,” was coined by Australians of time, and a constant covering of living plants and David Holmgren and refers to take up and store any nutrients that become to a systems approach for designing human available through decomposition. These nutri- , from farms to houses to cities, that ent-building and -conserving features can be mimics the relationships found in natural bio- incorporated into cropping systems by con- mes. It integrates concepts from organic farm- verting to no-till or low-till methods, such as ing, sustainable forestry, no-till management, reducing the period of bare fallow, planting and the village-design techniques of indigenous cover crops, reincorporating stubble and plant peoples. It applies ecological theory to under- residues, keyline plowing, and reducing aera- stand the characteristics of and potential rela- tion of the soil.19 tionships among different design elements.22 On his 2,000-hectare farm near Wellington, The discipline uses a set of principles adopted New South Wales, in Australia, Angus Maurice from ecosystems science. One principle is to use is convinced that permanent pasture and what the cradle-to-cradle model of recycling all he calls “no kill” cropping systems will be the resources and producing no waste. Another is future of grain production. “We have seen sig- to promote interactions between components nificant recruitment of perennial grasses in the so that needs and yields are integrated within past five years, which is encouraging,” he says, the design. For example, a chicken needs food, “but we realize to reach the system’s full poten- water, safe habitat, and other chickens, and it tial we would have to eliminate the use of her- produces eggs, feathers, meat, and manure, as

52 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 From Agriculture to Permaculture well as services such as weed-eating and insect and animal manure was added before and after control. A design that integrates chickens would planting. Animals raised on the farm included meet their needs from on-farm resources and chickens, pigeons, turkey, geese, ducks, rabbits, allow the chickens’ outputs to meet the needs sheep, and a dairy cow. They were fed from the of other elements in the design, such as crops farm once there were enough trees and plants or an aquaculture system. growing to harvest regularly without overtax- Once set in motion, permaculture designs ing the system. evolve naturally, capture synergies, and produce Within the first year the soil and well-water a high density of food and other products began showing a marked decline in salinity, and with diminishing labor and energy inputs over the garden areas had significant increases in time. One example of a permacultural strategy growth. Pests were minor and largely con- is the combining of crops in synergistic alliances trolled by the farm animals. The combining of called guilds, such as the traditional blending plants and animals brought about the inte- of corn, beans, and squash. Researchers have gration of farm inputs and outputs into a man- found that these combinations can increase aged ecosystem of continuous production, total yields two- to threefold over monocul- water conservation, and soil improvement. In tures of single crops.23 less than a decade a permacultural balance had One of the better known examples of suc- been achieved, with lessening inputs and cessful permaculture is found in one of the improving outputs. least hospitable places on Earth for farming. In the Kafrin area of the Jordan valley, 10 kilo- Transitional Agriculture meters from the Dead Sea, the nearly flat desert receives only two or three light rainfalls The early corn-growers depicted in the murals in winter. The fine-grained silt is salty, and in Tlaxcala would not have imagined they even the wells in the area are too saline to be were transforming humans’ relationship with used for irrigation. Earth’s ecology. Although it might be inspir- It was there that Geoff Lawton and his team ing to have a grand mission like restoring the of permaculturists set up a small, 5-hectare balance of nature, most farmers who venture farm and in 2001 began digging swales—2- into sustainable agriculture are simply inter- meter-wide mounds and shallow trenches that ested in improving crop yields or saving labor crossed the farm in wavy lines on contour. or money. While tradable credits for seques- They planted leguminous forest trees in the tering carbon could soon provide another mounds to fix nitrogen and make leaf fodder. farm revenue stream, many farmers will likely Each tree was given a drip-node from an irri- go into sustainable agriculture simply because gation line coming from a water dam built to gas-and-oil-dependant agriculture is becom- capture road runoff; the lake formed by the ing more expensive.25 dam was stocked with tilapia and geese, which As Angus Maurice’s family farm in Aus- contributed organic fertilizers for the trees.24 tralia demonstrates, sustainable agriculture is In the moist trenches, they planted olive, fig, not an either/or proposition, and there will guava, date palm, pomegranate, grape, citrus, necessarily be a period of transition from the carob, mulberry, cactus, and a wide range of current system to a more sustainable one. Even vegetables. Barley and alfalfa were planted as if most farmers do not go all-organic or apply and forages for farm animals between permaculture principles, they can still improve the swales. Tree and vegetable plantings were their fortunes—and that of the planet—by mulched with old newspapers and cotton rags, adopting bits and pieces, a little at a time.

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or a shift away from consumerism to lic elementary school or through less-formal occur, every aspect of education— educational institutions such as museums, from lunchtime and recess to class zoos, and libraries—the more people will inter- FF work and even the walk home— nalize teachings of sustainability from an early will need to be oriented on sustainability. age, and these ideas, values, and habits will Habits, values, preferences—all are shaped to become “natural.” If education can be har- a large degree in childhood. And throughout nessed, it will be a powerful tool in bringing life, education can have a transformative effect about sustainable human societies. on learners. Thus, harnessing this powerful This section investigates a sampling of what institution will be essential in redirecting is happening around the world as educators humanity toward cultures of sustainability. work to shift from a cultural pattern of con- No educational system is value-neutral, but sumerism to one of sustainability. Ingrid Pram- all teach and are shaped by a certain set of ling Samuelsson of Gothenburg University and ideas, values, and behaviors, whether that be Yoshie Kaga of UNESCO describe the forma- consumerism, communism, religious beliefs, or tive role that early education can play in teach- sustainability. As UNESCO states, “Educa- ing children to live sustainably when effectively tion is not an end in itself. It is a key instrument incorporating key environmental lessons into for bringing about the changes in the knowl- curricula. Susan Linn of the Campaign for a edge, values, behaviours and lifestyles required Commercial-Free Childhood focuses on how to achieve sustainability and stability within important it will be to reclaim childhood from and among countries, democracy, human secu- marketers and provide children with unstruc- rity and peace. Hence it must be a high prior- tured and creative playtime that does not stim- ity to reorient educational systems and curricula ulate consumerist values or desires. towards these needs. Education at all levels and Kevin Morgan and Roberta Sonnino of the in all its forms constitutes a vital tool for University of Cardiff explain that school meals addressing virtually all global problems relevant are a particularly important part of the school for sustainable development.”1 day that could be better used to teach envi- The more sustainability can be integrated ronmental awareness, while helping establish into existing school systems—whether at a dietary norms that are healthy and sustain- Catholic school, a private university, or a pub- able. And David Orr of Oberlin College con-

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Click here to see notes for this section. Education’s New Assignment: Sustainability STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

siders the two important roles that universities gate how best to shift human cultures. play in reorienting learning on sustainability: Incorporating sustainability education into teaching environmental thinking to students teacher training and school curricula and pro- and modeling sustainability both for students viding lifelong opportunities to learn about sus- and surrounding communities. tainability will be essential in cultivating Included within these articles are several societies that will thrive long into the future. shorter discussions of other important devel- The key now will be to expand programs like opments: the benefits of getting children and the ones described here and embed them adults back into nature, toy libraries that have deeply into leading educational institutions. started up in dozens of countries, the effort of This will help transform education’s role from one museum to become a center of sustain- one that too often reinforces unsustainable ability education, the role of professional consumer behaviors to one that helps to cul- schools in cultivating a sustainability ethic, tivate the knowledge essential to living sus- and the proposed Millennium Assessment of tainable lives. Human Behavior, which could be used to —Erik Assadourian mobilize the academic community to investi-

56 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Early Childhood Education to Transform Cultures for Sustainability

Ingrid Pramling Samuelsson and Yoshie Kaga

In view of the unprecedented challenges pre- part due to changing family structures and sented by continuing population growth, envi- the increased number of women in the work- ronmental destruction, and ever-shrinking force. About a third of young children in west- resource availability, education at all levels ern industrial countries are now being looked should be reviewed to give a stronger focus on after outside the home from the age of one or its role of promoting values, attitudes, practices, younger, and most children are in early child- habits, and lifestyles that promote sustainabil- hood programs for at least two years before ity. As part of this effort, the education of they start primary schooling. Between 1999 children in their youngest years deserves spe- and 2006, the global pre-primary percentage cial attention. of children aged one to five who were enrolled Research shows that the human brain and in a kindergarten or the equivalent grew from biological pathways develop rapidly and that 33 to 40 percent. The share of children in children’s experiences before they start primary such educational settings varies widely around school shape their attitudes, values, behaviors, the world, however. By 2006 the figures were habits, skills, and identity throughout life. Thus 14 percent in sub-Saharan Africa, 18 percent the first years of life provide a window of oppor- in the Arab states, 45 percent in East Asia and tunity for nurturing children’s love of nature and the Pacific, 65 percent in Latin America and the the habits, practices, and lifestyles that favor Caribbean, and 81 percent in North America sustainability. (See Box 6.) Basic life skills such and Western Europe.2 as communication, cooperation, autonomy, cre- ativity, problem-solving, and persistence are Early Childhood Education acquired in these early years, and the motivation Can Help Make the Shift to learn is put in place.1 This is an ideal time to look at how to con- Early childhood education can help build a nect early childhood education programs to a culture of sustainability if it is framed in terms sustainability agenda because these programs of sustainable development, if curriculum and have increased dramatically in recent years, in pedagogical guidelines are oriented toward

Ingrid Pramling Samuelsson is a professor in early childhood education at Gothenburg University in Sweden. Yoshie Kaga is a program specialist in early childhood care and education at UNESCO.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Early Childhood Education to Transform Cultures for Sustainability STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Box 6. Sustainability and the Human-Nature Relationship

Humans depend on the natural world to meet inner-city youth) effective and educationally all their basic needs, including air, water, food, significant access to outdoor nature. Although energy, and shelter. Studies suggest that this legislation has not yet been adopted, it contact with natural environments, living crea- signals rising concern in the world’s largest tures, and ecological systems is also critical consumer culture about the next generation’s for healthy human development, particularly experience in and with natural environments— the development of a healthy self-concept. the outdoors. Psychologists have observed that children Outdoor and environmental education as well as adults benefit from “ecological have a long-standing tradition in countries development” in which they create or move such as Germany, Norway, the United toward an understanding of themselves in Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. relation to the non-human world. Their formal educational efforts are often Yet many people are increasingly isolated complemented by a strong outdoor recreation from nature. According to the 2008 Outdoor and wilderness tradition. Examples include Recreation Participation Report, participation the Wandervogel and youth hostelling in outdoor activities among U.S. youngsters movement in Germany, friluftsliv in Norway aged 6 to 17 declined 11.6 percent between (open air life/life in nature), and the scouting 2006 and 2007, with the sharpest drops and outdoor education tradition in the United among 6- to 12-year-olds. The time that young Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. Sum- people spend indoors is associated with mer camps in the United States and Canada, increasing levels of computer, video, and along with Canada’s cottage culture, promote technology use and decreasing levels of active interaction with natural environments. physical activity. The negative health effects What unites all these activities is the intent to of this trend, from depression to obesity and develop a relationship in which the effects of diabetes, are well documented. human behavior on nature and “self” become Research indicates that repeated, regular, felt, experienced, and valued. and sustained positive experiences in natural For many people, especially those in the environments are influential for attaining sus- westernized world, the most direct relation- tainable behaviors and lifestyles. Journalist ship they have with nature (apart from the air Richard Louv, in his 2005 book Last Child in the they breathe) is through the food and water Woods, points to the psychological and physi- they consume. Efforts to live more sustainably cal benefits of greater interaction with nature. though food choices are thus a critical and Children in particular can benefit from oppor- integral element in the systemic shift to a cul- tunities for unstructured play in semi-natural ture of sustainability. Trends such as the biore- environments close to home. Such informal gional movement, the rise in community and outdoor experiences may be more powerful market gardens, increasing interest in local than the formal, classroom-based environmen- and organic food, and the embrace of vegetar- tal education that has gained ground in many ianism all suggest an attempt to restore a countries in the last 30 or so years. more direct, immediate, and enriching In the United States, Louv’s book inspired human-nature relationship. the drafting in 2007 of the No Child Left —Almut Beringer Inside Act, designed to guarantee every Director of Sustainability, American child (in particular, impoverished University of Wisconsin

58 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Early Childhood Education to Transform Cultures for Sustainability education for sustainability, if staff training in to bring recyclable materials to school and this field is reinforced, and if parents and com- integrating them into a range of activities. munities are involved in the process. • Respect is about nurturing understanding of In May 2007 an international workshop on and respect for nature and natural processes the role of early childhood education in a sus- and reducing the extent to which they are tainable society brought early childhood pro- violated. fessionals and experts from 16 countries to • Reflect is a habit and skill everybody will Gothenburg, Sweden. Participants recognized benefit from in working for sustainability. that there was a great deal in the traditions of • Repair involves taking care of broken toys early childhood pedagogies that aligns with and other objects and repairing them. education for sustainability, such as the inter- • Responsibility is about trusting children to disciplinary approach, the use of the outdoors take care of something or do something they for learning, learning through concrete expe- can feel proud about.4 riences and real-life projects, and the involve- There is much in the world that is unknown ment of parents and communities. A subsequent to children. Working toward making the conference in Gothenburg in November 2008 unknown visible to them means creating recommended that early childhood education opportunities to discover the unknown in what should be conceived as a first step in learning they do and work with. This puts demands on to live sustainably, should be given more priority early childhood teachers to be aware of what in policy development, should receive more a child’s learning should be directed toward.5 resources, and should involve cross-sectoral At the same time, there are also unknown support and collaboration.3 phenomena for the teachers, particularly con- It is important that the goals and content of cerning the future. From a pedagogical per- early childhood curriculum be aligned with spective, this is a difficult challenge. One way education for sustainability. In this exercise, to deal with this might be to try to identify environmental education is not the only com- what all children may benefit from having in ponent. In addition to fostering love for and the future. Eva Johansson suggests that respect toward nature and promoting an aware- courage, integrity, critical thinking, and respon- ness of problems due to unsustainable lifestyles, sibility are necessary personal attributes in early childhood education must encourage the order to be prepared for an unknown future. outlook and basic skills that enable children to Also, it is important to nurture the ability to take informed actions responsibly. Instead of recognize injustice, as well as to be skilled and the 3Rs of reading, writing, and arithmetic, creative in solving complex questions. If chil- early childhood education can follow the 7Rs— dren are given ample opportunities to be chal- reduce, , recycle, respect, reflect, repair, lenged, to make mistakes, and to enjoy seeking and responsibility: possible answers, they will be better equipped • Reduce is about reducing the consumption to confront the complex questions raised by of food, materials, and resources, which may sustainable development.6 involve working with parents on the problem At the heart of teaching and working with of children’s exposure to advertisements pro- young children should be the notion of the moting endless consumption. rich and competent child and active citizen, • Reuse is about showing children that mate- being in an equal position as his or her teacher, rials can be used many times for different pur- constructing understanding and meanings poses in preschool and at home. with others. The “project approach” is a teach- • Recycle can be encouraged by asking children ing strategy that addresses children’s intellec-

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tual dispositions, allowing children to exam- in schools does not give the best results in ine the basis of their own opinions, ideas, and learning about issues related to sustainable assumptions. This strategy will help them development, which are interdisciplinary in examine the behaviors of their own cultures nature. Furthermore, modeling behavior is and others in terms of implications for sus- found to be more effective than direct teaching tainable development.7 or preaching in helping young children inter- nalize values and develop desirable atti- tudes and leanings. Children should have role models who can make these values and characteristics visible and “lived” in daily settings, including early childhood centers, schools, and fami- lies, as well as through various public media.9 Families, indeed, are the child’s first educators. They have the greatest influ- ence in shaping young children’s atti- tudes, values, behaviors, habits, and skills. So they have a central role to play in educating their children for sustain- able development. And grandparents often have age-old wisdom about ways Courtesy Earth Sangha Young students plant a vegetable garden at their elementary of life that favor living together, the school in Washington, D.C. preservation of nature throughout gen- erations, and cohabitation with differ- It is not necessary to invent entirely new ent species—wisdom that should be tapped. pedagogies in order to “do” education for Thus where formal early education programs sustainability in the early years; it is possible to are not available, non-formal education can be build on pedagogical traditions instead. Arjen set up—as an integral component of commu- Wals points to the qualities in the pedagogi- nity programs or otherwise—to provide parents cal tradition of early childhood education that and grandparents with opportunities to discuss are particularly useful for education for sus- what could be done differently in daily life in tainability—qualities that other levels of edu- order to encourage or enable sustainable devel- cation may lack: “So let us return to opment. Where an early childhood education kindergarten and explore why kindergartens program does exist, the participation of parents offer more for moving towards a more sus- can strengthen the link between what takes tainable world than many of our universities. place in the education setting and at home.10 Kindergarten ideally is or can be places where young children live and learn, explore bound- Case Studies on Young Children aries, in a safe and transparent world without and Sustainability hidden agendas….There are no dumb ques- tions in kindergarten and there’s always time The May 2007 workshop in Sweden high- for questions and questioning.”8 lighted numerous examples of how to get Research shows that the traditional subject- young children involved with questions about based teaching of knowledge that is common sustainable development. In one case in Aus-

60 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Early Childhood Education to Transform Cultures for Sustainability tralia, for example, children have numerous ing attitude to nature and the environment as opportunities to act as agents of change for sus- well as an understanding that they are part of tainability. They work on such mini-projects as nature’s regeneration process. The curricu- litter-less lunches, responsible cleaning, reusing lum asks teachers to address ethical dilemmas, and recycling things, a vegetable garden, a and it regards gender equality as a precondi- register of native plants, environmental aes- tion for a sustainable society.13 thetics, efficient use of natural resources, and construction of a pond. They also worked Current Challenges in Early on lifestyle questions such as waste manage- Childhood Education ment as well as the “eco-friendliness” of their outdoor environment. The teacher skillfully Although an individual’s capacity to learn is designs the activities based on the children’s most receptive during the first years of life, interests. They work collaboratively and ensure these are the years that traditionally receive that informed, reflective practice infuses inter- the least support in the education world. Pol- actions and deliberations.11 icymakers must pay more attention to this Another example is a case study from Japan, area, given the crucial importance of quality where the project approach was practiced in early childhood education, staffed by compe- a preschool in relation to the cycle of the silk- tent educators, for nurturing active and respon- worm, a fascinating insect. Silk and silkworms sible members of society.14 have a long use and cultural meaning in tra- Other areas and levels of education can ditional clothes in Japan, yet the mulberry learn a great deal from the pedagogical trees—which provide the natural food of silk- strengths of early childhood education, such as worms—are disappearing in the school’s the hands-on approach, use of the outdoors as neighborhood. Children learned the whole a teaching tool, interdisciplinarity, the whole- ecological cycle surrounding silkworms by project approach, encouraging children’s ini- experiencing, hands on, the growth of tiatives and interests, and connecting with cocoons into caterpillars in less than 25 days, parents and communities. observing how caterpillars eat and when silk With the growing concern about producing fibers are produced. While the project was a competitive workforce in a globalized knowl- mainly focusing on nature, culture and econ- edge economy, early childhood institutions omy were included as well when the teachers are increasingly pressed to place school readi- discussed silk clothing and the silk industry in ness and the acquisition of formal skills at the Japanese society.12 heart of their goal. But these schools and other The last example is from Sweden. The preschool bodies need to resist pressures to Swedish national curriculum for early child- become packed with hurried and scheduled hood education and care clearly spells out that curricula with predefined goals that are imple- teachers are responsible for promoting respect mented through second-hand learning. These for the intrinsic values of each person as well years are the ideal time for children to develop as for the shared environment. It also very a love of the environment and to learn the specifically focuses on children acquiring a car- basic 7Rs of caring for it.15

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 61 Commercialism in Children’s Lives

Susan Linn

Marketing is linked to a host of public health Rights of the Child. Play is critical to healthy and social problems facing children today. The development, and ensuring children’s right to World Health Organization and other public play is an essential building block toward a health institutions identify marketing to chil- sustainable world. Yet in the twenty-first cen- dren as a significant factor in the worldwide epi- tury, hands-on creative play is an endangered demic of childhood obesity. In addition, species. Perhaps the most insidious and pow- advertising and marketing have been associated erful threat to what is every child’s birthright with eating disorders, sexualization, youth vio- is the escalation of commercialism in young lence, family stress, and underage alcohol and people’s lives.3 tobacco use.1 The ability to play creatively is central to the Among the most troubling ramifications human capacity to experiment, to act rather of allowing marketers unfettered access to chil- than react, and to differentiate oneself from the dren is the erosion of creative play, which is environment. It is how children wrestle with central to healthy development. The com- life and make it meaningful. Spirituality and mercial forces that are preventing the devel- advances in science and art are all rooted in opment of children’s natural capacity for play play. Play promotes attributes essential to a are daunting. But there is a burgeoning move- democratic populace, such as curiosity, rea- ment to reclaim childhood from corporate soning, empathy, sharing, cooperation, and a marketers and a resurgence of interest in pro- sense of competence—a belief that the indi- tecting and promoting hands-on, unstruc- vidual can make a difference in the world. tured, child-driven “make-believe.”2 Constructive problem-solving, divergent think- ing, and the capacity for self-regulation are all Why Play Matters developed through creative play.4 Children at play may enthusiastically conjure Play is both culturally universal and funda- cookies out of thin air or talk with creatures no mental to children’s well-being—factors that one else can see, yet they still remain grounded led the United Nations to list it as a guaran- in the “real” world. Once children develop teed right in its 1989 Convention on the the capacity for simultaneously recognizing

Susan Linn is with the Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood and Harvard Medical School.

62 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG

Click here to see notes for this section. STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Commercialism in Children’s Lives an object for what it is and what it could be, readily turn a mere stick into, for instance, a they are able to alter the world around them wand, a sword, the of a boat, or a tool for to further their dreams and hopes and to con- drawing in the sand. Their enjoyment does quer their fears. When children are given the not depend on the novelty of acquisition but time and opportunity, they turn spontaneously rather on what they can make of their envi- to “pretend play” to make sense of their expe- ronment. They are thus more likely to have the rience, to cope with adversity, and to try out internal resources to resist messages that push and rehearse new roles. They also develop the them toward excessive consumption. capacity to use pretend play as a tool for healing, self-knowledge, and growth. It is traditionally assumed that when children have leisure time, they are engaged in some kind of self-directed, or “free,” play, the motivation for which generates from within, rather than from external forces. But for the first time in history, that is not the case. Between 1997 and 2002, in just five years, the amount of time that six- to eight-year- old children in the United States spent in pretend play—such as dress up or play based on imaginative transforma- tions—diminished by about a third. More than half of parents in Japan and

France characterize shopping as a play © 2006 Javahar, courtesy Photoshare activity. An international survey of 16 On a beach in India, a hole in a soccer net makes a game. countries found that only 27 percent of children engaged in imaginative play, and only There have been no longitudinal studies 15 percent of mothers believed that play was exploring the long-term ramifications of chil- essential to children’s health.5 dren deprived of creative play. But a survey of Babies are born with an innate capacity to 400 major employers across the United States play. When commercial interests dominate a found that many of their new young employ- culture, however, nurturing creative play can ees, whose childhoods have been shaped by become countercultural: it is a threat to cor- intensifying commercialization, lacked critical porate profits. Children who play creatively thinking and basic problem-solving skills, as are not as dependent on consumer goods for well as creativity and innovation, all of which having fun. Their playfulness, as well as their are nurtured in creative play.6 capacity for joy and engagement, rests mainly within themselves and what they bring to the The Rise of Commercialism world rather than what the world brings to them. They are active rather than reactive, and The fervor for government deregulation that they do not need to be constantly entertained. began in the United States in the 1980s, in Children who engage readily in make- combination with the digital revolution, has believe are masters of transformation. They resulted in an unprecedented escalation of com- can conjure something out of nothing and mercialism in the lives of children. In 1983,

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U.S. marketers spent some $100 million tar- among women in Fiji after television was intro- geting children, a paltry sum compared with the duced to the island in 1995. The introduction $17 billion they are spending today. While of specific programming also has an effect. In much of the impetus for marketing to chil- 1994, just after World Wrestling Entertain- dren originates in the United States, the trend ment television programming came to Israel, is promulgated worldwide by multinational social scientists documented what they corporations. (See Table 7.) Food companies described as an epidemic of schoolyard injuries alone spend about $1.9 billion annually mar- caused by children imitating wrestling moves.8 keting directly to children around the world.7 The two companies that dominate the world Commercial entertainment generated in toy industry, Hasbro and Mattel, create films the United States has long been one of the and television programs to promote their prod- country’s most profitable exports. Mickey ucts worldwide. In 2009, Hasbro announced Mouse was recognizable around the world plans to form its own U.S. children’s cable long before the escalation of advertising and television station in partnership with the Dis- marketing to children in the 1980s. But the covery Channel, featuring popular brands such combination of globalization, sophisticated as Tonka and My Little Pony. In a recent inter- media technology, and U.S. anti-regulatory national study of children’s leisure activities, policies has made the world’s children more of researchers expressed surprise at how little dif- a target than ever before. Technological ferentiation there now is in how children advances such as video and DVDs, as well as around the world spend their leisure time.9 cable and satellite television stations, increase Critics of globalization characterize the marketers’ access to children. With the Inter- commercialization of childhood as a powerful net and video games now accessible on MP3 vehicle for inculcating capitalist values in very players and cell phones, the pathways to chil- young children. The underlying message of dren are increasing. nearly all marketing, regardless of the product The mere introduction of electronic screen being advertised, is that the things people buy media into a culture can profoundly influence will make them happy. Aside from the fact societal norms such as standards of beauty, that research on happiness shows this to be diet, and interpersonal interactions. A classic false, immersing children in a message that study showed the rise of eating disorders material goods are essential to self-fulfillment

Table 7. Childhood Marketing Efforts from Around the World

Disney English In China, parents pay $1,000 per semester to send children to Disney-themed lan- Language guage programs. Some children reportedly learn as few as four words, yet their efforts Program are rewarded with Disney trinkets and access to government-banned Disney films. McDonald’s As McDonald’s expands its presence in India, increasing numbers of children are Happy Meals sampling toys from films such as Ice Age Three and Madagascar with their chicken burgers and French fries. SpongeBob A “live” version of the most popular animated character on Viacom’s Nickelodeon SquarePants channel recently visited schools in Namibia. The show is aired in 171 markets around the world in 25 languages.

Source: See endnote 7.

64 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Commercialism in Children’s Lives promotes the acquisition of materialistic values, characters, cutting-edge technology, brightly which have been linked to depression and low colored packaging, and well-funded marketing self-esteem. Research shows that children with strategies combine in coordinated campaigns more materialistic values are also less likely to to capture the hearts, minds, and imagina- engage in environmentally sustainable behav- tions of children—teaching them to value that iors such as recycling or conserving water.10 which can be bought over their own make- believe creations. The Impact of Commercialism Today, more than ever, children need the on Play time, space, tools, and silence essential for developing their capacities for curiosity, cre- Children’s favorite leisure activity these days, in ativity, self-reflection, and meaningful engage- both industrial and developing countries, is ment in the world. But when consumerism watching television. In the United States, chil- and materialistic values dominate society, cre- dren spend more time in front of television ative play is no longer valued. The toys that screens than in any other activity besides sleep- nurture imagination—blocks, art supplies, ing: about 40 hours a week outside of school. Nineteen percent of U.S. babies under the age of one have a television in their bedroom. In Viet Nam, 91 per- cent of mothers report that their children watch television often, as do more than 80 percent of mothers in Argentina, Brazil, India, and Indonesia.11 Research indicates that the more young children engage with screens, the less time they spend in creative play. Unlike other media such as reading and the radio, which require people to imag- ine sounds or visual images, screen media does all of that work. While there is some evidence that certain screen media can encourage children to play creatively and enhance specific kinds of learning,

when screens dominate children’s lives— Leonid Mamchenkov regardless of content—they are a threat, Watching TV with teddy, in Cyprus. not an enhancement, to creativity, play, and make-believe.12 dolls, and stuffed animals free of computer The ability to view programs on DVDs, chips and links to media—can be used repeat- MP3 players, and cell phones, as well as on edly and in a variety of ways, diminishing the TIVO and other home recording devices that need to spend money on new toys. Toy libraries provide programming “on demand,” makes are another way to reduce spending on yet multiple viewings of the same program a new another new item. (See Box 7.)13 fact of children’s lives. Across platforms, elec- The electronic wizardry characterizing tronic screens are the primary means for mar- today’s best-selling toys makes for great adver- keters to target children. Loveble media tising campaigns. They look like fun. But they

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Box 7. Toy Libraries

A clever way that many parents are reducing library helps parents decrease the influence consumerism in childhood is through toy of the marketplace on their children. Parents libraries. These are like book libraries—except often find that shopping and buying for child- children check out toys and games instead. ren at toy stores is fraught with stress and Located in the heart of a community, toy conflict. Borrowing at the toy library offers libraries bring families together to share col- children an abundance of goods from which lective goods. One estimate found that 4,500 to choose and a wealth of challenging toys. toy libraries are scattered across 31 countries. Sharing collective goods also teaches chil- In New Zealand, for example, 217 toy libraries dren many valuable lessons, such as gener- serve over 23,000 children. osity, empathy, and environmental values. By providing toys and games, the libraries These positive sharing experiences appear to help parents save money. Based on local com- be viral, and parents expand into other such munity values, toy librarians can also screen experiences such as donating toys, engaging out toys that lack educational value or rein- in children’s clothing swaps, giving second- force negative consumer values, like Barbie hand goods as gifts, joining book coopera- dolls and toy cars and guns. tives, sharing cars, and joining time banks. The libraries also resolve an important —Lucie Ozanne, Marketing Professor, dilemma facing parents: how do you fulfill University of Canterbury, New Zealand children’s basic right to play with varied and —Julie Ozanne, Marketing Professor, stimulating goods and still avoid excessive Virginia Tech University consumption and waste? In addition, the toy Source: See endnote 13. are created with a kind of planned obsoles- rather than creativity, self-initiation, and cence. They are not typically designed with the active exploration. goal of engaging children for years, or even months. They are designed to sell. If interest Nurturing Play in a wanes, so much the better—another version Commercialized World will soon be on the market. Toys that talk and chirp and do back flips all on their own take Protecting children’s right to play is inextri- much of the creativity, and therefore the value, cably linked with their right to grow and away from play activities. develop without being undermined by com- Brand-licensed toys are an especially large mercial interests. Laws protecting children business, bringing in an estimated $6.2 bil- from corporate marketers vary widely, with lion just in the United States in 2007. 14 Toys many countries relying primarily on industry that represent familiar media characters self-regulation. The most stringent laws are in whose voices, actions, and personalities are the Canadian province of Quebec, which pro- already set rob children of opportunities to hibits television advertising to children under exercise their own creativity—especially if 13, and in Norway and Sweden, which pro- kids are familiar with the program on which hibit such advertising to children under 12. the character is based. Unless some way is In Greece, toy ads cannot be aired before found to prevent marketers from targeting ten o’clock at night, and ads for war toys are children, their play activities will foster imi- prohibited entirely. France has banned pro- tation, reactivity, and dependence on screens grams on broadcast television aimed at chil-

66 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Commercialism in Children’s Lives dren under the age of three.15 and restricted advertising and marketing to Because of the Internet and satellite broad- children under eight.18 casting, however, marketers are increasingly Ad hoc groups of health care professionals able to target children in any country, mak- and educators have come together to issue ing adequate regulation a complex but even strong statements about the importance of more essential task. Changes in regulatory play and the need to limit commercial access policy take time and are often met with strong to children. In the United Kingdom, diverse and well-funded resistance from commercial luminaries such as the Archbishop of Canter- stakeholders. As a result, the task of “sav- bury, children’s book author Phillip Pullman, ing” play in a commercialized world rests on and members of Parliament have joined with the efforts of nongovernmental organizations educators and health care professionals to (NGOs) and professional groups that are deplore the state of childhood in the country, working to influence policy, set limits on mar- urging limited commercial access to children keters’ access to children, and help parents and and advocating for increased opportunities for schools encourage creative play. Public insti- creative play.19 tutions, such as libraries and museums, can Efforts to limit children’s exposure to com- offer alternative creative educational oppor- mercialism and promote creative play are aided tunities. (See Box 8.)16 by a growing recognition of the need for chil- Organized efforts to stop the commercial dren to connect with nature. Studies indicate exploitation of children are in their infancy, but that children play more creatively in green they continue to grow. Pressure from NGOs space. As a result of efforts from has led the U.K. government to regulate the NGOs like the Children & Nature Network, marketing of certain foods on television. In the U.S. Congress is currently considering the Brazil, thanks to efforts by the national advo- No Child Left Inside Act, which provides cacy group Criança e Consumo, the state tele- funding for teachers to use schoolyards and vision station in São Paulo no longer markets local green spaces for lessons. In the Nether- to children, and a bill prohibiting marketing lands, conservation and environmental to children is being considered in the national activists—in cooperation with the Minister of legislature.17 Agriculture, Nature and Food Safety—are urg- In the United States, which regulates mar- ing Parliament to support major efforts to keting to children less than most industrial help children connect with nature. In Ger- democracies, pressure from groups such as many, Waldkindergärtens—preschools where the Campaign for a Commercial-Free Child- young children spend their school time out in hood has forced companies like Disney and nature—are flourishing.20 McDonald’s to alter some of their marketing Previous generations took it for granted practices. The Federal Communications that children used their leisure time for play. Commission recently launched a review of its But that is no longer true. Play is an endan- rules for children’s television with the goal of gered species, and there needs to be a con- meeting the new demands of digital tech- scious, concerted effort to save make-believe nology. And professional organizations such for future generations. The consequence of as the American Academy of Pediatrics and millions of children growing up deprived of American Psychological Association have play is a world bereft of joy, creativity, critical issued recommendations that include no thinking, individuality, and meaning—so much screen time for children under the age of of what makes it worthwhile to be human. two, limited screen time for older children, We need to let children play.

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Box 8. Transformation of the California Academy of Sciences

Periodic reinvention is important for all insti- including recycled building materials, natural tutions, but particularly for natural history ventilation, solar energy generation, and a museums, which often seem to be more con- living roof, it exceeded the threshold for Plat- cerned with the past than the future—more inum certification. Today the new Academy “cabinets of curiosities” showcasing life’s his- uses about 30–35 percent less energy than torical forms than institutions grappling with typical for a building of its type, generates the most challenging problems of today and 213,000 kilowatt-hours of solar electricity, tomorrow. and prevents 3.6 million gallons of run-off Helping people of all ages learn about with its living roof, which is also a popular nature and the science of life is an obvious exhibit for visitors. role for natural history museums. Public Along with a new physical structure, the engagement should not be their secondary Academy has made some innovative new pro- mission, but one that is primary. Consid- gram additions in order to engage broader ering this and financial realities—museums audiences. A few highlights include: have expenses and depend on paying • Free admission one day each month, and visitors—exhibits have to be scientifically always free for visiting classes. accurate as well as engaging for a wide • A glass-walled “project laboratory” where array of people. visitors can view scientists’ work and learn One institution that has tackled this issue about the details on connected video screens. is the California Academy of Sciences in San • A robust Web site providing lesson planning Francisco. No function has been untouched. material, scientists’ blogs, and a live video The challenge was to be green and sustain- feed to Farallon Islands, a nature reserve oth- able—intellectually, financially, educationally, erwise closed to visitors. and operationally—while remaining faithful • A Teacher Institute on Science and Sustain- to the Academy’s core mission: to be the ability that engages elementary school teach- most engaging natural history museum in ers each year. the world, to inspire visitors of all ages to be • A program called NightLife to attract the age curious about the natural world, expand group least represented as visitors—21- to their knowledge of it, and feel a responsibil- 40-year-olds. Every Thursday evening, ity to preserve it; to encourage young visitors 21 and older can enjoy the exhibits, visitors to pursue careers in science; to scientific presentations, drinks, and lively improve science education at all levels; to DJs—all of which make the Academy what carry out the highest-quality research on has been rated the “steamiest” date spot in questions of major importance; and to be San Francisco. successful financially. Whether for NightLife or for class visits, The Academy started its reinvention with the Academy is challenging more people to a new building completed in 2008—a neces- consider two essential questions of our time: sity after an earthquake damaged the old one How did life arise and evolve, and how can it in 1989. This building earned the highest be sustained? possible rating in the Leadership in Energy Gregory C. Farrington and rating system: Executive Director, Platinum. Actually, by exploiting a variety of California Academy of Sciences technologies and strategies, Source: See endnote 16.

68 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Rethinking School Food: The Power of the Public Plate

Kevin Morgan and Roberta Sonnino

For the vast majority of children in industrial deployed to great effect to meet strategic pri- countries, school food is something that has orities—most notably, to create military tech- to be endured rather than enjoyed—a rite of nologies in the United States or nuclear passage to an adult world where healthy eat- energy in France—it is rarely used for such ing is the exception, rather than the norm, as prosaic things as fresh food for schools, hos- evidenced by the burgeoning problems of pitals, and extended care facilities. Fortu- diet-related diseases. Millions of children in nately, more and more people are beginning developing countries have to endure some- to realize that healthy eating must in itself be thing far worse, of course, because school a strategic priority in order to truly value food is still conspicuous by its absence in human health, social justice, and environ- many cases. mental integrity—the key principles of sus- In parts of Europe, North America, and tainable development. Africa, things are changing today. People have The school food service is a litmus test of moved beyond debates on whether public a society’s political commitment to sustain- bodies are capable of delivering a healthier able development because it caters to young school food service. The jury is in: it is indeed and vulnerable people whose physical tastes possible—because public bodies are already and habits of thought are still being formed. doing it. When properly deployed, public pro- But delivering a sustainable school food ser- curement—the power of purchase—can fash- vice is more challenging than it appears. ion a sustainable school food service that Indeed, despite the stereotype of being a delivers social, economic, and environmental simple service, school food is part of a quite dividends while also promoting a culture of sus- complex ecology in which many variables tainability. Healthy school food is also gener- have to be synchronized. To be effective, ally associated with behavioral improvements, school food reform requires changes especially in terms of children’s concentration throughout the system, given the interde- levels and learning capacity.1 pendencies involved in the process that brings Although the power of purchase has been food from farm to fork.

Kevin Morgan is professor of governance and development and Roberta Sonnino is a lecturer in envi- ronmental policy and planning in the School of City and Regional Planning at Cardiff University.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 69

Click here to see notes for this section. Rethinking School Food: The Power of the Public Plate STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Creating New Generations of Crucially, though, the healthy eating ethos Knowledgeable Consumers has to inform every aspect of the school envi- ronment—the classroom, the dining room, Being part and parcel of their communities, the vending machine, even the school schools cannot solve societal problems on their grounds—to ensure that the landscape and own, especially when it comes to something as the mind-set of the school are compatible and complex as people’s dietary habits. In virtually mutually reinforcing. Where it is fun, stimu- every society where it has been broadcast, the lating, and enabling, the whole-school “healthy eating” message has faced two for- approach can deliver handsome dividends even midable obstacles: it has been overwhelmed by in the most challenging social environments, the “junk food” message, which dwarfs it in creating the single most important ingredient terms of advertising spending, and the public of a sustainable school food service: knowl- health community has naively assumed that edgeable consumers who care about the origin getting the right information to the public of their food. would be sufficient to induce cultural change. A disposition for healthy eating is a socially Fashioning Sustainable Food Chains acquired facility, the result of learning with through School Food Reform family and friends at home and at school. A “whole-school” approach—one that embeds Whereas the role of school meals in forging the healthy eating message into a wider edu- new generations of informed consumers is cational package that stresses the positive links immediately evident, people do not necessar- between food, fitness, health, and both phys- ily think of schools as markets for quality food ical and mental well-being—can have a posi- producers. Yet many countries are using school tive influence on what children eat in and food reform as a tool to develop new supply outside of school, and to that extent it plays chains that set a high premium on the use of a key role in fostering the demand for health- “quality” food, which is generally equated ier food in schools. with fresh, locally produced food.2 In the United States, securing food from local suppliers is one of the hall- marks of the Farm-to-School move- ment, which has been helping schools to reconnect with produc- ers. So far more than 1,000 schools in 38 states are buying fresh products from local farms. “Home-grown school feeding” has also become a priority in many developing coun- tries, where the World Food Pro- gramme of the United Nations has been trying to replace food imports (on which conventional school feed- ing programs were based) with locally grown foods. The chief aim of this

Dylan Oliphant revolutionary initiative, which has Room for improvement: a high school cafeteria lunch in the U.S. been especially successful in Brazil

70 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Rethinking School Food: The Power of the Public Plate and Ghana, is to create markets for local pro- dom was conservative, Italy was bold; where ducers in the process of promoting the health the United Kingdom stressed value for money and education of the children involved.3 in the narrow economic sense, Italy sought Sustainable food systems are not wholly values in the broadest sense of the term. The synonymous with local food systems. Although explanation for these divergent interpreta- there is no reason to assume that locally pro- tions is to be found in the interplay of cultural duced food is inherently better than imports, values and political willpower, which in Italy’s there is no doubt that the demand for health- case sets a high premium on the creative pro- ier school food creates important opportuni- curement of produce that is strongly associ- ties for economic development if local suppliers ated with seasonality and territoriality. In have the appropriate produce and the infra- short, EU procurement rules are not barriers structure to distribute it. Thus school food if public bodies have the competence and reform has an important role to play in creat- confidence to deploy the power of purchase ing new opportunities for small producers who within these rules.5 have too often been marginalized, if not dis- In the United States, too, procurement placed, by globalization of the food system.4 rules have been interpreted as a barrier, pre- venting school districts from purchasing locally Tapping the Power of Purchase produced food in the school lunch program. The U.S. Department of Agriculture inter- Public procurement is the most powerful prets the rules very conservatively, claiming instrument for creating a sustainable school that school districts are not allowed to specify food service, but its potential has been local geographic preferences when they issue stymied in some countries by narrow inter- their tenders—an interpretation that is fiercely pretations of what constitutes “value for contested by other legal experts. Nothing will money.” In cost-based contracting cultures, do more to promote the cause of local school like those of the United Kingdom and the food procurement in the United States than a United States, the biggest barrier to sustain- clarification of the regulations so that local able procurement has been a systemic ten- sourcing is positively and explicitly encour- dency for low cost to masquerade as best aged by federal and state legislation.6 value—a tendency that procurement officers and catering managers often justify by refer- Pioneers of the School ring to the wider regulatory context of their Food Revolution work. In Italy, in contrast, as described later, best value embodies cultural as well as finan- Each of the reforms just described—the whole- cial attributes, allowing local authorities to school approach, the creation of sustainable take account of the qualitative features of the food chains, and creative public procurement— service when awarding contracts. is a major challenge in itself. But the biggest In the United Kingdom, European public challenge of all is to synchronize the reforms procurement regulations have often been so that they have a mutually reinforcing, syn- seen as a barrier to school food reform. But ergistic effect. This is what the pioneers of when the U.K. approach is compared with school food reform have in common: they all that traditionally adopted in Italy, which is recognize the ecological and interdependent subject to the same European Union (EU) character of the school food service. regulations, it is clear that the problem is one Even though all over the world people are of interpretation. Where the United King- becoming increasingly aware of the role of

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 71 Rethinking School Food: The Power of the Public Plate STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 school food in promoting the objectives of a creative procurement approach that aimed to sustainable development, two countries can help organic and small suppliers become be considered pioneers of the school food rev- involved in the school meal system. For exam- olution: Scotland and Italy. Indeed, in these ple, some of the “straightness” guidelines for countries all three fundamental aspects of the Class 1 vegetables were made more flexible to school reform process have been taken into attract organic suppliers; the contract was account, reflecting a new vision of the service divided into smaller lots to help smaller sup- that is beginning to transform cultural values pliers cope with the scale of the order; and at all stages of the school food chain—among award criteria were equally based on price and children and their parents, school staff, pro- quality. At the same time, the Council actively curement officers, suppliers, and policymakers. worked to create a shared commitment to the Scotland pioneered the British school food ideals of the reform all across the food chain. revolution long before Jamie’s School Dinners, Specifically, training sessions on nutrition and a popular TV series that in 2006 widely healthy eating were organized for catering exposed the general public to the problems of managers and cooks. Farmers were invited the British school meal service. By then Scot- into the classroom to explain where and how land had just ended the first stage of its school they produce food. Parents were also taken on food reform, which included an investment board through a series of “healthy cooking of £63.5 million (some $104 million) to tips demonstrations.”9 redesign the school meal service. This process In East Ayrshire, school food reform has started in 2002 with the publication of Hun- delivered important outcomes from a sustain- gry for Success, a report commissioned by the able development perspective. As a result of the Scottish government that explicitly promoted Council’s sourcing approach, have the whole-school approach. In addition to been reduced by 70 percent and packaging emphasizing the need to echo the message of waste has decreased. Small local suppliers have the classroom in the dining room, this semi- been provided with new market opportunities, nal report introduced new nutrient-based stan- while users’ satisfaction with the service has dards to improve the quality of food served in increased significantly. A recent survey found schools and suggested that the school meal ser- that 67 percent of children think that school vice was closer to a health rather than a com- meals taste better, 88 percent of them like mercial service.7 fresh food, and 77 percent of the parents The rural county of East Ayrshire, in cen- believe that the scheme is a good use of the tral Scotland, has gone farthest in implement- local council’s money. Even more important ing the government’s recommendations. perhaps, the school food revolution in this Making the most of the power of purchase deprived rural county has created a new shared gained through Hungry for Success, in 2004 vision of sustainable development that is cut- East Ayrshire introduced a pilot scheme in ting across the realms of consumption, pro- one of its primary schools based on the use of duction, and procurement, challenging fresh, organic, and local food. The initiative was widespread misconceptions about the poten- so successful among children, parents, and the tial for procuring quality food.10 catering staff that one year later the Council In Italy, the whole-school approach is tra- decided to extend the reform to another 10 pri- ditionally embedded in the school meal service, mary schools. Today, all primary schools in which is considered an integral part of citizens’ the county are involved in the program.8 right to education and health. As a result, as Central to the process was the adoption of noted earlier, best value there is not at all syn-

72 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Rethinking School Food: The Power of the Public Plate onymous with low cost; in fact, the qualitative tool to teach children the value of solidarity with characteristics of the service and its compati- developing countries).12 bility with the curriculum (specifically, local tra- Like East Ayrshire, Rome understood the ditions) are always taken into account in the importance of creating a new collective cul- tendering process. Not surprisingly, then, - ture of sustainability around school food. ian schools have been sourcing locally for Contracted suppliers have been ensured a decades, often complementing their emphasis constant dialogue with city authorities on local products with a wide range of educa- through the creation of a permanent round tional initiatives for children and their parents table, which aims to foster “a shared willing- that emphasize the values of seasonality and ter- ness of going in a certain direction,” as the ritoriality. Unlike what happens in most other director of one catering company explained. countries, these strategies are supported by At the same time, they have been asked to the national government, which enacted a law introduce food education initiatives among in 1999 that explicitly promotes “the use of service users, who have been given the oppor- organic, typical and traditional products” in tunity to participate in the reform through school and hospital canteens.11 Canteen Commissions. These consist of two When this law was passed, the city of Rome parents who can inspect the school premises was governed by a Green Party administration and provide feedback on children’s reaction that, like many others in Italy, was interested in to the changes being introduced.13 the potential of organic catering in schools. What made the situ- ation in Rome different from other cities was the size. Some 150,000 children who eat at school in Rome consume approximately 150 tons of food per day. To avoid the shock that such massive demand would have created on the organic food market, the city chose a pro- gressive procurement approach. In the beginning, catering com- panies were required to supply only organic fruit and vegeta- bles, but an incentive system was created for them to increase

the range of organic products Peiling Tan for schools. At the same time, Doing a better job? A high school lunch in Grenoble, France. award criteria were designed to stimulate bidders to improve the socio-envi- After years of efforts and continuous ronmental quality of the products and services improvement, Rome is in the of the offered—including, for example, criteria that school food revolution. Today, 67.5 percent of reward initiatives to improve the eating envi- the food served in the city’s schools is organic, ronment for children or to provide products 44 percent comes from “bio-dedicated” food certified as (which are used as a chains that focus exclusively on organic prod-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 73 Rethinking School Food: The Power of the Public Plate STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 ucts, 26 percent is local, 14 percent is certified prisons, government offices, and the like. In the as Fair Trade, and 2 percent comes from social context of climate change and food security, that employ former prisoners or extending the benefits of school food reform that work land confiscated from the Mafia. As to larger, more significant social and spatial the reform process continues to unfold, a new scales is more and more an imperative, not type of quality-based food system is begin- just an option. ning to emerge—and with it new cultural val- Many cities around the world are beginning ues that are educating civil society to the values to move in this direction through the devel- and meanings of sustainability.14 opment of a range of food strategies that are designed to ensure access to healthy food for From School Food to all citizens. As planners and policymakers begin Community Food to redesign the urban foodscape of cities like New York, London, Belo Horizonte, and Dar The examples of Scotland and Italy demon- es Salaam, among others, new challenges con- strate that properly designed and delivered tinue to arise in the realms of infrastructural school food reform can play a crucial role in development, transport, , and citi- creating new forms of “ecological citizenship” ’ education, to name just a few.16 that lead people to think more critically about In this context, one fundamental lesson their interactions with the environment, engage can be learned from school food reform. If practically with collective problems, and assume sufficient political will could be mustered for responsibility for their conduct. In simple a new “ethic of care” that has a global as well terms, school food reform is creating new gen- as a local reach, as has happened in Rome and erations of knowledgeable consumer-citizens.15 East Ayrshire, community food planning Much more could be achieved if the power could play an invaluable role in promoting of purchase were to be harnessed across the human health, social justice, and environ- entire spectrum of the public sector—in hos- mental integration—the hallmarks of sus- pitals, nursing homes, colleges, universities, tainable development.

74 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG What Is Higher Education for Now?

David W. Orr

Education does not occur in a vacuum. It threaten the living systems of the planet, mov- begins with different and often unstated “pre- ing toward massive biotic impoverishment and analytic” cultural assumptions about how, why, potentially catastrophic climate change. It is and what people learn and the kind of aptitudes reasonable to assume that the disordering of and skills necessary to support and pass on a ecological systems and Earth’s biogeochemi- particular kind of society—whether theocratic, cal cycles reflects a prior disorder in thinking democratic, industrial, or what is now being about humanity’s role in ecological systems. If called sustainable. The specific goals of edu- so, ecological problems originate in how peo- cation and the art and science of instruction ple think and so are first and foremost prob- further depend a great deal on whether those lems of education having to do with the being educated are presumed to be empty ves- substance and process of formal schooling and sels to be filled with knowledge or to have higher education. That recognition, in turn, inborn qualities that can be drawn out and dis- requires comprehension of the problem of ciplined. In general, pre-collegiate and colle- education, not just problems in education. giate education in the United States was The ideas on which modern higher education modeled on the former belief: that people are worldwide is founded reflect a world that dis- born ignorant and so must be improved in appeared long ago. order to increase public virtue, support democ- When Locke and Rousseau developed their racy, provide the skills necessary for economic influential views on education in the seven- growth, and more recently serve the informa- teenth and eighteenth centuries, world popu- tion economy and the development of high lation was perhaps 800 million. It is now and ever higher technology. That model has approaching 7 billion. When Thomas Jefferson become dominant virtually everywhere. designed his “academical village,” the fastest It is now generally accepted, however, that mode of transport was a good horse or a frigate the modern project of economic growth and in a strong wind. When John Dewey pub- domination of nature has gone badly awry. lished his treatise on democracy and education The excesses built into the industrial system in 1916, the first aircraft were bi-wing planes

David Orr is the Paul Sears Distinguished Professor of Environmental Studies and Politics at Oberlin College in Ohio.

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Click here to see notes for this section. What Is Higher Education for Now? STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 capable of speeds of 125 miles per hour. gramme, representatives from 66 countries But rapid technological change is now called for the inclusion of environmental edu- reshaping the social, cultural, and ecological cation in national educational programs. landscape everywhere. In short order, humans Among their recommendations were 12 guid- are creating a different planet, arguably a dif- ing principles to make education interdisci- ferent human nature, and a global culture that plinary and a lifelong process that integrated is evolving faster than people can comprehend environmental science and issues across the and adapt to. The challenges of conceiving and entire curriculum.1 building a durable civilization, in other words, The principles from Tbilisi and similar doc- are sweeping. But the dialogue about sustain- uments since then have been clearly stated, ability has been almost exclusively focused on plausible, and well intentioned, but they have how to arrest environmental deterioration—as not led to change commensurate with the if the evolution of machines and prosthetic scale of the problems they addressed. Virtu- devices is unrelated and unproblematic. ally everything about the modern educational Under these circumstances, it is appropri- —from teacher training programs to ate to ask, What is education for? What kind the stranglehold of disciplines and the pro- of education will enable the rising generation cedures for attaining tenure in the modern to deal with increasingly complex and por- academy—conspired to undermine changes or tentous global issues? What do they need to render them marginal. The goals did not fit know and how should they learn it? And what the organizational and professional structures is the role of professional educators and insti- built up over many decades. Plus, the under- tutions of higher learning in equipping the lying assumptions of education in general young to live full and productive lives relevant included the unstated belief that the envi- to the larger topography of their time? What- ronment was both too vast to be significantly ever the specifics, the answer must be the kind affected by human actions and otherwise use- of education that enables students to live sus- ful mostly as a resource to be exploited for tainably, competently, and decently in recog- economic growth. nition of their dependence on the web of life. Still, against considerable resistance, sig- It would be a kind of education that extends nificant progress has been made in the past their sense of obligation and possibility to a far- three decades. But the purposes of environ- ther time horizon. This will require funda- mental education remain deeply controversial, mental changes in the curriculum, changes in reflecting much of the ambiguity inherent in the design and construction of schools and attempts to define sustainability and chart a campuses, and a more expansive view of the plausible course to a more durable, decent, role of educational institutions. and just future. Many unresolved questions remain on overall purposes and specific issues The Development of (see Box 9), but there is no legitimate ques- Environmental Education tion that the human presence in nature is increasingly precarious and that the The idea that education ought to be harnessed is uncomfortably close to the threshold of to advance the related causes of environmen- irreversible changes in Earth systems. Even so, tal sustainability and justice has gathered con- there will be no early consensus on the mean- siderable momentum in recent years. In the ing of loaded and complicated words like Tbilisi Declaration of 1977, organized by “sustainability” or agreement about what UNESCO and the U.N. Environment Pro- schools, colleges, and universities should do

76 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 What Is Higher Education for Now?

Box 9. Unresolved Questions in Environmental Education

• Is it necessary to “love” nature or do people there something inherently wrong with “plas- just have to have a basic ecological compe- tic trees,” which is to say an increasingly con- tency in order to live in harmony with it? trived nature, and if so, exactly what? What is • Will the end of the era of cheap fossil fuels natural and what is not? And what difference, significantly threaten the systems that pro- if any, does that difference make? vide food, energy, and materials and so • What is the purpose of environmental require skills necessary to a greater degree of education of any sort when nature is being local self-reliance? If so, how should practical radically altered by the twin forces of rapid skills be included in the modern curriculum? climate change and the loss of biological and • To what extent does an adequate response to landscape diversity? environmental deterioration require a • Is there any place left for role models like cultural “paradigm shift”? Or can humans be Aldo Leopold, Wangari Maathai, and Rachel “rich, numerous, and in control of the forces Carson? Or might natural capitalists, carbon of nature,” as Herman Kahn once put it, and traders, and entrepreneurs making the big also be sustainable? If so, the curriculum deals and the big money suffice to create a would be mostly more of the same with sustainable future? If so, environmental edu- greater emphasis on science and technology. cation ought to emphasize the management • To what extent is nature still “natural” and of carbon. not an artifact of human manipulation? Is Source: See endnote 2. about it, however it is defined.2 in the 1960s and 1970s with the creation of A wide diversity of environmental education environmental studies programs at Williams programs are found in U.S. colleges and uni- College, Middlebury, and Brown University. In versities, with some stressing environmental sci- the late 1980s Tufts University created the ence and others the social sciences and first university-wide program encouraging fac- humanities. (See Box 10.) Many institutions ulty to include environmental issues in courses now offer a major in environmental studies; across the curriculum. others, only a minor. Some, like College of the In October 1990, Tufts University president Atlantic and Arizona State University, are inte- Jean Mayer convened a meeting of 22 univer- grating environmental issues and systems think- sity presidents and chancellors at Talloires, ing throughout the entire institution. France, that culminated in the Talloires Dec- Institutions such as Carnegie-Mellon Univer- laration. The document included 10 goals, sity have developed imaginative cross-discipli- including leadership to increase awareness of nary programs in engineering and architecture. environmental challenges, fostering environ- Almost everywhere, institutions are engaging mental literacy throughout the campus, and environmental issues on two levels: curriculum changing operations to reduce environmental and campus design and operations.3 impacts. By 2008, some 360 presidents in 40 countries had signed the Declaration.4 Curriculum and Education Even with such promising beginnings, few observers could have imagined the growth of In the United States, the belief that the envi- environmental education on college and uni- ronment ought to be given special priority in versity campuses worldwide in the following the curriculum of higher education came of age decades. Today environmental studies pro-

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Box 10. Maximizing the Value of Professional Schools

To spread cultures of sustainability, the trans- “utmost integrity,” not to make choices that formation of higher education cannot stop “advance my own narrow ambitions but harm at the undergraduate level but will need to the enterprise and the societies it serves,” permeate professional schools as well. The and to “strive to create sustainable economic, good news is that this is starting to happen. social, and environmental prosperity world- More law schools are offering environmental wide.” Within a few months, the oath’s orga- law programs, agricultural schools are teach- nizers at Harvard received inquiries from 25 ing sustainable agricultural techniques, and schools from around the world, and students medical schools are greening their labs—all from some 115 countries had taken the oath. indicators that sustainability is being incor- But this is just the newest twist on a trend porated into a vast array of professional pro- that is nearly a decade old. One group, grams. Business schools may be the ones Net Impact, has been organizing business that are most actively adopting ideas of students “to create positive social and sustainability. environmental change through business” Many business schools have started to since 2002. It has more than 200 chapters on rethink what makes a good business manager. six continents and 15,000 members who are A few have devoted themselves fully to “sus- business (as well as other) students, business tainable management,” such as the Presidio professionals, and academics. And Net School of Management and Bainbridge Grad- Impact has been working toward its goal in uate Institute. Many others have started to several innovative ways. Along with standard incorporate sustainability into their curricula efforts to teach members how to green more broadly. A bi-annual survey by the Aspen their campuses, the organization provides Institute tracks over a hundred business members with tools and guidance on how to schools around the world to measure their encourage school faculty to add sustainability commitment to environmental education and and social responsibility courses to their research. In 2007 the survey found that 63 schools’ curricula. Net Impact also helps percent of business schools required students members use their business training to make to take a course on business and society, up community organizations more effective—a from 34 percent in 2001. And since 2005, valuable benefit, as these groups tend to lack elective courses on social and environmental business-trained staff members. issues have increased by 20 percent. Between student-led and institutional Business students are taking on social and efforts, business schools may help develop a environmental issues outside of the class- whole new meaning of the role of business, as room as well. In 2009, more than half of the well as a new generation of sustainable busi- graduating class at the Harvard Business ness managers. School took the equivalent of a doctor’s Hip- —Erik Assadourian pocratic Oath. Students vowed to act with the Source: See endnote 3. grams exist in one form or another on perhaps achusetts Institute of Technology, the Swiss half of U.S. campuses and are increasingly Federal Institute of Technology, and the Uni- prominent in universities worldwide. versity of Tokyo that annually brings hun- Chalmers University (in Gothenburg, Swe- dreds of scientists together to discuss den) has created a partnership with the Mass- environmental issues. Individual campuses

78 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 What Is Higher Education for Now? such as the Technical University of Catalonia nings of such efforts are found in April (Spain), TERI University (India), and Kyoto Smith’s Masters thesis at UCLA in 1988, “In University have developed imaginative and Our Backyard,” and the Meadowcreek Pro- diverse environmental curriculum. UNESCO ject’s early study of campus food systems at sponsors chairs in sustainable development Hendrix, Carleton, and St. Olaf colleges in at 45 universities in 27 countries as well as 1988–89.8 conferences on “Higher Education for Sus- By the mid-1990s the first studies of cam- tainability.” The success of the International pus ecology had grown into larger studies of Journal of Sustainability in Higher Educa- campus resource flows of food, energy, mate- tion reflects a growing maturity and self- rials, water, and waste in which the campus reflection in the field.5 became a laboratory for education and also the But one study shows that there is no “com- foundation for better campus management. mon path” toward change. Rather, educa- The National Wildlife Federation’s campus tion for sustainability is flourishing because of ecology program, ably led by Julian Keniry, many factors, including committed faculty, brought increased awareness of environmen- imaginative leadership, student activism, tal issues to campuses and developed materi- response to specific opportunities, and larger als useful for improving efficiency and societal changes.6 integrating campus management with cur- Despite great progress in environmental riculum. Walter Simpson created and directed education, there is good evidence that it is the first successful university-wide energy effi- clearly an inadequate counterweight to the ciency program at the State University of New conventional curriculum and an inadequate York–Buffalo. Others, like Will Toor at the response to the mounting environmental cri- University of Colorado, created effective cam- sis. The National Wildlife Federation, for pus-wide recycling and low-impact trans- example, concluded in its Campus Environ- portation programs. The emergence of ment Report: 2008 that between 2001 and organizations such as the North American 2008 “the amount of sustainability-related Association for Environmental Education and education [in the U.S.] did not increase and the American Association for Sustainability in may even have declined.” That conclusion is Higher Education (AASHE) amplified and supported by global poll data that consis- coordinated otherwise disparate campus ecol- tently show a majority of the public—includ- ogy efforts.9 ing college graduates—to be uninformed, In the late 1990s, two factors significantly sometimes misinformed, and otherwise con- focused attention on what Keniry had called fused about the fundamentals of ecology and the campus ecology movement and the design science in general.7 of the campus. The first was the rapid growth of the green building movement in the United Campus Design and Operations States, the United Kingdom, Europe, and Asia. The result has been an effort to reduce Alongside efforts to increase ecological aware- the environmental impacts of new construction ness and literacy are others aimed to change on college and university campuses. Dramatic the “design” of campuses by improving improvements in energy and materials tech- energy efficiency, lowering carbon emissions, nology and the practice of the integrated design reducing waste, recycling, and building the necessary to build low-impact, high-perfor- high-performance buildings that have become mance buildings created large opportunities to mainstream virtually everywhere. The begin- incorporate environmental goals into campus

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 79 What Is Higher Education for Now? STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 buildings while lowering costs for operations Future Initiatives and maintenance. The first substantially green building on a U.S. college campus was the Despite considerable progress since the Tbil- Adam Joseph Lewis Center at Oberlin College, isi Conference in 1977, there is a great deal constructed in the late 1990s, which is still the more to be done to create the permanent insti- only entirely solar-powered, zero-discharge tutional and cultural wherewithal to educate building on a U.S. college campus. Other and people around the world about systems and larger, more complex buildings, including sci- ecology and equip them with the capacity to ence facilities, followed on hundreds of other think across the lines of professional and dis- campuses, so that green building criteria have ciplinary specializations. But promising efforts become standard for new academic construc- are under way. (See Box 11.)13 tion worldwide.10 Beyond institutions of higher education, The second driver in the green campus many diverse organizations—from Schumacher movement has been increasing concern about College in Devon in the United Kingdom to rapid climate change. The four assessment the Center for Eco-Literacy in Berkeley, Cal- reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on ifornia—offer teacher training, expertise in Climate Change (in 1991, 1995, 2001, and curricular reform, and forums for rethinking 2007) and a large and growing body of scien- core assumptions underlying education and tific evidence has established beyond legiti- the broader culture. Formerly U.S.-centric mate dispute that climate is changing and that organizations like the are becoming humans are the culprits. It is now clear that the important nodes in the global conversation speed, scale, and duration of climatic change about the intersection of ecology, education, are at or beyond the worst-case scenarios of and justice. The authors and organizers of the even a few years ago.11 are similarly creating a transna- The first call for carbon-neutral campuses tional dialogue about education rooted in appeared in the Chronicle of Higher Education , philosophy, and ecology. in 2000. But the effort to organize both pro- There are signs of a larger shift in the role fessional organizations and academic leadership of institutions of higher education in the tran- began in earnest with the efforts of 12 college sition to sustainable economies as well. The and university presidents, in collaboration with Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona has devel- Second Nature, AASHE, and ecoAmerica, to oped collaboration with the Barcelona City get other presidents and professional academic Council to enhance the sustainability of pub- societies to publicly commit to move their lic events. On a larger scale, Judith Rodin, as institutions toward . More president of the University of Pennsylvania than 600 college and university presidents to from 1994 to 2004, led an imaginative and date have signed the pledge. The results could sweeping transformation of West Philadel- be both the reduction of a significant fraction phia using institutional investment to lever- of U.S. carbon emissions and a sterling exam- age several billions of dollars of outside funds. ple of leadership for other sectors. Architect The efforts reversed urban decline in dozens Edward Mazria calculates, however, that the of blocks surrounding the university and offer addition of only four new medium-sized coal a brilliant example of not only urban renewal plants anywhere in the world would eliminate but leadership in higher education. Joined the gains even if all U.S. institutions of higher to the campus ecology movement, colleges education were to eliminate their carbon diox- and universities everywhere might become ide emissions entirely.12 catalysts for prosperous post-fossil-fuel

80 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 What Is Higher Education for Now?

Box 11. A New Focus for Scientists: How Cultures Change

It seems clear that unequivocal knowledge of destructive behavior such as climate change civilization’s biophysical peril alone is insuffi- and biodiversity loss, debating its ethical cient to spark the changes required to avoid dimensions, and investigating how cultural evo- its collapse. We also need a greater under- lution can be steered toward creating a sustain- standing of how cultures change, which able world society. That is the direction almost underlines the desperate need for global soci- all human beings presumably desire—a chance ety to focus its attention on the need for a cul- for their children and grandchildren to lead tural revolution. Providing that focus is the lives as rewarding as or better than their own. goal of a Millennium Assessment of Human The organizers’ basic goal is to find ways Behavior (MAHB) that is in the early stages to reframe people’s definitions of and solu- of development. tions to sustainability problems and to pro- In light of the success of the Intergovern- mote a global discussion about what human mental Panel on Climate Change, a small goals should be. The MAHB will invite people group of natural and social scientists and from literature and the arts to develop narra- humanists is working on starting the MAHB. tives and visual materials as signposts to It is currently being organized by the Global guide civilization toward sustainability. People Sustainability Alliance, with member groups in need visions of futures that do not include the United States, Norway, Sweden, Ghana, perpetual growth of consumption or human and China. It will ideally be launched with numbers, the idea that having gadgets is the a global conference involving scholars, ultimate goal of human life, or the notion that politicians, and a broad spectrum of stake- gross domestic product is the best measure of holders. This would be followed by work- human well-being. shops, regional conferences, worldwide policy One of the MAHB’s early tasks will be to debates, and research activities. secure governmental buy-in and enlist the Major roles of the MAHB will include gener- support of key decisionmakers in industry, ating public discussion on the causes of self- academia, the media, religious communities,

regional economies while equipping students into the curriculum at all levels. The second with the analytical skills, knowledge, and goal involves creating a model of GNH in inspiration to design and build a decent, fair, central Bhutan where civil servants and teach- and sustainable world.14 ers alike can “take long and short courses that The government of Bhutan offers perhaps renew their commitment to environmental the most far-reaching example of national lead- protection, sustainable economic development, ership in education. Having replaced the yard- and responsible and accountable leadership.” stick of “gross national product” with one The goal is to create a self-perpetuating system that measures “gross national happiness” that joins individual psychology with larger (GNH) in 1972, the government is now spon- ecological and cultural systems.15 soring an effort to educate its citizenry for Institutions of higher education—indeed, all happiness, sustainability, justice, and peace. schools—must aim to create an ecologically lit- Led by Prime Minister Lyonchen Jigmi, the erate and ecologically competent citizenry, first goal is to integrate GNH principles such one that knows how Earth works as a physical as the interdependence of humans and nature system and why that knowledge is vitally

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Box 11. continued

foundations, and so on. It must mobilize differences in attitudes toward the environ- appropriate stakeholders to participate in ment and sustainability, and to embed the the discussion and help accelerate needed human narrative in a deeper understanding changes in cultural practices and institutional of humankind’s relationship to nature. The structures. Indeed, the task of assembling behavioral observatory would include an inter- such support is at the core of the overall chal- active portal sharing up-to-date information lenge and will determine whether the infant about particular environmental problems, MAHB (see mahb.stanford.edu) survives to human factors relating to these problems, tackle its global task. and frameworks to deal with them. The MAHB envisions establishing an Once established, the MAHB could be a “observatory” on humankind’s collective powerful new tool to mobilize people who behavior. It would gather evidence on dimen- have devoted their careers to studying behav- sions of cultural change from existing docu- ioral change to help solve the largest threat ments and databases as well as from a variety humanity has ever faced: unsustainable prac- of global stakeholders. The observatory would tices undermining the very systems people explore the role of values in well-being to depend on. Natural scientists have already determine what institutional and cultural shown the way toward a sustainable future by barriers stand between declared values and elucidating the problems and outlining many actual practices. It would examine the factors solutions. Now it is time to figure out how to that drive human happiness and fulfillment frame these in ways that will motivate people across cultures and their implications for eco- to respond—a job well-suited to the MAHB, logical sustainability. It will use modern com- whose public outreach and debate functions munications systems to assess how diverse could play a major role in generating the societies measure success and happiness, to changes needed. depict the links between global environmental —Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne H. Ehrlich risks and lifestyle choices, to explore cultural Source: See endnote 13.

important to them personally and to the larger convert the anxiety that often accompanies human prospect. There are many challenges to increased awareness of danger to positive actually making this a reality, not the least of energy that can generate constructive changes. which is the very real possibility of growing Environmental education must be an exercise despair and nihilism among young people in in applied hope that equips young people with the face of what will likely be a time of increas- the skills, aptitudes, analytic wherewithal, cre- ingly dire news and seemingly unsolvable social ativity, and stamina to dream, act, and lead and economic problems. heroically. To be effective on a significant scale, The scientific evidence suggests that the however, the creative energies of the rising years ahead will test coming generations in generation must be joined with strong and extraordinary ways. Educators are obliged to bold institutional leadership to catalyze a future tell the truth about such things but then to better than the one in prospect.

82 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Business and Economy: Management Priorities

usiness is not just a central com- people work excessive hours earning more ponent of the global economy, it is money and converting that income into a leading driver of societies, cul- increased consumption—even as others search BB tures, and even the human imagi- for work. Dividing work hours in a better way nation. And while today business is primarily will not only address unemployment and pro- shaping a cultural vision centered on con- vide more people with the means for a basic sumerism, this vision could as readily be cen- standard of living, it will free up time to enjoy tered on sustainability—given new life outside of the workplace. And it will reduce management priorities. the amount of discretionary income people Priority number one will be to gain a better have, which at the moment encourages them understanding of what the economy is for and to consume more than necessary. whether perpetual growth is possible or even Another priority will be to reassess the role desirable. As environmentalist and entrepre- of corporations. Consider their vast power and neur Paul Hawken explains, “At present we are reach: in 2006, the largest 100 transnational stealing the future, selling it in the present, corporations employed 15.4 million people and calling it gross domestic product. We can and had sales of $7 trillion—the equivalent of just as easily have an economy that is based on 15 percent of the gross world product. A sus- healing the future instead of stealing it.”1 tainable economic system will depend on con- In this section, Robert Costanza, Joshua vincing corporations, through an array of Farley, and Ida Kubiszewski of the Gund Insti- strategies, that conducting business sustain- tute for Ecological Economics first describe ably is their primary fiduciary responsibility.2 how redirecting the global economy is possible Ray Anderson of Interface, Inc., Mona through a variety of means such as creating Amodeo of idgroup, and Jim Hartzfeld of new sustainable economic metrics, expanding InterfaceRAISE note that some corporations the sector, and mobilizing leading have already figured out the importance of a economic and governmental institutions. thriving Earth to their business and are work- Another key economic shift will be the bet- ing to put sustainability at the heart of their ter distribution of work and working hours corporate cultures. Understanding how to among the global workforce, as Juliet Schor of shift business cultures and finding the resolve Boston College describes. Right now, many to do so will be an essential step in creating a

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Click here to see notes for this section. Business and Economy: Management Priorities STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

sustainable economic model. scenarios—provide a layer of resilience to global Beyond the corporate system, there are disruptions by being rooted locally. Moreover, opportunities to completely reinvent the pur- the rise of social enterprises and local busi- pose and design of business, also a key prior- nesses should provide additional pressure to ity. Johanna Mair and Kate Ganly of IESE stimulate change within corporate cultures. Business School describe social enterprises that Throughout the section, Boxes describe are turning the mission of business upside other innovations, such as down. Business does not have to be only or redesigning manufacturing to be “cradle to even primarily about profit, but profit can pro- cradle,” a new corporate charter that inte- vide a means to finance a broader social mission. grates social responsibility directly into the Social enterprises worldwide are addressing legal code, and a carbon index for the finan- pressing social problems, from poverty to eco- cial market. There is also a Box that examines logical decline, and are doing so profitably. the absurdity of the concept of infinite eco- Local businesses are also starting to crop nomic growth. up, like pioneer species in disturbed ecosys- Business is a powerful institution that will tems. As most corporations fail to respond to play a central role in our future—whether that increasing concern for social and environmen- future is an era of sustainability or an age of tal injustices, people are creating local alterna- reacting to accelerating ecological decline. tives—from grocery stores and restaurants to With a combination of reform of current inter- farms and renewable energy utilities. Michael ests and the growth of new socially oriented Shuman of the Business Alliance for Living business models, the global economy can help Local Economies notes that these local enter- avert catastrophe and instead usher in a sus- prises can have improved environmental per- tainable . formance, treat workers better, provide healthier —Erik Assadourian and more diverse products, and—in worst-case

84 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Adapting Institutions for Life in a Full World

Robert Costanza, Joshua Farley, and Ida Kubiszewski

Today’s dominant worldviews and institutions empty-world vision are legion. The 1872 Min- emerged during the early Industrial Revolu- ing Act in the United States, for example, was tion, when the world was still relatively empty designed to promote minerals mining and eco- of humans and their built infrastructure. Nat- nomic growth. It did this by essentially giving ural resources were abundant, social settle- away the right to mine on public lands while ments were more sparse, and the main limit on collecting no royalties and requiring no envi- improving human well-being was inadequate ronmental protection. The act is still in force, access to infrastructure and consumer goods.1 even though conditions have changed dra- Current ideas about what is desirable and matically. The consequence has been massive what is possible were forged in this empty- environmental destruction and a giveaway of world context. “Cheap” fossil fuels have pro- public wealth to private interests.3 vided the abundant energy necessary for Today’s prevailing worldviews, institutions, economic growth and helped societies over- and technologies are failing to meet humanity’s come numerous resource constraints. Fertiliz- needs in a rapidly changing world. Climate ers, pesticides, and mechanized agriculture change, declining oil supplies, biodiversity loss, have allowed humanity to stave off Thomas rising food prices, disease pandemics, ozone Malthus’s predictions of population collapse. As depletion, pollution, and the loss of life-sus- a result, the world has changed dramatically taining ecosystem services all pose serious over the past two centuries. It is now a “full” threats to humanity. Yet most of these threats world, where increasingly complex technologies were not even imagined when today’s world- and institutions, mounting resource constraints, views, institutions, and laws were being formed. and a decreasing energy return on investment All these crises can be traced back to one have made human society more brittle—and overarching problem: we have failed to adapt hence more susceptible to collapse.2 our current socioecological regime from an Laws and policies that incorporate the empty world to a full world.

Robert Costanza and Ida Kubiszewski are with the Gund Institute for Ecological Economics and the Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources at the University of Vermont. Joshua Farley is also with the Gund Institute and with the Department of Community Development and Applied Eco- nomics at the University of Vermont.

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development of renewable energy sources is a priority, no currently feasible energy alternative can sustain today’s rate of resource-intensive global economic growth. The second reason why the current regime no longer serves humanity in a full-world con- text is that unlimited increases in resource and energy use do not continue to increase well- being. Unlimited conventional economic growth (that is, growth in the gross domestic product (GDP)) is not only impossible, it is undesirable. GDP measures marketed income, not welfare. What is really needed is to provide satisfying lives with less economic activity, raw materials, energy, and work required. When GDP rises faster than life satisfaction, this effi- ciency declines. The genuine progress indicator (GPI) is one alternative measure of welfare designed to adjust for the inadequacies of GDP, subtract-

Brian Burger ing factors such as the costs of crime and pol- Landscape consumption in British Columbia, lution, and adding factors such as the value of Canada: logging roads, clearcuts, and slash piles. household and volunteer work. In the United States, GPI neared its per capita peak in 1975, Under Stress in an at a time when per capita GDP was about half Increasingly Full World what it is today. (See Figure 3.)5 Subjective measures of well-being, such as There are three fundamental reasons why the the share of people who consider themselves current regime no longer serves humanity in a “very happy,” have also not increased since full-world context. The first is that unlimited 1975. Empirical evidence suggests that a increases in resource and energy use are phys- return to 1970s per capita consumption lev- ically impossible on a finite planet. (See Box 12.) els would not make people worse off but All economic production requires the trans- would instead lower resource depletion, energy formation of raw materials and energy, making use, and ecological impacts by half. People these inputs less available to serve as the struc- would actually be better off because they tural building blocks of the ecosystems that would have more time and resources to invest provide life-support services for all species. The in public, non-consumption goods produced global climate crisis is just one example of an by natural and social capital.6 ecosystem service—climate regulation—that is The final reason why the current regime no being consumed at an unsustainable rate.4 longer serves humanity in a full-world context The use of fossil fuels not only depletes a is that today’s institutions are designed to nonrenewable resource, it also creates waste maximize energy and resource use and are emissions that further degrade ecosystem func- poorly adapted to the needs of a full world. tion. But even advances in energy technology Market institutions, for example, enhance eco- cannot create energy out of nothing. While the nomic growth, but they deal well only with pri-

86 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Adapting Institutions for Life in a Full World

Box 12. The Folly of Infinite Growth on a Finite Planet

Although the climate challenge is receiving a national product (GNP) be considered a mea- lot of attention these days, the global temper- sure of gross national cost and that people ature increase is but a symptom. The planet should devote themselves to its minimization. has a fever, and it is essential to identify the And it has become increasingly clear that GNP disease in order to prescribe the right medica- does not couple well with actual well-being, as tion. Could the real disease be expanding can be seen in measures like the Genuine Pro- levels of consumption, growing national gress Indicator and others. The need for a fun- economies, and ballooning populations? damental rethinking of modern economics is Nearly 40 years ago, Jay Forrester warned perhaps most eloquently put by Paul Hawken, of the challenge of exponential growth and its Amory Lovins, and Hunter Lovins in their implications for a finite planet. This challenge book Natural Capitalism. can be illustrated by a biological experiment: Yet instead of becoming outmoded, the If the conditions are right, bacteria will double perpetual growth model is now spreading in number every day, filling the surface of a worldwide. From 1958 to 2008 the number of container by the fiftieth day. But the surface cars increased from 86 million to 620 million. will only be half covered on the forty-ninth Air passengers skyrocketed from 68 million in day. Humanity may already be on its forty- 1955 to 2 billion in 2005. The ecological effects ninth day and—like a bacteria colony—may of these trends are catastrophic. completely consume its home if it does not The challenge in terms of our fixation on somehow change course. growth is how to get started on a new course. The ecological capacity of Earth is not Obviously nobody can expect the Chinese expanding, while humanity’s footprint is. or the Indians to take the initiative on non- Global ecological capacity was used up more growth thinking. At the moment, it looks than 20 years ago. Thus industrial economies, rather unlikely that any major industrial coun- to free up resources for Earth to function and try will lead the way. But maybe a rich, well- allow developing countries to meet their pop- educated country could—a country like ulations’ needs, need to contract significantly. Norway or Sweden. With a small population Many economists believe the opposite, and ample resources, perhaps Scandinavia however: that the world economy must could lead the way and demonstrate the feas- continue to grow and that a simple, low- ibility of a vision of what the good life in a consumption life is a threat to the prevailing steady state economy would look like: less economic model. Yet John Stuart Mill, the hours worked, less stuff, less stress, more founding father of modern capitalism, would time with family and friends, more time for not support that view. He realized that indus- civic engagement, more leisure. trial society, by its very nature, could not It will not be easy, but it is necessary. It last for long and that the stable society that will require a new consumption culture, a new must replace it would be a far better place. technology culture, and a new intellectual cul- “I cannot regard,” wrote Mill in 1857, “the ture—all based on ecological intelligence. In stationary state of capital and wealth with the fact, it will demand a fundamental reordering unaffected aversion so generally manifested of global priorities. towards it by politicians of the old school.” —Øystein Dahle Economist Kenneth Boulding went even Chairman, Worldwatch Norden one step further by claiming that gross Source: See endnote 4.

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Figure 3. U.S. Gross Domestic Product versus privatize it. Continuous mater- Genuine Progress Indicator, 1950–2004 ial economic growth in wealth- ier countries is a major cause of 40 this biophysical crisis.8 Source: Redefining Progress Global climatic stability and 35 ecological resilience are global public goods that require coop- 30 erative global solutions, whereas 25 Per Capita GDP fossil fuels are market goods that promote competition and 20 resource struggles. The transi- tion to sustainability demands 15 Per Capita GPI new energy sources that are 10 “non-rival,” such as energy from the sun and wind. (For 5 example, U.S. development of Thousand U.S. Dollars (2000 Dollars) 0 cheap and efficient solar power 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 will not limit China’s use of this resource; moreover, China would likely improve the tech- vate goods and services. They often provide nology, thus conferring benefits to other users.) these at the expense of public goods and ser- Unfortunately, international trade institutions vices—such as education, infrastructure, pub- such as the World Trade Organization give lic health, and ecosystem services—that would priority to private, market goods and services most significantly improve quality of life in at the expense of public goods. Countries that today’s full-world context. A 1997 study val- cannot afford renewable energy technologies ued worldwide ecosystem services at approx- will continue to burn coal, preventing the new imately $33 trillion, more than the value of the technologies from helping to address climate gross world product at that time.7 change. Open access to information about Many governments have long-standing poli- renewable energy technologies is needed to cies that promote growth in market goods at solve this problem. the expense of non-market, public goods that are generated by healthy ecosystems. These Toward a New Sustainable policies include the more than $2 trillion in and Desirable Regime annual subsidies for market activities and exter- nalities that degrade the environment; the pri- Regime shifts can be driven by collapse or vatization or reduced protection of common through conscious and integrated changes in (shared) resources, such as forests and fisheries; worldviews, institutions, and technologies. and inadequate regulation and enforcement of New goals, rules, and tools can be developed. existing regulations against environmental These changes provide the opportunity to externalities. Perhaps the most serious envi- move away from unsustainable practices and to ronmental externality facing the world today avoid social, economic, and ecological col- is climate change. To solve this “mother of all lapse. This section looks at five ideas to stim- market failures,” the world needs to deal with ulate and seed this transition. the atmosphere as a global common asset, not Redefine well-being metrics. In today’s

88 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Adapting Institutions for Life in a Full World full-world context, the goal of an economy efits, which will benefit those who rely more should be to sustainably improve human well- fully on these payments.10 being and quality of life. Material consump- Reduce complexity and increase resilience. tion and GDP are merely means to that end, History offers lessons about the collapse of not ends in themselves. Both ancient wis- societies as well as examples of successful adap- dom and new psychological research confirm tation. While environmental factors often con- that material consumption beyond real need tributed to societal declines, it was cultural can actually reduce overall well-being by cre- and institutional resiliency and adaptability ating an unending and unsatisfying drive for that most influenced a society’s chances of more stuff. survival. Resilience depends on cultural values Such a reorientation leads to specific tasks. as well as the ability of political, economic, For a start, efforts should be made to identify and social institutions to respond.11 what actually contributes to human well-being Many societies have collapsed due to insuf- and include the substantial contributions of ficient resources to sustain their complex struc- natural and social capital, both of which are tures. The Western Roman Empire, for under increasing stress. It is important to dis- example, was a thriving, highly complex sys- tinguish between real poverty (in terms of low tem as long as increasing resources were avail- quality of life) and merely low monetary able through conquests. But when the limits income. Ultimately, it is necessary to identify of conquest were reached, the empire began what the economy actually is and what it is for, to tax farmers heavily in an attempt to retain and to establish a new model of development the resource influx, eroding the system’s abil- that acknowledges today’s full-world context. ity to absorb shocks and making it vulnerable Many efforts are under way to develop better to barbarian invasions and other pressures. well-being measures, including the GPI, but a Maintaining resilience in a full world means global effort is needed to build consensus that shifting the emphasis away from growth and will allow these alternative measures to gain expansion and toward sufficiency and sus- broad acceptance and credibility.9 tainable prosperity.12 Ensure the well-being of populations dur- Expand the “commons sector.” During the ing the transition. It will be important that any transition to a new regime, it is important to reductions in economic output and con- greatly expand the “commons sector” of the sumption that accompany the shift to a new economy, the sector responsible for managing regime fall on those who will be hurt the existing common assets and creating new ones. least—that is, the wealthy. Presently, the U.S. Some assets, such as resources created by nature tax code taxes the third wealthiest man in the or by society as a whole, should be held in world, Warren Buffett, at 17.7 percent, while common because this is more just. Other assets, his receptionist is taxed at the average rate of such as information or ecosystem structures 30 percent. Appropriate monetary policies can (for example, forests), should be held in com- enhance employment, moderate the gap in mon because this is more efficient. Still other income, restore the natural environment, and assets, such as essential common-pool resources invest more in public goods while overall con- and public goods, should be held in common sumption decreases. For example, ecological because this is more sustainable. tax reform could be implemented that would One option for expanding and managing change consumption patterns and tax the the commons sector is to create “common wealthy more because they pollute more, while asset trusts” at various scales. Trusts, such as reducing taxes on social security or other ben- the Alaska Permanent Fund and regional land

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 89 Adapting Institutions for Life in a Full World STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 trusts, can propertize the commons without controlled by small groups or corporations privatizing them. At a larger scale, a proposed are now shaped by the entire population. Tele- Earth Atmospheric Trust could help to mas- vision news networks, sitcoms, and Holly- sively reduce global carbon emissions while wood productions are being replaced by also reducing poverty. This system would com- e-mail, Wikipedia, YouTube, and millions of prise a global cap-and-trade system for all blogs and forums—all created by the same greenhouse gas emissions (preferable to a tax, millions of people who are the audience for the because it would set the quantity and allow content. price to vary); the auctioning of all emission The 2008 U.S. presidential election marked permits before allowing trading among permit the first election year where more than half of holders (to send the right price signals to emit- the nation’s adult population became involved ters); and a reduction of the cap over time to in the political process by using the Internet as stabilize atmospheric greenhouse gas concen- a source of news and information. Rather than trations at a level equivalent to 350 parts per simply receiving uni-directional news, approx- million of carbon dioxide.13 imately one fifth of the people using the Inter- The revenues resulting from these efforts net used Web sites, blogs, social networking would be deposited into the Earth Atmos- sites, and other forums to discuss, comment, pheric Trust, administered transparently by and question issues related to the election.14 trustees who serve long terms and have a clear mandate to protect Earth’s climate system and Conclusion atmosphere for the benefit of current and future generations. A designated fraction of the Changes in worldviews, institutions, and tech- revenues derived from auctioning the permits nologies will be necessary to achieve lifestyles could then be returned to people throughout that are better adapted to today’s full-world the world in the form of a per capita payment. context. To a certain extent, people can design The remainder of the revenues could be used the future they want by creating a new vision to enhance and restore the atmosphere, invest and new goals. If societal goals shift from max- in social and technological innovations, assist imizing growth of the market economy to developing countries, and administer the Trust. maximizing sustainable human well-being, dif- Use the Internet to remove communication ferent institutions will better serve these goals. barriers and improve democracy. Unlike with It is important to recognize, however, that a television and other broadcast media, very transition will occur in any case and that it low technological and financial barriers exist will almost certainly be driven by crises. to establishing a presence on the Internet. Whether these crises lead to decline or collapse This has the effect of decentralizing the pro- followed by ultimate rebuilding or to a rela- duction and distribution of information by tively smooth transition to a sustainable and returning control to the audience, providing desirable future depends on people’s ability a venue for dialogue instead of monologue. to anticipate the required changes and to Opinions and services that were previously develop new cultures and new institutions.

90 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Sustainable Work Schedules for All

Juliet Schor

Discussions of ecological sustainability typi- The Connection Between cally focus on greenhouse gas emissions, bio- Productivity, Hours, and diversity, and other measurements of the natural world. They may include economic Ecological Footprint and social trends in production or population. Productivity growth is at the core of contem- But they rarely feature time use. Yet patterns porary market economies. When productivity of human time use are key drivers of ecologi- increases, it is possible to produce a larger cal outcomes. People combine time, money, quantity of goods and services, or output, and natural resources to carry out their daily with a given level of resources. Productivity can lives and activities. Firms combine time, phys- be measured in terms of natural resources such ical capital, and natural capital to create pro- as land—how much crop yield is possible from duction. To a great extent, time and natural a given acreage—as well as labor—how many resources are substitutes for each other: doing automobiles or garments or computers a things faster usually takes a greater toll on worker can produce in any given unit of time. Earth. So time-stressed households and soci- When those measures rise (after taking due eties tend to have heavier ecological footprints account of changes in natural “capital” or nat- and greater per capita energy use. ural resource stocks), productivity has grown. In the transition to sustainable cultures and Growth in labor productivity creates a economies, people are going to have to adapt tremendous benefit. It becomes possible to to new schedules and temporal rhythms. The produce a given level of goods and services in culture of long working hours and excessive a shorter period of time, thereby giving work- busy-ness that characterizes a number of wealthy ers more free time away from the job, or to countries will need to be replaced by more sus- produce more goods and services by keeping tainable patterns of time use. While there will working hours constant. How a society man- be adjustment costs, a slower and more humane ages that “choice,” which all economies with pace of life brings social benefits to family, com- productivity growth have, is crucial to achiev- munity, and individual well-being. ing sustainability. If “too much” productivity

Juliet Schor is a professor of at Boston College and the author of Plenitude: The New Economics of True Wealth.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Sustainable Work Schedules for All STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

growth goes into additional production, the recession, the figure had risen to 63 percent.1 eco-impact is too high. What constitutes “too This experience is in stark contrast to ear- much” varies over time, however, and partly lier U.S. history. In the nineteenth century, depends on trends in technological impact hours were grueling, and it is estimated that and population. From the standpoint of climate people worked about 3,000 hours per year— change, for example, it is clear that the world a 60-hour workweek. Beginning in 1870, total has gone beyond what the planet can tolerate. hours began to fall, and they continued to fall In the United States, it looks like “too for decades as a significant portion of pro- much” productivity growth has been chan- ductivity growth was used to create leisure neled into additional production. Since the time. By 1929, before the Great Depression, early 1970s, labor productivity has roughly work hours had been reduced by more than doubled. At that time, Americans worked on 600, to 2,342. By the 1970s, at least another average about 1,700 hours a year. (That works 400 hours had been taken off. That 1,000- out to a 32-hour workweek, as it includes part- hour total is the equivalent of half a job, assum- timers and full-timers; full-time schedules were ing a 40-hour workweek and a 50-week work closer to the 40-hour norm.) Had Americans year. But for a number of reasons—having opted to put all the bounty of productivity partly to do with the cost structures facing growth into shorter hours, the average work firms as well as the absence of union pressure year today would only be 850 hours, or just over to reduce hours—the trend of reduced work 20 hours per week. Instead, the hours worked hours stalled in the United States in the 1970s.2 actually rose, and by 2006 the average sched- In contrast, West Europeans have com- ule topped 1,880 hours a year. In addition, monly chosen to use productivity growth to more people are in paid employment, as the reduce hours of work, with the result that United States is increasingly work and market- average annual hours of work are much lower. centered. In 1970, just 57.4 percent of the Short schedules do not entail austerity: these population was employed. In 2007, before the are wealthy societies with plenty of material comforts. In case these differences seem deeply cultural or Figure 4. Annual Hours of Work in Selected Countries, 2007 unbridgeable, it is worth remembering that 50 years ago 1750 Source: Conference Board the United States had much shorter working hours than Europe. Today many Europeans 1625 get six-week vacations, addi- tional holidays, and daily work schedules that give them plenty 1500 of time for family life, leisure activities, and community par- ticipation. (See Figure 4.) Hours Per Year Shorter hours are also more 1375 common in other parts of the world.3 This lifestyle is far easier on 1250 Germany Netherlands France Italy Sweden the planet. Studies of the rela- tionship between working hours

92 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Sustainable Work Schedules for All and ecological footprint find that as hours rise, efit than people expect. A growing mountain so does the environmental impact. This rela- of research shows that more income has a tionship has shown up at the household level, huge beneficial effect on people in poverty. But where people who downshift their hours are once a middle-class income is attained, the found to have lower ecological footprints. It is additional well-being available from increased also true across nations. Countries with shorter income is surprisingly limited.6 average working hours have smaller footprints, even controlling for income and other factors.4 This is true for several reasons. Most important, long hours typically occur when productivity growth is being channeled into production and con- sumption, which means more environ- mental degradation. A second effect is the energy usage associated with com- muting. A third is that people who are “time-poor” (that is, they work long hours) tend to make lifestyle choices that are more resource-intensive. Their travel is more carbon-intensive. They eat out more often. In one study, they were found to have larger houses, which in turn used more energy. Time stress also limits engagement in low-impact, time- Library of Congress consuming activities, such as vegetable A lantern slide of the original Ford Motor Company assembly or Do-It-Yourself projects. A line in Detroit, Michigan. study by the Center for Economic and Policy Research found that if the United States The View from Business were to shift to West European patterns of time use, energy use there could decline by 20 Reductions in working hours may be better for percent even without changes in technology.5 people and the planet, but can businesses thrive There are also human benefits to working in an environment of schedule shortening? less. Long hours of work are stressful, under- The historical record suggests yes. The United mine family functioning and social connec- States and Western Europe have both gone tions, and cause physical and emotional through long periods when hours of work illnesses. Overworked employees are more were in decline and economic performance likely to be depressed, more likely to experience and profits were robust. Starting in 1870, a stress, and less likely to take care of them- good portion of productivity growth went to selves. Excessive work hours also reduce sleep, giving people more leisure time, as the gruel- which in turn erodes health. People who work ing schedules of the Industrial Revolution gave too much are unable to engage in other activ- way to pressures from the 10- and 8-hour ities, primarily social ones, that improve their workday movements, the establishment of well-being. And finally, the additional money Sunday and then Saturday as a day of rest, earned by working more hours yields less ben- and the emergence of the modern vacation. Far

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from undermining economic performance, health care system, or even if businesses pro- shorter hours were an integral part of creating rated medical and other benefits and govern- strong and profitable economies with healthy ment helped finance the remainder, shorter middle classes.7 hours would be much more cost-effective.

The Road to “Time Affluence”

So if reducing work time is better for the planet, and better for people, shouldn’t soci- ety be moving in that direction? Millions of people have already come to that conclusion. For more than a decade, a significant fraction of the American population has been making voluntary lifestyle changes that give them more time off the job. They are shifting to part- time, opting out of paid employment alto- gether, or changing to positions with less demanding schedules. This “” trend has helped to ease the extreme stress that characterized U.S. culture in the 1990s and is part of the reason that the escalation of annual hours slowed after its rapid increase in

Robert Scoble the 1980s and early 1990s. A subset within the A Seagate hard drive factory in Wuxi, China. downshifting group has taken the lifestyle change farther—embracing voluntary sim- A second vantage point is competitiveness, plicity, a way of living that requires little income and here the issue is not how many hours each and is therefore usually associated with short individual person spends on the job but how hours of paid work.9 productively those hours are worked and how Downshifters report high levels of satisfac- they are compensated. If shorter hours come tion with their new lifestyles, even those who courtesy of productivity growth, that is a trade- have absorbed significant income reductions. off of income for time, and it can be cost- A 2004 national survey by the Center for a neutral. Across nations, similarly competitive New American Dream found that 85 percent countries have significant divergences in hours of people who reported making lifestyle of work. Shorter hours can enhance produc- changes that reduced their incomes were happy tivity as work intensity rises. Better schedules about the change.10 reduce employee stress and improve retention Change is also happening at a more systemic and morale. Shorter hours can also reduce level. Employers in some of the most demand- joblessness, which is now at crisis levels and ris- ing professions have made it possible to main- ing in many places.8 tain successful careers even working fewer In the United States, the major obstacle to hours than the norm. Flexible arrangements hours reduction has been that health insurance have become more common in law, medicine, is paid per employee, which means it costs and academia, although there are still career employers much less to hire fewer people and penalties, and short hours are less common at work them longer. If there were a single-payer the pinnacle of those fields. The changes have

94 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Sustainable Work Schedules for All been the most far-reaching in accountancy. in hours of work, it has allowed employees to Since the 1990s all the large multinational reduce their commuting time. The change firms instituted major family-friendly schedules, allowed the state to close offices on Fridays, including fewer days per week, in a bid to and resulted in a 13-percent reduction in the retain high-productivity female talent.11 state’s energy costs and a decline in green- In the aftermath of the financial collapse of house gas emissions. Absenteeism and overtime 2008, reductions in hours of work have spread also fell. Employees have been overwhelm- throughout the private, public, and nonprofit ingly positive about the change, as 82 percent sectors. Employers have attempted to avoid lay- reportedly want to maintain the compressed offs by instituting company-wide cutbacks in workweek even when the recession is over.14 schedules, furloughs, and other work reduction Other states and cities have instituted fur- measures. This ethic of sharing work has not loughs and unpaid leave programs. The city of been widely seen in the United States since the Atlanta has closed many of its services on Fri- 1930s. Since the recession began, average days; California has mandated unpaid days off. weekly hours in the private economy have At the University of California, furloughs of fallen by nearly an hour.12 11–26 days have been introduced. If past reces- Surveys of large employers show that reduc- sions are a guide, many workers—particularly ing workweeks and mandating furloughs or those who get a three-day weekend—will unpaid work time have become widespread. A adjust to the lower incomes and decide not to Hewitt Associates study of 518 large compa- resume a five-day schedule.15 nies found that 20 percent cut hours. A Tow- Looking forward, it is increasingly clear ers Perrin study recorded even higher numbers: that work-time reduction should be high on 40 percent reported they had instituted a fur- the sustainability agenda. This will require lough and 32 percent, a shorter workweek. some policy changes in the United States, High-tech employers in the Pacific North- especially with health care, to alter the incen- west, such as Hewlett-Packard, Siltronic, and tive structure facing businesses. It will require Tektronic, have reduced hours and pay (but some cultural flexibility, to make sure busy-ness usually not benefits).13 and long hours of work are not a status sym- State and local governments have also been bol. And consumption-driven competitions changing schedules in order to cut costs. The will need to be dampened. But if these chal- best-known case is the state of Utah, which lenges can be met, the result will be a slower, switched 17,000 employees to a four-day, 10- saner pace of life that is good for people and hour schedule. Although not technically a cut the planet.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 95 Changing Business Cultures from Within

Ray Anderson, Mona Amodeo, and Jim Hartzfeld

The current Industrial Age was born out of the their customers, shareholders, and other Enlightenment and the unfolding under- stakeholders. standing of humanity’s ability to tap the power More and more organizations are turning and expansiveness of nature. The mindset that to sustainability as a source of competitive was developed early in the Age was well advantage. Yet many companies are trapped adapted to its time, when there were rela- and frustrated by their limited understanding tively few people and nature seemed limit- of this challenge; many see it only as a set of less. Unfortunately, this mindset is poorly technical problems to solve or a clever mar- adapted to the current reality of nearly 7 bil- keting campaign to organize. Perhaps the lion people and badly stressed ecosystems. A greatest danger is that these superficial new, better-adapted worldview and global approaches give companies a false sense of economy are being born today from a greater progress, which in the long run will very understanding of how to thrive within the likely lead to their demise. frail limits of nature. On the other hand, businesses that are will- Vital to the transition of the economy is ing to address change at the deeper cultural the very institution that serves as its primary level have the opportunity to embrace a new engine: business and industry. To lead this paradigm built on the values of sustainability. shift, business must delve much deeper than Those willing to lead the way will reap the just the array of eco or clean technologies that “first-mover” benefits, while supporting and are in vogue, to the core beliefs that drive accelerating the fundamental societal shifts actions. While a few visionary companies that are becoming increasingly apparent. Every have been founded on the principles of sus- company’s sustainability journey will be tainability, most businesses will require rad- unique, but a basic road map, using what has ical change. In the coming decades, business been learned from pioneering companies and models and mindsets must be fundamentally researchers, can help those that are interested transformed to sustain companies’ value to in the journey to travel at a faster pace.1

Ray Anderson is founder and chairman of Interface, Inc. Mona Amodeo is president of idgroup, a con- sulting and creative firm on branding, organization change, and sustainability. Jim Hartzfeld is founder and managing director of InterfaceRAISE.

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Click here to see notes for this section. STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Changing Business Cultures from Within

The Need for processes, practices, and stories that can drive Transformational Change the organization forward. When organizations embrace sustainability in At the societal, business, and personal levels, this way, it is fully woven into every facet of the the understanding and adoption of sustain- enterprise. Sustainability becomes definitional, ability practices is limited less by technical revealing itself in every decision—a strategic innovation than by people’s inability to chal- and emotional journey that enhances the entire lenge outdated mindsets and change cultural enterprise. After all, can anyone really make norms. Paraphrasing Edwin Land, physicist “green” products in a “brown” company?4 Amory Lovins has observed that “invention is the sudden cessation of stupidity...[that is,] A Framework for Culture Change that people who seem to have had a new idea often have just stopped having an old idea.”2 The U.S.-based global carpet manufacturer A company’s rate of adoption of new ideas, Interface, Inc. offers a valuable case study of a and therefore business opportunities, can be company that has embraced and achieved trans- increased significantly by understanding the formational change toward sustainability. Inter- stages of change and the strategic decisions face reports being only about 60 percent of the needed to support the evolving belief systems way toward achieving its Mission Zero 2020 necessary for culture change. Personal change goals, but the company has come far in its of this magnitude rarely occurs overnight, and 15-year journey to sustainability. It has reduced changing an organization is often an even net greenhouse gas emissions by 71 percent, longer process. water intensity by 74 percent, landfill waste by Much can be learned from businesses that 67 percent, and total energy intensity by 44 have moved beyond surface-level change to percent. It has diverted 175 million pounds of fully embrace sustainability and in doing so old carpet from landfills, invented new carpet have created deep changes within their orga- recycling technology, and sold 83 square kilo- nizational culture. Experience suggests that meters of third-party certified, climate-neu- sustainability derives its greatest power and tral carpet. In the process, Interface has effect in organizations when it is deeply generated substantial business value in its brand embraced as a set of core values that genuinely and reputation, cost savings of $405 million, integrate economic prosperity, environmental attraction and alignment of talent, and indus- stewardship, and social responsibility: profit, try-leading product innovation.5 planet, and people.3 Interface’s sustainability leadership has been To achieve this degree of change, leaders recognized internationally in multiple Globescan must put forth bold visions—so bold that they surveys of “global sustainability experts,” receiv- take the breath away—and they must engage ing the number one ranking in 2009. But the their organizations in different, deeper con- company’s transition was not choreographed versations about the purpose and responsibil- in advance. During the first decade of the jour- ity of business to provide true value to both ney, Interface went through five developmen- customers and society. Moreover, the whole tal phases of change, driven by key levers that enterprise must be proactively engaged in such propelled its progress. (See Figure 5.) Deep a systemwide way that mental models become changes in the identity, values, and assumptions explicit, multiple stakeholder perspectives are about “how we do things here” moved the incorporated into the process, and collective company to a new view of purpose, perfor- interaction yields new knowledge, structures, mance, and profitability within the larger con-

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Figure 5. Culture Change Model © idgroup, 2009. All rights reserved.

text of environmental and social responsibility.6 validity of the values of sustainability, which in The Interface model of cultural change rep- time comes through successes actually experi- resents a journey of the head and heart, facil- enced. As the collective identity of the orga- itated by strategic decisions and deepening nization changes, new behaviors associated connections to the values of sustainability. with these values are reinforced and become These interacting factors closed the initial gap more embedded in the culture. Understand- between the vision—a future sustainable com- ing is augmented by belief and commitment. pany—and the actual unsustainable existing New ways of thinking, believing, and doing company, by incrementally transforming the emerge incrementally as strategic decisions are culture through successive phases along a time confirmed, and sustainability becomes fully continuum. As the company went through embraced as “the way we do things around the phases of transformative change (awaken- here.” This shifting paradigm produces inno- ing, cocooning, metamorphosis, emergence, vations in technologies, sustainable business and engagement), an evolution of belief sys- practices, and new leadership capacity, as well tems also occurred, moving from skepticism to as a sense of pride, purpose, and commitment understanding, belief, commitment, and advo- on the part of those associated with the orga- cacy. This psychological progression worked in nization. Externally, the organization realizes tandem with strategic decisions (vision, road increasingly strong connections and levels of map, alignment, integration, and influence) trust with its marketplace. to create deep culture change. Over time, the transformation can be envi- The Stages of Change sioned as a dynamic process where new and ongoing connections, relationships, and net- Awakening: defining the vision. To allow works come into being and flourish through an change to occur, a company must first be open infusion of knowledge, wisdom, and grass- to sensing and considering aberrant signals roots experience. Early skepticism gives way to that may suggest or uncover new challenges or understanding as an organization confirms the opportunities. The source of the signal can

98 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Changing Business Cultures from Within be internal or external, subtle or cacopho- leadership makes a go/no-go decision. A clear nous. Likewise, a company’s awareness of the vision is created, and the process of expanding need to address sustainability can be stimulated the engagement of others in the organization in many ways, including inspired leadership, a begins—with the leadership acting as the mes- grassroots internal uprising, a technical or senger, evangelist, teacher, and cheerleader. physical challenge, or an unanticipated shock At Interface, Ray Anderson was inspired to in the cost or availability of key resource inputs. declare his vision of sustainability for the com- At some point the magnitude of the emerging pany after reading the groundbreaking 1993 risks or opportunities become “real” enough book The Ecology of Commerce, which pro- to cause the organization to begin to seek posed a culture of business in which the nat- more information and direction. ural world is allowed to flourish. Jeff Mezger, At Interface, the persistent and aggressive CEO of U.S. home construction company KB voice of a single customer caught the ear of the Home, recently directed his leadership team to founder, Ray Anderson. At Walmart, the impe- explore what goals and commitments they tus was inspired leadership stimulated by a should make toward sustainability, even in the barrage of external challenges on multiple teeth of the industry’s historic downturn. In fronts. At , it was the outrage sparked by July 2008, he communicated this vision in the a 1996 LIFE magazine article about child company’s first sustainability report.8 labor in Pakistan, which featured a photo of a At Walmart, CEO Lee Scott and members 12-year-old boy surrounded by Nike-brand of his leadership team took a year to person- soccer balls he had been stitching. Other exam- ally explore, challenge, read, and tour settings ples of external stimuli for increased sustain- around the world, from the ecologically crip- ability awareness include ’s pressure pled state of Montana described in Jared Dia- on Electrolux and the Rainforest Action Net- mond’s book Collapse to cotton fields in work’s pressure on Mitsubishi.7 Turkey and an Interface carpet mill in Geor- Once a general direction is suggested, a gia. Only after that year of exploration did small group of innovators or “scouts” may Scott announce the company’s direction in a explore the magnitude of the problem and landmark speech in October 2005, “21st Cen- what it means to the organization and then tury Leadership.” Even while stating ambi- propose a potential vision of the future. Dur- tious goals for Walmart—“to be supplied by ing this stage, it is important to suspend skep- 100 percent renewable energy, to create zero ticism and engage the top leadership in a deep waste, and to sell products that sustain our and honest exploration of the facets of sus- resources and environment”—Scott admitted tainability—what it means to each person as that he was not sure how to achieve them.9 well as to the organization. Investing the time, Cocooning: creating the road map. With a energy, and effort in individual and organiza- vision defined, a company must then determine tional reflection will establish the necessary how to translate the vision into action. In tension to propel change and determine the addition to deeper planning and early proto- level of commitment needed to move forward. types, the learning of the awakening phase is A natural sense of curiosity and the persis- taken deeper and shared more widely across the tent ability to resist the pressures of the dom- organization and beyond. The result is a road inant paradigms (and existing structures) is map of action that normally includes goals, important to allow new and unusual signals to timelines, resource allocation, and—most penetrate and to overcome the natural response important—metrics. of defending the status quo. At this point, the During this stage, the company is engaged

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 99 Changing Business Cultures from Within STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 in activities that further “awaken” people in the packaging, and transportation. A stunning organization to sustainability—the problems, facet of this period was the extent to which challenges, and opportunities—with the view Walmart proactively engaged environmental that people will typically only defend and sup- groups and its suppliers. As evidence of the port that which they help build and create. Fre- company’s key words for the era, “collabo- quently, an organization’s “whole” cannot be rate and innovate,” Walmart convened collec- changed until the collective is assembled to tive learning opportunities for the entire work together to shape a new potential future. network. One early meeting included 800 It is important at this point to tap into the attendees and began with Interface’s “Global organization’s creative intelligence and its Village Exercise,” where Ray Anderson and Jim stakeholders through dialogue, collaborative Hartzfeld facilitated an interactive session high- inquiry, community building, and cutting- lighting global environmental and social con- edge methods of change that support new ditions. In another meeting, Al Gore appeared ways of thinking and transforming.10 at the screening of his film “An Inconvenient At Interface, Ray Anderson sought to simul- Truth,” and U.S. evangelical leader Jim Ball taneously engage a wide range of his internal spoke on the alignment of scripture and con- leadership team, who were already associated cern for the environment.12 with the company’s QUEST waste initiative, Metamorphosis: aligning the organization. as well as the most visionary collection of Once a well-defined road map and early pro- external experts he could find, eventually totypes are established, the hard process of named the EcoDream Team. Through an driving widespread change in the company intense 18-month process, Interface’s Seven begins. As with a caterpillar’s metamorphosis, Fronts initiative (later renamed Seven Faces of the process will likely require the creative Mt. Sustainability) was identified and pub- destruction of entrenched mindsets and lished in the company’s first sustainability processes. Sustainability cannot be a program report in November 1996. The document laid confined to a specific grouping of staff. Instead, out the sustainability challenge and proposed it must be broadly aligned, integrated, and solutions in detail, with supporting metrics institutionalized into corporate systems, struc- that outlined an extensive list of everything the tures, and processes. company “takes, makes and .” This is a period of intense learning and Nike, following the media storm created experimentation. During this often messy time, by the 1996 LIFE article, went rapidly into it is important for the leadership to continu- cocooning with its internal staff and external ally and consistently remind the organization experts and commissioned various university of the vision, while at the same time meeting studies—taking nearly two years to develop a people where they are. Leaders should be pre- code of conduct for labor and environmental pared to support the push toward new inno- practices. CEO Phil Knight unveiled the code vations while maintaining a high tolerance for at a widely publicized 1998 speech at the the associated risk of failure. Permission to fail National Press Club in Washington, D.C.11 is essential to empowering people to innovate An extreme example of externally engaged at their best.13 cocooning is Walmart’s Sustainable Value Net- Structures and programs that support orga- works and quarterly Milestone Meetings. nizational learning by rewarding and celebrat- Announced in December 2005, Walmart cre- ing success will reinforce the organization’s ated 14 teams to address major product cate- commitment and provide the motivation needed gories and cross-cutting issues such as waste, to keep people going. Providing the necessary

100 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Changing Business Cultures from Within resources, both financial and human, is of para- energy of the process. Early successes drive mount importance. And while there can be learning, which stirs further innovation. Good great power in telling the sustainability story to metrics inform positive feedback loops of learn, internal and external audiences, it is also criti- do, measure, recognize—reinforcing the val- cal that the story be authentic—not to let the ues and belief systems. At some point, the “talk” get in front of the “walk.” Outspoken company’s identity must be fully invested in commitment serves as a strong reinforcing sustainability, and the associated beliefs and mechanism for organizational members—a behaviors must become ingrained into the source of pride and pressure. Incorporating the DNA, or cultural assumptions, of the organi- sustainability story into marketing communi- zation. If this level of cultural integration is not cations programs also creates increased mar- achieved, the organization will never really ketplace recognition, trust, and connection. achieve liftoff. At Interface, this process extended to all Engagement: influencing others. Even functions and regions of the company, includ- many years into a company’s sustainability ing cascading dialogue with employees about journey, engagement is a continuing effort. dominant corporate values, as well as incentives Each level of success reveals new questions and rewards. At Walmart, “metamorphosis” and challenges. This ongoing search for began with the creation in 2007 of the Personal answers spirals to new levels of understanding Sustainability Project, designed to eventually about what is possible. Relative to the model engage all 1.8 million employees by connect- presented, the stages of the process are con- ing the company’s sustainability journey to tinuous and recursive with deeper learning the personal lives of its employees. Taking it and innovation at every new loop in the . one step further, Walmart created a supplier As an organization becomes more commit- “packaging” score card that gave clear direc- ted to sustainability, educating and influencing tion to its more than 60,000 suppliers that the others becomes an important part of the change company sought to engage everyone it was process. This advocacy role is beneficial to both connected with, and not just the few early the company and to the larger societal cause. In innovators, in its sustainability journey.14 addition to helping others along in their jour- During this stage, companies often falter ney and building the company’s image, addi- after gathering the low-hanging fruit associated tional learning and expanding knowledge come with technical changes. But the metamorpho- through collaboration and teaching others. sis stage can also reveal the payoff of the “con- Interface, for example, formed a consulting sciousness-raising” work done during the subsidiary, InterfaceRAISE, to help other com- cocooning stage. If individuals in the organi- panies move more quickly up the learning curve zation move beyond understanding to belief, and through the phases of their journey. The the organization will progress beyond minor company also developed an extensive speak- improvements or adjustments that have little ers’ bureau consisting of Interface associates impact on the core of the organization. As a for general public and business education.15 result, new innovations will begin to emerge as members begin to dismantle existing para- Conclusion digms by asking new questions. Emergence: ongoing integration. As the Business and society are in a period of crisis as metamorphosis reaches critical mass, engaging well as potential. Doing the same things a lit- more people and demonstrating success, the tle differently, better, or faster will not bring momentum is accelerated by the positive about the transformational changes needed

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 101 Changing Business Cultures from Within STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 to address today’s challenges or grasp new grounded in the values of sustainability, the opportunities. The Industrial Age can be sup- people who work in those firms will also likely planted by a of evolving human wis- accept and adopt the behaviors associated with dom and emergent innovations, but only if sustainability as the “way things are and should businesses are willing to challenge existing be.” This offers business and industry a unique paradigms and proactively discover new opportunity to accelerate the tipping point answers through collective inspiration. (See needed to correct society’s current trajectory. Box 13.)16 To achieve this shift, companies must explore Business and industry—the most dominant new worldviews and discard the old flawed institutions on the planet in both size and views by encouraging personal reflection and influence—can bring about organizational new dialogue about the purpose and respon- awakening that can catalyze more sweeping sibility of business. societal change. If business models are

Box 13. Upgrading the Corporate Charter

Many U.S. businesses are redesigning their In order to be certified as a B Corporation, corporate charters to incorporate the interests a company must submit responses to an of all stakeholders—customers, employees, extensive survey, which is then reviewed by communities, and the planet—rather than B Labs. The company is subsequently audited just those of their shareholders. Since 2007 in order to validate compliance with the B Rat- the nonprofit organization B Labs has had a ings System. A minimum passing score of 80 thoroughgoing certification process that iden- indicates that the organization is eligible for tifies and validates precisely these types of certification, at which point it is obligated to businesses as B Corporations (the B stands submit a new corporate charter amended with for “benefit”). the B Corps Legal Framework. By expanding legal responsibility, B Corpo- The B Corporation brand has already certi- ration certification allows businesses to allevi- fied more than 190 companies spread across ate the pressure to pursue nothing but the 31 industries with revenues totaling over $1 exclusively profit-centered “bottom line.” In billion. Although its financial depth is admit- addition, the designation helps to distinguish tedly a drop in the bucket compared with the the corporations that are truly committed to roughly $14-trillion U.S. economy, this innova- socially valuable and environmentally sustain- tive tool could have lasting impact as corpora- able practices from those just wanting to tions strive to reach B Corporation standards “greenwash” their operations. A B Corpora- and, in so doing, acknowledge their increasing tion can also use the rigorous standard by responsibility to pursue social and environ- which it is certified to monitor its own sustain- mental benefits that extend beyond the tradi- ability performance—a useful tool for compa- tional constraints of the profit motive. nies that genuinely want to have a positive —Kevin Green and Erik Assadourian impact on society and the environment. Source: See endnote 16.

102 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Social Entrepreneurs: Innovating Toward Sustainability

Johanna Mair and Kate Ganly

In May 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama such as migrants, youth, and the disabled. This announced the creation of a $50-million Social has been encouraged by government support Innovation Fund and a new White House in France, Spain, and Portugal, where such Office that will coordinate the fund’s efforts initiatives are addressing the persistence of “to identify the most promising, results-ori- structural unemployment among particular ented non-profit programs and expand their groups. La Fageda, to cite just one example, is reach throughout the country.” This com- a dairy in Catalunya that has a of mitment to supporting and nurturing a diverse 250 employees, 140 of whom suffer from men- range of decentralized alternative solutions to tal illness. In both Italy and the United King- intractable social problems taps a wave of dom, specific legislation was introduced in global popularity and public awareness that 2005 to recognize and foster “social purpose has been building around the phenomenon of ventures.” For instance, the U.K. “commu- “social entrepreneurship” for several years. nity interest company” is a limited liability Social entrepreneurs use a variety of organi- company designed to operate for community zational forms—from social businesses and benefit: it has a cap on dividends and individ- cooperatives to leveraged nonprofits, hybrids, ual profits, which ensures that revenues and and pure charities. But they all have one thing assets are retained for community purposes.2 in common: the innovative use and combina- tion of resources to pursue opportunities to A Growing Movement catalyze social change.1 Social entrepreneurial initiatives (SEIs) are Social entrepreneurs existed long before they influenced by local conditions both in the were labeled as such. Since the Grameen Bank opportunities they have to address a social or and its founder Muhammad Yunus were jointly environmental need and in the regulatory archi- awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006, how- tecture that affects their form. In Europe, a ever, media coverage of this growing phe- dominant form of social entrepreneurship deals nomenon and accompanying accolades have with work integration for marginalized groups made social entrepreneurs highly visible.

Johanna Mair is a professor of strategic management at IESE Business School. Kate Ganly is a research affiliate of the IESE Platform for Strategy and Sustainability.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Social Entrepreneurs: Innovating Toward Sustainability STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Grameen provided an early model of an SEI preneurs seek to change. Often these goals when in the late 1970s it started offering credit are tied up with other, more specific aims. to the poorest of the poor in rural Bangladesh Reliable comparative data on SEIs are hard without the borrowers needing to provide col- to come by, primarily because countries define lateral for their loans. The Bank’s micro-credit and recognize social entrepreneurship differ- program expanded rapidly, and by mid-2009 ently. Italy first created a legal form for “social nearly 8 million people were receiving loans, cooperatives” in 1991; by 2001 there were 97 percent of whom were women.3 approximately 7,000 such organizations While definitions vary, social entrepreneur- employing 200,000 workers and benefiting ship can generally be seen as a label for initia- 1.5 million people. As mentioned, the United tives that proactively address social or Kingdom has also championed SEIs: its 2005 environmental issues through delivery of a Annual Survey of Small Businesses found that product or service that directly or indirectly cat- 55,000 social enterprises existed with a com- alyzes social change. To ensure that change is bined turnover of £27 billion, contributing sustainable, a large part of what social entre- £8.4 billion per year to the U.K. economy. preneurs do is challenge or disrupt existing The United Kingdom is also one of the few institutions. As used here, the term institu- countries to measure social entrepreneurial tions includes taken-for-granted collective activity as part of the annual Global Entrepre- behaviors such as consumption that dominate neurship Monitor. Data from 2006 indicate daily routines. Excessive consumption, envi- that 3.3 percent of the U.K. population was ronmentally unsustainable practices, and a cul- involved in creating or running an early-stage ture of individual private gain over shared SEI, while another 1.5 percent ran an estab- community or public benefit are just some of lished SEI. This represents a significant chunk the institutionalized behaviors that social entre- of the population compared with the figure for mainstream early-stage entrepreneurship at 5.8 percent. In Japan, where a legal form for nonprofits was introduced in 1999, the number of SEIs grew from 1,176 in that year to over 30,000 in 2008. This sector contributed approximately 10 trillion yen to the economy in 2005, accounting for 1.5 per- cent of Japan’s gross domestic product.4 The origin of the phrase “social entrepreneur” can be traced to Bill Drayton, a for- mer business management con- sultant who in 1980 set up Ashoka, the first foundation to

Courtesy of Waste Concern support and fund such individ- An illustration from a Waste Concern poster promoting rural uals. Today Ashoka has over waste composting technology. 2,000 “fellows” in more than

104 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Social Entrepreneurs: Innovating Toward Sustainability

60 countries and continues to expand. Other the automatic acceptance that desert land far important global support organizations include from the Nile could not be made fertile, and the Schwab Foundation, which invites fellows it overturned conventional thinking about the to attend the World Economic Forum in necessity of chemical pesticides. Founded by Davos, and the Skoll Foundation, which also Ibrahim Abouleish in 1977 with the inten- holds an annual world forum. The latter was tion to “heal the land and its people,” today set up by eBay founder Jeff Skoll, one of a Sekem is a multi-business company with more group of high-profile “new philanthropists” than 2,000 employees; it encompasses seven funding SEIs—a group that includes Bill Gates for-profit companies producing organic food and .5 products, cotton, textiles, and medicinal herbs Indeed, the number of venture and includes a range of nonprofit entities— organizations and investment vehicles is rapidly from education and health facilities for its staff increasing. They include everything from the and their families to a research and develop- Acumen Fund (launched in 2001 with seed ment institute and a university.7 capital from the Rockefeller Foundation and Similarly, Waste Concern in Bangladesh Cisco Systems), which now has hundreds of proved that Dhaka’s waste problem could be investor partners—from companies to indi- turned into a resource by taking a radical new viduals—to online platforms such as Global approach to waste processing and collection. Giving, which lets individuals invest in small The founders set up small-scale composting projects of selected social change organiza- plants that employed waste-pickers to collect tions located anywhere in the world.6 and process the compost. Instead of burning The popularity of social entrepreneurship or flaring solid waste, they created fertilizer is also apparent in academia, as evidenced by from organic and enriched compost, which the growing number of research centers, pub- reduced pollution while creating jobs.8 lications, international conferences, dedicated In Thailand, the Population and Commu- faculty appointments, and student demand nity Development Association (PDA) chal- for courses. But perhaps the biggest boost lenged traditional attitudes to sex and for social entrepreneurship has been endorse- contraception. In addition to training rural ment from celebrities, business leaders, and women to sell pills and con- political leaders such as President Obama. doms, PDA used humor—such as through This kind of support has stimulated popular the creation of a restaurant chain called “Cab- interest and generated broad exposure for bages and Condoms” and “Miss Condom” social entrepreneurship, setting it well on the competitions in Bangkok’s notorious red-light path to become a defining trend of the twenty- district—to create a proactive awareness to first century. help limit an exploding population and, later, to halt the spread of HIV.9 Challenging What Is Taken An important contribution of social entre- for Granted preneurs that is related to challenging what is taken for granted involves demonstrating One of the most powerful ways that social “proof of concept”—that is, showing how entrepreneurs are able to bring about change new approaches and ideas can actually work. is by challenging accepted ways of doing things SEIs often create new markets, opening up a and demonstrating alternatives. (See Box 14 on space for customers and competitors and fos- recent challenges to design principles.) In tering supply and demand. In this respect, Egypt, for example, the SEI Sekem challenged social entrepreneurs are path breakers, paving

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Box 14. Cradle to Cradle: Adapting Production to Nature’s Model

Many of today’s business strategies fall short enough power to meet the energy needs of of a model that truly sustains planetary entire cities, regions, and nations. Developing systems. Instead, most responses to these wind and solar power transforms the energy challenges seek to limit the impact of human infrastructure, reconnects rural areas to cities activity by minimizing pollution and waste— through the cooperative exchange of energy focusing on being more “eco-efficient” and technology, and can one day end the instead of being “eco-effective.” reliance on fossil fuels. But there is another way. We often say that Celebrate diversity. Healthy ecosystems design is the first signal of human intention, are complex communities of living things, which raises the question: what are our each of which has developed a unique intentions? Do we intend to create things response to its surroundings that works in that have only positive effects? Or just fewer concert with other organisms to sustain the negative ones? system. Each organism fits in its place, and Imagine buildings, neighborhoods, trans- in each system the most fitting survive. portation systems, factories, and parks all Abundant diversity is the source of an designed to enhance economic, environmen- ecosystem’s strength and resilience. tal, and social health—that reach beyond sus- Businesses can celebrate the diversity of tainability to enrich lives. To help realize this regional landscapes and cultures and grow vision, production can be based on three key ever more effective as they do so. operating principles of the natural world that With these three principles in mind, busi- allow business to apply the intelligence of nat- nesses participate ever more creatively with ural systems to human artifice. nature. They harvest the energy of the sun and Waste equals food. In nature, the processes capture rain. Food and materials grown in the of every organism contribute to the health of countryside, using implements and tech- the whole. One organism’s waste becomes nology created in the city, are absorbed by the food for another, and nutrients flow perpetu- urban body and returned to their source as a ally in regenerative, cradle-to-cradle cycles of form of waste that can replenish the system. birth, death, decay, and rebirth. Design mod- Thus, human settlements and the natural eled on these virtuous cycles eliminates the world flourish side by side. very concept of waste: products and materials The goal of cradle-to-cradle design is a can be designed of components that return delightfully diverse, safe, healthy, and just either to soil as a nutrient or to industry for world, with clean air, water, soil, and power— remanufacture at the same or even a higher economically, equitably, ecologically, and ele- level of quality. gantly enjoyed. In the end, the success of our Use current solar income. Nature’s cradle- efforts will be measured against how we have to-cradle cycles are powered by the energy of answered what we have found to be the fun- the sun. Trees and plants manufacture food damental question: how do we love all the from sunlight—an elegant, effective system children, of all species, for all time? that uses Earth’s only perpetual source of —William McDonough and energy income. The wind, a thermal flow Michael Braungart fueled by sunlight, can be tapped and along McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry with direct solar collection can generate Source: See endnote 7.

106 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Social Entrepreneurs: Innovating Toward Sustainability the way toward a more sustainable and for a much wider range of products. And Rug- humane future. mark, founded in 1994, combines a campaign Sekem, for example, pioneered organic agri- to end child labor with certification for ethi- culture in Egypt and demonstrated that cotton, cally produced rugs. These groups and the a major crop, could be successfully grown with- many SEIs promoting and supporting organic out pesticides—an innovation later instituted by coffee producers, poor country artisans, and the Egyptian government, thereby eliminat- the like have made social entrepreneurship a ing the spraying of 30,000 tons of chemicals global commercial phenomenon. These orga- annually. In Bangladesh, Waste Concern devel- nizations are helping people question what, oped a method of organic composting that why, and how they consume and consider the produced a rich fertilizer and applied it to the repercussions of their collective actions.11 vast problem of Dhaka’s solid waste buildup. These and other initiatives that recognize Yet in developing a solution to one problem the a global need to source products in ways that founders managed to address another: the issue sustain communities and the environment of Bangladesh’s soil degradation due to the have often been initiated and driven forward overuse of chemical fertilizers. Not only did by SEIs in the West, but they are now spread- Waste Concern’s actions create a market for ing to the East and global South. While the organic fertilizer, they led the company to governments and indeed large companies in become a leader in carbon trading through many affluent countries have begun to respond the Clean Development Mechanism set up to this need, it has remained a gap in the sys- under the and a role model for tem to be exploited by social entrepreneurs in U.N. projects. (See Box 15 for another inno- many other places. In Latin America there is vation on carbon regulation.)10 a new wave of initiatives mobilizing consumers While innovations in technology, energy, to use their purchasing power to influence and industry are important, it is the more dif- business practices for more responsible con- ficult and elusive collective changes in behav- sumption. El Poder de Consumidor in Mex- ior and thinking that may have the biggest ico, Interrupcion in Argentina, and the Akatu impact in the transition to sustainability. It is Institute for Conscious Consumption in Brazil important to understand that this is an inter- are just some of these. Poland experienced connected and globalized world, but that real the consequences of rapidly advancing con- and sustainable behavioral change often hap- sumerism after the fall of socialism: massive pens locally and painstakingly slowly. Social amounts of waste and terrible pollution were entrepreneurs have an important role to play problems that people had no models for deal- in initiating such changes by challenging the ing with as they were used to such issues being taken-for-granted assumptions and the insti- addressed by a central authority. Several Pol- tutionalized behaviors that contribute to main- ish social entrepreneurs sprang up to deal with taining the status quo. this and other specific problems caused by SEIs that specifically address the issue of the transition.12 conscious consumption are being seen more often. One example is the fair trade move- Local Efforts Have Global Impacts ment. Small handicraft fair trade outfits have existed in the United States and the United Although most SEIs initially develop in Kingdom for more than 50 years, but it has response to quite local issues, today the reper- been SEIs such as Transfair USA, founded in cussions of their actions cannot be isolated 1998, that helped establish fair trade labels because they are linked globally. One of the

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 107 Social Entrepreneurs: Innovating Toward Sustainability STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Box 15. A Carbon Index for the Financial Market

The World Federation of Exchanges reports print (calculated as annual emissions divided that in 2008, more than $113 trillion in stocks, by revenue). According to Standard & Poor’s, futures, and options was traded on its 51 pub- the average annual carbon footprint of compa- licly regulated exchanges. The 46,000 or so nies listed on the index through 2008 was 48 listed companies had a total market capitali- percent lower than that of the S&P 500. zation of more than $33 trillion. Meanwhile, To provide guidance for low-carbon policy the world derivatives market—including both decisions, the U.S. Environmental Protection over-the-counter and exchange-traded deriva- Agency (EPA) has proposed mandatory tives—has been estimated at some $791 tril- reporting of greenhouse gas emissions from lion, 11 times the size of the world economy. large sources in the United States. Suppliers Most of the world’s financial capital is of fossil fuels or of industrial greenhouse traded with no carbon regulation, causing a gases, manufacturers of vehicles and engines, “free flow” of carbon dioxide into the global and facilities that release 25,000 tons or more economy. Shares, or units of ownership in a per year of emissions would need to submit corporation, can propel or mitigate green- annual reports to the EPA. Compiled, this house gas emissions. Adoption of a Carbon information would inform investors of both Index for the stock market—and for financial “high” and “low” carbon tendencies by com- markets as a whole—would broaden the trans- pany or sector, orienting large quantities of parency of the global finance system, disclose capital toward sustainability. the carbon footprints of corporations and Expanded more widely, the use of Carbon investors, and create a new platform for decar- Indexes could lead to greater protection of the bonization in financial markets, aligning economy’s natural support systems. For the financial industry with the low-carbon example, development of an Amazon STOXX economy. A complementary DCarb Index could Index, based on the Dow Jones STOXX Index, measure the level of decarbonization, shaping could help build investment knowledge for standards for low-carbon financial flows. profitable eco-oriented businesses to conserve Positive signs of change are emerging in the world’s largest tropical forest. Brazil’s the exchange markets. The Dow Jones Sus- BM&FBOVESPA, the second largest exchange tainability Indexes, launched in 1999, track the operator in the Americas by market value, has financial performance of leading sustainabil- the opportunity to support these low-carbon ity-driven companies worldwide, providing businesses—attracting investors and promot- objective benchmarks for managing sustain- ing economically, socially, and ability portfolios. And in June 2009, NASDAQ environmentally integrated profits. OMX Group, Inc. and CRD Analytics intro- With such initiatives, the “low-carb” mar- duced a Global Sustainability 50 Index that ket, a symbol of the new eco-economy, can enables investors to track the top 50 compa- compete with high-carbon initiatives, stimu- nies in —disclosing lating greener investments. Because of its information such as their carbon footprints clout, the global financial market is one of the and workforce diversity. strongest and most flexible tools to build a In March 2009, Standard & Poor’s low-carbon, sustainable economy. introduced the S&P U.S. Carbon Efficient —Eduardo Athayde Index, a subset of companies listed on the Worldwatch Institute publisher, Brazil S&P 500 that have a relatively low carbon foot- Source: See endnote 10.

108 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Social Entrepreneurs: Innovating Toward Sustainability strongest links is financial: the amount of money available in North America, Europe, and Japan to be invested in poorer parts of the world is large and growing. The World Bank Institute, for example, estimated that private net capital flows to developing countries in 2007 totaled $590 billion.13 Social entrepreneurs are setting trends and sparking movements that are spreading across the world. These could have far-reaching effects in different locations and future scenarios. Efforts of SEIs in industrial countries to help people consume less, use energy more effi- ciently, and limit environmental damage could provide valuable lessons for developing coun- tries with burgeoning consumer classes, mas- sive urbanization, and potentially huge environmental problems. At the same time, innovative and low-cost responses to the lack of resources at the grassroots in developing countries are providing appropriate technology solutions (such as solar lighting for villages that have never been electrified or biogas plants using cow or pig manure) that may be valuable Courtesy of Dawn Starin in industrial countries still battling consump- Art created with out-of-date condoms and birth tion-related problems. control pills raises awareness at the Bangkok What is most important about social entre- restaurant Cabbages and Condoms. preneurs, wherever they operate, is that they challenge existing rules and institutions and efforts but penetrate all economic, social, and create innovative vehicles to achieve their political domains. social goals. These may end up directly pro- Recent events have highlighted the need to voking markets through competition or pro- create a balance between economic growth— viding alternatives, or they may indirectly put which is irrevocably tied to enrichment and pressure on industries by creating awareness consumption but also to a better quality of life and stimulating behavioral and attitude and human development—and an approach to change. Achieving this kind of change is a markets and governance that is based on eth- long and bumpy road, but one of the most dis- ical needs and that recognizes global inter- tinctive characteristics of social entrepreneurs linkages and inequalities. The good news is that is persistence. The challenge remains extend- the momentum for social entrepreneurship ing the adoption of these ideas across both the has never been greater and the timing never public and the private sector and throughout better to shock the world into collective cul- society so that they do not become isolated tural change.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 109 Relocalizing Business

Michael H. Shuman

To see what a “culture of sustainability” might First as one of the most compelling reasons really look like, pay a visit to Bellingham, they are thriving. Sustainable Connection’s Washington, recently named by the Natural energy program has mobilized 1 in 10 residents Resources Defense Council as the #1 to buy local “green power”—the second high- “Smarter” small city in the United States. This est percentage in the United States. The num- coastal town two hours north of Seattle has ber of farmers in surrounding Whatcom pioneered an economic development strategy County marketing directly to consumers that is radically different from the traditional increased 44 percent between 2002 and 2007, preoccupation with attracting and retaining twice the state-wide rate. The value of direct global businesses. Thanks to the leadership of sales—a key strategy for boosting farmers’ a nonprofit called Sustainable Connections, income—has increased 125 percent over the Bellingham has focused on nurturing its local same period, quintuple the state rate.2 businesses and organizing them into a power- Bellingham is among a growing number ful collaborative network to rebuild the com- of communities worldwide that see their future munity economy from the ground up.1 sustainability and prosperity grounded in local Here is some of what Sustainable Connec- businesses. The Business Alliance for Local tions has accomplished in less than a decade. Living Economies (BALLE) has more than Its Local First campaign—now widely copied 70 member communities in North America. around the United States and Canada—uses Another 50 or so communities are affiliated festivals, store signs, posters, advertisements, with the American Independent Business and coupon books to motivate residents to Alliance. Internationally, more than a thousand buy local. An independent survey by Applied communities are beginning to undertake sim- Research Northwest found that 69 percent of ilar work through organizations like Transition Bellingham consumers are now paying atten- Towns and Post-Carbon Futures.3 tion to the local character of businesses, 58 per- As these organizations see it, local business cent have begun localizing their purchasing has two meanings. One is ownership. In a habits, and business proprietors regard Local locally owned business, more than half the

Michael Shuman is director of research and public policy for the Business Alliance for Local Living Economies.

110 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG

Click here to see notes for this section. STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Relocalizing Business owners live where the firm operates. By this inition can be improved with a more nuanced definition, local ownership actually charac- understanding of place: a community should terizes the vast majority of sole proprietor- meet its current needs, present or future, with- ships, partnerships, nonprofits, cooperatives, out compromising the ability to meet the and public-private partnerships operating in needs of future generations living in other the world. Even most privately held corpora- communities, present or future. This new def- tions are local. Really, the only kind of busi- inition highlights the importance of every ness clearly not local is a publicly traded community maximizing its level of self-reliance, company. The other meaning of local is the presumably through a diverse assortment of proximity of its stakeholders, like suppliers businesses behaving in a . and consumers. Because locally owned busi- Localization, of course, does not guarantee nesses tend to give priority to using local sustainable behavior, but it increases its likeli- labor, land, and capital and producing goods hood in at least four ways.5 and services for local markets, these two con- First, an economy highly dependent on cepts are inherently intertwined. non-local businesses must continually make In an era of globalization, it is easy to for- sustainability compromises to prevent its most get that local businesses actually have been the important firms from exiting. For example, economic norm for most of human history the state of Maryland is highly dependent on and, contrary to public perceptions, continue a poultry industry (dominated by two com- to account for most of the world’s economy panies, Tyson and Perdue) that continually today. One distinguishing feature of very poor threatens to move to more “business-friendly” countries is that a large percentage of the jurisdictions like Arkansas and Mississippi. population is engaged in subsistence agricul- Despite its impressive performance in other cat- ture—that is, local farming. As countries egories of sustainability like smart growth, the develop, farm families migrate to the cities state has found it politically impossible to reg- for industrial jobs. But vast numbers remain ulate the poultry industry’s practice of dump- jobless or underemployed and effectively wind ing more than a billion pounds of manure up as microentrepreneurs in the informal sec- into the Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in tor. Even in an advanced industrial economy North America. Were the Maryland economy like the United States, roughly half the econ- made up of locally owned businesses, officials omy in terms of jobs and output comes from could raise environmental standards with con- self-employed individuals or from small or fidence that its enterprises would adapt rather medium-sized enterprises, nearly all of which than flee.6 are locally owned.4 The absence of local ownership means that So localization is neither new nor uncom- non-local corporations can dictate the terms of mon. But awareness of its potential power in sustainability in the communities in which promoting sustainability and prosperity is. they operate. Their ability to leave a commu- nity in a heartbeat means they can more eas- Localization and Sustainability ily leave environmental problems behind. The expansion strategy of Walmart, the largest For a generation, “sustainability” has been chain retailer in the world, has included clos- defined as meeting this generation’s needs ing older stores (and resisting resale to com- without compromising the ability of future petitors) while opening new superstores only generations to meet their own needs. There is a few miles away. As a result, some 350 empty a growing appreciation, however, that this def- Walmarts across the United States are causing

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 111 Relocalizing Business STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

serious environmental problems from runoff, sume less energy, and emit fewer pollutants, flooding, and urban blight.7 including greenhouse gases (GHGs). To be Second, the presence of local business own- sure, a number of studies have argued that ers in a community can lead to greater envi- local food does not always minimize carbon ronmental responsibility through accountability. emissions. Alaskans, for example, might find A business owner can be shamed into thinking that growing bananas in their own green- twice about polluting freely, for example, if houses is more energy-intensive than trans- the victims are attending the same church or porting bananas from Guatemala.9 going to the same schools. The responsibility But the most widely publicized of these that local owners feel to their own neighbor- studies actually prove very little. For example, hoods helps explain why U.S. locally owned one report suggested that U.K. residents eat- businesses have been found to give 2.5 times ing local lamb generated four times as many as much money to local charities per employee GHGs as they would have had they imported as non-local businesses do.8 New Zealand lamb. But the study, whose fund- ing by the New Zealand lamb export associa- tion went unnoticed, only compared energy-intensive, industrial-agriculture methods in the two countries, and it never even exam- ined the GHG impacts of local production.10 Finally, every profitable green small-business model provides an invaluable jigsaw piece to the global puzzle of sustainability. A low-cost, Internet-based food distribution system— such as the Oklahoma Food Coop—can offer communities everywhere a model for greater food self-reliance. A successful local wind pro- ject, such as the subdivision-owned windmills in Hepburn Shire, just outside Melbourne, Australia, can help thousands of other communities worldwide see how to achieve energy self-reliance. According to localiza- tion advocates, a key to global sustainability and poverty alleviation (alongside Fair Trade and technology transfer programs) might be open-source platforms that spread without charge, particularly to poorer communities, start-of-the-art business models, technolo- gies, and practices.11 Courtesy Bellingham Farmers Market Local farmers offer up their mixed greens at the Localization and Prosperity Bellingham Farmers Market. The sustainability impacts of localization would Third, because local businesses tend to use be interesting but ultimately unconvincing if local materials and sell to local markets, their local businesses turned out to have few eco- inputs and outputs require less shipping, con- nomic benefits for a community. In fact, a

112 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Relocalizing Business growing body of evidence suggests that local- nomic development. For example, a com- ization, done properly, can increase prosperity munity rich in local business creation attracts for three reasons. and retains entrepreneurs and entrepreneur- First, the immobility of local businesses ial young people. As Richard Florida of the means that economic development efforts Creative Class Group argues, such “creative focused on them are more likely to produce economies” succeed because they are tolerant, enduring results. An investigative report on the diverse, and fun, and in the end such cost effectiveness of tax abatements in Lane economies depend on the ability to seed and County, Oregon, found that 95 percent of expand local businesses.15 the tax abatement dollars given between 1990 Most economists and economic developers and 2002 had gone to six non-local compa- are only dimly aware of these findings, since nies—three of which came, took the benefits, they are based on new studies and theories. But and then shut down and moved elsewhere. even as these ideas spread, resistance will run The rest went to about a hundred local com- deep, because most economic developers know panies. The public cost to the region of a non- they will get more press, political kudos, and local job, in tax-abatement terms, was about budgetary rewards for a single big-business $23,800. The comparable cost of a local job deal creating 1,000 jobs than for 100 deals that was $2,100—the same per-job cost reported each create 10 jobs. From an economic stand- by several microenterprise organizations in the point, however, the jury has returned with a western United States. Thus non-local jobs clear and convincing verdict: locally owned were more than 10 times costlier. On a long- businesses are significantly better bets for term, net jobs basis (taking into account the big income, wealth, and jobs. firms’ departures), non-local jobs were 33 times more expensive.12 Localization and Efficiency Second, a local business tends to generate a higher economic multiplier than a compara- Skeptics of localization continue to assert that ble non-local business. In the summer of 2003, local businesses simply have poorer, more for instance, two economists studied the impact expensive goods and services that cannot pos- of a proposed Borders bookstore in Austin, sibly achieve the higher economies of scale Texas, compared with two local bookstores. inherent in global businesses. Yet at some point They found that $100 spent at Borders would increasing scale brings diminishing returns and circulate $13 in the Austin economy, while poorer performance. The recent global finan- $100 spent at the two local bookstores would cial meltdown is a poignant reminder that many circulate $45—translating to three times the global corporations, not to mention the global jobs, earnings, and tax collections.13 financial institutions that have been their Many other studies in the United States enablers, carry many more risks than people and the United Kingdom all point in the same ever appreciated. In fact, what is becoming direction, and for an obvious reason: local clear is that the global scale of business carries businesses spend more of their money locally. many profound dis-economies. Unlike a chain book store, for example, a local For example, even when nonlocal production bookstore has local management, uses local can bring down costs by siting a factory in a business services, advertises locally, and enjoys jurisdiction with low-wage labor and high-pol- a stream of local profits.14 lution technologies, long-distance distribution Third, the uniqueness of a local business is becoming increasingly inefficient. Consider fits hand-in-glove with other theories of eco- food. Economist Stewart Smith of the Uni-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 113 Relocalizing Business STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 versity of Maine estimates that $1 spent on a Fulfilling the Market Potential typical U.S. foodstuff item in 1900 wound up yielding 40¢ for the farmer, with the other 60¢ Despite the market potential for more local- split between inputs and distribution. Today, ization, formidable barriers stand in the way. about 7¢ of every retail food dollar goes to Consumers are deluged with billions of dollars the farmer, rancher, or grower, while 73¢ goes of global advertising and are often unaware of to distribution. Whenever the distribution costs competitive local goods and services. Small- tower over the production costs, there are huge business owners—distrustful of their local com- opportunities for cost-effective localization. petitors and overwhelmed by the daily work of Food localization reduces the need for and keeping their firms alive—fail to forge natural expense of many components of distribution, business partnerships that might otherwise be such as refrigeration, packaging, advertising, beneficial. Investors are deterred from putting and third parties. And as oil and energy prices their money into profitable local businesses rise in the years ahead, distributional ineffi- by obsolete security laws that make it unrea- ciencies like these will increase, opening up sonably expensive. And public policymakers new opportunities for localization.16 worldwide, despite all their positive rhetoric Other trends also are making local busi- about small business, seem unable to break nesses more competitive. For 50 years con- their addiction to subsidizing global busi- sumers in industrial countries have been nesses. The localization movement aims to shifting their expenditures from goods to ser- dismantle these barriers. vices, which fuels localization because local To help consumers find and buy competi- services, where providers and clients have face- tive local goods and services, Local First cam- to-face relationships, have always been highly paigns, like the one in Bellingham, are competitive. Homeland security concerns are providing information about which businesses nudging officials to promote self-reliance in and products are in fact local and what their commodities like food and energy. While the prices and quality are compared with the global spread of the Internet is not unambiguously competition. These initiatives are also nudging positive for localization (mass retailers like consumers to buy local through myriad tools. Amazon and eBay could not exist without it), Local coupon books provide consumers with it ultimately levels the playing field by provid- introductory discounts to local business. Local ing local competitors with a low-cost tool for debit, credit, gift, and loyalty cards reward marketing themselves. local purchases. Local and money sys- Even without these trends, small-scale busi- tems induce participating consumers to use nesses are already competitive in almost every their credits exclusively with local businesses.18 business category. The North American To improve the competitive practices of Industrial Classification System, an impor- local businesses, alliances like the Sustainable tant database produced by the U.S. Census Business Network of Greater Philadelphia (a Bureau, contains 1,100 such categories, and BALLE affiliate) are organizing conferences there are more small businesses—nearly all of where they can showcase best business practices which are locally owned—than large ones in in everything from marketing strategy to all but 7 of them. The point is that even in energy-reduction technologies. Peer networks, very small communities, a smart economic especially those organized by sector (food, developer can find exciting examples of small- energy, retail, and so forth), are helping local scale success in almost every industry and businesses improve their competitiveness. Local replicate them.17 businesses are learning that by working

114 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Relocalizing Business together, they can achieve most of the ple, while the U.S. Chamber of Commerce has economies of larger scale that might otherwise been opposing “cap-and-trade” legislation to give some global businesses a competitive curb GHGs, a number of local business asso- advantage. Tucson Originals in Arizona, for ciations have been lobbying for the legisla- example, enables participating local-food busi- tion. A similar split can be seen around nesses to improve their bottom line through proposals to eliminate tax loopholes for U.S. joint procurement and marketing.19 multinationals: the Chamber opposes these Perhaps the biggest obstacle to localization reforms, while local business networks sup- is the unavailability of capital. Complex secu- port them.21 rities laws governing capital markets make it The biggest public policy change sought by unaffordable for small investors to place their localization advocates is to overhaul the pri- savings in small businesses even in wealthy orities of economic development. Public dol- nations. In Australia, for instance, local busi- lars, they argue, should be focused exclusively nesses account for two thirds of the economy on nurturing local business. Every economic and have steadily improved their share of gross development dollar and hour spent on attract- domestic product vis-à-vis global business, yet ing or retaining non-local business is a dollar almost none of the 9 percent “superannuation” and hour unavailable for the superior pay- funds that citizens must put into their retire- offs, in both sustainability and prosperity, for ment accounts can be placed in local business. localization.22 A growing mission of the localization move- The agenda for localization actually con- ment is to deregulate grassroots participation tains hundreds of action points for activists, in capital markets, help small businesses issue businesses, and policymakers, many of whom local stock inexpensively, provide liquidity to never agree on much of anything. Localiza- these markets through local stock exchanges, tion is forging unlikely new alliances between and create new investment professionals— green businesses and anti-business greens and advisors, broker dealers, traders, fund man- between free-market conservatives and anti- agers—who specialize in local investment.20 globalization progressives. And this, in the Changing investment rules is really a sub- end, might be the most compelling feature of set of a much larger policy reform agenda. localization and its most enduring contribu- Local business alliances are beginning to stake tion—a culture of sustainability rooted in out policy positions dramatically at odds with deep democracy. the traditional business community. For exam-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 115 Government’s Role in Design

n a sustainable society, eco-friendly clear that the biggest threats to national secu- choices should not be difficult to make. rity are not foreign armies or terrorist groups The sustainable choice in any situa- but the weakened state of the planet. Michael II tion, whether it be buying a new light- Renner of Worldwatch describes how to take bulb or designing a suburban development, the almost $1.5 trillion spent each year on should be the default choice, the path of least militaries around the world and use it instead resistance, even natural. This section confirms to heal environmental and social problems. that governments—which set laws, create soci- This shift will do more to protect people than etal priorities, and design the cities and towns the largest nuclear arsenal ever could, and in where people live—will be central players in the process it will create additional economic nurturing such a culture of sustainability. opportunities and new openings to improve An important role of governments—one diplomatic relations between countries.2 that is almost invisible when it is done well— Where people live will also need to be is that of “choice editing.” Michael Maniates redesigned in order to make it easy to live sus- of Allegheny College notes that editing citi- tainably. Peter Newman of Curtin University zens’ options through laws, taxes, subsidies, of Technology outlines how and where this is and so on has been a long-standing role of gov- happening already, so that cities and towns ernments. What is new today is that choice have smaller ecological footprints or even no editing is now being used to make the sus- footprint at all. Cities could become free of cars tainable choice the default one by design. and could generate a significant portion of From a plastic bag ban in Rwanda and the their energy and even their food by harnessing phaseout of incandescent bulbs in Canada to their rooftops and green spaces for solar arrays, sweeping carbon taxes in Sweden and subsidies wind turbines, and gardens. And by tapping on solar power in China, many governments into community networks, city dwellers can be around the world are starting to try to make mobilized as active participants in accelerating it effortless for people to live sustainable lives.1 the shift to sustainable urban design. Another concept that sorely needs to be Key social services like health care need to reconsidered is national security. As human be overhauled as well, as Walter Bortz of the activities disrupt a growing number of eco- Stanford University School of Medicine notes. logical systems, it will become increasingly In many societies today, health care is focused

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Click here to see notes for this section. Government’s Role in Design STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

too much on treating symptoms instead of on made today and will give citizens legal preventing disease and encouraging healthy recourse when ecological degradation mas- and sustainable living. By shifting from “sick querades as economic development. care” to health care, governments can prevent Within these articles there are also two millions of unnecessary deaths and improve Boxes: one on how other social services could the lives of millions more. They can also save be redesigned to provide more for less and in billions of dollars and, by reducing the need for ecologically restorative ways and another on the resource-intensive treatments, cut the ecolog- international community’s role in making global ical impacts of keeping people healthy. consumption and production patterns sustain- One other key redesign needed is that of able through the Marrakech Process of the the very system of law. Cormac Cullinan, an United Nations. environmental attorney in Cape Town, The importance of government’s role in describes how legal systems today fail to inte- creating sustainable societies cannot be over- grate the rights of Earth’s systems and how stated. If policymakers make sustainability their this in turn allows the shortsighted conversion priority, bolstered by citizens’ support, vast of ecosystems into resources at the expense of societal transformations can occur so that one both human communities and the Earth com- day living sustainable lives will become nat- munity. Recognizing Earth’s rights in law ural—by design. will help make it natural to consider the —Erik Assadourian broader tradeoffs of development choices

118 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Editing Out Unsustainable Behavior

Michael Maniates

By late 2010, Australians are going to have a prickly philosophical question at the heart of hard time finding an incandescent bulb for it all: Should products be removed from the their nightstand lamps or desk lights. The Aus- menu of consumer choice because of their tralian government, troubled by potential elec- environmental or other socially objectionable tricity shortages and global climate change, is qualities? Who decides what stays on the shelves the first to “ban the bulb” in favor of energy- and what goes? Shouldn’t the consumer be sipping compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) and allowed to choose freely? Is “lightbulb fas- LEDs. The impact will be significant: 4 million cism” intruding into the marketplace?2 fewer tons of greenhouse gas emissions each year by 2012, together with sizable economic Choice Editing Is Nothing New savings. And Australia is not alone. The Euro- pean Union is slowly phasing out incandescents Welcome to the world of “choice editing,” by 2012. Canada, Indonesia, and even the where the tussle over lightbulbs is but the United States are next in line.1 opening salvo in a larger struggle to crowd out Environmental analysts like Lester Brown of environmentally negative products in favor of the Earth Policy Institute are delighted. Brown more benign choices. Choice editing for sus- says that if everyone followed Australia’s lead tainability is more than simply deleting what “the worldwide drop in electricity use would does not work. In the words of the U.K. Sus- permit the closing of more than 270 coal- tainable Development Council, it “is about fired (500 megawatt) power plants. For the shifting the field of choice for mainstream United States, this bulb switch would facilitate consumers: cutting out unnecessarily damag- shutting down 80 coal-fired plants.” But oth- ing products and getting real sustainable ers are not so sure. Reports abound of people choices on the shelves.” (See Box 16 for some hoarding incandescent bulbs in Australia and initiatives on sustainable consumption at the Germany, among other countries, and some international level.)3 experts wonder if incandescents are being Choice editors remove environmentally forced out too quickly. And then there is the offensive products from commercial consid-

Michael Maniates is Professor of Political Science and Environmental Science at Allegheny College in Pennsylvania.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Editing Out Unsustainable Behavior STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Box 16. The U.N. Marrakech Process on Sustainable Consumption and Production

In recognition of their disproportionate share them. Develops train-the-trainer tools for of global consumption and the resulting sustainable consumption in youth, CD-roms impact on sustainability and equality, industrial on sustainability in marketing, and on-line countries agreed in 2002 to take the lead in galleries of sustainability communication. accelerating the shift toward sustainable pat- Projects implemented in more than 30 coun- terns of consumption and production. tries with materials in over 10 languages. To achieve this, a global informal multi- • Cooperation with Africa (Germany). Affirms stakeholder expert process was launched in Africa’s own 10-year framework on SCP (the 2003 in Marrakech, Morocco, to support first region to have developed and launched regional and national initiatives to accelerate such a program) by supporting an All Africa the shift to sustainable consumption and pro- Eco-Labeling scheme, the establishment of a duction (SCP) and to elaborate a 10-year network of Life-Cycle Assessment experts in framework of programs on SCP, which will Africa, and initiatives to “leapfrog” straight begin after its structure and content are nego- into clean energy sources. tiated at the U.N. Commission on Sustainable • Sustainable Public Procurement (Switzer- Development meeting in May 2011. land). Develops analysis and Web-based A key element of the Marrakech Process is Status Assessment tools to support public- its seven Task Forces, which are voluntary ini- sector organizations’ attempts to justify, tiatives led by governments in cooperation develop, and gauge the success of sustain- with various partners: able procurement programs. • Sustainable Lifestyles (Sweden). Identifies • (United Kingdom). and compares grassroots social innovations Catalyzes networks of experts in key product for sustainability from around the world, areas to upwardly revise standards, develop finds promising examples, and diffuses labels, work together on policy roadmaps, eration, like smog-producing charcoal lighter among CFLs, LEDs, and other innovative fluid in Los Angeles or leaded gasoline in lighting technologies.4 Europe and North America. Or they make If the idea of governmental choice editing such products expensive to use, like Ireland’s rankles, perhaps because it sounds manipula- levy on plastic shopping bags, which has tive or too “Big Brother,” remember that reduced plastic bag use by 90 percent. But choice editing is neither new nor novel. Gov- like any good editor, choice editors cannot ernment has long been at it, in ways both just chop. They must offer options or, at the obvious and obscure. (See Table 8.) Safety very least—in the words of environmental and performance standards for everything from reporter Leo Hickman—a sufficiently com- the food people eat to the cars they drive con- pelling illusion of choice. In Los Angeles, strain and shape choice. The same holds true backyard cooks denied their lighter fluid had for tax, tariff, and subsidy policies that heighten the choice of chimney or electric briquette the desirability of some products while making fire starters. In Ireland, shoppers can purchase others unattractive or unavailable. More sub- any number of cloth bags, some trendy or tly, government decisions about where to build stylish. And in Australia and the growing num- roads and rail lines, what schools and hospitals ber of other countries looking to edit out are constructed or closed, and which research incandescents, consumers will see more choice and development initiatives are supported or

120 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Editing Out Unsustainable Behavior

Box 16. continued

and collaborate on compliance. Three prod- (a global network of 8,500 educational insti- uct areas identified so far: lighting, home tutions in 179 countries founded in 1953) to entertainment products, and electric motors. disseminate best practices in sustainability • (France). Creates education to teachers around the world. demand for greener travel offerings with By bringing consumption into the global the Green Passport Program for citizens, dialogue on sustainability, the Marrakech fosters industry supply with the revised Process raises questions of lifestyle, values, Environmental and Sustainable Tourism and progress, creating a unique space within Teaching Pack for the Hospitality Industry, national governments and regional forums for and encourages investment by convening reforming the cultures and institutions at the a Sustainable Investment and Finance in basis of all socioeconomic systems, while Tourism Network. bringing a suite of tools to the table for policy- • Sustainable Buildings and Construction makers who are serious about greening the (Finland). Works to move green building economy and improving human well-being. standards beyond the realm of the voluntary Clearly more could be done with greater by developing policy recommendations and leverage and resources. Unfortunately, the low working in partnership with national govern- profile of the Marrakech Process means the ments and private firms participating in effort suffers from a lack of serious attention the U.N. Sustainable Buildings and Climate by senior decisionmakers. In the run-up to the Initiative. negotiations in May 2011, this fledgling but • Education for Sustainable Consumption transformative U.N. process could be helped (Italy). Focuses on integrating sustainable by the greater involvement of governments, consumption into core curriculum in the the private sector, and the public. Mediterranean region, while working with the —Stefanie Bowles UNESCO Associate Schools Network Project Source: See endnote 3. starved converge to write the menu for hous- mass-consuming choices appear natural and ing, education, and jobs from which everyone inevitable: witness the single-family, detached must choose. home to be filled with products, a family car to The real worry is not that government get to it, and dispersed and abundant shopping engages in choice editing. Rather, it is that for outlets. Other, more environmentally sustain- decades such editing has aided and abetted an able consumption options and patterns—effi- especially narrow view of progress, one that cient streetcar and intercity rails systems, for imagines mass consumption as the foundation instance, or a returnable-bottle network for of human happiness, egalitarianism, and even milk, soda, and other products—were cast as democracy itself. As prize-winning historian backward, were made more difficult to find or Lizabeth Cohen writes in Consumers’ Repub- rely upon, and subsequently disappeared.5 lic, “A strategy…emerged after the Second Cohen’s incisive gaze rests on the United World War for reconstructing the [U.S.] econ- States, but similar stories hold true for much omy and reaffirming its democratic values of the industrial world, and parallel tales are through promoting the expansion of mass con- now being told in developing countries, most sumption.” A central plank of this strategy was notably India and China. They all point to a to make energy-intensive, resource-depleting, provocative question: if the rise of fundamen-

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Table 8. Examples and Features of Choice Editing

Types of Choice Editing Examples Important Features Eliminate • Montreal Protocol and CFCs • Strong legislation, often sup- offending • Shift away from leaded petrol in the North ported by business interests choices America and Europe • Requires new choices to offset • Ban on incandescent bulbs in Australia the loss of previous choices • Compressed natural gas for public trans- • Demands a “phase-in” period portation in India that allows for adjustment • Walmart’s decision to carry only MSC- certified wild-caught fresh and frozen fish

Slowly trim • Japan’s “top runner” program for energy • The use of labeling to identify, away the worst efficiency over time, the most offending products and • LEED building requirements in the United practices and products practices States, which gradually increase the stand- • Clear standards and methods of ards for certifying a new building as “green” evaluation or “sustainable” • among government, industry, and consumer groups

Make offending • Ireland’s levy on plastic shopping bags • Two primary instruments: taxa- choices less • Shifting fatty and processed foods from eye tion and product placement and attractive or level to higher or lower shelves positioning increasingly • Wide range of choice is retained, difficult but incentives and positioning privilege sustainable choices over unsustainable ones

Change context • Creative use of defaults (for instance, con- • Enduring question: How can con- for choices; sumers are subscribed to renewable forms sumer experience be structured alter “choice of electricity and must intentionally refuse so that doing the right thing is architecture” this option) natural and requires little or no • Focused changes to material flows; for uni- thought while doing the wrong versity and corporate composting programs, thing is difficult and requires con- for example, shift to all compostable dining scious thought and focused intent ware (plates and utensils) in cafeterias to • Building a choice architecture eliminate mixing of compostable and non- to oppose consumerism often compostable waste by consumers involves reintroducing meaning- • Embedded cues and drivers that encourage ful choice: choices among varied reduced consumption (for example, when transportation options, for trays in university cafeterias are removed, stu- example, or about work time dents take only what they need, reducing food and leisure waste, water use, and energy consumption) • Create real choice for trading leisure for income: four fifths work for four fifths pay as a viable work option

122 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Editing Out Unsustainable Behavior tally unsustainable consumer cultures was facil- University London, who coined the idea of itated by choice editing—by an who “food miles,” speaks for many analysts of sus- intently shifted the field of choice for main- tainable consumption when he asks “why stream consumers—will transforming con- should the consumer be the one left in the sumerism into something more sustainable supermarket aisle to agonize over complex require a similar degree of determination and issues such as , carbon foot- sophistication by government and business? prints, workers’ rights and excessive packaging, The answer appears to be yes. In 2006, for often without any meaningful data on the label example, the Sustainable Development Round- to inform their decision-making?” Why, in table (SDR)—a project of the Sustainable other words, don’t producers and govern- Development Commission and the National ments shift their current choice-editing prac- Consumer Council in the United Kingdom— tices so that consumers choose only among a released an analysis of 19 promising transfor- range of environmentally “good” products? mations in consumer cultures, ranging from That way, making the right choice is—as busi- sustainable forestry products to fair-trade and nessman and environmental writer Paul organic food product lines. SDR concluded Hawken puts it—as “easy as falling off a log.”8 that “historically, the green consumer has not One answer is that the favored alternative— been the tipping point in driving green inno- labeling products as environmentally “good” vation. Instead, choice editing for quality and or “bad” and letting consumers decide—is sustainability by government and business has sometimes thought to be less controversial. been the critical driver in the majority of cases. Product labeling is an important component Manufacturers, retailers and regulators have in the transformation of consumer societies made decisions to edit out less sustainable to sustainable ones. Yet experience suggests products on behalf of consumers, raising the that when product information is made avail- standard for all.”6 able, perhaps as part of ecolabeling schemes, A classic example of this is the Montreal Pro- it influences no more than a minority of shop- tocol’s phaseout of ozone-destroying chloro- pers—and not nearly enough, not fast enough, fluorocarbons (CFCs). “Powerful economic, and not consistently enough to drive the trans- political, and technical factors combined to formation of consumer life required by a planet facilitate the phase-out of CFCs,” write James under stress.9 Maxwell and Sanford Weiner of the Massa- At least three factors limit the effectiveness chusetts Institute of Technology. They note of labeling: the varying degree of environ- that a critical factor was DuPont’s desire to cre- mental commitment among the general pop- ate new consumer demand for its CFC sub- ulation; the complexity of consumer-choice stitute while establishing a competitive decisions, which are structured by intricate advantage over its major global competitor, sets of social processes and cultural influ- which had no such substitutes. The ozone ences; and a corrosive “choice architecture”— layer is healthier today because consumers the potent context within which people make shifted to more ozone-friendly substitutes, but decisions. Nutrition labeling, for example, this shift came about largely because of does not stand much of a chance in most methodical choice editing that pushed con- supermarkets, given that products are posi- sumers in that direction.7 tioned (or hidden) on shelves and at end-of- Of course, consumers still have an impor- aisle displays to foster purchases of tant role to play as they vote for sustainability fatty, sweet, and processed foods and that with their purchases. But Tim Lang of City sugary products are shelved at a child’s eye

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level. It is no surprise, then, that the Sus- ditions and the ability to pay permit. Regard- tainable Development Commission found less of their preferences, 20 percent of their that information about the environmental electricity will flow from renewable sources and economic benefits of less environmentally by 2010 due to Renewable Portfolio Stan- destructive products “failed to get more than dards imposed on electric utilities by the state a minority of people buying” the best prod- government. These are driving the develop- ucts. But the Commission also found that ment of renewables faster than uncoordinated when labeling and other information efforts consumer demand ever could. California’s were part of choice-editing efforts by gov- proportion of renewable electricity will slowly ernment, producers, and retailers, consumer grow, and 38 other states are following suit.12 practices changed across the board.10 In 2003, London implemented Europe’s first “congestion pricing” program for its city core: drivers pay a fee to operate their car in central city areas during peak periods, with the rev- enue going to boost bus service and fund subway renovations. Initially treated with skepticism, the program now enjoys growing public support and is a model for major cities world- wide. And in India, in response to a Supreme Court public health order, the government has required all buses, taxis, and auto-rickshaws in major cities to switch from dirty fuels to cleaner burning compressed nat- ural gas. Despite some initial protests, New Delhi has led the way, and com- N-O-M-A-D muters are now part of an ambitious New Delhi traffic jam: less pollution may be only half the battle. effort to curb air pollution. These examples, and others like them, Editing for Sustainability demonstrate the effectiveness and political via- If the goal is to move consumers toward less bility of choice editing.13 environmentally damaging patterns of con- Business offers its own set of examples, sumption, contemporary experience says that though whether these practices will endure choice editing delivers. At a growing number and expand absent government regulation or of colleges and universities across the United persistent pressure by citizens’ groups remains States, for instance, fair-trade coffee and to be seen. Reacting to pressure from envi- renewably generated electricity are increas- ronmental groups, since 1999 Home Depot— ingly on the menu—and are often the only the largest home improvement retailer in the choice available on campus.11 United States—has sold lumber certified and In California, consumers can choose from labeled by the Forest Stewardship Council. a variety of electricity generation options, and But it also has quietly altered significant aspects the most environmentally dedicated customers of its wood-product supply chain; it is conse- can opt for rooftop solar arrays where site con- quently harder today than 10 years ago for any-

124 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Editing Out Unsustainable Behavior one to purchase environmentally “bad” lum- because they understood their program as ber at Home Depot.14 more than a simple labeling exercise. It was B&Q, Home Depot’s counterpart in the about changing critical components of the United Kingdom, pursued a similar strategy “choice architecture” at its stores. “It includes and has perhaps the most robust commercial signs, shelf tags, an advertising campaign, col- system in place for certifying the sources of its lateral materials, training materials, a web site, timber supply, easily outpacing U.S. retailers. and community outreach, among other ele- Interviewed in the late 1990s, Allen Knight, ments,” explains Hannaford spokesperson then Environmental Policy Coordinator for Michael Norton. And it meant changing prod- the company, explained that B&Q embarked uct placement and shelving strategies to rein- on sustainable wood “even though there was force healthier shopping habits.18 no indication of consumer demand for certi- fied products.” He observed that “customers Obstacles to Change do not ask for certified products because they are unaware of them: Raising awareness and There remains immense potential for choice creating markets are the retailer’s role.”15 editing to drive fundamental changes in con- Not to be outdone, in early 2006 Walmart sumption. But at least two obstacles stand in pledged to source all its wild-caught fresh and the way. One is the persistent belief that prod- frozen fish from suppliers certified as sustain- uct labeling alone can drive necessary change. ably harvested by the Marine Stewardship Even when logical and clear, labeling places the Council (MSC). Moreover, it required its sup- burden on consumers to drive needed social pliers to expand renewable fisheries rather than change with their purchasing decisions. It also jockey for access to or ownership of existing reinforces what Thomas Princen at the Uni- suppliers. The blue MSC ecolabel figures versity of Michigan calls one of the most dis- prominently on Walmart wild-caught fish, but abling myths about political life: the notion of unlike other labeling schemes the certification consumer sovereignty, which says that the is not meant to persuade buyers to choose decisions that producers and marketers make sustainable wild-caught fish over less sustain- about what to produce and what to sell is dri- able options, as the company has edited those ven solely by independent, uninfluenced con- out completely.16 sumer choices. The consumer decides, in other Also in early 2006 Hannaford Supermarkets words, and the producer responds. This idea in the United States implemented its “guiding denies the power that government and business star” program in 270 stores, in which products have over the menu and architecture of con- identified as especially healthy or nutritious sumer choice. In doing so, it undermines the are given one to three stars. Some 28 percent very rationale for choice editing.19 of items in the stores receive the rating, with Japan has pioneered a better use of labeling, the remainder not being good enough to get one that could move consumer cultures toward a star at all. Dan Goleman, author of Ecolog- an ethos of sustainability. Since 1998 the gov- ical Intelligence, reports that “poorly rated ernment has divided products up into similar brands dropped as much as 5 percent in sales,” categories and classes, and then graded and while sales of some three-star brands went up labeled them on a 1–5 scale for energy effi- by 7 percent. “Brand managers started con- ciency. Tiers one and two are the standard set tacting Hannaford to ask what they needed to by the best-performing products—and it is do to get higher ratings,” Goleman noted.17 the standard that the entire industry must Hannaford’s apparent success comes meet within five years. As these “top runners”

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 125 Editing Out Unsustainable Behavior STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 improve, the overall standard shifts upward, trian walkways, mass transit—that would reduce placing ongoing pressure on manufacturers individual pressures to consume (thus sup- to improve their product lines or face a ban on porting de Graaf’s agenda for less work, less their products. In the short run, energy-con- income, but more life satisfaction).22 scious consumers are empowered: the top- In Nudge, economist Richard Thaler and runner label offers important information legal scholar Cass Sunstein provide a suite of about the overall energy costs of a consumer additional ideas for altering the “choice archi- choice. In the longer run, the field of choice tecture” in service of sustainable consump- changes: the label provides a regulatory plat- tion. These include the pervasive use of form for driving constant product innovation, defaults to “nudge” consumers in environ- increasing the range of choice among the mentally appropriate directions. A person higher-performing categories and editing out could opt out of these defaults, but the bur- the worst products. Germany is considering a den rests on the individual to choose the similar program. Advocates of choice editing wrong behavior over the right one. Examples hope that Walmart’s recent commitment to include automatic and certified carbon-offsets environmental labeling will incorporate this for all travel bookings, default savings plans, “top runner policy.”20 and pricier renewable energy automatically A second impediment to the power of included in residential energy bills (so a cus- choice editing is its prevailing focus on “con- tomer would have to say explicitly “I want to sumption shifting” rather than “consumption use dirty, polluting coal to save a small amount reducing.” Most choice editing has been about of money”).23 moving consumers to less environmentally Choice editing has been with us a great damaging products. But genuinely sustain- long while, and it is here to stay. If that seems able patterns of consumption must also involve far-fetched, just bring an especially critical eye reductions in overall consumption. How can to the layout of products and displays in a the context within which everyday people supermarket. Which products draw customers’ make consumption decisions be edited to eyes? Which are easily reached? The question encourage that? John de Graaf suggests one now is this: Will a primary focus on the promise answer: make it attractive for people to trade of product labeling alone (and underlying work for leisure in ways that would lead to a notions of consumer sovereignty) continue to voluntary reduction in income (but not health shape policy for sustainable consumption? Or and other important benefits) for more free will more-realistic assessments emerge about time, which in turn has known environmen- how and why people make consumer choices? tal benefits.21 Government and business, operating from a Cornell economist Robert Frank offers view that mass consumption means mass pros- another solution: shift taxes toward luxury con- perity, have tightly held the reins of choice sumption, reduce or eliminate taxes on income editing for too long. Now is the time for a diverted to savings, and invest more government more nuanced, more sustainable vision of resources in public uses—parks, inviting pedes- choice and choice architecture to prevail.

126 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Broadening the Understanding of Security

Michael Renner

In 1985, when the world was still trapped in nomic transformations that often translate into the Cold War standoff, political scientist Daniel joblessness and livelihood insecurity. Deudney called for “large-scale cooperation Understanding how these social, economic, between the United States and the Soviet and environmental conditions can undermine Union in the manned exploitation of deep human security and may even translate into space and multilateral efforts to secure earth by conflicts and instability requires a broader def- making better use of space technologies.” He inition of security, one that understands the argued that such a common, collaborative pro- influence of economic, demographic, and envi- ject could be “harnessed to transform the ronmental pressures that cannot be resolved by superpower relationship and to create a com- force of arms. Recent years have indeed seen mon security system.”1 a growing recognition of such dynamics. Whether space exploration was then or is ever the right vehicle for bringing about a Key Challenges more cooperative and peaceful world order is debatable. But the underlying argument is A number of these conditions and dynamics worth pondering: can humanity, in rallying can be seen as an outgrowth of the dominant around a common purpose, leave behind its economic model premised on essentially costly history of conflicts and divisions? The unlimited resource consumption. This model Cold War is long over, but security concerns is not only putting humanity on a collision have hardly vanished. Nations around the course with the planet’s ecological limits, it world, and especially the poorest countries has also led to tremendous social and eco- and communities, confront a multitude of nomic inequality. interlinked challenges and pressures. These Nonrenewable resources. Throughout his- include rising competition for resources, envi- tory the pursuit of resources such as fossil ronmental breakdown and the specter of severe fuels, metals, and minerals has led to repeated climate disruptions, a resurgence of infectious outside interventions in resource-rich countries. diseases, demographic pressures, poverty and The specter of and comparable con- growing wealth disparities, and convulsive eco- tradictions between surging demand for and

Michael Renner is a senior researcher at the Worldwatch Institute who focuses on security and economics.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Broadening the Understanding of Security STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 finite deposits of other resources raise the like- marginalization of the poor has led to more fre- lihood of intensifying geopolitical rivalries. quent and more devastating disaster events. But resource wealth has also fueled serious The number of natural disasters (excluding human rights violations, corrupt systems of geological events such as earthquakes and vol- governance, and even a series of civil wars. canic eruptions) has risen from 233 in the Revenues from mining and logging opera- 1950s to more than 3,800 in the current tions have mostly benefited a small minority, decade, and the number of people affected while the social and environmental burdens has grown from nearly 20 million to 2 bil- have typically been shouldered by poor and dis- lion. The pace is likely to accelerate as climate advantaged communities.2 change translates into more intense storms, Renewable resources. Water, arable land, flooding, and heat waves. Disasters can under- forests, and fisheries are essential for all of mine human security by exacerbating poverty, human life, and the livelihoods of hundreds of deepening inequalities, and undermining the millions of farmers, ranchers, and nomadic long-term habitability of some areas. The expe- pastoralists depend directly on them. Distrib- riences of Haiti, Nicaragua, Bangladesh, India, utional disputes may grow more pronounced and China suggest that unrest and political with resource depletion and pollution. Almost crisis can erupt where relief and reconstruction one third of the world—estimates vary between efforts are slow or incompetent.4 1.4 billion and 2 billion people—already live Unemployment. The global economic cri- in water-scarce regions. Aside from population sis that broke into full view in late 2008 sharp- growth and poor management practices, cli- ened concerns about unemployment, uncertain mate change impacts could increase the economic prospects, and the growing move affected number of people by anywhere from toward the informal sector in the world econ- 60 million to 1 billion people by 2050. A omy. Almost half the world’s workforce, some recent study found that due to such impacts as 1.5 billion people, is classified by the Interna- rising temperatures and increased drought, tional Labour Organization as being in vul- half of the world’s population could face severe nerable employment arrangements; more than food shortages by the end of this century.3 1.2 billion workers are mired in poverty, earn- Disease burdens. Food shortages make ing less than $2 a day. Close to 190 million affected populations more vulnerable to dis- people were unemployed altogether in 2008, eases. The world is experiencing a resurgence a number that was expected to rise by 30–60 of infectious diseases, with the poor being the million in 2009. North Africa, the Middle most vulnerable. Pathogens are crossing bor- East, Eastern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and ders with increasing ease, facilitated by inter- Latin America have particularly high rates of national travel and trade, migration, and social joblessness. The unemployment figure for upheaval. In addition, logging, road-build- young people, at 12 percent, was double the ing, and dam construction bring humans close overall rate. When large numbers of young to new pathogens. And climate change enables adults face bleak prospects for earning enough vectors for diseases like malaria or dengue to establish and support a family, their dis- fever to spread. At the same time, an increas- content can translate into societal instability.5 ing number of societies are confronting an Population movements. A range of factors epidemic of obesity—a symptom of overcon- contribute to population movements, and sumption and sedentary lifestyles. sometimes the boundaries between voluntary Disasters. A combination of ecosystem and involuntary flows are blurred. In addi- destruction, population growth, and economic tion to 42 million international refugees and

128 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Broadening the Understanding of Security internally displaced persons fleeing warfare crises that “could topple governments, feed and persecution, some 25 million people are terrorist movements or destabilize entire thought to have been uprooted by natural dis- regions.” But instead of a militarization of asters. As many as 105 million people have environmental and human security challenges, been made homeless by projects such as dams, a fundamental re-evaluation of security policies mines, roads, and factories. Environmental is needed.8 degradation is behind at least some of these Traditional security perspectives remain numbers. Projections of the number who may dominant in most national budgets. In 2008, get displaced due to climate change by 2050 the world spent almost $1.5 trillion for mili- vary from a low of 25 million to a high of 1 bil- tary purposes—the largest amount since the lion. Refugees and migrants may be seen as end of World War II and many times more than unwelcome competitors for land, water, jobs, is available for human security priorities. West- and social services, possibly leading to social ern countries did increase their development unrest and violence.6 aid to $120 billion in 2008, up from $52 bil- lion (in current dollars) 10 years earlier. Aid by The Need for New Priorities non-Western donors and multilateral agencies brings the total for development assistance to Over the years, academics and policymakers about $139 billion. That still leaves a mili- have come to accept the validity of a broader tary-to-aid budget ratio of more than 10 to 1.9 view of human security than just a military Budgets for climate change are also increas- one. Roughly a dozen governments engage in ing but are still small compared with military an ongoing dialogue through the Human budgets. In fiscal year 2010, the United States Security Network. A number of national gov- will spend $65 on the military for each $1 ernment agencies and intergovernmental bod- devoted to climate programs. The nuclear ies have developed policy guidelines, weapons budget—$9.9 billion—is more than commissioned research and strategy papers, four times the amount requested for renewable and convened meetings to assess conflict pre- energy and energy efficiency programs. In Ger- vention and post-conflict peacebuilding efforts many, the military-to-climate budget ratio was in this broader context. In 2007, for the first 9 to 1 in 2008, and in Japan it was 11 to 1.10 time ever, the United Nations Security Coun- Bilateral and multilateral funds to assist cil discussed the security implications of cli- developing countries with climate mitigation mate change, including border disputes, and adaptation tally about $20 billion over migration, societal stress, humanitarian crises, the next five years or so. On an annual basis, and shortages of energy, water, arable land, this is about a third of what the United States and fish stocks.7 alone spends on military aid to other countries These developments notwithstanding, gov- and less than a quarter of the value of global ernment policies and budget priorities do not arms transfers to developing countries.11 indicate any major shift. And much of this dis- cussion remains solidly within the national Solutions security mindset, steeped in traditional per- ceptions of “threats” as opposed to common Policies that defuse conditions that may lead vulnerabilities. Reflecting the views of U.S. to grievances and disputes represent smart military and intelligence agencies, an August security policy. A robust and comprehensive 2009 New York Times article warned of military approach to creating a more stable world interventions in response to climate-induced entails measures designed to stop environ-

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mental decline, break the stranglehold of curity and discontent. A sustainable security poverty, and reverse the trend toward grow- policy will need to work to lessen human vul- ing inequity and social insecurity that all too nerability and improve social and economic often breeds despair. There are a number of well-being. While not couched in the lan- concepts and initiatives that create goodwill guage of security, this goal finds expression in and foster cooperation around shared needs the Millennium Development Goals—some and interests and thus contain the seeds for a 21 targets of slashing poverty and hunger, recalibrated security policy. combating health threats, and improving pri- mary education to be achieved mostly by 2015. But progress toward these goals has been quite slow and uneven. The MDGs need a major boost in resources and commitment, especially in the face of the global economic crisis that threatens to reverse earlier progress on several goals.12 Curbing energy and mate- rials appetites. An alternative energy policy geared toward developing renewable sources and boosting efficiency is not USAID In the Democratic Republic of Congo these men have found work only essential for reducing envi- manufacturing anti-malarial, insecticide-treated bednets. ronmental impacts and green- house gas emissions but can be Before discussing them, however, it is nec- a tool for peace in that it helps to lower the like- essary to acknowledge that a fundamental inse- lihood of resource conflicts. In this context, the curity in international relations will continue to creation of the new International Renewable cast a shadow until the establishment of global Energy Agency in January 2009 is a welcome political institutions with the power to act as step forward. But a recent study finds that to credible guarantors of a nation’s security. Such bring about the transition to a low-carbon institutions might rely on trade sanctions, diplo- economy, public R&D for clean energy and matic pressures, or even U.N.-sanctioned use energy efficiency will need to grow at least of force. At present, U.N. peacekeeping forces three- to fourfold. And complementary are often hobbled by inadequate resources, demand-side policies are essential—boosting while regional alliances like NATO lack global efficiency and promoting sufficiency through legitimacy. Narrow calculations of national less consumption-intensive lifestyles.13 interest hold sway. However, a variety of prag- Reducing materials throughput is similarly matic and imaginative steps can be taken to lay key to lessening the likelihood of resource con- the groundwork for a new culture of security. flicts. In the past decade or so, recognition of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). such conflicts has risen dramatically, in part While poverty as such does not necessarily because of effective nongovernmental groups’ lead to violence, there is no doubt that the campaigns against “blood diamonds” and other absence of equitable development breeds inse- resources from conflict zones. Governments

130 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Broadening the Understanding of Security and international agencies have responded by the livelihoods of local communities, conser- imposing embargoes on a number of govern- vation zones can in principle facilitate coop- ments and other actors profiteering from illicit eration and the resolution of territorial resource exploitation and by promoting greater conflicts. Most peace parks to date have been transparency. These measures will be far more established between countries that do not have effective if paired with efforts to critically exam- active conflicts. But one notable case in which ine, and curb, consumers’ voracious resource the creation of a conservation corridor helped appetite, which makes these commodities so with conflict resolution involved the 1995 lucrative in the first place.14 border war between Ecuador and Peru. Pro- Environmental peacemaking. While envi- posals have been made to establish peace parks ronmental degradation can contribute to con- in such highly disputed areas as the Kuril Island flicts, environmental cooperation also holds (Russia-Japan), the Siachen Glacier (Pakistan- great potential as a peacemaking tool. If well India), the Mesopotamian marshlands (Iran- managed, cooperative efforts around shared ), and on the Korean peninsula.17 ecosystems and natural resources can build Peacekeeping and environmental restora- trust and establish collaborative habits, espe- tion. United Nations peacekeeping and post- cially if government contacts are augmented by conflict efforts increasingly take into account vibrant civil society dialogue. Over time, such environmental dimensions. Some 11 peace- a dynamic may grow sufficiently strong to keeping missions in countries like the Demo- help overcome unresolved broader disputes. cratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Sudan The notion of blending ecology and trans- (Darfur), Liberia, Georgia, Lebanon, and boundary politics has been put into practice, Timor-Leste have participated in tree planting to some extent, in two specific areas: river efforts. These initiatives are seen as important basin management among riparian nations and both locally—countering deforestation—and border-straddling peace parks.15 globally in the fight against climate change. Cooperative water management efforts have U.N. officials recognize that traditional peace- been undertaken in international river basins keeping alone is unlikely to have lasting success such as the Nile, Danube, Indus, Jordan, and without these and such environment-related Mekong. These kinds of accords will be efforts as rehabilitation, recycling, disaster increasingly put to the test as populations and relief, flood protection, and water quality.18 water consumption grow and as climate change Since 1999, the U.N. Environment Pro- heightens water scarcity in some parts of the gramme has done a number of detailed post- world. Undoubtedly, the task of sustainable crisis environmental assessments, identifying water stewardship is more challenging than a environmental risks to health, livelihoods, and shared exploitation of plentiful water resources. security. Assessments have been carried out in These issues arise not just in transboundary set- the Balkans, Ukraine, Lebanon, Occupied tings but also within national borders where Palestinian Territories, Sudan, Rwanda, Nige- different communities and regions jockey for ria, the DRC, and Afghanistan. These help access to water.16 improve the understanding of environmental Peace parks are protected areas that strad- factors in conflict and pinpoint how environ- dle national borders and are dedicated to pro- mental restoration can help stabilize war-torn tecting biological diversity and promoting societies.19 peace and cooperation. There are now 188 Disaster diplomacy. Disasters that strike in such areas worldwide. Though they can them- active or latent conflict zones may inflict suf- selves be a source of conflict if they disregard fering that cuts across the divides of conflict,

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 131 Broadening the Understanding of Security STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 often triggering goodwill and possibly jolting focused heavily on capacity building and pre- the political landscape. Common relief and ventive medicine. The programs have largely reconstruction needs offer opportunities for been free from political conditionality.23 collaboration, which in turn can build trust, Greening employment. Employment is break ingrained conflict dynamics, and per- affected by a multitude of factors, but disre- haps facilitate reconciliation among adver- garding environmental and resource constraints saries. There have been attempts at disaster will be increasingly costly for businesses and diplomacy in relations between Greece and workers. Yet “greening” technologies and Turkey, China and Taiwan, India and Pak- workplaces through large-scale public and pri- istan, Ethiopia and Eritrea, and other nations.20 vate investment—generating so-called green Still, there are no guaranteed outcomes. jobs—could inject a new positive dynamic into The aftermath of the 2004 tsunami disaster had labor markets. The economic stimulus pro- diametrically opposite outcomes in two of the grams passed by many governments in response hardest-hit areas. In Indonesia’s Aceh province, to the global economic crisis entailed sub- the disaster helped trigger a process that led to stantial green spending. There have also been a successful peace agreement. But in Sri Lanka, calls for a far more ambitious Global Green a groundswell of popular-level goodwill did not New Deal. Much of the green jobs discussion reach to the elite political level, and post- has focused on industrial countries and a hand- tsunami aid became a divisive issue. Humani- ful of emerging economies with regard to tarianism does not automatically create peace, high-tech sectors like wind and solar energy or but it can offer a window of opportunity for electric vehicles. But green jobs also offer conflict transformation.21 important opportunities for poverty reduc- Health diplomacy. Conceptually similar to tion and livelihood promotion in developing disaster diplomacy, the notion of health diplo- countries. This involves support for recycling macy has been proposed as a way to generate and composting efforts and investments to goodwill by providing medical assistance to protect biodiversity, restore degraded farm- other countries, improving relations, and land and watersheds, and make farming more resolving conflicts, as well as advancing com- organic and climate-resilient.24 mon public health objectives. This is espe- The concepts and initiatives just described cially important in the face of what some have need to be replicated and scaled up. And close called disease globalization (rapidly spreading attention is warranted to ensuring that they are epidemics like SARS or avian flu).22 not undertaken in isolation but actually rein- Cuba has been a pioneer in this regard. It force each other. In part this will take sub- has engaged in vigorous “medical diplomacy” stantial investments—with resources channeled since the 1960s. It has invited thousands of stu- from outdated, adversarial security policies dents from many developing countries to be toward programs that can address the roots of trained in its medical schools, sent thousands insecurity and promote cooperative behavior. of its own doctors and nurses to provide care But a more fundamental need is institutional to poor communities abroad, and dispatched renewal and profound cultural change—mov- disaster-relief teams to several countries. In ing away from a warrior culture that always sees 2006, close to 29,000 Cubans served in 68 new enemies lurking and toward an under- countries (though by far most of them were in standing that different nations and communi- Venezuela under an “oil for doctors” scheme). ties need to make peace not only with each Achieving dramatic improvements in the health other but also with nature. of assisted populations, Cuba’s efforts have

132 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Building the Cities of the Future

Peter Newman

Imagine a city that uses 100 percent renewable icant environmental impact, as they are based energy…where most transport is by electric light around the consumption of fossil fuels and rail, biking, or walking...where the solar office materials at increasing rates. They must continue block is filled with green businesses… where to provide opportunities, but they must become the local farmers’ market sells fresh, bioregional more like Vauban and —sitting lighter produce…where parents meet in the parks and on the planet. Indeed, the key question now is gardens while their children play without fear in whether cities can not only reduce their impact streets that are car-free. This is a reality in Vauban, on Earth but also contribute to its regeneration.2 a new eco-city of 5,000 households within Around the world, cities are becoming more Frieburg, Germany. And in nearby Hanover, a sustainable through resilient buildings, alter- city of 500,000 people has reduced its green- native transportation systems, distributed and house gas emissions by 50 percent.1 renewable energy systems, water-sensitive How did these communities transform their design, and zero-waste systems—with all the cultures to make the transition that every city cleverness of a new industrial green revolution. now faces? Vauban and Hanover took the From new cities like Masdar in Abu Dhabi to opportunity to use every policy lever possible redeveloped areas like Treasure Island in the at every step of the way—from planning to United States, Vauban and Hanover in Ger- delivery—to ensure that the goal of sustain- many, and BedZED and the new Olympic vil- ability drove each decision. lage in London, these pioneers are dramatically Cities have always been places of economic reducing their ecological footprints.3 and social opportunity. They emerged when hunter-gatherer societies were transformed into Helping Urban Residents settled societies based on agriculture. Today’s Live Sustainably cities have grown large during the industrial era and still provide the main economic and BedZED is a carbon-neutral development social opportunities for the world’s growing and social housing experiment in inner Lon- population. But cities are now having a signif- don. It has many ecological innovations: it

Peter Newman is professor of sustainability at the Curtin University Sustainability Policy Institute in Perth, Australia.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 133

Click here to see notes for this section. Building the Cities of the Future STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 used local and recycled materials; its energy- for sustainability technologies to cover their efficient design is combined with photovoltaics externalities; and (PV) and biomass-fueled combined heat and • Education to ensure households and com- power; it recycles gray water and harvests munities want to make the changes needed. rainwater; it has local facilities to reduce the Nowhere is this more evident than in poli- need for travel and is near a train station; and cies about getting people out of cars. it has on-site permaculture gardens. When a detailed assessment of residents’ ecological Kicking the Car Habit footprints was made, however, a huge varia- tion was found in how people made use of the Car use is easily adopted as a way of life in cities, area’s ecological features. The average foot- especially those that were developed in the print for some residents was around 4.4 past 50 years. U.S. cities use twice as much hectares per person (still less than the average transport fuel per person as Australian cities, for London of 6.6 hectares), yet some resi- and those cities in turn use twice as much as dents were able to get their impact down to European cities and five times as much as Sin- 1.9 hectares per person.4 gapore, Tokyo, and . Policymak- Experiences in many early European exper- ers often claim that cities with a high iments in urban ecology may hold the expla- dependence on cars are impossible to change. nation for this. Buildings and neighborhoods But with cars now being the largest single that were not developed within a community technology contributing to climate change can fail to achieve their design outcomes. If and the one growing the fastest, it is time for innovations are imposed on people who do not decisionmakers everywhere to see how the know how to use the new buildings as designed policy changes just described can bring about or why they should use less power or water or a cultural transformation and get their cities to fuel, residents can simply transfer their old kick the car habit.6 consumptive lifestyles to the new “eco” situ- A first priority is infrastructure. Cars are ations. The growth of sustainable cities will chosen for most destinations because they are only be mainstreamed when the green trans- quicker than other more-sustainable modes, formation involves all elements of the policy and people do not like to commute more than process—especially the processes that help an hour a day on average. Thus if a modern people want to change.5 electric rail system or bus rapid transit can be Several key government policies can help installed down an urban corridor that is faster cities move toward sustainability: than the traffic, then people move quickly to • Infrastructure to enable energy, water, trans- use it. Perth’s new Southern Rail meets this port, and waste to be managed with minimal goal and now takes 55,000 people a day, com- ecological impact; pared with 14,000 who used to take the bus; • A design to ensure that the infrastructure is this is the equivalent of eight lanes of traffic. efficiently available to all; Similarly, a good system and walkable • Innovation through R&D and demonstra- urban environment means that in Copenhagen tions to continually ensure the latest eco- cars were used for only 27 percent of all work technology becomes mainstream; trips in 2003 compared with on 36 • Tax incentives to direct investment into these percent of such trips.7 new technologies and provide people with The design of the city is totally enmeshed the motivation to change their behavior; in its infrastructure priorities. When cities • Regulations to set the standards high enough favor sustainable modes of transportation,

134 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Building the Cities of the Future then land use tends to cluster around it. But All these necessary policy approaches will be if a city only builds highways, it generally scat- wasted without education on a changed role for ters in highly car-dependent patterns. Density the car and on climate change. For example, and transport fuel use are closely linked. Plan- something known as the Jevons Paradox— ning cities to be much less car-dependent will increasing efficiency means increasing con- be a key part of any plan to reduce a city’s car- sumption—has been found to apply to car bon footprint. For example, “transit-oriented use. If people buy cars that use less fuel, they developments” have been shown to cut resi- just drive them more—undermining most dential car use in half, and residents save 20 gains made possible through the new tech- percent on their household income by having nology. Thus cultural change to help people to one less car per household.8 want to drive less needs to be part of any city’s New technology to make cities smarter and policy arsenal if it is to face up to the challenge more sustainable is appearing and needs gov- of growing a . One such pro- ernment assistance to be facilitated and tested. gram shows that this is indeed possible.10 The new plug-in electric vehicles (for cars and German sociologist Werner Brög has devel- for transit) need testing, along with the asso- oped an approach to travel demand manage- ciated Smart Grids and renewable energy use ment that is based on the belief that cultural that can allow cities to become 100 percent change toward less car dependence can happen renewable. Green transit-oriented develop- in any part of any city as long as it is commu- ments that can demonstrate the new technol- nity-based and household-oriented. After some ogy would seem to be ideal sites for trials of trials in Europe, Brög’s approach was adopted such technology so that renewable transport in large-scale projects in Perth, Western Aus- can also mean less car use. tralia. It has since spread across most Aus- Every nation and city has its own way of tralian cities and to other European cities, making the adoption of more planetary especially in the United Kingdom, and has lifestyles convenient and easy compared with now been piloted in six American cities.11 more consumptive lifestyles. When it comes to Known as TravelSmart, the approach targets cars, however, the more that a city is car- individual households directly (rather than dependent, the harder it is to use tax incentives through mass media) in a letter from the Mayor to change people’s lifestyles. European cities or State Minister (funds for the program are have much higher gasoline taxes than Ameri- usually a partnership of the two), asking them can and Australian cities, and accordingly they to participate in the program. Follow-up phone use cars less.9 calls elicit the residents’ interest in receiving In the car-dominated cities of North Amer- information and, for the few who need extra ica and Australia, the major public policy to support, a potential visit from a TravelSmart reduce the global and local impacts has been officer. People select information materials to through regulations on vehicles that have forced suit their individual needs and these are deliv- them to become cleaner. Following introduc- ered by staff using bikes and trailers. The infor- tion of these, most urban atmospheres have mation is packaged in specially designed become cleaner, although fuel use has contin- TravelSmart bags and includes walking and ued to increase as vehicles became bigger and transit information, as well as pamphlets on their use has continued to grow. Regulations why it is good for their health and the planet also are applied to safety and congestion man- for people to get out of their cars more often. agement, but this will continue to worsen if They encourage people to start with local trips, more and more car use is facilitated. especially the school trip for children, which is

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 135 Building the Cities of the Future STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

now seen as an essential part of the healthy program when the surveys were done; in other development of young people’s sense of place words, people were spreading the message to and belonging in any community as well as a their friends and colleagues.13 way to reduce obesity. When people start to change their lifestyles In communities where TravelSmart has been and can see the benefits, they become advo- conducted, people have reduced the kilometers cates of policies in gen- traveled by vehicle by around 12–14 percent— eral. Governments find it easier to manage a result that seems to last for at least five years the politics of transformation to reduced car use after the program ends. Where transit is not and lower oil use when the communities they good and destinations are more spread out, the are serving have begun to change themselves. program may only reduce car use 8 percent, but The city of Perth has been rebuilding its rail where these are good it can rise to 15 percent. system over the past 20 years following a strong This is not a revolution, but it has many syn- social movement that demanded a better sys- ergistic positive outcomes.12 tem. The extension of the rail system to far outer suburbs has been more positive and politically achievable than expected, with a massive 90 percent support for the last stage, the Southern Suburbs Rail- way. In parallel to this polit- ical process, Perth had some 200,000 households under- going the TravelSmart pro- gram, which seems to have helped. Indeed, the South- ern Suburbs Railway increased public transport patronage by 59 percent in areas without TravelSmart but by 83 percent in areas

Tom Chance, BioRegional where TravelSmart was The BedZED development, Hackbridge, London, U.K. deployed to promote the new rail services. Patronage People involved in TravelSmart become on the rail system has gone from 7 million a real advocates of sustainable transport—telling year to 110 million in 17 years, moving pub- their friends how much better they feel after lic transport from 5 to 10 percent of the work bicycling, walking, or taking the bus or train journey trips taken in the city. Perth has instead of driving. They show friends how become a model across Australia for other much money it saves as well as making them cities that are now determined to upgrade feel they are doing their bit for climate change their rail system funds to provide the needed and oil vulnerability. There is evidence in Bris- infrastructure.14 bane, Australia, that at least 50 percent more The TravelSmart program recognizes a fun- people than those involved in the initial house- damental principle about cultural change: it hold interviews were actually following the works best when the change is supported by a

136 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Building the Cities of the Future community, when it is part of the development worked with the first 15,000 households in a of social networks that support the changes in trial run have found enormous enthusiasm lifestyle. TravelSmart develops this social cap- from people who have been looking for this ital around sustainable transport modes rather targeted assistance. Using unsolicited phone than the dominant culture of the car. It does calls to residents, the program is finding that this through relationships established with the 74 percent of households are interested in TravelSmart officer and with others in the making changes to improve energy, water, local community who are making the same waste, and travel sustainability. Half of the first steps to get out of their cars. In the work- households contacted are signing up for ongo- place, TravelSmart is found to work well when ing coaching for special meters, advice on gar- a TS Club is formed that enables people to dens, workshops, and home audits.16 share experiences, bring in local speakers, and Unlike TravelSmart, where change tends lobby for facilities like showers for bike riders to occur slowly and incrementally, the Liv- and transit passes instead of parking spaces. ingSmart program is receiving reports from households of instant and radical changes— Planetary Lifestyles replacing inefficient lights, for example, or ordering PV, solar hot water, and grey water The same approach to cultural change that recycling systems. The program is aiming to TravelSmart uses can be applied to other reduce carbon dioxide emissions 1.5 tons per aspects of sustainability at the household household a year. (Australians on average are level—reducing energy, water, and waste. The responsible for 14 tons per household.) This program needs to provide infrastructure for the will save participants up to 10 percent in their new technologies, an urban design that ensures gas, electric, water, and petroleum bills.17 the technologies are efficiently available for The social capital being built up around all residents, R&D on the best options avail- these new technologies and lifestyles is also able, regulations to set the energy and water proving highly infectious and can become the use in buildings and appliances at the highest basis of a major social movement if govern- possible level, tax incentives to push people ments are prepared to adopt the approach toward more “planetary lifestyles,” and edu- more broadly. cation to motivate people. The end result of household programs like As with TravelSmart, the possibility of using these, combined with all the other policy ini- educational programs to underpin these pol- tiatives, may be the beginning of a transfor- icy areas is critical to achieving the necessary mative sustainability process—not just in the planetary cultural change. In many cities, actual savings in fossil fuels and other valuable approaches to community-based planetary materials, but in the growing sense that education are emerging as the politics of cli- households and communities can achieve a mate change becomes a major political force.15 transition to a more sustainable city. This Perth has built on its TravelSmart program hope is the currency of growth toward sus- to create a successful household education tainable cities. It can enable people to begin approach, known as LivingSmart, that brings to imagine a city that is more regenerative sound and locally relevant material into peo- than destructive of Earth.18 ple’s homes. The eco-coaches who have

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 137 Reinventing Health Care: From Panacea to Hygeia

Walter Bortz

According to Greek legend, , ’s ronmental pollution and by lifestyle factors son, was charged with the oversight of human such as poor diet and a lack of exercise. In well-being. He in turn delegated his respon- many countries, obesity has become the sibilities to his two daughters, Hygeia and “norm,” with health implications such as dia- Panacea. Hygeia was entrusted with the health betes, hypertension, and arthritis. For the aspects of humanity’s life course, and Panacea first time in history, Africa is now home to with the disease and illness elements. This more people who are overweight than are dichotomy of health and disease has pervaded underfed. Rather than focusing on isolated medicine’s brief history.1 disease components and individual events, Since the discovery of penicillin in 1865, medicine has entered the era of multiple modern medicine has focused the bulk of its causes and diagnoses.3 efforts on the treatment and repair of infectious disease, with many positive results. The devel- Facing New Health Challenges opment of antibiotics and the embrace of anti- sepsis (the prevention of infection) have The major contributors to global mortality unburdened humanity from many historically today are for the most part preventable. persistent scourges. Smallpox was eradicated in According to the World Health Organization 1979, polio has been eliminated from much of (WHO), childhood and maternal malnutri- the world, and infections such as guinea worm tion cause an estimated 200 million “years of disease, measles, and rubella are no longer life lost” annually, followed by physical inac- present in many regions. In several industrial tivity and obesity (150 million years), unsafe sex countries, life expectancy rose 30 years in the (80 million years), and tobacco (50 million space of a century, an event that has not been years). A study of the “actual causes of death” rivaled since.2 in the United States in 2000 lists tobacco as the In the last 60 years or so, however, new dis- number one killer, with poor diet and physi- ease conditions have emerged that are not cal inactivity coming in a close second.4 caused by bacteria, viruses, or other microor- The global community has made impor- ganisms. Instead, they are triggered by envi- tant progress in responding to these chal-

Walter Bortz is clinical associate professor of medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine.

138 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG

Click here to see notes for this section. STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Reinventing Health Care: From Panacea to Hygeia lenges—from improvements in water quality to pharmacy, does not address the job require- the treatment of infant diarrhea. Yet the col- ments of medicine. In 2000, WHO ranked lective response by the medical system has the United States first in the cost and respon- been primarily to alleviate symptoms. This is siveness of its health system, but thirty-seventh because it is rarely possible to “cure” the major in performance and seventy-second in overall killers of today. The two principal therapies in health. U.S. infant mortality is the highest medicine’s black bag—surgery and pharmacy— among industrial countries (see Table 9), and are largely irrelevant to the new disorders of studies suggest that as the obesity epidemic aging and poor lifestyle choices. The medical spreads, today’s children may be the first in system can treat symptoms, but heart attacks, U.S. history who will not live as long as their stroke, diabetes, emphysema, arthritis, and parents. In the southeastern part of the coun- neurologic disorders remain resistant to cura- try, life expectancy is falling to levels that tive effort.5 approach those in Russia.7 These ailments are, however, notably open Nearly all industrial countries provide some to modifications in lifestyle—from improved form of mandated universal health insurance diets and exercise to efforts to reduce the use coverage, but the United States is notably of tobacco and alcohol. But improving health absent from this list. The degree of privati- literacy remains a significant challenge. Hygeia’s zation in the U.S. medical system exceeds product of “health” has effectively played sec- that in nearly all other countries, eroding ond fiddle to Panacea’s product of disease.6 much of the “locus of control” within com- munities. Nobel laureate economist Kenneth Overhauling Global Health Care Arrow has observed that medical care cannot function like a standard competitive market From a financial perspective, prevention pays because of inherent uncertainties and the poorly, while sickness pays. In the United gross imbalance of skills between physician States, health care spending accounts for over and patient. Such “market failure” creates 15 percent of gross domestic product (GDP)— unlimited opportunities for perverse incentives a figure that is projected to reach 20 percent such as rewarding medical procedures instead by 2015. Yet the current U.S. health system, of health outcomes.8 addicted to high payments from surgery and Worldwide, the primary emphasis of med-

Table 9. Health Care Performance, Selected Countries, 2006

Health Expenditures Healthy Active Country as Share of GDP Infant Mortality Life Expectancy Life Expectancy* (percent) (number per (years) (years) thousand live births) Cuba 7.1 5 78 68 France 11.1 4 81 72 Japan 7.9 3 83 75 Sweden 7.9 3 81 73 United States 15.3 7 78 69

*Data for 2003. Source: See endnote 7.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 139 Reinventing Health Care: From Panacea to Hygeia STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

icine needs to be on health, not disease, and on has emphasized primary care. The country’s prevention instead of repair. (See Box 17.) “neighborhood health system” serves as an The medical structure must serve its function, intimate antenna to the health circumstances which is the assurance of the human potential. of the people. Health care spending in Cuba Panacea must be downsized and Hygeia recon- represents only 7.1 percent of GDP, yet the stituted in place of disease medicine.9 country’s average life expectancy is 78 years and its infant mortality rate is lower than the U.S. rate. Interestingly, the rates of diabetes and obesity in Cuba fell precipitously after the U.S. trade embargo was imposed in the 1960s, as access to total calories, unhealthy foods, and mechanized transport all declined.12 The global health budget needs to include a massively increased com- mitment to health education. Health illiteracy is the biggest killer every- where, and it deserves significant attention. People need to learn, for example, that when medical costs © Tony Alter An example of obesity in the U.S. are included, fast food is in reality not all that cheap. Emphasizing Health over Disease Research and training institutions should be redesigned to increase knowledge of the envi- There are hints of a transition in this direction. ronment as well as determinants of human The region of North Karelia in Finland was behavior. Medical schools must realign their notorious for having one of the highest rates teaching to the personal requirements of health of heart disease in the world, affecting 855 out medicine. And health educators must assume of every 100,000 residents. But since 1972, the prominence over disease technologists. If North Karelia Project—an integrated, popu- something like half of all illness is preventable lation-based preventive effort—has registered or lifestyle in origin, then half of health care a 68-percent reduction in heart-related deaths costs are approachable—suggesting that a new and a 49-percent reduction in overall mortal- emphasis must be placed on knowing how to ity. WHO has since replicated the experience age and how to die.13 in other communities.10 France, credited as having one of the best- Greening Health Care performing health care systems in the world, has always maintained a prominent role for its vil- The medical care system needs to be “greened” lage doctors. According to a WHO report, as well. The current health care sector is char- these physicians provide the “personal, one-to- acterized by high usage of energy and other one, empathy, trust and intimate knowledge of resources, rising emissions of greenhouse gases, individual case histories” that are often lacking and the release of toxins such as mercury and in more “advanced” health care systems.11 pharmaceutical chemicals into the environ- And Cuba, perhaps more than any country, ment. Medical institutions are also notorious

140 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Reinventing Health Care: From Panacea to Hygeia

Box 17. Making Social Welfare Programs Sustainable

Around the world, but especially in industrial stock, practice organic agriculture, and run a countries, social welfare programs take up a forestry operation. The prison’s “human eco- large share of government budgets. In 2005, logical philosophy” effectively rehabilitates social expenditures accounted for 16 percent prisoners by teaching useful skills while of gross domestic product in the United offering them responsibility and a crucial States, 19 percent in Japan, 27 percent in Ger- level of control over their own affairs. The many, and more than 29 percent in France prison also uses less energy, generates less and Sweden. The fundamental goal of these waste through its composting program, publicly mandated programs is to guarantee and produces food and wood products for a certain minimum standard of living to every consumption and sale, thus reducing its eco- citizen, based on the premise that it is the logical impact while saving money for the state’s responsibility to provide for the general Norwegian government. well-being of its citizens. “Conditional cash transfer” (CCT) pro- In an ecologically constrained future where grams represent another innovative, low-cost, sustainability will need to take precedence and highly effective social service. These over economic growth, governments will involve giving money directly to poor house- have to find ways to make social programs holds based on certain agreements, such as as effective as possible while minimizing sending children to school and providing for cost and environmental impact. Fortunately, their health and nutrition. The concept stems newer, more effective, more efficient pro- from the idea that the conditions on which grams are continually being tried, and many transfers are made, especially those related small programs that have proved effective are to health and education, will generate human being scaled up in industrial and developing capital that will provide returns significantly countries alike. greater than the value of the cash transfers “Social farming,” for example, is the use themselves. Oportunidades in Mexico and of agriculture for social purposes. More Bolsa Familia in Brazil are two of the more specifically, it involves the use of agricultural well-known and successful CCT programs. resources for rehabilitation, social inclusion, Studies in Mexico have found that Oportuni- and education. It serves several purposes in dades has significantly increased student that it generates agricultural products while enrollment and considerably reduced both creating jobs, providing social services, and maternal and infant mortality, among other building social capital. Thus far the popularity outcomes. of social farming has been greatest in Europe, Social programs of this type are proving where roughly 700 social farms have been very effective because they are low-cost, low- initiated in the Netherlands, and more than impact, and highly targeted. As these and 1,200 have been started in France. other programs are scaled up and expanded Norway has implemented an innovative to reach more people, governments will con- twist on social farming on an island 75 kilo- tinue to discover more and better ways to meters south of Oslo at Bastøy Prison, which meet their responsibilities to both people has been converted into the world’s first and the planet in more effective and less “ecological prison.” Inmates who have been costly ways. transferred from maximum security prisons —Kevin Green and Erik Assadourian now live in unlocked houses, care for live- Source: See endnote 9.

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as much energy per unit area as office buildings. And a 2001 study of Lion’s Gate Hospital in , Canada, calculated the “ecological footprint” of the facility to be 2,841 hectares, corresponding to a land area about 719 times larger than the hospital’s actual area. This was significantly higher than the estimated foot- print for the City of Vancouver, which was about 180 times its actual area.15 Health Care Without Harm, a global coali- tion of 473 organizations in 52 countries, is working to limit the environmental footprint of industrial medicine by addressing every- thing from toxics reduction to the purchasing of more environmentally friendly products by medical institutions. In addition to reducing their ecological impact, green hospitals can also have a positive impact on patient health.16 Ultimately, hospitals and health care sys- tems need to be redesigned in ways that do not make patients or other people sicker, such as © 2007 Dr. Pradeep Aggarwal, courtesy Photoshare through the production of toxic waste. Even A severly malnourished child, said to be 9 years more important, health care needs to be old, in a village in India. redesigned so that people are not getting sick users of products made from polyvinyl chloride, in the first place and therefore are less likely to which results in the production of dioxin, a end up in the hospital to suffer needlessly and known endocrine disruptor, when the wastes to indirectly cost societies and the environ- are incinerated.14 ment significant resources. This will require not Hospitals are supplanting steel mills and oil just a subtle retuning of health care policies, but refineries as major polluters. According to the a complete reinvention of health care as it is U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, hos- practiced today. pitals in the United States use more than twice

142 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Earth Jurisprudence: From Colonization to Participation

Cormac Cullinan

“If we have our land and clean air and water, resources” as available for state-sanctioned our communities can have sumak kawsay— exploitation and where the highest goal of the good life,” the indigenous leader said with government is the pursuit of an ever-growing calm conviction. “I don’t know why you are gross domestic product, Ecuador’s constitution calling this a new development model—we is a strong indicator that a centuries-old log- have always lived this way. The duty of the state jam in legal and political thinking and practice is to ensure that these fundamental rights are is beginning to break up. Legislators are start- protected in order to safeguard the well-being ing to recognize that human well-being is a of our people.”1 consequence of the well-being of the Earth sys- The leader was speaking to legislators, politi- tems that sustain us. cians, lawyers, and activists gathered in Quito in November 2008 to discuss how best to From Colonial Law to implement the provisions in Ecuador’s new Earth Jurisprudence constitution that recognize that nature has rights that must be enforced by law. The con- Almost all of the “environmental crises” that stitution sets the achievement of well-being in threaten contemporary industrialized civiliza- harmony with nature (el buen vivir or sumak tion are caused by ecologically unsustainable kawsay) as a fundamental societal goal. Inclu- and harmful human practices. Since these prac- sion of these provisions was achieved in a tices reduce the prospects of our descendants remarkably short time by the collective efforts surviving and thriving, from an evolutionary of indigenous peoples’ representatives and perspective—as well as from ethical, spiritual, environmental nongovernmental organiza- and pragmatic perspectives—they are contrary tions (NGOs) supported by lawyers from the to the interests of the species. The fact that Community Environmental Legal Defense many of these practices are allowed to continue Fund (CELDF) of the United States.2 and even receive incentives indicates that In a world where almost all legal systems today’s governance systems are dysfunctional. define nature as property and “natural Legal systems are failing to protect the

Cormac Cullinan is a practicing environmental attorney, author, and honorary research associate of the Department of Public Law, University of Cape Town.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Earth Jurisprudence: From Colonization to Participation STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Earth community in part because they reflect Box 18. Principles of Earth Jurisprudence an underlying belief that humans are separate from and superior to all other members of the • The universe is the primary law-giver, community, and that the primary role of Earth not human legal systems. is to serve as “natural resources” for humans • The Earth community and all the beings to consume. These beliefs are demonstrably that constitute it have fundamental false. Humans are, of course, but one of many “rights,” including the right to exist, to species that have co-evolved within a system have a habitat or a place to be, and to par- they are wholly dependent on. In the long ticipate in the evolution of the community. term humans cannot thrive in a degraded envi- • The rights of each being are limited by the ronment anymore than fish can survive in pol- rights of other beings to the extent necessary luted water. to maintain the integrity, balance, and health Just as colonial laws did not recognize the of the communities within which it exists. rights of indigenous peoples and facilitated • Human acts or laws that infringe these the exploitation of them and their land, most fundamental rights violate the fundamen- tal relationships and principles that con- contemporary legal systems do not recognize stitute the Earth community and are that any indigenous inhabitants other than consequently illegitimate and “unlawful.” humans are capable of having rights. The law • Humans must adapt their legal, political, defines land, water, other species, and even economic, and social systems to be con- genetic material and information as “prop- sistent with the fundamental laws or erty,” which entrenches an exploitative rela- principles that govern how the universe tionship between the owner (a legal subject functions and to guide humans to live in with rights) and the property (legally speaking, accordance with these, which means that a “thing” incapable of holding rights). Most human governance systems at all times legal systems also grant human beings legal must take account of the interests of the rights to exploit all aspects of the Earth com- whole Earth community and must: munity (through mining, fishing, and logging • determine the lawfulness of human concessions, for example), with predictably conduct by whether or not it strength- dire consequences for the integrity and func- ens or weakens the relationships that tioning of indigenous communities. constitute the Earth community; One of the most exciting developments in • maintain a dynamic balance between law today is the emergence on several conti- the rights of humans and those of nents of initiatives to bring about a funda- other members of the Earth community on the basis of what is best mental change in human legal systems. These for Earth as a whole; all share the belief that a primary cause of • promote restorative justice (which environmental destruction is the fact that cur- focuses on restoring damaged relation- rent legal systems are designed to perpetuate ships) rather than punishment (retribu- human domination of nature instead of fos- tion); and tering mutually beneficial relationships between • recognize all members of the Earth humans and other members of the Earth com- community as subjects before the law, munity. They all advocate an approach known with the right to the protection of the as Earth jurisprudence. (See Box 18.) Accord- law and to an effective remedy for ing to this philosophy, human societies will only human acts that violate their funda- be viable and flourish if they regulate them- mental rights. selves as part of the wider Earth community

144 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Earth Jurisprudence: From Colonization to Participation and do so in a way that is consistent with the As Chilean lawyer Godofredo Stutzin fundamental laws or principles that govern pointed out in 2002, one practical advantage how the universe functions.3 of recognizing rights for nature is that anyone This approach requires looking at law from seeking to alter or destroy any aspect of it the perspective of the whole Earth community would have to put forward reasons to justify and balancing all rights against one another (as why this should be permitted, instead of mak- is done between humans) so that fundamen- ing people who wish to prevent destruction tal rights like the right to life take precedence prove why nature should be conserved.5 over less important ones such as the right to Perhaps the clearest calls for the develop- conduct business. Currently the rights of ment of a new jurisprudence have come from humans, and particularly of corporations, auto- Thomas Berry, eminent American cultural matically trump the rights of all others. This historian, religious scholar, and philosopher. also means that while a fox eating a rabbit He maintains that the legal systems in coun- could be seen as a violation of the rabbit’s tries such as the United States legitimized right to life, it does not violate the laws that and facilitated the exploitation and destruc- govern the universe because the maintenance tion of Earth. Berry has argued that “we need of predator-prey relationships is fundamental a jurisprudence that would provide for the to preserving the integrity of the whole com- legal rights of geological and biological as munity. Killing to survive serves the greater well as human components of the Earth com- good in a way that killing for sport does not. munity. A legal system exclusively for humans is not realistic. Habitat of all species, for The Evolution of Earth instance, must be given legal status as sacred Jurisprudence and inviolable.”6 In April 2001 the Foundation of Lon- A few prescient commentators have for several don convened a meeting of lawyers, eco-psy- decades drawn attention to the need for legal chologists, wilderness experts, anthropologists, systems to take an evolutionary leap forward and environmentalists to begin the process by recognizing legally enforceable rights for of developing this new jurisprudence. And nature and other-than-human beings. One of immediately before the World Summit on the best-known articulations of this position Sustainable Development in 2002, : is that of Christopher Stone, who in 1972 A Manifesto for Earth Justice was published, published a seminal article entitled “Should articulating an Earth-centric approach to law Trees Have Standing? Towards Rights for and governance. The term “wild law” refers Natural Objects.” He pointed out that the to laws that articulate and give effect to Earth widening of society’s “circle of concern” had jurisprudence by fostering mutually benefi- led to the recognition of more extensive legal cial instead of exploitative relationships rights for women, children, Native Ameri- between human beings and other members of cans, and African Americans. There was no the Earth community.7 good reason, he argued, why increasing pub- Wild Law proposed that the primary pur- lic concern for the protection of nature could pose of legal and political systems should be to not lead to the recognition of nature’s rights. ensure that human beings act as “good citi- This would allow legal suits on behalf of trees zens” of an Earth community rather than and other “natural objects” and would mean merely defining antisocial behavior in relation that damages could be recovered and applied to other human beings. This would require rec- for their benefit.4 ognizing that the other members of the Earth

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community also have rights that must be bal- Helping Local Communities anced against human rights. The precise nature Change the Rules and way in which Earth jurisprudence was expressed would vary according to the partic- In the United States, much of the pioneering ular context, but all would be consistent with work in Earth jurisprudence has been under- the fundamental principles on which the Earth taken by the Community Environmental Legal community is ordered.8 Defense Fund, founded and led by Thomas In some cases the alignment of laws with the Linzey. For many years the CELDF success- fundamental principles of the natural system of fully represented communities that wished to order has been happening for pragmatic reasons prevent or challenge authorizations for cor- as lawmakers and officials seek to create more porations to undertake a range of environ- effective governance systems. For example, the mentally destructive activities, such as the widespread adoption of the “ecosystem disposal of sewage sludge on land, the estab- approach” in relation to fisheries and the con- lishment of massive pig farms, or mining. Ini- servation of wild species and places can be tially the CELDF used the conventional legal seen as pragmatic recognition that it is impos- strategy of attacking deficiencies in the autho- sible to manage human impacts on an ecosys- rization processes. Despite initial successes, tem successfully by looking only at a part of that however, Linzey soon realized that the victo- system, such as a particular fish stock. Similarly, ries were short-lived because the corporations concepts like intergenerational equity recognize simply repeated the process in a manner that the need to align human legal systems with the complied with all legal requirements—and far longer time scales on which nature operates, eventually triumphed. while moves toward bioregional planning Communities could not protect themselves reflect a growing acceptance of the funda- and the ecosystems within which they lived mental natural principle of diversity and the because the rules of the legal system as a whole benefits of shortening feedback loops by allow were skewed in favor of both corporations and for more local decisionmaking.9 property owners. In fact, environmental laws mainly regulate how quickly natural communities are destroyed rather than preventing the destruction. A fundamentally new approach was required.10 The first step was to expose the limitations of exist- ing regulatory sys- tems and how corporations have shaped the law so

BK59 that it allows com- Energy landscape: Open-pit coal mining in western Germany. mercial interests to

146 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Earth Jurisprudence: From Colonization to Participation override the interests of local communities will enable local people and communities to and facilitates the lawful degradation of nature. enforce the inalienable and fundamental rights To do this, CELDF and Richard Grossman of natural communities as well as their own (co-founder of the Programme on Corpora- rights to a healthy environment.13 tions, Law and Democracy) established the In South Africa, the 2008 National Envi- Daniel Pennock Democracy School, which ronmental Management: Integrated Coastal runs intensive short courses around the United Management Act now requires decisions about States for communities that organize them- the coastal zone (which includes the 200-nau- selves to resist environmentally and socially tical-mile exclusive economic zone) to be made harmful activities in their areas.11 in the interests of the “whole community,” The second step was to empower local which includes more than just humans.14 communities to use legal systems proactively to support the establishment of sustainable, Teaching Wild Lawyers and local economies. Realizing that local com- Civil Servants munities could not secure their own well- being without protecting the integrity and Conventional law schools are being challenged functioning of the ecological communities to identify how natural systems function and within which they lived, the CELDF devel- how the interests of other-than-human mem- oped a strategy of assisting communities to bers of natural communities should be taken draft local ordinances that: into account in decisionmaking. The Center for • re-assert their right to prohibit activities Earth Jurisprudence (CEJ) was established in harmful to their well-being, 2006 by two Catholic Universities in Florida • recognize rights for natural communities, in order to re-envision law and governance in • enable local governments and individuals to ways that support and protect the health and sue for damages to be used for the restora- well-being of the Earth community as a whole. tion of any damage to ecological communi- Inspired primarily by the works of Thomas ties, and Berry, the CEJ adopts a multidisciplinary • strip away the legal personality of corpora- approach and seeks to train a new breed of tions who contravened the ordinances (and lawyers who are equipped to deal with the hence their right to benefit from the civil reality of regulating human behavior in a highly rights in the U.S. Constitution).12 interdependent Earth community. In the If corporations and state governments take United Kingdom, the UK legal action to challenge the validity of these Association has established a standing Wild ordinances, they simply further expose the Law working group and hosts annual Wild extent to which the legal system has been Law Weekends in the countryside at which hijacked by vested interests. members explore and develop these concepts.15 The CELDF has helped more than 100 In Africa, when Mellese Damtie introduced local governments in the United States pass his students at the Ethiopian Civil Service Col- local ordinances with one or more of these fea- lege to the book Wild Law, they were partic- tures. In the process of drafting “home-rule” ularly enthused by the suggestion that African charters, local communities such as Spokane in customary law—long ignored as “primitive”— Washington State and Blaine Township in could be a source of inspiration for contem- Pennsylvania are accepting that the only way porary governance systems. Field research by to fulfill their role as trustees of natural com- government administrators studying at the munities is to create legal mechanisms that college revealed that a rich heritage of cus-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 147 Earth Jurisprudence: From Colonization to Participation STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 tomary laws and cultural practices designed to Mother Earth, indicating the potential for ensure respect for nature had survived among these ideas to spread rapidly.17 rural communities in Ethiopia. For example, in At present the most promising prospects areas where reverence for rivers means that for promoting “eco-centric” law and gover- people remain silent or speak only in hushed nance appear to be at the local level, where tones when crossing them, the watercourses are appeals to traditional values and cultures of in a far better condition that elsewhere.16 resistance have increasing resonance. The CELDF’s democracy schools in the United Future Prospects States reconnect people with activist move- ments of the past, including abolitionists and The view that the long-term viability of human suffragists. In India, Navdanya—an organi- societies cannot be attained at the expense of zation founded by environmental activist Van- the Earth community is supported both by dana Shiva—is a prime mover in the Earth the teachings of many ancient traditions and democracy movement that has succeeded by religions and by the findings of physics and building on existing cultural understandings ecology—all of which point to the intercon- of the sacred dimensions of seeds, food, water, nectedness of everything and the futility of and land and on traditions of resistance to attempting to understand any part of a system colonial authority.18 without reference to its context. Achieving In Africa and Colombia, the Gaia Foun- widespread acceptance of this perspective in a dation and local organizations have been work- consumerist world presents a major challenge, ing with traditional communities and elders to particularly in the face of corporations and develop a similar approach, which they term persons with a vested interest in maintaining “community ecological governance.” Recon- the exploitative status quo. nection with elders and the rediscovery of the The rapidly intensifying challenge of cli- wisdom in customary law systems has also mate change has exposed how ineffective inter- inspired Kenyan lawyers and activists from national and national governance regimes are the NGO Porini to go to court to win the in dealing with the side effects of consumerism right for local communities to assume custo- and the excessive use of fossil fuels. But there dianship of sacred hills and groves and to are still major differences regarding how best begin restoring them.19 to respond. Most governments today favor a The speed and the extent to which existing combination of new technology and better environmental and social justice organizations application of existing regulatory systems. and networks adopt this perspective is likely to Ecuador is exceptional in opting to make a fun- be a crucial factor in determining the impact damental change to the architecture of its gov- of eco-centric governance initiatives. If these ernance system by recognizing the rights of organizations realize that they could greatly nature and redefining its concept of develop- enhance their effectiveness by collaborating ment. There, the existence of a large number on the basis of the common understanding that of people who had not wholly adopted west- sustaining human well-being requires pro- ern consumerist values appears to have been a tecting the whole Earth community, this eco- crucial factor in securing the recognition of the centric approach would spread rapidly through in the constitution. And in a the web of relationships that already connects speech to the U.N. General Assembly in April them. This could foster a rapid uptake of this 2009, President Evo Morales of Bolivia called approach of Earth jurisprudence. for a Universal Declaration of the Rights of

148 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Media: Broadcasting Sustainability

he media can be a highly effective working to tackle advertising directly, such as tool to shape cultures—painting the Spanish government, which voted to ban pictures of how people live, broad- commercials on its public television stations TT casting social norms, modeling starting in 2010. Yet with advertisers’ influence behaviors, acting as a vehicle of marketing, over policymakers, these efforts have been few and distributing news and information. These and far between. Robin Andersen and Pamela important roles can be used to spread either a Miller of Fordham University point out that cultural pattern of consumerism or one that media literacy can help limit the effectiveness questions consumerism and promotes sus- of the romantic visions of consumption created tainability. Although the vast majority of media by marketing—and unlike regulation, it can be today reinforce the former—through adver- easier to introduce across societies.1 tising, product placement, and much of the Beyond the mass media, the arts also play content—there are efforts worldwide to tap an important part in inspiring people to bet- media’s vast reach and power to promote sus- ter understand the effects of consumerism tainable cultures, as described in this section. and to live sustainably. For example, the cover Considering the commanding role that mar- of State of the World 2010 by artist Chris Jor- keting plays in stimulating consumerism, redi- dan is a recreation of a famous woodprint by recting it to promote sustainable behaviors Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai—except will be essential. Jonah Sachs and Susan Finkel- Jordan’s version is made out of 2.4 million bits pearl of Free Range Studios describe “social of plastic trash. This vast number, represent- marketing”—marketing to encourage socially ing the pounds of plastic that enter the world’s positive behaviors like avoiding smoking, wear- oceans every hour, has a visual power that ing seatbelts, practicing safe sex, or consuming can represent the destructive nature of con- less stuff—which can play an important role in sumerism far better than yet another statistic redirecting how people live. Granted, at the would. Music, as Amy Han of Worldwatch moment just a tiny percentage of marketing describes, can also be a useful educational budgets promotes such social goods. tool, inspiring people to live more sustain- While social marketing is encouraged, gov- ably and mobilizing them to join political ernments will need to limit or tax overall mar- efforts to help drive change.2 keting pressures. A few governments are Two Boxes in this section expand on the

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Click here to see notes for this section. Media: Broadcasting Sustainability STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

role of the arts: one describes the power of film tribute these farther than ever before—not and the other considers the potential for all just through formal channels but through individuals to become artists rather than con- YouTube, Facebook, local radio broadcasts, sumers. Finally, a Box on the importance of Web sites, even posters and self-published journalism in effectively educating people books. The more that this content can promote about the environment and their role in it sustainability and redirect people away from rounds out the section. consumerism, the more likely it is that human- People spend significant portions of their ity will avoid a future conjured up by movies lives interacting with media. Today they have like Soylent Green or WALL-E and instead cre- the potential to create their own program- ate a future of high-quality lives for all. ming, music, art, films, and news and to dis- —Erik Assadourian

150 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG From Selling Soap to Selling Sustainability: Social Marketing

Jonah Sachs and Susan Finkelpearl

Sixty years ago, Americans greeted the postwar ceived obsolescence, accepting that owning era with a thrift-based value system that had this year’s model television was a sign of virtue gotten them through two decades of war and even if last year’s model was still working per- economic depression. Corporate industry, fectly well. Before long, even cultural resis- meanwhile, exited the war capable tance had requisite consumable products, such of producing more goods than ever. But with as the Volkswagen (VW) Beetle. the soldiers they once supplied now back As is clear today, Madison Avenue’s success home, they needed a new customer base. If has had deep, unintended consequences, and only industry could reverse the thrift-based sophisticated story-based marketing contin- values of the American people, then their ues to drive its relentless growth. Yet the seeds ramped-up infrastructure could continue of the current consumption crisis may also pumping out goods, which would be readily contain powerful solutions. If marketers were bought by willing consumers. able to motivate a massive reorientation of Enter Madison Avenue. Marketers res- cultural values and behaviors in relatively little ponded to industry’s challenge deci- time 60 years ago, can they do it again? Could sively, taking a dramatic leap forward in a revolution in social marketing, where mar- marketing sophistication. They rejected the keting principles are used to change social typical fact-based approach of advertisements behavior rather than sell a product, drive a in favor of an identity-based, storytelling con- new set of values that would lead to the struct. The result? They created a radical rever- lifestyles and political changes necessary to sal of thrift values and an explosion of confront today’s ecological crises? consumerism that ignited in the United States Certainly, social marketing faces major hur- in the 1950s and spread around the world. This dles. In 2008, spending on advertising was became the era when people met the Marlboro estimated at over $271 billion in the United man and came to believe that the cigarette States and $643 billion worldwide. Today someone smoked said a lot about who the approximately only one in every thousand person was. They embraced the idea of per- marketing dollars is spent on broadcast pub-

Jonah Sachs is co-founder and creative director of Free Range Studios, a design and communications firm. Susan Finkelpearl is online strategy director at Free Range Studios.

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Click here to see notes for this section. From Selling Soap to Selling Sustainability: Social Marketing STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 lic service announcements that market for the rette, car, computer, or social behavior. But is public good—and only a tiny fraction of that it storytelling per se that makes these cam- is spent on sustainability issues.1 paigns so successful? But there are also enormous opportunities. Writer and philosopher Joseph Campbell Social marketing has a 40-year history of expe- offers a compelling reason to believe that rience to draw upon, plus there are vast lessons human-scale storytelling is key to opening to learn by observing traditional consumer people up to changing instinctive “tribal” marketing. The Internet has rapidly leveled identities and altering behavior. Campbell’s the playing field in the media marketplace by views even imply that social marketing may reducing distribution costs and removing the have an advantage over product marketing in barriers of traditional corporate gatekeepers this arena.3 who limited the broadcast of messages that ran In his seminal work, Hero with a Thousand counter to consumerism’s values. And the Faces, Campbell presents a survey of mythology emergence of social media has spawned a across broad cultural contexts and millennia and “viral” distribution model through which an finds strong commonalities. He hypothesizes inspiring message can move almost instantly that human beings are, in fact, genetically hard- and at nearly no cost through networks of wired to see their world in terms of stories. And mutual trust. what’s more, these stories are strikingly similar. For social marketers to play a role in the They share certain archetypal characters like the transition from consumerism to sustainabil- hero, the nemesis, and the mentor, and they fol- ity, they will need to draw on the main lesson low a plot of invitation to adventure, acceptance learned by consumer marketing in the 1950s: of that invitation, battle with the nemesis, and facts alone do not sell behavior change. Instead, then return.4 people working to foster sustainable behavior What is of particular interest to social mar- must use storytelling to reach audiences on a keters about Campbell’s theories is that the set- human, personal scale. ting for these adventures is often a broken world in need of healing. What’s more, the Stories Change Behaviors return involves the hero coming back to soci- ety with the wisdom to heal it. Seen through As social marketers craft a strategy for this this lens, stories of a societal shift from con- critical next decade, understanding and har- sumerism to sustainability fit perfectly into nessing the power of emotional storytelling humanity’s pre-formed ideas of what a hero’s may be their most important task. Table 10 journey is all about. A hero is someone who outlines a few of the most successful product helps to heal society’s ills. and social marketing efforts since the 1950s Campbell’s theories do not stop at saying and describes how human-scale character and that people respond to stories. He believed that stories, as opposed to facts and product attrib- stories motivate behavior and identity, which utes, have built the most powerful brands and might explain the success of storytelling mar- behavior change.2 keting efforts to change consumer activity. Iconic, story-based campaigns do not sim- “The myth is the public dream and the dream ply shift the of a product or activ- is the private myth,” wrote Campbell in ity. To change behavior on the scale they do, describing how deeply people internalize sto- such campaigns have to shift how millions of ries and seek to place themselves as the heroes people see themselves and how they are within them.5 defined by, for example, their choice of ciga- In the field of public health, the power of

152 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 From Selling Soap to Selling Sustainability: Social Marketing

Table 10. Selected Successful Product and Social Marketing Campaigns

Product or Cause Story-Based Campaign Result Marlboro In a series of windows into the life of a The Marlboro Man is one of the most famil- cigarettes fictional American hero, the Marlboro iar faces in the world and solidified Marlboro Man, the campaign focuses on the man. as the top cigarette brand for the past 40 The product is merely an accessory. years. Volkswagen A campaign that began in 1959 spoke The campaign completely reversed Ameri- Beetle frankly about consumer frustration cans’ perception of what had been seen as a with and the “Nazi car.” The VW beetle became the sym- Big Three car companies’ branding bol of cultural resistance and 1960s culture. puffery. Instead of targeting consumers’ It is still one of the most analyzed and impulse to buy a car, it targeted their admired campaigns in advertising history. impulse for cultural resistance. Seat belt use In 1985, the “You can learn a lot from In 1986, 39 percent of drivers in 19 U.S. cities a dummy” campaign introduced two reported using their safety belts, compared charming crash-test dummies, Vince with 23 percent in a 1985 study. The campaign and Larry. The dummies showed view- was a significant factor among several that ers exactly what it looked and felt like influenced this increase. The campaign also to be in a car accident. created political cover for mandatory seat belt legislation that eventually pushed com- pliance nationwide past 85 percent. Apple Apple’s “1984” ad said nothing about Adweek called 1984 “the best ad ever created”; computers computers and ran only once on tele- Apple II sales accounted for 15 percent of the vision during the 1984 Super Bowl. It market share in its first year. It was the begin- simply showed a lone rebel smashing ning of a string of story-based campaigns through the Orwellian dominance of that would make Apple one of the most iden- its PC competitor, laying the ground- tifiable lifestyle brands in history. Apple’s more work for Apple users to identify heav- recent “Get a Mac” campaign has millions of ily with the brand. Americans identifying so much with the brand that they repeat the mantra “I’m a Mac.” Raising The Story of Stuff took users into the This movie, by Free Range Studios, quickly awareness 10-year journey of activist Annie went “viral” on the Internet when it was about Leonard as she explored where “stuff” released in 2007. Since then, it has been over- comes from and where it winds up seen by more than 7 million people in 224 consumption when it gets thrown away. Leonard’s countries, translated into 10 languages, and high-level analysis of the materials featured in hundreds of U.S. classrooms. economy was boiled down to simple stories told on the human scale. Reduction Morgan Sperlock’s film Supersize Me The film was an enormous critical and com- in obesity showed viewers the disconcerting mercial success. Shortly after the film’s in the health and appearance effects on release, McDonald’s removed the Supersize United one man of eating nothing but option from its menu. States McDonald’s meals for 30 days. Source: See endnote 2. archetypal storytelling has gone well beyond vision executive Miguel Sabido began to prac- theory and has proved to be effective world- tice Entertainment-Education (E-E), which wide. Beginning in the 1970s, Mexican tele- spread public health messages by embedding

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them into soap operas. Sabido’s shows influ- because of hearing the radio drama Twende na enced audiences by encoding health behav- Wakati. Similar results have been documented iors into the interpersonal dramas of three in an analysis of 39 family planning commu- types of role models: positive, negative, and nications worldwide between 1986 and 2001.7 transitional. These models map closely to Campbell’s archetypes of the mentor (the Few Stories Address source of wise behavior), the nemesis (the Climate Change antithesis of the mentor), and the hero (the ini- tiate who must choose the correct behavior).6 Although social marketers have had some stun- Viewers of Sabido’s E-E shows were ning successes in harnessing the power of sto- expected to identify closely with a transitional ries, when it comes to the most pressing character and, by seeing that person make environmental sustainability issues, the lesson good choices about sex, marriage, and family has not been applied adequately. planning, believe that they too could make A survey of the Web communications of the positive behavior changes. “environmental G8,” the foremost interna- tional nongovernmental organiza- tions (NGOs) addressing climate change, reveals an approach that is still heavily devoted to the facts of the climate crisis, its dire consequences, and current policy proposals to address it. Emotional appeals that aptly reflect the reality of visitors’ lives and concerns, as well as the frames through which they receive and evaluate information about the crisis, are sorely lacking.8 A recent study by the Yale Pro- ject on Climate Change and George Courtesy Free Range Studios The online movie The Story of Stuff reminds viewers how mar- Mason University’s Center for Cli- keters use emotion to sell their goods. mate Change Communication sig- nals that the time for a fact-alone In the years since its launch, E-E has been approach has past. Seventy percent of Ameri- adopted into radio plays, animations, reality cans already believe climate change is a prob- dramas, and even mobile phone programming lem and 51 percent view it as a serious with consistently demonstrated success well problem. With the public recognizing the need above other forms of public health education. to address climate change, NGOs must shift For example, in South Africa the weekly drama gears to inspire action, not merely persuade Tsha-Tsha drew an audience of 1.8 million. people that climate change exists through a People exposed to the show and with good barrage of facts.9 recall of its plot reported significantly higher Moving beyond facts and information alone rates of HIV prevention practices, such as is critical because when it comes to taking abstinence and safe sex. And a study in Tan- action, humans tend not to be rational actors. zania found that 40 percent of new family In the wake of the 1970s , planning users at government clinics came in researcher Scott Geller demonstrated this when

154 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 From Selling Soap to Selling Sustainability: Social Marketing he exposed research participants to three hours Today that model is quickly being over- of slide shows, lectures, and other educational taken by a many-to-many “narrowcast” model materials about residential energy consump- that is made possible by the Internet. In this tion. The result? Participants were more aware new world, messages travel through personal- of energy issues, understood more about how ized social networks. As each audience mem- they could save energy in their homes, but ber handles the message, he or she may failed to change their behavior.10 comment on it or even alter it. Effective social Fortunately, there is a dawning realization marketing has become not just about creating among social marketers and the scientists whose great stories but about sparking great conver- work they support that facts alone are not sations out of which great social change stories enough. This was captured perfectly by activist can arise. Bill McKibben in describing the work of NASA To understand how powerful social mar- scientist James Hansen: “I think [Hansen] keting efforts might move around in this , as did I, if we get this set of facts in media landscape, it is important to first under- front of everybody, they’re so powerful—over- stand the basics of social media today: whelming—people will do what needs to be • Social media refers to a new crop of Inter- done,” McKibben told the New Yorker. “Of net tools and content, where anyone with an course, that was naïve on both of our parts.”11 Internet connection can publish text, images, Today, McKibben and Hansen are key evan- and video easily through Web sites such as gelists of the Internet-savvy, story-based cam- Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Flickr or paign known as 350.org, which seeks to cast with tools such as blogging and podcast the climate crisis in terms of the health of a sin- software. Once published, others can inter- gle organism. As its Web site explains: “We’re act with the content by commenting on it, like the patient that goes to the doctor and integrating it with other content, sharing learns he’s overweight, or his cholesterol is it, or rating it.13 too high. He doesn’t die immediately—but • Social media tools and users are growing until he changes his lifestyle and gets back exponentially, so that today online forums down to the safe zone, he’s at more risk for are no longer only for ardent Internet users. heart attack or stroke.”12 Facebook alone boasts 250 million active Based on the patterns of success seen on users. About 70 percent of these individu- Madison Avenue and Mexican soap operas als live outside the United States, and the and on the predictions of Joseph Campbell, this fastest-growing Facebook demographic is shift to campaigns like 350 is desperately people 35 or older.14 needed in order to see the mass behavior shifts • Social media are redefining people’s core required for a sustainable future. social networks. A recent Pew study found that people’s networks are more geograph- Social Marketing Meets ically dispersed, mobile, and varied thanks to Social Media the Internet. The study goes so far as to say that social media are changing the tradi- For most of the past 40 years, social market- tional orientation of human behavior.15 ing distribution has occurred in a uniform • Social media content is among the most way. Whether messages were made available trusted sources of information for Ameri- through radio, television, or print, the domi- cans today. Sixty million Americans said infor- nant approach until a decade ago was the one- mation shared on the Internet has helped to-many broadcast model. them make a major life decision, and 90 per-

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cent say that they trust the recommenda- social network level. By early September 2009 tions of their networks over any other form its highly successful social marketing campaign of communication (such as advertising).16 had signed up over 1,700 groups in 79 coun- What are the inherent opportunities here tries to create actions before the Copenhagen and how will this enhance or diminish the climate talks at the end of the year. The orga- power of stories to create social change? nization did not provide top-down instruc- First, social media amplify the public’s tions for how these networks should behave. appetite for and access to human-scale stories. Instead, it offered a sort of social and identity For instance, after the 2008 Sichuan earth- glue that the networks eagerly embraced and quake and the 2009 Iranian presidential elec- used to further the organization’s cause.20 tions, Twitter allowed thousands of authentic Third, social media can offer a natural individual stories to flood out of countries that advantage to social marketing over product previously would have repressed or controlled marketing. Because these networks are made the message. In the past, China’s government up of permission-based communications, it is had buried stories of natural disaster, leaving lit- difficult for people to “advertise” to each other tle space for public response. After the Sichuan without breaching natural social taboos. On the tragedy, the unfiltered stories of heartbreak other hand, social groups tend to welcome generated 1.5 billion yuan ($208 million) in education and values-based messages. Thus, relief donations from Chinese citizens alone.17 despite having smaller budgets, social market- Similarly, after the Iranian elections, ing campaigns will likely move more quickly marchers in Tehran were joined in solidarity through social media. around the world by demonstrators in Wash- ington, London, Islamabad, , São Paulo, Now Is the Time and dozens of other cities. These story-based social marketing efforts harnessed social media Return for a moment to the 1950s, a turning both to spontaneously disseminate key infor- point in the evolution of the consumer-based mation and to create dramatic results that society. The marketing revolution that helped would not have been possible using the broad- reverse cultural norms so swiftly can be seen as cast model.18 a small —a miracle to learn from and Second, social media do not remove the perhaps repeat. It is true, of course, that the need for traditional “tribal” identities; they cre- stakes are much greater and the hurdles to ate an even deeper need for them. The Pew cross in terms of behavior and political change study showed that all this incredible new tech- seem much higher. But this is not the 1950s, nology has not fundamentally changed the when television was new and a handful of play- size of social networks. People still tend to ers dominated the media landscape. This is interact in small “tribes” of about 35 “close 2010, a time of exponentially greater connec- ties.” These close-knit communities, how- tivity, free information flow, and dramatically ever, are no longer necessarily held together lower distribution costs. By combining the by geographic proximity or traditional mark- key lessons of marketing’s past with the oppor- ers of social status. Thus the tribes need new tunities of today’s social media revolution, identity-forming concepts and behaviors to social marketers armed with the power of sto- hold them together.19 rytelling have the chance to create another The group 350.org has taken advantage of great shift and move the world toward a sus- this by organizing a global protest at the micro- tainable future.

156 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Media Literacy, Citizenship, and Sustainability

Robin Andersen and Pamela Miller

A series of advertisements for Italian-based Understanding visual language and revealing Diesel brand clothing features alluring young the false promises implied in such carefully people in suggestive poses wearing jeans, swim- choreographed ads are important tasks. suits, and other clothes while enjoying luxury, Info-literacy challenges audiences to become popularity, and admiration for their perfect bod- sophisticated “readers” of media text, espe- ies and good looks. Although the ads use com- cially with regard to visual images. Consumers mon popular-cultural themes and marketing are rarely aware that pictures are routinely strategies that tie beauty, belonging, and hap- “touched up,” nor do they regularly consider piness to a line of clothing, the models in them why emotional gratifications are not easily ful- lounge on no ordinary beach. In the water filled in the realm of consumption. Photographs stands a partially submerged Mount Rushmore. create associations and implied meanings that In other ads, models appear in a rainforest in are fundamental to the strategies of persua- Paris amid palm trees and lizards surrounding sion. A picture of a group of friends all wear- the Eiffel Tower, a couple sprawls on a rooftop ing Diesel clothes or drinking the same soda in Manhattan while is almost confers a sense of group identity and belong- completely engulfed in water, and the Great ing. But if such messages were stated more Wall of China is surrounded by a vast and empty bluntly—“wear these jeans and you will have desert. Thus Diesel’s 2007 Global Warming the friends you want” or “people who drink Ready campaign created scenes of consumer Coke are thin, popular, and always happy”—the bliss in a future world that has been drastically assertions would be hardly credible. altered by rising temperatures and seas.1 Learning how to critically engage with tele- Commercial messages that assert con- vision, magazines, films, and the Internet is sumption equals happiness even as the nega- essential in a sprawling media landscape where tive environmental consequences of industrial users are exposed to more and more media production occur illustrate the challenges and every year. Increasingly this landscape is dom- necessity for media literacy as a cornerstone in inated by advertising, and gaining immunity to the transition to sustainable cultural practices. its persuasions is an important step along the

Robin Andersen is professor of communication and media studies and director of studies and Pamela Miller is a graduate student in public communications at Fordham University.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Media Literacy, Citizenship, and Sustainability STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Take, for example, a segment televised in 2006 by WTOK-11 in Meridian, Mississippi. It featured two “top weather and ocean scientists” who asserted that a link between the recent severe hurricane season and climate change was “all hot air.” The channel made no effort to inform viewers that this was a re-edited video news release produced by a public rela- tions firm, Medialink Worldwide. Nor were viewers told that the client behind the video— Tech Central Station Science Roundtable— was run by the lobbying firm DCI Group, whose client list includes ExxonMobil, a cor- poration that has made a sizable contribution

Diesel to the Tech Central Science Foundation for The Mount Rushmore ad in Diesel’s 2007 campaign. “climate change support.” Few members of WTOK-11’s audience could have recognized path to sustainable cultural practices. But a that this “news” segment did not contain a deeper critique of consumerism is required in particular scientific argument but instead served order to build a more sustainable culture—one the political and economic interests of the oil that goes to the heart of consumption as a company lobbyists who wrote it and paid for it.2 social practice. James Hansen of the National Aeronautics Diesel’s ads claim that the company and its and Space Administration identifies a lack of brand of clothing are Global Warming Ready, public knowledge as a main obstacle to revers- but no mention is made of the environmental ing climate change, pointing to the gap impact of producing the clothes. Clever ad between what the scientific community under- campaigns may cause consumers to feel clever stands and what the public and policymakers by association, but they often encourage them know. He argues that public understanding to think uncritically about whether the com- of the effectiveness of reducing fossil fuel use pany behind the campaign follows sustainable and carbon dioxide emissions is thwarted by business practices. Does it use alternative “intensive efforts by special interest groups to energy sources in production or distribution to prevent the public from becoming well- reduce its carbon footprint, pay its workers informed.” One study of press reporting on adequately, or use organic fibers in any way? this issue found that the practice of journalis- What industrial by-products are created, and tic balance serves to amplify a small group of how are they treated? global warming skeptics, many of whom, it has The Diesel images speak of inevitability and been revealed, are indirectly funded by special acquiescence to a global crisis, and their wide interest groups.3 circulation in popular culture in place of nar- ratives about the urgency and necessity for How Critical Should citizen action reinforces defeatist and apathetic Media Literacy Be? attitudes to global warming. This cultural atti- tude complements a larger media context that While the broader role of media literacy to offers little real information about the causes create sophisticated critical “readers” of media of and solutions to climate change. texts is clear, disagreements about the degree

158 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Media Literacy, Citizenship, and Sustainability and levels of criticism have emerged over the tices of current global manufacturing. As media years. Some advocates want to expand analy- literacy develops, these issues and concerns sis into other realms, including corporate media will remain at the forefront of debates over cur- practices and policy reform. Rejecting this riculum. In the United States, media literacy approach, in 2000 the Alliance for a Media Lit- is offered in many schools in 50 states. And a erate America (AMLA, now rechristened the dynamic media literacy movement is growing National Association for Media Education) worldwide, which includes community activists, stated that it was not an “anti-media move- grassroots practitioners, media reformers, and ment” but one dedicated to finding a “more policymakers as well as educators.6 enlightened way to understand our media envi- ronment.” Not interested in “media bashing,” Media Literacy and the AMLA created controversy by accepting Global Organizations funding from media conglomerate Time- Warner. That deal led to the formation of a Media literacy has become an important item more critical group, the Action Coalition for in the global educational curriculum, with the Media Education (ACME) in 2002. ACME support and promotion of key world bodies. seeks to broaden the concept of “literacy,” (See Table 11.) Educators are no longer - which focuses on messages, to include “edu- lated in a few schools or regions. Indeed, cation,” which includes messages, structures, UNESCO has worked for 26 years to extend and reform activism. Writer Bill Yousman iden- the reach of media education worldwide. The tifies the central question that divides the agency works within the framework of the media literacy community in the United States: Grunwald Declaration of 1982, which enjoined “Is media literacy aimed at creating more global educational systems to “promote citi- sophisticated consumers of media, or is it about zens’ critical understanding of ‘the phenome- nurturing engaged citizens?”4 non of communication’ and their participation The consequences of these varying in media.” In 2007, the Paris Agenda identi- approaches are significant. As Yousman fied key components for media education, and explains, “It is one thing to teach children UNESCO followed with the development of how to decode an advertisement for fast food, a Media Education Kit the same year.7 for example, so that they may see how the UNESCO’s current initiative, Training the image of a hamburger is artificially constructed, Trainer on Media and Information Literacy and doesn’t actually resemble the actual prod- Curricula, promotes teacher-training programs uct that you purchase at the counter. It is in developing countries. The agency also seeks another thing entirely to encourage an under- to foster a global environment that encourages standing of fast food as a mega-billion dollar free, pluralistic, and independent media as a global industry that is spreading particular fundamental component of media education, industrial practices and ways of thinking about extending education into adult communities. food, labor, the environment, and the like, Many in global organizations realize that receiv- throughout the world.”5 ing and creating media content and having full Sophisticated consumers make better access to new media technology will allow global choices about what to buy, but the potential citizens to reap the full benefits of Article 19 of for media literacy as a force for sustainability the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, on will depend on people around the world cre- freedom of opinion and expression.8 ating and supporting alternative choices, not UNESCO is partnering with the UN- the ones offered by the unsustainable prac- Alliance of Civilization, which also identifies

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Table 11. Efforts to Promote Media Literacy, Selected Countries

Country Programs Argentina The School and Media Program became a nationwide initiative in 2000. One effort involves distribution to high schools of a free monthly magazine with notable online/print news articles. Australia The Australian Communications and Media Authority is currently pursuing a Digital Media Literacy Research Program that aims to improve knowledge about digital media literacy levels and to aid development of consumer education and protection. Austria The Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture distributes a quarterly journal on media education to all schools. Ministry-evaluated resources for educators are acces- sible online and other teaching materials are available for order. Canada In 2006–07, Ontario’s Ministry of Education instituted a policy mandating instruction in “four program strands”—reading, writing, oral communication, and media literacy—for all schoolchildren. Finland Government policy for 2007–11 includes specific initiatives encouraging media literacy, especially in younger citizens. The Citizen Participation Policy Programme emphasizes the cultivation of “information society skills” as a catalyst for citizenship. France The Ministry of Education’s Centre for Liaison Between Teaching and Information Media produces teaching tools, trains educators in the process of analyzing and using news media messages, and connects teachers and students with media professionals during an annual Press and Media Week. Hong Kong, The Education Department recently introduced the New Senior Secondary Curriculum, China emphasizing the ability “to make critical analyses and to judge the reliability of the news and the suitability of ways of reporting used by the mass media.” Russia Since the early 2000s, the Russian Academy of Education Laboratory has worked to incorporate media literacy into national arts and culture-related curricula. South Korea Newly reformed national curriculum, mandatory for students aged 5–16, encourages media literacy practices in Ethics, Social Studies, and Practical Studies courses. Sweden Nordicom’s International Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and Media continues to promote media literacy in youth, incite constructive public debate, and inspire research and policymaking. Turkey School systems first introduced media literacy programs into the curriculum as elec- tive courses in 2006. The government’s regulatory bodies have begun proactive collaboration with nongovernmental groups and educators to promote media literacy. United Under the 2003 Communications Act, duties of the Office of Communications (Ofcom) Kingdom include “furthering the interests of citizens, in relation to communications matters, and of consumers, by promoting competition in relevant markets.”

Source: See endnote 7.

media literacy as an indispensable tool for global longer an option for global citizenship but a citizenship. Understanding that institutional necessity for social development and civic media are key generators that circulate symbols engagement and for sustainable societies. In the in social and political life, media literacy is no words of Divina Frau-Meigs and Jordi Tor-

160 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Media Literacy, Citizenship, and Sustainability rent, Project Managers for the Media Literacy the marginalized, the oppressed, and the dom- Program at the Alliance, “A threshold has been inated, through a radical reconstruction of reached, where the body of knowledge con- history and knowledge production.” Banda cerning media literacy has matured, where the calls on African media educators to reconcep- different stakeholders implicated in education, tualize media structures to “improve the rel- in media and in civil society are aware of the evance of local media to civic life, encouraging new challenges developed by the so-called informed use of and participation in media.” ‘Information Society,’ and the new learning Such participation can help with local com- cultures it requires for the well-being of its cit- munity witnesses and information dissemina- izens, the peaceful development of civic soci- tion about local conservation issues throughout eties, the preservation of native cultures, the the world. (See Box 19 on environmental jour- growth of sustainable economies and the nalism in India.)11 enrichment of contemporary social diversity.”9 The Development Through Radio project, piloted by Panos Southern Africa in Zambia Media Literacy Education and and Malawi, is “aimed at cultivating engaged Global Citizenship and engaging citizenship.” The women involved in the project were given the skills to A main goal of media literacy education is to produce radio programs and to make sense of find ways to encourage media users to actively the context of media production. The groups engage through critical awareness and creative made audio recordings about a mutually agreed media skills. Citizen participation is especially upon topic and then coordinated getting their crucial for addressing global issues and finding tapes to central studios in their respective collective solutions to environmental prob- major cities. Producers at the Zambia National lems. Writing about “critical citizenship,” Broadcasting Corporation and the Malawi Costas Criticos of the University of Natal in Broadcasting Corporation recorded responses South Africa argues that “a citizen or a society to the women’s concerns by relevant urban- unable or unwilling to be critical will militate based policymakers or leaders of nongovern- against the growth and maintenance of a mental groups. They then edited the healthy civil society.” Many nations are recordings into a single program for broadcast, presently affected by the influence of “global promoting further discussion and creating an nodes of information power and practice” that empowering, cyclic dialogue.12 contribute greatly to the marginalization of While this global movement continues to regional voices. Teaching media literacy facil- grow, the full implementation of media liter- itates critical citizenship, and encourages mar- acy programs and the addition of citizens’ ginal voices to produce counter-discourses. voices to public dialogue face challenges on Creative counter-narratives that embody the many levels. Blocks to full participation in the wisdom of regional sustainable practices will be information society arise every day, yet with the key to envisioning a sustainable future.10 convergence of new media—including wireless Fackson Banda of the School of Journalism telephones, the Internet, satellite broadcasting, and Media Studies at Rhodes University in and digital technologies of all sorts—virtually South Africa advocates a mode of media train- anyone can create media content. Only about ing embedded within the concept of citizen- one fifth of humanity has access to the Inter- ship. His proposal is rooted in postcolonial net, however.13 theory, with the primary aim of recovering Often because of dire financial concerns, “lost historical and contemporary voices of efforts to promote media literacy must at times

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Box 19. The Evolving Role of Environmental Journalism in India

After the historic in Rio in 1992, issues. People did major reports, to be sure, unfortunately environmental journalism in but they were not pushing hard enough to developing countries like India went into a understand the subject. Environment had steep decline. Part of the reason was the become far more complex than just forests overkill in coverage of the summit and the and wildlife. Now journalists needed to under- subsequent failure of major powers to live up stand issue ranging from economics to to the promises made at Rio. The other major science and development. In retrospect, reason was that by the mid-1990s, thanks to getting readers or viewers to understand the economic reforms, India’s economy boomed. link between carbon emissions and climate Business publications sprouted, and within a change may have been the easy part. couple of years business TV journalism fol- When it came to the hard questions—such lowed suit. This spawned a massive boom as which sectors in the industry are the high- in a niche area of journalism and offered est emitters or what technologies could make hundreds of jobs with good salaries to young a difference and whether companies were journalists. Business development, as using them—journalists’ efforts to find opposed to sustainable development, was answers were by and large missing. There has now attracting talent. been no independent media investigation of Suddenly environmental activism was the claims of success by government and viewed as a major obstacle to industrial industry. There has been no great double- development. The middle class, whose huge checking of government data on India’s emis- constituency supported environmental sion levels. Nor has there been a really hard activism, seemed more focused on securing look at the viability of the renewable energies good jobs and building houses. This does not being pushed. There have been no great mean that there were no brilliant journalistic guides for the public on how they can reduce works on environment during this period— their carbon footprint, for example. there were, but they were few and far between. It is not too late though. Following the cru- Then nature began to strike back with an cial Copenhagen conference, the baton to do unprecedented fury. The deluge that paralyzed business-as-radical rather than as usual will Mumbai and the great drought of 2002 fall on public initiative driven by perceptive signaled to Indians that all was not well with media coverage. Just as in the United States, the weather. There were alarming studies of where a recalcitrant government was forced rapid glacial melt in the Himalayas. This coin- to act when states like California passed their cided with a continuous stream of reports by own legislation on climate issues, public pres- the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate sure will build to enormous levels as natural Change—coverage of these was helped in no catastrophes strike India. Journalists can play small measure by the fact that the chairman, a constructive role in channeling their anger Dr R. K. Pachauri, is Indian. Al Gore’s film “An and their desire for change by exploring ways Inconvenient Truth” boosted awareness out and offering solutions. With political pres- among urban Indians. There was a dramatic sure on environmental issues inadequate, revival on interest in these issues, and journalists will have to play the role of both environment was on the front-burner again. torchbearer and public watchdog. Yet most journalists were stymied by the —Raj Chengappa new challenges of covering climate change Managing Editor, India Today

162 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Media Literacy, Citizenship, and Sustainability rely too heavily on corporate entities, as is the Gauntlett’s analysis reveals an increasingly case of Argentina, where media literacy courses narrow range of acceptable environmental are sponsored by Telecom and Microsoft but content and an important “absent narrative” also by Coca-Cola and Adidas. Such funding within television coverage. Left unaddressed could no doubt result in the exclusion of crit- is how to account for political and economic ical discussion of corporate practices, such as forces and instances of polluting industries Coca-Cola’s many environmentally and socially that fall within government and legal regula- irresponsible practices. Stakeholder negotia- tions. Moreover, how should society address tions are key, as are media regulatory bodies institutional practices such as the car-centered able to address ethical and content issues with- transportation system through an individual out suspicion of censorship.14 problem/solution framework when alterna- tives such as affordable and efficient public Media Literacy Is the Literacy transportation are not available?16 of Our Time Challenging environmental suppositions based in media stories is only a starting point for As media engagement is understood as a global Gauntlett. He moves from the negative critique necessity for sustainability and citizenship, col- into positive creative solutions. The larger pro- laborations across cultures and borders become ject is to overcome “passive paralysis,” a conse- essential. Robin Blake of the U.K. Office of quence of the “sit back and be told” culture. Communications, which regulates media in Believing that the media literacy paradigm must the United Kingdom, has identified a research include a fundamental transformation of engage- framework for shared knowledge that includes ment with media, Gauntlett encourages stu- four key research areas for media literacy: dents to create alternatives, not to “sit around social, political, regulatory, and commercial. watching as the world gets worse.” Or as media Another essential component is documentation educator DeeDee Halleck puts it: “Don’t watch of the role played by long-standing grassroots TV. Make it.”17 practitioners who often spearhead citizen media Such educators envision a transformed rela- across the globe. The work of such indepen- tionship to media in a new “making and doing dent media producers is being documented in culture,” one that demands an expansive per- the series Waves of Change, which features spective able to envision positive proposals for examples of grassroots radio in Bolivia, El Sal- a better future. By connecting to the world and vador, South Africa, and the United States seeking solutions to its problems, people reveal and of groups producing community video their presence in the world. Promoting and television in India, Brazil, and Mexico. counter-narratives that creatively address issues Information about past and present grassroots such as climate change is a powerful antidote efforts to promote sustainability and media to the cynical agreements often embodied in literacy throughout the global village is also media, such as the Diesel ad campaign. Media made available online.15 are the means by which people communicate David Gauntlett, a U.K. media literacy and share knowledge and creativity with the educator who works with children and video global public. Increasing access to media, learn- production, discovered that youthful audi- ing how to use them, and creating public and ences have internalized environmental prob- legal structures that democratize them will lems and their solutions in a one-dimensional allow people to cope with the challenges of “narrative”: the problem has been created by finding sustainable cultures based on human individuals and must be solved by individuals. and environmental priorities.

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Amy Han

Music has traditionally been cherished in Music continues to be used as a way to society for its artistic beauty and its raw connect with people’s values, heritage, and expression of life and spirit, and it continues cultural preferences in order to encourage to be enjoyed today. The songs of birds behavioral change. For example, songs from inspired Mozart and other great classical Marvin Gaye’s 1971 album “What’s Going composers to recreate the elegance of nature’s On”—which catalogued the Vietnam War, sounds, while folk music, passed down pollution, and economic hardship—are being through generations, has served as an influ- revisited today in light of the current reces- ential base for many other forms of storied sion, climate change, and environmental expression—from country music and gospel decline. In August 2009, U.S. Environmen- to blues and jazz.1 tal Protection Agency Administrator Lisa Along with its emotional and creative ele- Jackson invoked Gaye’s songs “Inner City ments, music has played a critical role in Blues” and “Mercy, Mercy Me (the Ecol- encouraging social engagement. Historically, ogy)” in a speech announcing a Greening the power of music to communicate and cre- the Block initiative to empower climate-vul- ate connections has helped unite people nerable and economically disadvantaged com- around a common identity or purpose. In munities in the United States.3 the Soviet Union, traditional Kazak folk songs In the current age of digital media, oppor- celebrating birth, death, and other life stages tunities for remembering, sharing, and using were adapted into modern operas and litera- music for mobilization are expanding. Tech- ture supporting worker ideals, sovereignty, nology has not only preserved music for and nationalism. In the United States, the future generations, it has facilitated people’s traditional hymn “I’ll Overcome Someday” access to it, enabling independent artists to was taken up by the black Tobacco Worker’s post their work on the Internet, fans to share Union in the 1940s as the collective labor files and lyrics, and virtual communities to song “We Will Overcome”—and in the 1960s come together through social networking was adapted as the civil rights classic “We sites such as Facebook and Twitter. Although Shall Overcome.”2 music has morphed, mixed, diversified, and

Amy Han is a State of the World 2010 project assistant at the Worldwatch Institute.

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Click here to see notes for this section. STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Music: Using Education and Entertainment to Motivate Change globalized over the centuries, it remains a Music as Education potent force in society, with a significant part to play in inspiring sustainability through From conception, humans are exposed to education as well as entertainment. (See Boxes music. Babies in the womb are lulled by the 20 and 21 for the similar roles played by rhythmic beats of the heart, and young children other artists and by movies.)4 are introduced to music through song and

Box 20. Lights, Camera, Ecological Consciousness

Cinema is a powerful visual and auditory umentaries often do, they have the power medium that contributes to people’s under- to normalize sustainable lifestyle choices standing of the world and their role in it. In through the actions of characters on-screen its most direct form, a documentary film can and sometimes through the actions of celebri- raise awareness of an issue and generate pub- ties off-screen. lic dialogue. In recent years, the documentary While a few notable sustainability-themed as a genre has seen a resurgence, and many documentaries have been able to transcend a have been related to sustainability—including niche audience and reach across the world— March of the Penguins (2005), An Inconvenient in the case of grossing Truth (2006), the 11th Hour (2007), Blue Gold $50 million in the process—most eco- (2008), and Home (2009). conscious filmmakers will have to use creative Home is an effort to illustrate humanity’s tools to ensure broad distribution of their impact on the planet using all aerial footage films. Home could never have reached the in a feature-length documentary. Within a audience it did had it needed to make a profit; few weeks of its release on 5 June 2009, the PPR group provided a generous grant to which was , some 200 enable a broad distribution, and the film can million people had watched it in more than be watched for free at www.youtube.com/ 120 countries, and it was dubbed or subtitled homeproject. Other filmmakers are using in 33 languages. Despite this success and the innovative tools like crowd funding, in which success of other eco-documentaries, docu- many people invest small amounts to finance mentaries tend to attract audiences already a film’s production and distribution. This sympathetic to the issues, thereby limiting allowed The Age of Stupid (2009) to maintain their transformative potential. creative control over the film and its distribu- Fictional movies, which for many people tion and to be launched in over 60 countries. are easier to watch, are uniquely positioned Both fictional and nonfictional cinema can to stimulate cultural change for sustainability. play an important role in drawing attention to They can depict challenging future scenarios, environmental topics and in creating space such as WALL-E (2008) and The Day After for sustainability values. If people are to come Tomorrow (2004), and give voice to the strug- together to solve the sustainability crisis, gles faced by communities, such as Erin they must make and demand films that not Brockovich (2000). As they are less overtly only inform audiences and generate public educational or political, they appeal to dialogue but also exemplify and project audiences on a human level by personifying sustainable lifestyles. what typically are perceived as abstract global- —Yann Arthus-Bertrand scale ecological issues. Although dramatic Director, Home films do not directly prescribe actions as doc- Source: See endnote 4.

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Box 21. Art for Earth’s Sake

The dominant thinking in western society is ple who sow the seeds of hope and empower that of separation: the separation of mind the disempowered. from matter, science from spirituality, art from Of course no one should doubt the severity daily life. From the Renaissance onwards, of the climate crisis. Our present way of life, artists worked as individuals, in their studios, so dependent on the use of fossil fuels, is separating themselves from their fellow crafts- hanging on a cliff edge. If we go any further men and women. They practiced art as a way we will fall into the abyss. Yet artists go of self-expression. Their art produced mostly beyond fear, beyond doom and gloom. Their items of luxury and status. Thus art became work is rooted in love of life. The potential of disconnected from the natural world, from liv- growth and progress in the sphere of arts and ing communities, and from life itself. For cen- crafts is immense, and this can occur with lit- turies, art was practiced only by those with tle damage to planet Earth. special talent, purchased only by those with To meet the challenge of this environmen- great wealth, and seen mostly in churches, tal, social, and spiritual crisis, we need to museums, and art galleries. change from being consumers to being artists. But the exclusive practice of art is now As the British architect, textile designer, and being challenged by people with ecological artist William Morris pointed out long ago, and social sensibility. Joseph Beuys, one of arts and crafts ignite our imagination, stimu- the founders of the Green Party in Germany, late our creativity, and bring us a sense of ful- said “Everyone is an artist” and began the fillment. Poetry, painting, pottery, music, process of reclaiming art from galleries and , gardening, sculpting, and many museums. He began to reconnect art with other forms of arts and crafts can produce ecology, politics, and everyday life. Similarly, beautiful objects to use—objects that do not Sri Lankan art historian A. K. Coomaraswamy require the use of fossil fuels. said “the artist is not a special kind of man, The climate crisis and the economic down- but every man is a special kind of artist.” turn offer us an opportunity to change our When artists let go of their egos and their direction from gross to subtle, from glamo- wish for celebrity status and personal glory, rous to gracious, from hedonism to healing, then art becomes truly boundless. from the conquest of Earth to the conserva- Art is a force for transformation and self- tion of nature, from quantities of possessions realization. As a potter transforms an ordinary to quality of life. This will transform us from lump of clay into a work of beauty, that clay being mere consumers of goods and services transforms the potter into an artist and to genuine makers of arts and artifacts. In the craftsperson of his or her community. This present state of the world and under the influ- transformative power of the arts gives us a ence of unsustainable consumerism, human sense of belonging and unlocks the doors of beings are reduced to the condition of passive optimism and hope. recipients of factory-made objects. This must Unfortunately, at the moment a scenario change. We need to move toward a state of environmental doom and gloom is where humans are active participants in the expounded by experts and activists alike. process of life and in the making of things Book after book tells us that we have passed that are beautiful, useful, and durable. the tipping point and have reached the point —Satish Kumar, Resurgence of no return. Artists are some of the few peo- Source: See endnote 4.

166 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Music: Using Education and Entertainment to Motivate Change dance. Music and rhythm aid in intellectual waterborne disease, and environmental health. development, as research has pointed to the The band Massukos tours the country and value of music in developing cognitive skills as combines traditional rhythms with modern well as in helping individuals develop a sense lyrics to teach people about handwashing and of organization, self-awareness, and self-con- sanitation, at times drawing an entire village fidence. This educational contribution has to hear their messages. Often accompanying been taken so seriously that music has been the band are practical projects that promote regarded as its own language and is even community sanitation, sustainable agricul- believed by some to have a powerful effect on ture, and reforestation, and the government a person’s moral character.5 has set up related forums to teach about Increasingly, children’s music contains not hygiene and environment-related illness. Mas- only civil themes such as friendship and shar- sukos has signed with a British recording ing but also educational messages about the label, and lead band member Feliciano dos environment and sustainability. For 15 years, Santos has won the prestigous Goldman Envi- the Japanese Ministry of the Environment ronmental Prize. The band is now expanding has supported the television program “Eco- its audience and musical messages through gainder,” which features a group of environ- international performances.8 mental superheroes who serve as role models for children around the country, and strength- Festivals, Activism, ened this message with a catchy theme song. and Entertainment In North America, the popular musician Raffi has entertained young people for decades with Music is also being used to educate audiences songs about the environment and respect for through less explicit means. In the 1980s, as the natural world. Raffi positions his music as popular music culture continued its global a call to action and challenges “Beluga grads,” spread, musicians began bringing attention to or people who grew up listening to his songs wider humanitarian causes by organizing large- such as “Baby Beluga” in the 1970s and scale, widely publicized entertainment events. 1980s, to both embrace sustainability in their In 1985, Irish singer Bob Geldof and Scottish own lives and pass these teachings on to their singer Midge Ure organized “Live Aid,” the own children.6 world’s first multi-venue super-concert, which The appeal and relevance of music as a was broadcast live to some 400 million view- tool for environmental education is not lim- ers in 60 countries. That same year “We Are the ited to youth. Irthlingz, an art-based educa- World,” written by pop icons Michael Jackson tional group, uses music to inform both and Lionel Richie, united 45 recording artists children and adults about issues that affect the from around the world for famine relief, help- planet. In 2007, students performed the orga- ing to create the charity USA (United Support nization’s musical revue “Penguins on Thin of Artists) for Africa. As of mid-2009, an esti- Ice,” which includes songs about energy and mated 20 million copies of the song had been climate issues, before an audience of civil sold, raising more than $63 million for human- society leaders at the United Nations Com- itarian aid.9 mission for Sustainable Development meet- More recently, the Internet has enabled ings in New York.7 such events to have an even broader interna- In Mozambique, musical and theater tra- tional reach. In 2007, the concert extrava- ditions are proving integral to larger efforts ganza Live Earth, started by producer Kevin to address the challenges of rural sanitation, Wall and former U.S. Vice President Al Gore,

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 167 Music: Using Education and Entertainment to Motivate Change STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 was broadcast for 24 hours across seven con- energy and changed 90 percent of the lighting tinents, featuring an all-star lineup of artists that equipment to low-energy LED equipment. included Madonna, The Police, and Snoop Glastonbury Festival is encouraging public Dogg. Live Earth has since become a “multi- transport use and the planting of tree hedges year campaign to drive individuals, corporations (over 10,000 since 2000), while incorporating and governments to take action to solve the cli- the use of solar power in its festivals. It also mate crisis.” The event is now partnering with plans to use tractors capable of running on 100 other climate protection groups, such as the percent biodiesel, all steps taken to lower its Together campaign, which offers tips and con- own carbon emissions.13 sumer products online to help people lower Waste reduction is another key feature their ecological footprints.10 among event organizers who are encouraging Some artists have stepped beyond their fans to tread more lightly. In accordance with musical boundaries to become well-known its “Love the Farm, Leave No Trace” princi- activists in their own right. U2’s lead singer, ples, the Glastonbury festival asks attendees Bono, known for his efforts to eradicate global to bring fewer items that would normally poverty, has co-founded several organizing become waste, has replaced plastic bags with movements and engaged in extensive discus- 100 percent cotton bags, has required wood sions with public and private leaders ranging cutlery and compostable cups and plates at from former President Bill Clinton to Pope stalls, and in 2008 recycled just over 863 John Paul II. Bono is also a spokesperson for tons of waste. Smaller venues have taken sim- the ONE campaign, founded in 2004 to rally ilar greening actions. Seattle’s annual music grassroots support for international aid to fight and arts festival, Bumbershoot, bans vendors extreme poverty and preventable disease.11 from using Styrofoam and also reuses the Concerts have become increasingly impor- previous year’s signage. The High Sierra tant opportunities for musicians and event Music Festival’s “Red, White, Blue and Green organizers to demonstrate their commitment Campsite Challenge” makes the “Leave No to environmental action. Large tours in par- Trace” outdoor ethic into a competition, ticular can be resource-consumptive and rewarding participants with the least amount responsible for high levels of greenhouse gas of impact with prizes.14 emissions. According to one estimate, the car- At the Ojai Music Festival in Ventura bon footprint generated by U2’s 44 interna- County, California, classical music fans are tional concerts in 2009 is equivalent to the encouraged to help preserve the natural waste produced by 6,500 Britons over a year beauty of the area with a free bike valet area or “the carbon created by the four band mem- for alternative transport, water stations to bers traveling the 34.125 million miles from refill reusable containers, and Earth to Mars in a passenger plane.”12 Stations to help sort trash. And the U.S.- To minimize their carbon footprint, many based Dave Matthews Band, through its So music venues now use renewable energy, such Much to Save program, encourages fans to as solar power or biodiesel, to run their events, take actions to reduce their ecological foot- or they purchase third-party certified carbon print whether at the concert or outside of it, offsets to ensure that the activities are “carbon- such as recycling or conducting energy effi- neutral.” Roskilde Festival, which calls itself as ciency audits in exchange for free downloaded the largest North European culture and music music. During the first two months of the festival, has a Green Footsteps campaign that 2009 campaign, participants recycled an esti- in 2009 completely ran the festival on wind mated 19 tons of waste, diverting more than

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84 cubic meters of waste from landfills.15 ping the loss of U.S. family farms and advo- Musicians continue to carry on the tradition cating change in current U.S. food and agri- of delivering important messages through their cultural policy. Willie Nelson has even lyrics. Joni Mitchell’s 1970 song “Big Yellow promoted his version of biodiesel, Bio Willie, Taxi,” which laments the conversion of the to help reduce dependence on foreign oil.18 natural world to a “paved paradise,” has been covered by multiple artists, including Bob Conclusion: Engaging through Dylan and more recently the Counting Crows. Education and Entertainment Tracy Chapman’s 1995 song “Rape of the World,” which observes that Mother Earth Beyond the individual efforts of artists, some “has been clear-cut, she has been dumped on, people are working to constructively engage she has been poisoned and beaten up,” is the music and broader artistic community in another example of an artist lending her cre- support of sustainable change. Organizations ative talent to raise awareness about environ- such as Tipping Point are holding round- mental devastation. Some musicians point table conversations, discussions, and debates specifically to the importance of activism: in among creative artists to increase their their songs “Up to Us” and “We Must Act engagement with the complex issue of climate Now,” the California “eco-rock” band the change and to help catalyze societal shifts in Depavers encourages listeners to stand up for thinking and behavior.19 their beliefs.16 The Judith Marcuse Projects, a nonprofit Some artists are especially concerned about arts company, is using an “EARTH=home” practicing what they preach. Blues musician stage production to give voice to youth, cre- Bonnie Raitt promoted her “Silver Lining” ate connections between different sectors of album with a Green Highway Festival and society, and reach the broader community “an eco-partnership promoting BioDiesel through “post-show talk-backs, presentations, fuel, the environment, and alternative energy workshops, community events, web-based solutions at shows and benefits along the resources, and media activities” on the envi- way.” Along with other artists, she founded ronment. In addition, its International Centre Musicians United for Safe Energy, formed of Art for Social Change is a collaboration after a nuclear accident at Three Mile Island with Simon Fraser University in Vancouver, in March 1979; the group organized No British Columbia, to “house learning and dia- Nukes concerts at Madison Square Garden in logue programs, networking events and New York that same year. Her current tour research projects designed to nurture and sup- allows concertgoers with VIP packages to port the growing global community of arts for choose a cause they want to support—energy, social change.”20 environmental protection, and human rights, While music can be a potent tool for mobi- among others.17 lization, its power lies within the people who Country singer Willie Nelson also create, promote, and use it within a meaning- expressed his mood and hope for a “Peaceful ful, proactive movement for sustainability. As Solution” by making a song that protests Together campaign founder Steve Howard social injustice available to other artists for has observed, “When the music stops, we must replay. Outside of his music, Nelson leads all start to act.” 21 Farm Aid, an organization dedicated to stop-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 169 The Power of Social Movements

hroughout history, social move- employees are working longer hours even as ments have played a powerful part gains in productivity would allow shorter work- in stimulating rapid periods of cul- days and longer vacations. Taking back time TT tural evolution, where new sets of will help lower stress, allow healthier lifestyles, ideas, values, policies, or norms are rapidly better distribute work, and even help the envi- adopted by large groups of people and subse- ronment. This last effect will be due not just quently embedded firmly into a culture. From to less consumption thanks to lower discre- abolishing slavery and ensuring civil rights for tionary incomes but also to people having all to securing women’s suffrage and liberating enough free time to choose the more reward- states nonviolently from colonial rulers, social ing and often more sustainable choice—cook- movements have dramatically redirected soci- ing at home with friends instead of eating fast etal paths in just an eye blink of human history. food, for example, making more careful con- For sustainable societies to take root quickly sumer decisions, even taking slower but more in the decades to come, the power of social active and relaxing modes of transport. movements will need to be fully tapped. Closely connected to Take Back Your Time Already, interconnected environmental and is the voluntary simplicity movement, as social movements have emerged across the Cecile Andrews, co-editor of Less is More, world that under the right circumstances could and Wanda Urbanska, producer and host of catalyze into just the force needed to acceler- with Wanda Urbanska, discuss. ate this cultural shift. Yet it will be important This encourages people to simplify their lives to find ways to frame the sustainability move- and focus on inner well-being instead of mate- ment to make it not just possible but attrac- rial wealth. It can help inspire people to shift tive. This will increase the likelihood that the away from the consumer dream and instead changes will spread beyond the pioneers and rebuild personal ties, spend more time with excite vast populations.1 family and on leisure activities, and find space This section looks at some ways this is hap- in their lives for being engaged citizens. pening already. John de Graaf of the Take Through educational efforts, storytelling, Back Your Time movement describes one way and community organizing, the benefits of the to “sell” sustainability that is likely to appeal to lost wisdom of living simply can be rediscov- many people: working fewer hours. Many ered and spread, transforming not just per-

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Click here to see notes for this section. The Power of Social Movements STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

sonal lifestyles but broader societal priorities. And a Box on the Slow Food movement A third movement that could help redirect describes the succulent power of organizing broader cultural norms, traditions, and values people through their taste buds. Across cul- is the fairly recent development of ecovillages. tures and time, food has played an important Sustainability educator Jonathan Dawson of the role in helping to define people’s realities. paints a picture of the Mobilizing food producers as well as con- exciting role that these are playing around the sumers to clamor for healthy, fair, tasty, sus- world. These sustainability incubators are rein- tainable cuisines can be a shrewd strategy to venting what is natural and spreading these shift food systems and, through them, broader ideas to broader society—not just through social and economic systems. modeling these new norms but through train- These are just a few of the dozens and ing and courses in ecovillage living, perma- dozens of social movements that could have culture, and local economics. Similar ideas are been examined. It is just our imaginations that also spreading through communi- limit how we can present sustainability in ways ties, Transition Towns, and even green com- that inspire people to turn off their televisions mercial developments like Dockside Green in and join the movement. Only then, with mil- Canada and Hammarby Sjöstad in Sweden.2 lions of people rallying to confront political and Two Boxes in this section describe some economic systems and working to shift per- other exciting initiatives. One provides an ceptions of what should feel “natural” and overview of a new political movement called what should not, will we be able to transform décroissance (in English, “degrowth”), which our cultures into something that will with- is an important effort to remind people that stand the test of time. not only can growth be detrimental, but some- —Erik Assadourian times a sustainable decline is actually optimal.

172 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Reducing Work Time as a Path to Sustainability

John de Graaf

There is a silver lining on the cloud of reces- pollution from cars and factories (as they pro- sion that hangs over the industrial world. Con- duce less) is also down, resulting in fewer trary to popular expectations, in some deaths, especially among children.2 countries—particularly the United States— In time, workers may find that the increased health outcomes are actually improving. family time, improved health, and other ben- Christopher Ruhm at the University of North efits of more leisure outweigh the income Carolina finds a decline in mortality of half a losses. This should inspire more efforts to percent for each 1 percent increase in U.S. trade productivity for time instead of greater unemployment. How is this happening? Many purchasing power. of the newly jobless suffer acute stress, and sui- But we need to do this for another reason: cides are up. But some are using the time off preserving the biosphere for future generations. to improve the rest of their lives—learning to save, finding time to exercise, bonding more The Need to Limit Consumption closely to family and friends.1 More important, the crisis has meant a Data from the Global Footprint Network reduction in working hours for most Americans suggest that if people in the developing world for the first time in decades. Some companies were to suddenly achieve American lifestyles, and public agencies have chosen to cut hours the world would need four more planets to through shorter workweeks or furloughs provide the resources for their products and instead of laying employees off. With more absorb their wastes. Already—and with half time and less money, people are smoking and the world’s people living in real poverty— drinking less, eating fewer calorie-laden restau- Earth’s carrying capacity is being overshot rant meals, and walking or bicycling more. by some 40 percent.3 While auto sales have plunged, bicycle sales are Some environmentalists suggest that the on the upswing. As Americans drive less, they world can have its cake (expanded produc- die less often in accidents—U.S. traffic deaths tion) and eat it too simply by improving tech- declined by 10 percent from 2007 to 2008. Air nologies and investing in clean energy. Too

John de Graaf is a documentary filmmaker, co-author of : The All-Consuming Epidemic, and executive director of Take Back Your Time.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Reducing Work Time as a Path to Sustainability STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 often, however, technological improvements expended. For example, hourly labor produc- such as greater fuel efficiency merely lead to tivity in rich countries has more than doubled greater consumption of a product—people since 1970. The point is simple: to keep every- drive more, for example. As Gus Speth, former one employed at the current number of hours dean of the Yale School of Forestry, puts it: while productivity increases, it is necessary to “The eco-efficiency of the economy is improv- simply produce and consume more. It is ing through ‘dematerialization,’ the increased unlikely that scientific progress and increases productivity of resource inputs, and the reduc- in labor productivity are going to stop. There- tion of wastes discharged per unit of output. fore in order to limit consumption to current However, eco-efficiency is not improving fast levels (or lower), it will be necessary either to enough to prevent impacts from rising.”4 lay off a portion of the workforce or to reduce Speth spells out clearly the cost of current everyone’s working hours.6 trends in resources, pollution, and equity: dis- Since 1970, the United States has chosen to appearing rainforests and fisheries, exhaustion keep working hours stable—in fact, there is of fossil fuels, increasing hunger, a rapidly some evidence that U.S. working hours have widening gap between rich and poor. Despite even increased during the past 40 years. By the faith of many in “super” cars and order-of- contrast, most other industrial countries, espe- magnitude technical advances, the burden of cially in Europe, have used shorter workweeks, evidence is clearly on those who think the longer vacations, and other strategies to reduce economy and human activities can continue to working hours—sometimes significantly. grow exponentially without increasingly severe Today, the average American puts in 200–300 environmental consequences.5 more hours at work each year than the average Industrial countries cannot deny the rights European does. Europeans have made a bet- of developing nations to greater economic ter choice.7 prosperity while others continue to consume at current levels. That would be asking them The Benefits of Shorter Hours to sacrifice so that the rest of the world can binge awhile longer. Shorter working hours allow more time for connection with friends and family, exercise and Is There an Answer? healthy eating, citizen and community engage- ment, attention to hobbies and educational The current situation cannot continue, but advancement, appreciation of the natural people in industrial countries are reluctant to world, personal emotional and spiritual growth, reduce their “standard of living.” Is there a conscientious consumer habits, and proper solution to this stand-off? Yes: the rich nations environmental stewardship. The positive impact of the world must immediately begin to trade of greater free time can be seen by comparing advances in labor productivity for free time quality of life indices for European nations instead of additional purchasing power. and the United States. And people must understand that doing so Since 1980, for example, the United States will not be a sacrifice. Rather it will mean sub- has fallen from eleventh place in life expectancy stantial improvements in the quality of life. to fiftieth. West Europeans now live longer There is a simple economic law that might than Americans. On average—although this be called the growth imperative. Technical varies by country—they are also only a little progress consistently makes it possible to pro- more than half as likely to suffer from such duce more product per hour of labor chronic illnesses as heart disease, hyperten-

174 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Reducing Work Time as a Path to Sustainability sion, and type 2 diabetes after the age of 50. The United States now lags behind West- ern Europe in virtually every health outcome, despite spend- ing about twice as much per capita for health care. More- over, Americans, with their more stressful and hurried lives, are nearly twice as likely to suf- fer from anxiety, depression, and other abnormalities of men- tal health.8 Happiness is also affected.

While the United States ranks a Seattle Municipal Archives Photograph Collection respectable eleventh in the world Bored in Seattle: the production line of a bottle factory. in life satisfaction, a recent study found that the four happiest countries in the Moreover, reductions in work time trans- world—, the Netherlands, Finland, late rapidly into reductions in energy use, car- and Sweden—were all characterized by their bon footprints, and pollution (as already seen remarkable attentiveness to “work-life balance.” 9 in the current recession). A study conducted The environmental benefits of reduced work by the Center for Economic and Policy time are myriad and include: Research, a prominent Washington think tank, • Less need for convenience products. Fast concluded that if Americans were to reduce food, for example, is in part a response to an their working hours to European levels, they increasingly pressured way of life. Highly would almost automatically reduce their packaged and processed foods and other energy/carbon impacts by 20–30 percent.10 products, including throwaway products, also appeal to those who feel time is short. Rushing Through • More time to reuse and recycle. Separating the Environment wastes into paper, plastics, metals, compost, or trash takes time. People often skip this if Finally, for many people environmental aware- they are feeling rushed or overwhelmed. ness is enhanced by exposure to the natural • Time to make other behavioral choices, such world, particularly in childhood. From John as drying one’s clothes on a clothesline rather Muir to Aldo Leopold to Rachel Carson to than in a dryer. When pressed for time, David Brower, prominent environmentalists “convenience” tends to take priority. have written of the impact of their experiences • Time to choose slower and more energy- in natural settings on their later commitment friendly forms of transport, including walk- to Earth. A love of nature often results in less ing, cycling, or public transit rather than desire for material things. Aware of this, Muir driving, or to take trains rather than planes. was one of the first to call for a law mandating • Time to make careful consumer choices, vacation time; he called it a “law of rest.” In including for certified products like Fair 1876, on the one-hundredth anniversary of the Trade, organic, and songbird-friendly coffee Declaration of Independence, Muir argued or Forest Stewardship Council lumber. for “Centennial Freedom” that would allow

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 175 Reducing Work Time as a Path to Sustainability STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 everyone, rich or poor, of whatever race or ori- ents to share 1.5 jobs, each working three- gin, time to get out into nature. “We work too quarters time, by requiring that employers much and rest too little,” Muir declared. allow workers to reduce their hours while “Compulsory education may be good; com- keeping the same hourly rate of pay and pro- pulsory recreation may be better.”11 rating the benefits. While the right is used pri- All Europeans enjoy at least four weeks of marily by parents of young children, it applies paid vacation by law. So do citizens of many to all employees. Those who choose this option African and Latin American nations. Yet the also commonly fall into lower tax brackets; United States still has no law providing vaca- thus the economic penalty for working less is tion time, and half of all American workers now further reduced.14 get only one week or less off each year. Con- In other European countries, innovative sequently, children are now only half as likely laws allow for such things as regular sabbati- to spend unstructured time outdoors as they cals, phased-in retirement, and guaranteed were in 1970, and visitors to Yosemite National days of rest, while sharply restricting long Park—which is more than 300,000 hectares in hours and overtime work. Europeans would do size—spend on average less than five hours well to resist calls by corporate leaders to drop there. People rush through, snapping quick restraints on work time and follow the Anglo- photographs of the granite cliffs and waterfalls, American model, as their shorter work time has checking their watches, answering their cell brought them a higher quality of life than in phones, and dashing on. There is no time to the United States. appreciate the rhythms of Earth or experience In the United States and other long-hours a connection to other species, no sense of loss nations, change must start with a sober assess- as they pass into extinction, no quiet time to ment of the costs of the higher produc- reflect on the wondrous world that now is tion/higher consumption lifestyles—what threatened with humanity’s insatiable mater- some now call “affluenza.” Americans have ial demands.12 the farthest to go in this and therefore perhaps the best opportunity to make quick progress. Trading Stuff for Time The United States stands alone among indus- trial nations and most other countries in its lack What might people do to begin trading gains of laws guaranteeing such rights to time as in productivity for time instead of stuff? The paid maternity or family leave, paid sick days, organization Take Back Your Time has been or paid vacations. Paid maternity leave, for exploring the possibilities of this for the past example, is now guaranteed everywhere except eight years, encouraged by such developments the United States, Swaziland, Liberia, and as the Hours Adjustment Act in the Nether- Papua New Guinea. Many immigrants to the lands and France’s 35-hour week.13 United States are shocked at how few protec- Dutch working hours are among the short- tions American workers have, particularly est in the world, and the Netherlands has the where the right to time is concerned. Bills highest percentage of part-time workers. In currently being considered in the United States part, this is a direct response to policy initia- Congress would correct some of these defi- tives. European Union law already requires ciencies, but powerful forces are arrayed against pay and benefit parity for part-time workers them. Business lobbies resolutely oppose all who do the same work as full-timers. More- “mandates” that would restrict their absolute over, in the Netherlands the Work and Care Act control of working hours.15 and the Hours Adjustment Act encourage par- On the other hand, there is some reason for

176 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Reducing Work Time as a Path to Sustainability optimism. The voluntary simplicity movement vacation time without commensurate reduc- has helped many Americans choose time over tions in workers’ pay and benefits. While tem- money where the choice was actually theirs to porary, such transition funds, which reduce make and not the sole prerogative of their short-term economic sacrifice, would make it employers. The leaders of that movement possible for workers to see the value of understand that making these changes is not increased leisure and reduced work time.18 only a matter of voluntary action, and it can be helped by progressive policies. Strong organi- Re-Visioning the Future zations that advocate a better work-life balance, like the 1-million member group MomsRising, Clearly the world is at a crossroads. For all the have emerged in recent years. And the great remarkable benefits that investments in “green debate over national health care offers a chance jobs” and new energy technologies will surely to make points about the health implications provide, they are only part of what’s needed for of shorter work time.16 long-run sustainability—necessary change, but Since 2002, the Take Back Your Time cam- not sufficient. To survive and to let people in paign has worked to increase American aware- developing countries somehow achieve secure ness of the benefits of shorter working hours. and modest comfort, material economic These efforts have included celebrations of growth in rich nations simply must be limited. Take Back Your Time Day (October 24th) in Yet this must be done without stopping the about 200 U.S. municipalities, coverage of progress of science and the advance of pro- the issue in hundreds of media outlets, and ductivity and without casting millions into the campaigns for legislation such as the Paid Vaca- hell of unemployment. tion Act of 2009 introduced by Representative Ultimately, it can only be done by trading Alan Grayson of Florida. His proposed law is gains in productivity for time, by reducing the modest by international standards—offering hours of labor and sharing them equitably. All only one to two weeks vacation time for work- of this means limiting greed, understanding ers in firms of 50 employees or more. But it that a life less rich materially but more rich tem- would be a “down payment” on further porally is not a sacrifice, finding new indices of improvements and would enhance exposure of success to supplant the gross domestic prod- the issue in the media. Discussion of paid vaca- uct (which is more a measure of the churn of tion—the epitome of leisure legislation—can money in the economy than of true value), and help raise the broader issue of Americans’ time providing real freedom to workers so that their poverty and its social and ecological impacts.17 choice to limit their hours of labor does not In his inaugural address, President Barack come at the cost of being fired and losing Obama honored workers who accepted shorter their livelihoods and health care. It is time to hours rather than see their colleagues fired. But take stock of the “best practices” already being more can be done. Economist Dean Baker implemented in some countries, expanding proposes that any further government stimu- them and applying them throughout the lus packages include tax credits for companies world. This way lies hope, sustainability, and that reduce working hours through shorter greater joy as well. workweeks, family or sick leave, or extended

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Cecile Andrews and Wanda Urbanska

Voluntary simplicity is an age-old philosophy Above all, it is a challenge to the dominant phi- that advocates turning away from the pursuit losophy about money found in most societies. of money, possessions, and greed in order to As theologian Abraham Heschel puts it: “The live more deeply and fully—limiting outer most urgent task is to destroy the myth that wealth for a greater inner wealth. Philosophers accumulation of wealth and the achievement have seen simplicity as a central component of of comfort are the chief vocations of man.”2 the “good life,” arguing that the pursuit of wealth distracts people from more important Levels of Simplicity things, and for much of human history it has also been a religious and spiritual ideal per- The subject of simplicity is a complex one, sonified by people like St. Francis of Assisi with at least three levels—practical, philo- and Gandhi. Today voluntary simplicity has sophical, and public policy. First is the prac- become a movement for sustainability and tical level: cutting back and consuming less. happiness in a post-consumer society.1 People limit consumption for a variety of rea- Environmentalists have established the harm sons—to clear out clutter, to reduce or avoid caused to the planet by consumerism. Volun- debt, to secure savings, to afford to work tary simplicity builds on these facts to create a less, or to protect the planet. But focusing movement to change behaviors. It is a cri- only on does not work in the long tique of the values of consumerism: the belief run. It’s like a diet: sooner or later people that money is the measure of all things; the begin to indulge themselves again. So for practice of using people and the planet for deeper engagement, people need to under- personal benefit; the competitiveness that pits stand that less consumption can lead to more people against each other; and the acceptance fulfillment: more time for connection to oth- of impersonal, sterile, authoritarian, and irre- ers; more time spent in nature; more satis- sponsible values. In place of these, voluntary faction, security, and balance. simplicity advocates caring and community. Thus an enduring simplicity must move to

Cecile Andrews is the author of Less is More, Slow is Beautiful, and Circle of Simplicity. Wanda Urbanska is an author and the producer/host of Simple Living with Wanda Urbanska, the first nationally syndicated series dedicated to promoting simple, sustainable living.

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Click here to see notes for this section. STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Inspiring People to See That Less Is More a second level, a philosophical approach that in terms of longevity, is the gap between the asks what is important and what matters. At this rich and the poor. It’s not just that the health level, voluntary simplicity becomes a way of liv- of the poor brings down the average—every- ing that asks about the consequence of behav- one is affected because inequality undermines iors for the well-being of people and the planet. social cohesion. Richard Wilkinson, author of In fact, it can be argued that consuming numerous books on the wealth gap, shows becomes a habit for people because they do not how the stress of inequality undermines health take the time to think and make choices based and promotes consumerism. It is highly stress- on their own best interests. In a rushed society, ful when someone is denied respect and dig- people do what is easiest—which is often the nity in a status-conscious society, and stress things the corporations want them to do. makes people sick. Further, inequality con- At the philosophical level of simplicity, peo- tributes to consumerism: in an unequal soci- ple strip away the inessential so that they have ety, people use material possessions to fight time for the essential. In particular, they explore their way up the ladder of status. In The Spirit the idea of the “good life” and the nature of Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always happiness. As researchers like Tim Kasser, Do Better, Wilkinson and Kate Pickett show author of The High Price of Materialism, have how wealth inequality affects community life, found, after a certain point more money does mental health, and violence, among others— not make people happier. Yes, people need a all factors making it hard to live simply and certain level of money, but the lust for more attain happiness.4 causes people to ignore the important things like friends, family, and community. Having Motivating Change supportive relationships is what makes people happy. Thus the public must come to under- How do we motivate people to begin to reduce stand that voluntary simplicity is not a sacrifice. their consumerism and to work for change? It is about increased personal benefit, about First, some will respond to information about greater life satisfaction and fulfillment—all the issues. Knowing the dire facts about climate with a smaller ecological footprint. It’s about change will motivate them to change. But for “less is more”—more security, more tranquil- others, more is needed. Berkeley linguist ity, more joy, more happiness.3 George Lakoff says that too often change Finally, at the public policy level the issue is agents rely only on information and facts—but “less is more” for all people. Although indi- that is not enough. It is important to evoke viduals can make changes in their own behav- empathy and caring. The simplicity movement ior and live more simply, very few people can does this through the vision and the experience live a truly simple life in western industrial of the joyful community.5 societies. For too long, the simplicity move- The voluntary simplicity movement holds ment has focused primarily on individual out a vision of the good life, a life based on change. It is time to move to a greater advo- connection, caring, and the common good. cacy of public policy change. In order to enable Environmental author Bill McKibben, writ- all to live simply, society needs public policies ing in The Nation, said: “In fact, the only way that provide health care, vacations, parental to endure the transition will be with a renewed leave, and reduced work hours. sense of community. The real poison of the past Perhaps the most essential policy change few decades has been the hyper- has to do with wealth inequality. The biggest that we’ve let dominate our political life—the predictor of the health of a nation, as measured idea that everything works best if we think

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 179 Inspiring People to See That Less Is More STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 not a whit about the common interest. In the the United States as the relocalization move- end, that has damaged our society, our cli- ment is now joined by the mate and our private lives. The final hope we movement, which originated in the United have is resurgence of a politics that calls on us Kingdom and is spreading around the world. to work together.”6 (See Box 22.) As of August 2009, almost 200 This focus on community takes several communities were recognized as official Tran- forms in the simplicity movement: the study sition Towns in the United Kingdom, Ire- circle, cohousing, ecovillages, and the relo- land, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, calization or Transition Town movement. Cer- and Chile.8 tainly not all of these efforts label themselves The Transition Town movement focuses on as “simplicity,” but most people involved in reducing the use of oil by building “resilience” them are trying to live more simply. in a community—first by helping people to The simplicity study circle is a small-group see that almost everything they buy involves oil, method of community education and social whether in its manufacture, transport, or mar- change that has its roots in European history. keting, and then by teaching people ways to Study circles originated in Sweden and the reduce their use of oil by gardening and other Danish folk education movement, although traditional skills such as canning and knitting. folk education has a long heritage in the United Transition Town leaders work with neighbors States as well. The Highlander Center in Ten- to shop and eat locally. They encourage people nessee, for example, began as a folk school to share through projects like local currencies, after its founder Myles Horton visited Den- tool exchanges, car sharing, community gar- mark in the 1920s. Highlander was also influ- dens, community-supported agriculture, and enced by the movement in farmers’ markets. All these projects involve Latin America, in particular the theories devel- working with others in a collaborative and oped by Brazil’s Paulo Friere, author of The cooperative way, undermining the competi- Pedagogy of the Oppressed. The focus of folk tiveness of corporate consumerism.9 education, popular education, and the study People involved in these movements may circle is the belief that if people come together not even realize they are practicing “voluntary to talk, they will find the answers to their own simplicity,” and indeed the label is not impor- problems—that the wisdom is in the people. tant. For instance, the has Whereas the purveyors of consumerism put a gained attention in Europe—particularly the great deal of effort into manipulating people Slow Food and Slow Cities movements as and their emotions, the community educa- described in Carl Honore’s In Praise of Slow- tion approach restores people’s abilities to ness. The Slow Food movement, founded in think for themselves—an approach that can Italy, encourages people to support local, break the manipulation of advertising in con- organic food. (See Box 23.) It supports farm- sumer societies.7 ing that nurtures the planet as well as pro- While the study circle is a small group of six moting social justice—focusing on the practices to eight people, other forms of community are of corporations. The Cittaslow movement larger. Efforts such as cohousing and ecovil- states that its purpose is to resist “the fast- lages, for example, ask people to move into a lane, homogenized world so often seen in new setting. At the same time, more and more other cities throughout the world”; it sup- people are working to transform their own ports local food and artisans, less use of cars, neighborhoods into places that encourage and places for people to linger and enjoy.10 sustainability and community. What began in In the United States, the Slow movement

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Box 22. Growing a Degrowth Movement

Today many people believe that economic and financial institutions. There also need to growth will lead to perpetual improvements be broader societal efforts such as reducing in well-being, even as growth has increasingly working hours and improving regulation of taxed Earth’s ecosystems, exploits the poor, and international institutions that only promote threatens the security of future generations. destructive growth. To proactively address the current environ- Currently, the initiatives that best put into mental, financial, social, and ethical crisis, a practice the values set forth by degrowth are radically different societal model is necessary: the Transition Towns that are found mainly in a degrowth society. The movement in support the United Kingdom, but also in Australia, the of this—tailored for countries that have grown United States, Japan, and Chile, among other beyond their fair share of Earth’s bounty—has countries. Transition Towns are based on developed a political platform that envisions preparing for resource scarcity and climate degrowth societies centered on sustainability change by building communities that are both and proximity, where, for example, they socially and economically resilient, where the relocalize production and consumption. focus is on improving quality of life for the Degrowth societies promote human relations inhabitants while living sustainably. The “show- instead of consumerism and reduce waste case” of Transition Towns is Totnes in England. and polluting transport through the use of The movement for a “degrowth society” is . All of this is done so that these radically different from the recession that is societies will have sustainable ecological widespread today. Degrowth does not mean footprints and be in balance with nature. the decay or suffering often imagined by those Today there are degrowth political parties new to this concept. Instead, degrowth can be in France and Italy. The publication La Decrois- compared to a healthy diet voluntarily under- sance (Degrowth) can be found in newsstands taken to improve a person’s well-being, while across France and has readers in the rest of negative economic growth can be compared the francophone world as well. In Spain, Temps to starvation. In a degrowth world, people will de Re-voltes organized a “degrowth publicity spend less time working and more time living. tour” of more than 30 small municipalities in They will consume less but better, produce 2008. In cooperation with local authorities, less waste, reuse and recycle more, under- the group organized panels and discussed stand the impacts of human behavior, and future energy crises and degrowth visions have ecological footprints that can be sus- while celebrating local culture and traditions. tained. People will find happiness in human To have the impact needed to stabilize eco- relationships and rather than the logical systems, degrowth will need to be pur- never-ending pressure to accumulate more sued at a variety of levels. Cities, towns, and and more goods. All this implies a serious villages will need to relocalize agricultural and rethinking of people’s current concepts of energy systems, introducing community and reality and significant imagination, but the backyard vegetable gardens as well as locally shifting ecological realities are sure to provide generated renewable energy to promote resil- the necessary inspiration. ience. Local currencies such as Totnes Pounds —Serge Latouche or Ithaca Hours can help wealth remain in the Professor Emeritus of Economics hands of individuals and small local busines- University of Orsay, France ses as opposed to multinational corporations Source: See endnote 8.

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Box 23. The Slow Food Movement

The international Slow Food Movement tion through food and wine tasting. started in 1986 as a protest against the open- The Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity ing of a McDonalds near the Spanish Steps —a division of Slow Food—works to “defend in Rome. The restaurant became a physical local food traditions, protect local biodiversity representation of the erosion of the local, and promote small-scale quality products.” sustainable, and healthy food culture in Italy. Small artisan producers around the world Since then, Slow Food has become a global are organized in 300 Presidia that focus on organization with chapters, or convivia, in 132 improving production techniques while countries, and with more than 100,000 mem- preserving traditional products and methods bers. They work to promote “good, clean and and finding new markets for these. The Foun- fair food,” thereby transforming cultures via dation also has an Ark of Taste that is a regis- food. This is done through a wide range of ter of food products they hope to reintroduce activities that both educate and inspire. in the marketplace but that are in danger Slow Food aims to reconnect producers of being forgotten because traditional pro- and consumers (or co-producers, as they duction methods are no longer in use or prefer to call the educated consumer who certain ingredients are scarce. supports slow food) and promote culinary Communities are also setting up Earth Mar- diversity and healthy, tasty food on a local kets and Slow Food cafés and restaurants— scale, while also seeing the “bigger picture,” both of which help food producers and promoting biodiversity as well as international co-producers interact while promoting local networking among artisanal producers, and food and helping customers. Earth Markets enhancing traditional production in order to and cafés are now located in Delhi, Tel Aviv, make it economically viable. Throughout the Beirut, and Bucharest, among other cities. movement’s activities, the emphasis is on Slow Food members also do a lot of lobby- making gastronomic pleasure and ecological ing on behalf of their causes, particularly on responsibility inseparable. issues regarding agricultural and trade policy The movement works to educate the public in the European Union. Recently, a Time for through a variety of initiatives. Many books Lunch campaign was organized by Slow Food now teach the art of “slow cooking.” Lectures, USA; it encourages Congress to improve the articles, and Web sites describe the grim reali- Child Nutrition Act, which sets the standards ties of agribusiness and fast food, as well as for school meals in the United States. The the benefits of buying local and Fair Trade whole Slow Food movement—through its role products. The movement also uses events in promoting good, clean, and fair food—is to educate and mobilize people. During one playing an important role in facilitating a shift such event, Slow Fish 2009 in Genoa, Italy, to sustainable cultures. 55,000 local and international guests learned —Helene Gallis about sustainable fish harvesting, met Source: See endnote 10. artisanal fishers, and got gastronomic educa- has become a part of the simplicity movement, their time in order to walk more, talk with their encouraging people to live deeply by explor- neighbors, and spend more time in local neigh- ing and reclaiming the ancient vision of leisure. borhoods. Advocates of the slow life are People are beginning to find ways to take back involved in the Take Back Your Time cam-

182 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Inspiring People to See That Less Is More paign, a project to bring some European labor Another way to elicit feelings that evoke management polices to the United States. Cer- hope rather than fear is through people’s sto- tainly, without shorter work hours, more vaca- ries. People become interested in voluntary tions, and parental and sick leave, it is difficult simplicity when they read or hear a story they to live simply.11 identify with. The story usually goes something Creating community is central to inspiring like this: a corporate employee is stressed, sick, people to live more simply. And it is important and depressed, so he consumes less, quits his to see that this approach has implications for job, moves to a smaller house, finds work that democracy, which is the only way to wrest is more satisfying, reduces his work hours, power from corporations, the force behind plants a garden, and begins to work with his consumerism. Robert Wuthnow, in American local community center. People see themselves Mythos, calls for more “reflective democracy,” in these stories. They begin to see that their opportunities to talk about basic values and desire for more—more money, more status— ideals. He argues that in the usual democratic will not make them happy. They awaken from discourse, people fail to move beyond the idea the spell of the false promises of consumerism, of “the informed citizen”—someone who and they begin to search for a better way. One engages in discussions about current events— story about downshifting can perhaps do as when they also need to reflect on basic values much to change people’s consumer behavior and assumptions. Certainly voluntary simplic- as 10 facts about climate change. ity is the “examined life,” helping people deter- One effort to use stories like these is the mine what’s important and what matters.12 U.S. public television series Simple Living As Robert Putnam, author of Bowling with Wanda Urbanska. Rather than being Alone, notes, the culture in which people talk shamed into change by finger-wagging and over the back fence is the culture in which images of environmental degradation and people vote. When people are involved in their calamity, the audience learns from the stories local communities, they are talking with each of real people. The series illustrates different other and are usually more involved with pub- approaches to simplicity, allowing all kinds of lic policy—often trying to stop intrusive devel- people to relate. For instance, it documents opment in their neighborhoods. So the one family’s commitment to bringing Great neighborhood movement is important in many Plains bison back from the brink of extinction ways. Ultimately, conversations and engage- in Bozeman, Montana. It shows a Massachu- ment with others help people transform the setts church encouraging people to “roll or “lone wolf” culture and realize that true secu- stroll for your soul” by asking congregants to rity lies not in material wealth but in people.13 ride bikes, walk, or to service, fol- In their new book, Meeting Environmental lowed by the minister’s dramatic “blessing of Challenges: The Role of Human Identity, Tim the bikes.”15 Kasser and Tom Crompton argue that it is The series challenges viewers to keep pos- important to focus on strategies that inspire sessions in service past their date of planned people to move away from materialistic values. obsolescence in a playful, recurring feature They maintain that focusing on fear—through called “The Thing That Refused to Die.” One dire warnings about the environment—can such “thing” was a 1930s Fireboat put out to drive people to consume as a compensatory pasture by the New York City Fire Department behavior. They cite simplicity circles as a way that was a knight in shining water when its to offer social support that evokes more tran- ancient hoses were pressed into service to fight scendent values of caring and concern.14 the fires at the Twin Towers on 9-11. The

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 183 Inspiring People to See That Less Is More STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 moral of this segment was simple: “That thing people work on organic farms in return for you put out to pasture may be the most valu- room and board.18 able thing you own.” Stories like these can motivate people to reexamine their consump- Creating Post-Consumer Cultures tion choices, to make change.16 Finally, a sense of joyful community is evoked All over the world people are developing ways by new kinds of social inventions: experiences to challenge consumerism and create post- that bring people together in new and creative consumer cultures. At the Barefoot College in ways that challenge consumerism. For instance, India, local impoverished people are encour- “” led by Adbusters Magazine aged to maintain their sustainable ways of liv- was originally the day after Thanksgiving in ing. Gaviotas, a village in Colombia, has the United States, reportedly the biggest shop- reclaimed barren savannas and regenerated ping day of the year. Now more than 65 nations forests using innovative techniques such as participate with different activities—the zanier solar and wind power and children’s seesaws to the better. Volunteers stand in shopping malls drive a water pump. Europeans engage in with scissors and a sign offering to cut up peo- “placemaking,” where “spaces are turned into ple’s credit cards. Others sponsor a “zombie places” by, for example, Denmark’s Jan Gehl, walk” through malls, mirroring the blank looks who has transformed urban spaces into expe- on the faces of shoppers. People have fun dri- riences of community and conviviality by ving their shopping carts around in long conga expanding the cafe society and the bicycle and lines in places like Walmart or filling their carts pedestrian culture. A similar movement called and leaving them without buying anything. “city repair” started in Portland, Oregon, and Adbusters encourages “” to involves people “taking back” streets in their fight consumerism, and it stages events like neighborhoods by painting designs in the giving fake tickets to SUVs or sponsoring a intersections, moving lawn chairs into the “detox week,” encouraging people to “unplug” streets, and creating straw bale benches and from video games and computers.17 bulletin boards at the corners—all to bring Another creative idea is The Compact, an people together.19 initiative in which people agree to go a year The goal is not only to get people to con- without buying anything new. Some become sume less but to create a new society, to inspire involved in “,” which can include and motivate them to become more involved “” for food and other items in social change efforts by evoking empathy, that have been thrown away but are perfectly caring, and connection. When people get good, gleaning, wild , urban gardens, involved with others, they lose their desire to or in empty buildings. Another consume because they encounter a new, more movement that appeals particularly to young satisfying way of life. Voluntary simplicity, people is “couch surfing,” where they travel then, is at the same time a practice, a philoso- cheaply by finding homes on-line to stay in for phy, and a method of social change that can free. In a similar vein is “wwoofing” (World help transform consumer cultures by helping Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms), where people understand that “less is more.”

184 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Ecovillages and the Transformation of Values

Jonathan Dawson

Tsewang Lden and Dolma Tsering, elderly exploration of what could replace it. The Ladakhi women, are caught on film in an old Ladakh Project is a founding member of the people’s home in London, incongruous in Global Ecovillage Network (GEN), an their fine and colorful traditional costume. umbrella organization for ecovillages that They look on in shock at an old English includes some of the innovative experiments in woman, alone in a sterile white-painted room post-consumerist, community-based living that and so absorbed in watching television that she are at the forefront of this wave of exploration.2 barely noticed the other women’s entry. The The commonly accepted definition of eco- Ladakhi women had never seen anything like villages, provided in 1991 by In Context edi- this before. In the north Indian province that tor Robert Gilman, is “human-scale, is their home, old people are integrated into the full-featured settlements in which human activ- family, considered wise elders and honored.1 ities are harmlessly integrated into the natural Lden and Tsering were participating in a world in a way that is supportive of healthy “Reality Tour” organized by the Ladakh Pro- human development and can be successfully ject to enable small groups of Ladakhi women continued into the indefinite future.”3 to visit western countries, where they see for Today this global network contains an inter- themselves the reality of life in the West— esting and innovative alliance between inten- good and bad—including community break- tional communities with a strong focus on down, loneliness, and violence. The organizers sustainability (generally though not exclusively hope this will reinforce cultural self-confi- located in the industrial world) and networks dence, help Ladakhis appreciate the many pos- of traditional communities in developing coun- itive features of their culture, and show the dark tries. Intentional communities are ones that side of today’s globally dominant cultural ori- have been formed consciously around specific entation—consumerism—that is so rarely pre- values and objectives, most of which today sented in the global media. have a strong focus on some dimension of What is happening here is one small exam- sustainability and call themselves ecovillages. ple of a much wider questioning of the values The communities in developing countries that base underlying the consumerist culture and an are members of GEN seek to maintain their

Jonathan Dawson is a sustainability educator and author based at the Findhorn ecovillage in Scotland.

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Click here to see notes for this section. Ecovillages and the Transformation of Values STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 traditional values and cultural distinctiveness throughput? Ecovillages serve as research, and to win back greater control of their eco- training, and demonstration sites for such a nomic destinies in the face of pressures proposition. unleashed by economic globalization. The attempt to delink growth and the accu- The most visible and tangible projects mulation of material goods from well-being within ecovillages tend to be those related to lies at the heart of the ecovillage concept. technology and the development of alternative The low levels of consumption that typically systems of various kinds. Most first-time visi- prevail within ecovillages result partly from the tors to ecovillages are there to find out about design of their systems so as to reduce energy ecological housing, biological wastewater treat- and materials intensity and partly because, by ment systems, renewable energy technologies, opting out of the global economy to varying community currencies, and the like. degrees, they forgo opportunities to maxi- Less immediately obvious, but arguably mize income. even more significant, is the contribution of Several recent studies confirm that the eco- ecovillages to a radical transformation of val- logical impact of ecovillages is markedly lower ues and consciousness. Ecovillages are engaged than for average conventional communities. A in the transformation of values in four ways that 2003 study by the University of Kassel looked may make the transition to sustainability eas- at carbon dioxide emissions associated with ier and more graceful: two ecovillages in Germany. It found that per • delinking growth from well-being, capita emissions in the Sieben Linden and • reconnecting people with the place where Kommune Niederkufungen ecovillages were they live, 28 and 42 percent, respectively, of the German • affirming indigenous values and practices, average. Sieben Linden scored especially well and in the fields of heating and housing: as a result • offering a holistic and experiential educa- of renewable energy generation and the use of tional ethic. highly energy-efficient building materials and insulation, the community recorded emission Delinking Growth from Well-being levels just 10 and 6 percent, respectively, of the national average.4 There has been growing awareness in recent Two studies of energy consumption at years of the inadequacy of gross domestic Ecovillage at Ithaca in upstate New York— product as a measure of true wealth, with its one by Cornell University, another by the exclusive focus on economic capital forma- Massachusetts Institute of Technology—found tion but with no reference to other forms of that the community’s consumption was more capital—the health and biodiversity of the nat- than 40 percent lower than the U.S. average. ural environs, the strength of communities, And a study undertaken by the Stockholm the well-being and happiness of people. What Environment Institute found that the Findhorn would a society look like that consciously ecovillage in Scotland has a per person eco- developed its various forms of capital in a more logical footprint a bit over half of the U.K. aver- balanced and integrated way? Could commu- age, the lowest footprint recorded for any nities—indeed, whole societies—learn to sub- settlement in the industrial world. Findhorn stitute other forms of capital for economic residents achieved an especially low footprint wealth, demonstrating how quality of life could in the areas of home heating and food—21.5 be maintained or even enhanced while signif- and 37 percent per person, respectively, of the icantly reducing consumption and material national average.5

186 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Ecovillages and the Transformation of Values

There is substantial anecdotal evidence that relationships and builds a strong and nurturing the quality of life within ecovillages is gener- sense of connection with the land. ally high—certainly much higher than would Many of the other footprint-shrinking design be expected for communities that operate on features—preparing and eating meals together, low levels of income. The anecdotal evidence car clubs, community-owned renewable energy has been reinforced by a 2006 study compar- facilities, community currencies and investment, ing the contribution of built (economic), and so on—similarly engender a spirit of coop- human, social, and natural capital to quality of eration that builds community and contributes life in 30 intentional communities with that in to strong feelings of well-being. the town of Burlington, Vermont. The study found that the quality of life was slightly higher in the inten- tional communities despite the fact that average incomes were signifi- cantly lower because of a greater cultivation and appreciation of other forms of capital, especially social cap- ital. Of special importance in deter- mining quality of life, the study identified the strong social bonds that develop within intentional com- munities, their “ownership provi- sions as well as…process for allocating work and rewarding con-

tributions,” and the “emphasis the Courtesy community placed upon the preser- Harvesting organic vegetables at Findhorn ecovillage, Scotland. vation of natural areas.”6 The authors concluded: “Results of this This ethic extends into the economic life of study represent an existence proof: it is possi- ecovillages, where cooperation and solidarity ble to achieve a high (and probably more sus- are promoted and the relationship to work is tainable) quality of life while consuming at transformed. The Twin Oaks ecovillage in the rates much less than the U.S. average.… We state of Virginia declares: “We use a trust- have much to learn from intentional commu- based labor system in which all work is valued nities around the world that have been actively equally. Its purpose is to organize work and experimenting with issues related to quality of share it equitably, giving each member as much life and sustainability.”7 flexibility and choice as possible. Work is not It is especially interesting that many of the seen as just a means to an end; we try to make activities and design features that are responsi- it an enjoyable part of our lives.” 8 ble for low energy and resource use within eco- villages are also among the most important in Reconnecting People with contributing to a better quality of life. The the Place Where They Live decision by many ecovillages to grow a signifi- cant amount of their own food, for example, One of the more pernicious impacts of today’s involves community members working coop- globalized economy is the weaker connections eratively together in a way that strengthens that people feel to the place where they live.

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There has been a progressive homogenization and woven people more deeply into the web across the world over the last 50 years or so of of life. Moreover, the way in which this was foodstuffs, clothing, farming technologies, done—early efforts involved the planting of building materials, styles, and so on. As a part non-native species that created other environ- of this trend, increasingly diets no longer reflect mental hazards, but these were progressively the changing seasons. replaced with more diverse and native species— This disconnect is enormously important in demonstrates how ecovillages are able to learn providing a seed bed for alienation and con- and be flexible with their efforts, catering to the sumerism. When resources are pulled in from needs of the environment as discovered along all over the world, people lose all sense of the the way. Similar efforts at large-scale tree plant- carrying capacity of the bioregions they live ing and earth restoration can be found at Sól- in—and thus of any obligation to attempt to heimar in Iceland, The Farm in Tennessee, live within such limits. People’s natural and many other ecovillages.9 propensity to love the web of life that all The journey toward being more rooted in humans are part of becomes lost in a fog of bioregions is also a cultural one. Many eco- ignorance of what that web looks and feels like villages engage in rituals to mark and celebrate in specific places. the turning of the seasons—building on, Reestablishing a keener appreciation of the though generally not slavishly adhering to, qualities, patterns, and rhythms of home places traditional practices. Grishino ecovillage in and what they can sustainably yield is funda- Russia, for instance, has become an important mental to refinding a balanced and respectful center for the celebration of and training in place within them. Nurturing just such an traditional Russian song, dance, arts, and enhanced appreciation is of central importance storytelling. In Findhorn, the turning of the to the ecovillage ethic. year is marked through celebration of the In part, this manifests in attempts to Celtic festivals in song, dance, storytelling, increase levels of self-sufficiency. Ecovillages and bonfires.10 typically seek to develop an enhanced under- standing of ecological building techniques Affirmation of Indigenous using local materials, local medicinal herbs, Values and Practices wild food foraging, organic food production and processing, energy generation with locally The corporate marketing and advertising indus- available renewable resources, and so on. tries have played a central role in shaping the They are seeking to deepen their connec- values underlying today’s consumerist culture. tions in their own bioregions, to increase They have played an especially devastating role resilience in a period of energy transition, in undermining the cultural self-confidence and to reduce dependence on money and of groups falling outside of the global con- the global economy. sumer class. Consequently, an important Similarly, many ecovillages are engaged in dimension of the value shift required in the initiatives to restore the health of their sur- transition to a sustainable global society lies in rounding ecosystems. Over the last 40 years, celebration of the diversity of human cultures, to cite but one example, the Auroville ecovil- encouraging each to value and take pride in lage in southern India has planted nearly 3 their distinctiveness. million trees and engaged in widespread earth Ecovillage networks in developing countries restoration projects that have simultaneously tend to be very active on this front. Activities enriched the diversity of local natural systems with new groups generally focus on building

188 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Ecovillages and the Transformation of Values cultural self-confidence and celebrating the are becoming recognized as of growing rele- communities’ strengths and achievements. vance far beyond the ranks of radical outsiders. The Sri Lankan nongovernmental group One of the principal ways that the values and Sarvodaya, a founding member of GEN, works models they have developed are being shared with over 15,000 communities island-wide. It more widely is through education. has developed a methodology for com- munity assistance that begins with an empowerment program. This includes a strong element of social and spiritual empowerment, including meditation, cultural validation, peacemaking, and conflict facilitation. Only when this foun- dation has been built does the more tangible work of economic empower- ment and physical infrastructure devel- opment begin.11 The Ladakh Project in India similarly places great weight on building cultural self-confidence. It has helped to establish the Women’s Alliance of Ladakh (WAL),

a network of over 6,000 women from Courtesy Kibbutz Lotan almost 100 different villages, with the Straw-bale, earth-plastered domes being built on geodesic twin goals of raising the status of rural frames will become student housing at Kibbutz Lotan’s women and strengthening local culture Center for Creative Ecology, Israel. and agriculture. Some of the more cre- ative programs initiated by WAL are No TV The various educational packages devel- weeks, aimed at encouraging people to resist oped within ecovillages reflect the core ethics the consumerist ethic; annual festivals cele- of the communities themselves in that they brating local knowledge and skills, including are holistic—exploring interdependence and traditional spinning, weaving, and dyeing and the relationships between issues and subjects the preparation of indigenous food; and the that are generally considered independently Reality Tours that brought Tsewang Lden and in more conventional settings—and experien- Dolma Tsering face to face with the reality of tial, in that they engage all of the learner’s old people’s lives in an industrial country.12 faculties—head, heart, and hands. In this regard, ecovillage education can be A Holistic and Experiential seen as part of the wider trend toward envi- Educational Ethic ronmental education based on systems think- ing. What is distinctive in the ecovillage Something extraordinary has happened over educational model is that the learning experi- the last decade or so in the relationship ence unfolds in the context of a live experiment between ecovillages and the mainstream soci- in the translation of post-consumerist values ety that they were created to be an alternative into the fabric of a . to. As interlocking economic, ecological, and Immersion in such living laboratories can be a social crises have deepened, the various exper- profound transformation for students as they iments that ecovillages have been engaged in experience in a very tangible way the dynamic

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 189 Ecovillages and the Transformation of Values STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 relationship between values, lifestyle, and com- Master of Science degree in Sustainable Com- munity structures.13 munity Design—with two compulsory sections A number of ecovillage-based educational on Ecovillage Practice and Community Design initiatives have sprung up over the last decade Practice taught by Findhorn College staff at the or so. The Ecovillage Training Center at The ecovillage.16 Farm in Tennessee, the Center for Creative A major new ecovillage-based educational Ecology at Kibbutz Lotan in Israel, and Eco- initiative, Gaia Education, has developed a logical Solutions at Crystal Waters in Australia curriculum derived from good practice within are three among many centers worldwide ecovillages that has been endorsed by UNI- whose courses in the various dimensions of TAR and welcomed as a valuable contribution sustainability now attract participants from to the UN Decade of Education for Sustain- across the social spectrum.14 able Development. The curriculum is now Numerous educational partnerships have being taught in ecovillages and universities also developed between ecovillages and more on every continent.17 mainstream institutions that aid the diffusion An undergraduate study-abroad program, of ecovillage values and models into wider Living Routes, offers students at U.S. univer- society. A United Nations CIFAL training sities the opportunity to do formally accredited center, one in a network of 11 centers world- semesters at ecovillages on every continent, wide that provide training in sustainability to while Ecovillage at Ithaca, in New York, is local authorities and other local actors, opened engaged in an ambitious alliance with Cor- in 2007 at Findhorn in Scotland. This draws nell University and Ithaca College to enhance on expertise developed within and beyond university-based sustainability curricula in the ecovillages to build the planning and imple- United States.18 mentation capacity of local agencies in Scotland These developments on the educational and, increasingly, in northern Europe.15 front represent an opportunity to spread eco- Meanwhile, the Findhorn College, an edu- village values and models into the wider soci- cational institution within the ecovillage, reg- ety. As the world seeks to make the transition ularly hosts the University of St. Andrews to a rich, diverse, and sustainable global soci- undergraduate program in sustainable devel- ety, the lessons learned by ecovillages are opment. And as of September 2009, Heriot- likely to be an important source of informa- Watt University in Edinburgh offers the first tion and inspiration.

190 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG Notes

State of the World: A Year in Review December 2008. “Venice Is Hit by Serious Flood- ing,” BBC News, 1 December 2008; Clive Wilkin- October 2008. International Union for Conser- son, ed., Status of Coral Reefs of the World 2008 vation of Nature, “IUCN Red List Reveals World’s (Townsville, Australia: Global Coral Reef Moni- Mammals in Crisis,” press release (Gland, Switzer- toring Network, 2008); “California Air Resources land: 6 October 2008); Peter Smith, “The Green Board, “ARB Says Yes to Climate Action Plan,” Commandment,” Courier- Journal (Louisville, press release (Sacramento: 11 December 2008); KY), 22 October 2008; The Green Bible (New European Parliament, “European Parliament Seals York: HarperCollins, 7 October 2008); J. Timothy Climate Change Package,” press release (Brussels: Wootton, Catherine A. Pfister, and James D. 17 December 2008); “Greenland’s Glaciers Losing Forester, “Dynamic Patterns and Ecological Impacts Ice Faster This Year Than Last Year,” TerraDaily, of Declining Ocean pH in a High-resolution Multi- 23 December 2008; Munich Re Group, “Cata- year Dataset,” Proceedings of the National Academy strophe Figures for 2008 Confirm that Climate of Sciences, 8 October 2008; James Kanter, Agreement Is Urgently Needed,” press release “Indonesia Officials Unveil a Deal to Protect (Munich: 29 December 2008). Forests,” New York Times, 9 October 2008; “New Treaty Aims to Protect Shared Transboundary January 2009. Gábor Horváth et al., “Polarized Aquifers,” Environment News Service, 23 October Light Pollution: A New Kind of Ecological Pho- 2008; Nathan P. Gillet et al., “Attribution of Polar topollution,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environ- Warming to Human Influence,” Nature Geoscience, ment, eView, 7 January 2009; Plantlife International, 30 October 2008. Medicinal Plants in Conservation and Development (Salisbury, UK: November 2008); Environment November 2008. Jacqueline Alder et al., “Forage News Service, “Japan Launches World’s First Green- Fish: From Ecosystems to Markets,” Annual Review house Gas Observing Satellite,” 23 January 2009. of Environment and Resources, November 2008; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), February 2009. Andrew Torchia, “China Drought “Wide Spread and Complex Climatic Changes Out- Deprives Millions of Drinking Water,” Reuters, 7 lined in New UNEP Project Atmospheric Brown February 2009; Susan Solomon et al., “Irreversible Cloud Report,” press release (Nairobi: 13 Novem- Climate Change Due to Carbon Dioxide Emis- ber 2008); Philip Pullella, “Vatican Set to Go Green sions,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sci- with Huge Solar Panel Roof,” Reuters, 25 Novem- ences, 10 February 2009; UNEP, “Historic Treaty ber 2008; Raymond Colitt, “Brazil Cracks Down on to Tackle Toxic Heavy Metal Mercury Gets Green Amazon Loggers After Riot,” Reuters, 28 Novem- Light,” press release (Nairobi: 20 February 2009); ber 2008. U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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(NASA), “NASA’s Launch of Carbon-Seeking Satel- sumer Products,” ScrippsNews.com, 3 June 2009; lite Is Unsuccessful,” press release (Washington, “Deadly Amazon Clashes Roil Peru,” Associated DC: 24 February 2009). Press, 6 June 2009; U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), “1.02 Billion People Hungry,” March 2009. Marian Burros, “Obamas to Plant press release (Rome: 19 June 2009); Guus J.M. Vegetable Garden at White House,” Washington Velders et al., “The Large Contribution of Pro- Post, 19 March 2009; Drew Shindell and Greg jected HFC Emissions to Future Climate Forcing,” Faluvegi, “Climate Response to Regional Radiative Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Forcing During the Twentieth Century,” Nature Online, 22 June 2009. Geoscience, 22 March 2009; “Rain-soaked Southern Africa Hit by Worst Floods in Years,” Ter- July 2009. Lisa M. Schloegel et al., “Magnitude of raDaily.com, 27 March 2009; Jeff Mason and the US Trade in Amphibians and Presence of Batra- Thomas Ferraro, “Obama Signs Landmark U.S. chochytrium dendrobatidis and Ranavirus Infection Conservation Bill,” Reuters, 30 March 2009. in Imported North American Bullfrogs (Rana cates- beiana),” Biological Conservation, July 2009, pp. April 2009. Henry Chu, “Beneath the G-8 Sum- 1420–26; Office of the Mayor of San Francisco, mit, A Valley of Misery for Italy Quake Victims,” Los “Executive Directive 09-03: Healthy and Sustain- Angeles Times, 10 July 2009; David Randall, “Pan- able Food for San Francisco” (San Francisco: 9 July demic Fears as Flu Kills 68,” The Independent (Lon- 2009); Council of the European Ministers, “Coun- don), 26 April 2009; World Health Organization, cil Confirms Strict Conditions for Marketing Seal “Swine Influenza,” Statement by WHO Director- Products in the EU,” press release (Brussels: 27 July General Dr. Margaret Chan, 25 April 2009; Aben- 2009); Boris Worm et al., “Rebuilding Global Fish- goa Solar, “Abengoa Solar Begins Operation of the eries,” Science, 31 July 2009, pp. 578–85. World’s Largest Solar Power Tower Plant,” press release (Seville, Spain: 27 April 2009); American August 2009. Maplecroft, “Australia Overtakes Lung Association, “New American Lung Associa- USA as Top Polluter,” press release (Bath, U.K.: 3 tion Report Finds 60 Percent of Americans Live in August 2009); Yoko Hattori et al., “The Ethylene Areas Where Air Is Dirty Enough to Endanger Response Factors SNORKEL1 and SNORKEL2 Lives,” press release (Washington, DC: 29 April Allow Rice to Adapt to Deep Water,” Nature, 20 2009). August 2009, pp. 1,026–30; World Agroforestry Centre, “While Farmers Frequently Blamed for May 2009. Organic Trade Association, “U.S. Forest Loss, New Study Shows about Half of Farm- Organic Sales Grow by a Whopping 17.1 Percent lands Worldwide Have Significant Tree Cover,” in 2008,” press release (Greenfield, MA: 4 May press release (Nairobi: 24 August 2009). 2009); Aiguo Dai, “Changes in Continental Fresh- water Discharge from 1948 to 2004,” Journal of September 2009. FAO, “New Treaty Will Leave Climate, May 2009, pp. 2,773–92; Conservation ‘Fish Pirates’ Without Safe Haven,” press release International, The Nature Conservancy, and WWF, (Rome: 1 September 2009); National Oceanic and “Leaders of Coral Triangle Countries Declare Action Atmospheric Administration, “NOAA: Warmest to Protect Marine Resources for People’s Well- Global Sea-Surface Temperatures for August and being,” press release (Manado, Indonesia: 15 May Summer,” press release (Washington, DC: 16 Sep- 2009); “Sierra Leone and Liberia Create Vast Trans- tember 2009); WWF, “New Species Discovered in boundary Peace Park,” Environment News Service, the Greater Mekong at Risk of Extinction Due to 18 May 2009. Climate Change,” press release (Gland, Switzer- land: 22 September 2009); “Security Council Calls June 2009. Oli Brown and Alec Crawford, Rising for World Free of Nuclear Weapons During Historic Temperatures, Rising Tensions; Climate Change and Summit,” UN News Service, 24 September 2009; the Risk of Violent Conflict in the Middle East (Win- Group of 20, “Leaders’ Statement: The Pittsburgh nipeg, Canada: International Institute for Sustain- Summit” (Pittsburgh, PA: 24–25 September 2009). able Development, 2 June 2009); Isaac Wolf, “Recycled Radioactive Metal Contaminates Con-

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The Rise and Fall of Consumer Cultures Alice McKeown and Gary Gardner, “Climate Change Reference Guide and Glossary,” in World- 1. The Age of Stupid, Franny Armstrong, Direc- watch Institute, State of the World 2009 (New York: tor, independently released, 20 March 2009. W. W. Norton & Company, 2009), pp. 189–204; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2. World Bank, World Development Indicators (IPCC), Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report Online, online database, at media.worldbank.org/ (Geneva: 2007), p. 49. secure/data/qquery.php, viewed 23 September 2009; vehicles from Michael Renner, “Global Auto 8. Andrei Sokolov et al., “Probabilistic Forecast Industry in Crisis,” Vital Signs Online, Worldwatch for 21st Century Climate Based on Uncertainties in Institute, 21 May 2009; “Growing World Refrig- Emissions (without Policy) and Climate Parame- erator Market,” JARN Web Magazine, December ters,” American Meteorological Society Journal of Cli- 2008; IDC, “PC Market Growth Evaporates in mate, October 2009, pp. 5,175–204; David Fourth Quarter as Financial Crisis Hits Home, Chandler, “Revised MIT Climate Model Sounds According to IDC,” press release (Framingham, Alarm,” TechTalk (Massachusetts Institute of Tech- MA: 14 January 2009); IDC, “Worldwide Mobile nology), 20 May 2009; Juliet Eilperin, “New Analy- Phone Market Declines by 12.6% in Fourth Quar- sis Brings Dire Forecast of 6.3-Degree Temperature ter, More Challenges to Come Says IDC,” press Increase,” Washington Post, 25 September 2009; release (Framingham, MA: 4 February 2009). Elizabeth R. Sawin et al., “Current Emissions Reductions Proposals in the Lead-up to COP-15 3. World Bank, op. cit. note 2. Are Likely to Be Insufficient to Stabilize Atmos-

pheric CO2 Levels: Using C-ROADS—a Simple 4. Gary Gardner and Payal Sampat, Mind Over Computer Simulation of Climate Change—to Sup- Matter: Recasting the Role of Materials in Our Lives, port Long-Term Climate Policy Development,” Worldwatch Paper 144 (Washington, DC: World- draft presented at the Climate Change—Global watch Institute, December 1998); Michael Renner, Risks, Challenges, and Decisions Conference, Uni- “World Metals Production Surges,” Vital Signs versity of Copenhagen, Denmark, 10 March 2009. Online, Worldwatch Institute, 3 September 2009; oil and natural gas from Janet Sawin and Ishani 9. Ice melt from Eilperin, op. cit. note 8; refugees Mukherjee, “Fossil Fuel Use Up Again,” in World- from International Organization for Migration, watch Institute, Vital Signs 2007–2008 (New York: “Migration, Climate Change, and the Environ- W. W. Norton & Company, 2007); Sustainable ment,” IOM Policy Brief (Geneva: May 2009), p. 1; Europe Research Institute, GLOBAL 2000, and other problems from IPCC, op. cit. note 7. Europe, ? Our Use of the World’s Natural Resources (Septem- 10. Deforestation from Gary Gardner, “Defor- ber 2009). estation Continues,” in Worldwatch Institute, Vital Signs 2006–2007 (New York: W. W. Norton & 5. Ecofootprint and Figure 1 from Global Foot- Company, 2006), pp. 102–03; hazardous waste print Network, The Ecological Footprint Atlas 2008 from Elaine Baker et al., Vital Waste Graphics (Basel (Oakland, CA: rev. ed., 16 December 2008). Convention and GRID-Arendal, 2004), pp. 34–35; for a discussion of other trends, see, for example, 6. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), Peter Dauvergne, The Shadows of Consumption: Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis (Wash- Consequences for the Global Environment (Cam- ington, DC: Island Press, 2005); MA, Living Beyond bridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008), and Gary Our Means: Natural Assets and Human Well-being: Gardner, Erik Assadourian, and Radhika Sarin, Statement from the Board (Washington, DC: World “The State of Consumption Today,” in Worldwatch Resources Institute, 2005), p. 2. Institute, State of the World 2004 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004). 7. C. P. McMullen and J. Jabbour, Climate Change Science Compendium 2009 (Nairobi: United 11. Stephen Pacala, “Equitable Solutions to Nations Environment Programme, 2009), pp. 5, 30; Greenhouse Warming: On the Distribution of

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Wealth, Emissions and Responsibility Within and Franklin Pierce University, discussion with author, Between Nations,” presentation at International 25 March 2009. I am indebted to Welsch and Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Global Devel- Vivanco for both this definition and the road map opment Conference, Vienna, Austria, 15 Novem- describing four key elements of culture. ber 2007; Horace Herring, “Rebound Effect,” in Cutler J. Cleveland, ed., Encyclopedia of Earth 20. Welsch and Vivanco, op. cit. note 18, p. 10; (Washington, DC: Environmental Information Gerrit J. van Enk and Lourens de Vries, The Coalition, National Council for Science and the Korowai of Irian Jaya: Their Language in Its Cul- Environment, rev. 18 November 2008). tural Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997). 12. U.S. data from World Bank, op. cit. note 2, in 2008 dollars. Table 1 from ibid., and from Global 21. Donella Meadows, Leverage Points: Places to Footprint Network, op. cit. note 5; 2009 popula- Intervene in a System (Hartland, VT: The Sustain- tion from United Nations Population Division, ability Institute, 1999), pp. 17–19. World Population Prospects, 2008 Revision (New York: 2009). 22. Paul Ekins, “The Sustainable Consumer Soci- ety: A Contradiction in Terms?” International 13. G. Ananthapadmanabhan, K. Srinivas, and Environmental Affairs, fall 1991, pp. 243–58. Box Vinuta Gopal, Hiding Behind the Poor (Bangalore: 1 from the following: Gary Gardner and Erik Greenpeace India Society, October 2007). Assadourian, “Rethinking the Good Life,” in Worldwatch Institute, State of the World 2004, op. 14. Ibid. cit. note 10; Daniel Kahneman, Presentation, Gallup Well-Being Forum, 2 October 2009 (note 15. Ibid.; Global Footprint Network, op. cit. note that positive affect stops increasing at higher 5; a third from Matthew Bentley, Sustainable Con- incomes while life satisfaction levels have a loga- sumption: Ethics, National Indices and Interna- rithmic relationship, meaning it takes exponential tional Relations, PhD dissertation, American increases in income to raise satisfaction ratings); Graduate School of International Relations and Japan from Peter N. Stearns, Consumerism in Diplomacy, Paris, 2003, updated and revised with World History: The Global Transformation of Desire data from World Bank, op. cit. note 2. (New York: Routledge, 2001), p. 97; United States from Rich Morin and Paul Taylor, Luxury or Neces- 16. Worldwatch calculation based on Saul Griffith, sity? The Public Makes a U-Turn (Washington, DC: “Climate Change Recalculated,” presentation at Pew Research Center, 23 April 2009); deaths from The Long Now Foundation, San Francisco, 16 Jan- World Health Organization (WHO), Disease and uary 2009; Saul Griffith, The Game Plan: A Solu- Injury Regional Estimates for 2004, at tion Framework for the Climate Challenge, Slide www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/ Presentation, 13 March 2008, slides 140–47. Each estimates_regional/en/index.html, and from of these three technologies would produce 4 ter- WHO, The World Health Report 2001 (Geneva: awatts of energy, producing 12 terawatts, which 2001), pp. 144–49; overweight and obese from would replace all but 2–3 terawatts of fossil-fuel- WHO, “Obesity and Overweight,” Fact Sheet No. based energy used today. 311 (Geneva: September 2006); life span from “Moderate Obesity Takes Years Off Life 17. Population projection for 2050 from United Expectancy,” Science Daily, 20 March 2009. Nations Population Division, op. cit. note 12. 23. Alan Thein Durning, How Much Is Enough? 18. Robert Welsch and Luis Vivanco, Introduction (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), p. 22; to Cultural Anthropology (McGraw-Hill Higher translations from translate.google.com, viewed 1 Education, forthcoming), Chapter 2, pp. 1–65 in October 2009. draft edition. 24. Leslie White as cited in Welsch and Vivanco, 19. Ibid., p. 9, quotation from Robert Welsch, op. cit. note 18, p. 15; unconscious from Gráinne

194 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

M. Fitzsimons, Tanya L. Chartrand, and Gavan J. 31. Ibid., pp. 10, 34–35. Fitzsimons, “Automatic Effects of Brand Exposure on Motivated Behavior: How Apple Makes You 32. Ibid., pp. 20–21. ‘Think Different’,” Journal of Consumer Research, June 2008, pp. 21–35; Pokémon from Andrew 33. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer’s Republic: The Balmford et al., “Why Conservationists Should Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America Heed Pokémon,” Science, 29 March 2002, p. 2,367; (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003), pp. 123–24; “Branded for Life? Pitching Fast Food to Kids,” Gardner, Assadourian, and Sarin, op. cit. note 10, Today, NBC, 18 August 2006; “Food Fight,” Date- p. 15. line, NBC, 18 August 2006. 34. Robert Coen, “Insider’s Report: Advertising 25. Welsch and Vivanco, op. cit. note 18, pp. Expenditures,” paper presented by Universal 18–20; Terrence P. O’Toole et al., “Nutrition Ser- McCann, December 2008; Thomas N. Robinson et vices and Foods and Beverages Available at School: al., “Effects of Reducing Television Viewing on Results from the School Health Policy and Programs Children’s Requests for Toys: A Randomized Con- Study 2006,” Journal of School Health, October trolled Trial,” Journal of Developmental and Behav- 2007, pp. 500–21. ioral Pediatrics, June 2001, p. 179; gross domestic product from International Monetary Fund, World 26. Welsch and Vivanco, op. cit. note 18, pp. Economic Outlook Database, April 2009; Gwen B 20–21; The Wedding Report, “Market Summary: Achenreiner and Deborah R. John; “A Meaning of Average Spending,” at www.theweddingreport.com; Brand Names to Children: A Developmental Inves- Mark Harris, Grave Matters: A Journey Through tigation,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, vol. 13, the Modern Funeral Industry to a Natural Way of no. 3 (2003), pp. 205–19; Institute of Medicine, Burial (New York: Scribner, 2007). Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity? (Washington, DC: National Academies 27. Spending from Deloitte, Savvy Consumers Press, 2006), p. 8. Demand Seasonal Savings: Annual Christmas Spend- ing Survey 2008 (Ireland: Deloitte, 2008), p. 11; 35. PQ Media, Product Placement Spending in Justin McCurry, “In the Bleak Midwinter, Japanese Media: Executive Summary (Stamford, CT: March Regain Appetite for Christmas,” Guardian (Lon- 2005); WHO, Smoke-free Movies: From Evidence don), 24 December 2007; 2 percent from “Japan,” to Action (Geneva: 2009), p. 4. in Central Intelligence Agency, The World Fact- book, at www.cia.gov/library/publications/the 36. PQ Media, Word-of-Mouth Marketing Fore- -world-factbook/geos/ja.html#, updated 14 July cast: 2009–2013: Spending Trends & Analysis (Stam- 2009; Reverend Billy from What Would Jesus Buy? ford, CT: July 2009); BzzAgent from Rob Walker, Director, Rob VanAlkemade, 16 November 2007. “The Hidden (in Plain Sight) Persuaders,” New York Times, 5 December 2004, from BzzAgent, 28. Welsch and Vivanco, op. cit. note 18, pp. “The BzzAgent Word of Mouth Network,” at 16–18; materialism from Tim Kasser, The High about.bzzagent.com/word-of-mouth/network, Price of Materialism (Cambridge: The MIT Press, and from BzzAgent, “Case Studies By Campaign 2003); students and Figure 2 from J. H. Pryor et Objective,” at about.bzzagent.com/word-of al., The American Freshman: National Norms for -mouth/casestudy/case-browser; Miho Inada, Fall 2008 (Los Angeles: Higher Education Research “Tokyo Café Targets Trend Makers,” Wall Street Institute, UCLA, 2008); Güliz Ger and Russell W. Journal, 24 August 2009; Brooks Barnes, “Disney Belk, “Cross-cultural Differences in Materialism,” Expert Uses Science to Draw Boy Viewers,” New Journal of Economic Psychology, no. 17 (1996), pp. York Times, 14 April 2009. 55–77. 37. Victor Lebow, “Price Competition in 1955,” 29. Stearns, op. cit. note 22, pp. 25–36. Journal of Retailing, spring 1955, p. 8. Table 2 from the following: Elizabeth Royte, Bottlemania: How 30. Ibid., pp. 15–24. Water Went on Sale and Why We Bought It (New

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York: Bloomsbury USA, 2008); 2008 data from to Sustainable Living (London: Thames & Hudson, John Rodwan, Jr., “Confronting Challenges: U.S. 2009), pp. 235–38. and International Bottled Water Developments and Statistics for 2008,” Bottled Water Reporter, 38. Duane Elgin, interview in Consume This Movie, April/May 2009; 2000 data, safety, and price from Director Gene Brockhoff, Well Crafted Films, 2008. Ling Li, “Bottled Water Consumption Jumps,” in Worldwatch Institute, op. cit. note 4, pp. 102–03; 39. Television access from International Telecom- fast-food data from First Research Industry Report, munication Union’s World Telecommunication “Fast Food and Quickservice Restaurants,” at Development Report database, as cited in World www.hoovers.com/fast-food-and-quickservice-res Bank, World Development Indicators 2008 (Wash- taurants/—ID__269—/free-ind-fr-profile-basic ington, DC: April 2008). Table 3 from the follow- .xhtml, viewed 28 September 2009; history from ing: television and Internet from ibid., population Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation (New York: and expenditures from World Bank, op. cit. note 2; Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), pp. 197–98, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel- advertising from “Marketer Database from Abbott opment, OECD Communications Outlook 2009 to Yum,” Ad Age, at adage.com/marketertrees09, (Paris: 2009), pp. 189, 199; Internet usage from viewed 28 September 2009; restaurants from Cisco, The Connected Consumer, slide presentation, McDonald’s Corporation, 2008 Annual Report May 2008; Online Publishers Association, “Online (Oak Brook, IL: 12 March 2009); Chinese paper Publishers Association Media Usage Study Shows the industry from Magdalena Kondej, “Kimberly Clark Web Now Rivals TV in Reach and Extends the Bucks the Trend and Aims High in China,” Impact of All Media,” press release (New York: 6 Euromonitor International, 15 July 2009; David W. June 2006); 8 billion from WHO, op. cit. note 35, Chen, “ Journal; A New Policy of Con- p. 3. tainment, for Baby Bottoms,” New York Times, 5 August 2003; automobile ads from “U.S. Ad Spend 40. Craig A. Anderson and Brad J. Bushman, Trends: 2008,” Advertising Age, 22 June 2009; “The Effects of Media Violence on Society,” Science, history from Peter D. Norton, Fighting Traffic: 29 March 2002, pp. 2,377–79; Peter W. Vaughan, The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City Alleyne Regis, and Edwin St. Catherine, “Effects of (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2008), especially pp. an Entertainment-Education Radio Soap Opera on 95–99, and from Dauvergne, op. cit. note 10, espe- Family Planning and HIV Prevention in St. Lucia,” cially pp. 40–42; Center for Responsive Politics, International Family Planning Perspectives, Decem- “Lobbying Automotive, Industry Profile, 2008,” ber 2000, pp. 148–57; Joan Montgomerie, “The online database at www.opensecrets.org/lobby/ Family Planning Soap Opera,” Peace Magazine, indusclient.php?lname=M02&year=2008, viewed October-December 2001, p. 27; WHO, op. cit. 30 September 2009; contributions from Center note 35; Juliet Schor, The Overspent American: for Responsive Politics, “Automotive: Long-Term Why We Want What We Don’t Need (New York: Contribution Trends,” at www.opensecrets.org/ HarperPerennial, 1999), pp. 75–83. industries/indus.php?ind=M02, viewed 30 Sep- tember 2009; $42 billion from Elizabeth Higgins, 41. Jill Vardy and Chris Wattie, “Shopping is Patri- “Global Growth Trends: Sales in the Premium Seg- otic, Leaders Say,” National Post (Canada), 28 Sep- ments Are Outpacing the Mid-Priced and Economy tember 2001; Andrew J. Bacevich, “He Told Us to Segments,” Petfoodindustry.com, 21 May 2007; Go Shopping. Now the Bill Is Due,” Washington humanization from PowerPoint presentation by Post, 5 October 2008; Norman Myers and Jennifer Packaged Facts Pet Analyst David Lummis, U.S. Pet Kent, Perverse Subsidies: How Tax Dollars Can Market Outlook 2009–2010: Surviving and Thriving Undercut the Environment and the Economy (Wash- in Challenging Times, at www.packagedfacts.com/ ington, DC: Island Press, 2001), p. 188. landing/petmarketoutlook.asp; advertising, which only includes supplies, not food, is from Packaged 42. Political contributions from Center for Facts, Pet Supplies in the U.S., 7th ed. (Rockville, Responsive Politics, “Business-Labor- Split MD: August 2007), pp. 141–45; Robert Vale and in PAC & Individual Donations to Candidates and Brenda Vale, Time to Eat the Dog: The Real Guide Parties,” at www.opensecrets.org/bigpicture/blio

196 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

.php?cycle=2008, viewed 30 September 2009; lob- Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental bying dollars is a Worldwatch calculation based on Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge, U.K.: Cam- Center for Responsive Politics, “Lobbying Data- bridge University Press, 2007); accidents from base,” at www.opensecrets.org/lobby/index.php, WHO, Disease and Injury Estimates, op. cit. note viewed 30 September 2009. 22; Hasselt from Roz Paterson, “Free Transport in Action,” Free Public Transport, at www.freepublic 43. Cohen, op. cit. note 33; Lebow, op. cit. note transport.org/index.php?option=com_co 37, p. 7. ntent&view=article&id=5&Itemid=5; Cees van Goeverden et al., “Subsidies in Public Transport,” 44. Nick Robins, Robert Clover, and Charanjit European Transport, no. 32 (2006), pp. 5–25. Singh, A Climate for Recovery: The Colour of Stim- ulus Goes Green (London: HSBC Global Research, 52. William McDonough and Michael Braungart, 25 February 2009). Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things (New York: North Point Press, 2002); 45. Inside Education, at www.insideeduca Charles Moore, “Captain Charles Moore on the Seas tion.ca/index.html; Division 2 materials including of Plastic,” TED Talk, Long Beach, CA, February “The Petroleum Poster Kit,” at www.insideed 2009. ucation.ca/class/div2.html, and Alberta Forest Products Association, “Teaching Materials,” at 53. Box 2 from the following: James Davison www.albertaforestproducts.ca/resources/teaching Hunter, “To Change the World,” The Trinity Forum _materials.aspx; Channel One News, “Frequently Briefing, vol. 3, no. 2 (McLean, VA: 2002); for dis- Asked Questions,” updated 10 June 2009, at cussion of power of networks, see Nicholas A. Chris- www.channelone.com/about/faq/. takis and James H. Fowler, Connected: The Surprising Power of Our Social Networks and How 46. Berry quote from interview with Caroline They Shape Our Lives (New York: Little, Brown Webb, 2006, video at www.earth-commu- and Company, 2009); showings of The Age of Stu- nity.org/images/BerryIV_Subtitles.mov. pid from ageofstupid.net; 10:10 from www.1010uk.org, viewed 1 October 2009; Creel 47. Meadows, op. cit. note 21. Commission, “Interview with James Lovelock,” 8 August 2005, at www.creelcommission.com/ 48. Ibid. interviews.php?action=show&id=3&title=James+ Lovelock&date=08-08-2005. 49. Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett, The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do 54. “Schools Stepping Up for Active Travel with Better (London: Group, 2009). Feet First,” Environz Magazine, March 2009; Elis- abeth Rosenthal, “Students Give Up Wheels for 50. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Col- Their Own Two Feet,” New York Times, 26 March lapse and Revival of American Community (New 2009. York: Simon & Schuster, 2000); Andrew Plantinga and Stephanie Bernell, “The Association Between 55. See Johanna Mair and Kate Ganly, “Social and Obesity: Is It a Two-Way Street?” Entrepreneurs: Innovating Toward Sustainability,” Journal of Regional Science, December 2007, pp. in this volume; “B Corporations,” at www.bcorp 857–79; Oregon State University, “Study Links oration.net. Obesity, Urban Sprawl,” ScienceDaily, 10 Septem- ber 2005; Ohio State University, “Study Shows 56. See Michael Maniates, “Editing Out Unsus- Urban Sprawl Continues to Gobble Up Land,” tainable Behavior,” in this volume; Asamblea Con- ScienceDaily, 24 December 2007. stituyente, Constitución del Ecuador, chapter 7, article 71, at www.asambleaconstituyente.gov.ec/ 51. S. Kahn Ribeiro et al., “Transport and Its documentos/constitucion_de_bolsillo.pdf, p. 52. Infrastructure,” in IPCC, Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the 57. Sustainable Table and Free Range Studios,

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The Meatrix, 2003; Jonah Sachs, creative director, Action in China?” UN Dispatch, at www.undis Free Range Studios, e-mail to author, 5 August patch.com/archives/2008/11/taoism_—_guidi.php. 2009; Claire Atkinson, “‘Desperate Housewives’ Keeps Sunday Rates Competitive,” Advertising 3. Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC) Age, 21 September 2006; Stuart Elliott, “THE and the U.N. Development Programme, Guide to MEDIA BUSINESS: ADVERTISING; Prices for Creating Your Seven-Year Plan (Bath, U.K.: ARC, Commercials Already Vary Widely as the Season, August 2008). with 38 New Series, Is Barely Under Way,” New York Times, 2 October 2002. 4. “People,” in Central Intelligence Agency, The World Factbook, at www.cia.gov/library/publi 58. Paul Hawken, Blessed Unrest (New York: Pen- cations/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html; John guin Group, 2007); Paul Hawken, “Biology, Resis- A. Grim, series co-ed., Indigenous Traditions and tance, and Restoration: Sustainability as an Infinite Ecology: The Interbeing of Cosmology and Commu- Game,” presentation at Bioneers Conference, Octo- nity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Center ber 2006. for the Study of World Religions, 2001).

59. See Gary Gardner, “Engaging Religions to 5. World Values Survey, at www.worldvalues Shape Worldviews,” in this volume; activism from survey.org, viewed 4 August 2009. Renewal, Producers Marty Ostrow and Terry Kay Rockefeller, Fine Cut Productions LLC, 2007. 6. Faith in Public Life and Public Religion Research, “Key Religious Groups Want Govern- 60. Barbara K. Rodes and Rice Odell, comp., A ment to Address Climate Change and Its Impact on Dictionary of Environmental Quotations (New York: World’s Poor,” at www.faithinpubliclife.org/ Simon & Schuster, 1992), p. 26. tools/polls/climate-change; Public Religion Research, “Climate Change & Poverty Survey, 20- Traditions Old and New 27 March, 2009,” e-mail to author, 16 July 2009.

1. “People,” in Central Intelligence Agency, The 7. Courses are from a survey done by World- World Factbook, at www.cia.gov/library/ watch Institute, August 2009; Parliament from publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html. Mary Evelyn Tucker, Yale University, e-mail to author, 23 August 2009. Table 4 from the follow- 2. United Nations Population Division, World ing: Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim, series Population Prospects, 2008 Revision (New York: eds., Religions of the World and Ecology, book series 2009); Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies (Cambridge, MA: Center for the Study of World Choose to Fail or Succeed (New York: The Penguin Religions at Harvard University, 1998–2003); Bron Group, 2005), pp. 79–119, 286–93. Taylor, ed., Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature (London: Continuum, 2008); Willis Jenkins, ed., Engaging Religions to The Spirit of Sustainability, a project of the Forum Shape Worldviews on Religion and Ecology at Yale University (Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire, forthcoming); The 1. Stephen Scharper, “Faiths May Hold the Key Green Bible (New York: HarperOne, 2008); Jour- to Green China,” Toronto Star, 7 July 2009; Mary nal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, Evelyn Tucker, “Pan Yue’s Vision for Ecological Civ- at www.religionandnature.com/journal; World- ilization,” blog, Sustainable China, at www.sus views: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology, at tainablechina.info/2008/12/08/a-meeting-with www.brill.nl/m_catalogue_sub6_id9007.htm. -pan-yue. 8. Religion, Science and the Environment, at 2. “Third Taoist Ecology Forum Opens in www.rsesymposia.org. Jurong, Jiangsu—And This One is Country-wide,” at www.arcworld.org/news.asp?pageID=273; Mark 9. Ibid. Leon Goldberg, “Taoism—‘The Way’ for Climate

198 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

10. Susan M. Darlington, “Practical Spirituality Group, “How Many Vegetarians are There?” at and Community Forests: Monks, Ritual, and Rad- www.vrg.org/press/2009poll.htm, viewed 9 Sep- ical in Thailand,” in Anna L. Tsing tember 2009. Box 3 based on the following: Richard and Paul Greenough, eds., Nature in the Global Sylvan and David Bennett, The Greening of Ethics: South (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003); From Human Chauvinism to Deep-Green Theory Susan Darlington, “Buddhism and Development: (Cambridge, MA: White Horse Press, 1994), p. The Ecology Monks of Thailand,” in Christopher 26; distinction from enlightened human self-inter- Queen, Charles Prebish, and Damien Keown, eds., est first raised by Richard Routley (later Sylvan) in Action Dharma: New Studies in Engaged Buddhism “Is There a Need for a New, an Environmental (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2003). Ethic?” Proceedings of the XII World Congress of Philosophy, No. 1 (Varna, Bulgaria: 1973), pp. 11. The Regeneration Project, at www.there 205–10. generationproject.org. 18. International Interfaith Investment Group, at 12. Bahá’í from www.barli.org/training-pro www.3ignet.org; $24 trillion is a Worldwatch cal- grammes.html#45; Appalachia from Renewal culation based on data in Social Investment Forum, Project, Renewal (documentary film), at renew 2007 Report on Socially Responsible Investing Trends alproject.net; Sarah McFarland Taylor, Green Sisters: in the United States (Washington, DC: 2007); 11 A (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- percent from ibid. versity Press, 2007). 19. Table 6 from the following: Buddhist eco- 13. Table 5 from the following: Bahá’í Reference nomics from E. F. Schumacher, Library, “World Peace,” at reference.bahai.org/ (New York: Harper & Row, 1973); Catholic eco- en/t/bic/SB/sb-13.html#fr5; Buddhism, Confu- nomic teaching from United States Conference of cianism, Taoism, and Hinduism from Center for a Catholic Bishops, “Catholic Teaching on Economic New American Dream, “Religion and Spirituality,” Life,” at www.usccb.org/jphd/economiclife; indige- at www.affluenza.org/cnad/religion.html; Chris- nous economic practices from Grim, op. cit. note tianity and Judaism from The New Jerusalem Bible 4; Islamic finance from Paul Maidmant, “A Distant (New York: Doubleday, 1990); Islam from Islam ,” and from Elisabeth Eaves, “God and Mam- Set, “Environmental Protection in Islam,” at mon,” both in Forbes, 21 April 2008; Sabbath eco- www.islamset.com/env/section4.html. nomics from Ross Kinsler and Gloria Kinsler, The Biblical Jubilee and the Struggle for Life (Mary- 14. Carl Sagan, “Preserving and Cherishing the knoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999). Earth—An Appeal for Joint Commitment in Science and Religion,” American Journal of Physics, July Ritual and Taboo as Ecological Guardians 1990, pp. 615–17. 1. Rabbi Goldie Milgram, Meaning & Mitzvah: 15. Benedict XVI, Caritas in Veritate, encyclical Daily Practices for Reclaiming Judaism through letter (Vatican City: The Vatican, 2009). Prayer, God, Torah, Hebrew, Mitzvot and People- hood (Woodstock, VT: Jewish Lights Publishing, 16. Nature as the book of Creation from “Bene- 2005). dict XVI’s Very Own Shade of Green,” National Catholic Reporter, 31 July 2009; Larry B. Stammer, 2. Roy Rappaport, Ritual and Religion in the “Interfaith Campaign Targets Issue of Environ- Making of Humanity (Cambridge, U.K.: Cam- mental ‘Sin’,” Los Angeles Times, 29 November bridge University Press, 1999), p. 24. This defini- 1997. tion is a nontechnical adaptation of Rappaport’s formal definition: “the performance of more or less 17. Stephanie Kaza, “Western Buddhist Motiva- invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not tions for Vegetarianism,” Worldviews: Environment, entirely encoded by the performers.” Culture, Religion, vol. 9, no. 3 (2005), pp. 385–411; 3 percent from Vegetarian Resource 3. E. N. Anderson, Ecologies of the Heart: Emo-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 199 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 tion, Belief, and the Environment (New York: Oxford 15. Earth Day Network, “What is Earth Day Net- University Press, 1996); Rappaport, op. cit. note 2. work?” at earthday.net/node/66.

4. Anne-Christine Hornborg, Mi’kmaq Land- 16. Adam Vaughn, “Bishops of Liverpool and scapes: From to Sacred Ecology (Burlington, London Call for ‘Carbon Fast’ during Lent,” VT: Ashgate, 2008). Guardian (London), 24 February 2009; Zaher Sahloul, “Have a Blessed Green Ramadan,” The 5. Ibid.; song from Maurice Bloch, “Symbols, Council of Islamic Organizations of Greater Song, Dance and Features of Articulation,” Archives Chicago, at www.ciogc.org/Go.aspx?link=7654949. Europeénes de Sociologie, vol. 15 (1974), pp. 51–81. 17. World Car-free Day, at www.worldcarfree.net/ 6. Roy Rappaport, Ecology, Meaning, and Ritual wcfd/2008/wcfd.html. (Richmond, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1979). 18. Take Back Your Time, at www.timeday.org. 7. Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu, “Indigenous Beliefs and Biodiversity Conservation: The Effectiveness of 19. Rosita Worl, President, Sealaska Heritage Insti- Sacred Groves, Taboos and Totems in Ghana for tute, Juneau, discussion with author, 13 April 2006. Habitat and Species Conservation,” Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature, and Culture, no. 3 20. Peter Sawtell, “Once in a Lifetime,” Eco-Jus- (2008), p. 309. tice Notes: The E-Mail Newsletter of Eco-Justice Min- istries, 7 August 2009. 8. Johan Colding and Carl Folke, “The Rela- tions Among Threatened Species, Their Protec- Environmentally Sustainable Childbearing tion, and Taboos,” Ecology and Society, vol. 1, no. 1 (1997). 1. Population data from United Nations Popu- lation Division, World Population Prospects: The 9. The Wedding Report, “US Wedding Cost,” at 2008 Revision Population Database, at esa.un.org/ www.theweddingreport.com. unpp/index.asp.

10. David Reay, Climate Change Begins at Home 2. Ibid. (New York: MacMillan, 2005); Pamela Logan, “Witness to a Tibetan Sky Burial: A Field Report for 3. United Nations Population Division, World the China Exploration and Research Society,” 26 Population Policies 2007 (New York: United Nations, September 1997, at alumnus.caltech.edu/ 2007); National Adaptation Programmes of Action, ~pamlogan/skybury.htm. at unfccc.int/cooperation_support/least_develop ed_countries_portal/submitted_napas/items/4585 11. Central Pollution Control Board, Govern- .php. ment of India, annual report, at cpcbenvis.nic .in/ar2000/annual_report1999-2000-34.htm. 4. United Nations Population Fund, State of World Population 2004—The Cairo Consensus at 12. Black Friday from bfads.net. Ten: Population, Reproductive Health and the Global Effort to End Poverty (New York: United Nations, 13. Centre for Natural Burial, at naturalburial 2004), p. 5. .coop. 5. Ibid. 14. Box 4 from Danny Hillis, “The Millennium Clock,” Wired Magazine, Scenarios Issue, 1995; 6. Robert Engelman, More: Population, Nature, Long Now Foundation, at www.longnow.org; Long and What Women Want (Washington, DC: Island Bets, at www.longbets.org; Rosetta Project, at Press, 2008). www.rosettaproject.org. 7. Gilda Sedgh et al., “Induced Abortion: Rates

200 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes and Trends Worldwide,” The Lancet, 13 October MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2007, pp. 1,338–45; Alan Guttmacher Institute, December 2007); Mikko Myrskylä, Hans-Peter Sharing Responsibility: Women, Society and Abortion Kohler, and Francesco C. Billari, “Advances in Worldwide (New York: 1999); United Nations Pop- Development Reverse Fertility Declines,” Nature, ulation Division, World Population Prospects: The 6 August 2009, pp. 741–43; Rob Stein, “U.S. Fer- 2004 Revision (New York: United Nations, 2005); tility Rate Hits 35-Year High, Stabilizing Popula- Henri Leridon, Human Fertility: The Basic Com- tion,” Washington Post, 21 December 2007. ponents (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977); all cited in Guttmacher Institute, “Abortion: 15. David L. Carr, “Resource Management and Worldwide Levels and Trends,” PowerPoint pre- Fertility in Mexico’s Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve: sentation, 2007. Campos, Cash, and Contraception in the Lobster- Fishing Village of Punta Allen,” Population and 8. Average human fertility from United Nations Environment, November 2007, pp. 83–101. Population Division, op. cit. note 1; current world replacement fertility calculated by the author based Elders: A Cultural Resource for Promoting on data from this source; Malcolm Potts, “Sex and Sustainable Development the Birth Rate: Human Biology, Demographic Change, and Access to Fertility-Regulation Meth- 1. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and ods,” Population and Development Review, March Development, The Well-being of Nations: The Role 1997, pp. 1–39. of Human and Social Capital (Paris: 2001).

9. Robert Engelman, “Population & Sustain- 2. Quote from Grandmother Project and World ability,” Scientific American Earth 3.0, summer Vision, Report on Intergenerational Forum, Kayel 2009, pp. 22–29. Bassel, 18 December 2008 (Senegal: 2008).

10. Anita Chandra et al., “Does Watching Sex on 3. Collins O. Airhihenbuwa, “On Being Com- Television Predict Teen Pregnancy? Findings from fortable with Being Uncomfortable: Centering an a National Longitudinal Survey of Youth,” Pedi- Africanist Vision in Our Gateway to Global Health,” atrics, November 2008, pp. 1,047–54. Health Education & Behavior, February 2007, pp. 31–42; Andreas Fuglesang, About Understanding: 11. Peter W. Vaughan, Alleyne Regis, and Edwin Ideas and Observations on Cross-cultural Under- St. Catherine, “Effects of an Entertainment-Edu- standing (Uppsala, Sweden: Dag Hammarskjold cation Radio Soap Opera on Family Planning and Foundation, 1982); Hampâté Bâ from speech at HIV Prevention in St. Lucia,” International Fam- UNESCO, Paris, 1962. ily Planning Perspectives, December 2000, pp. 148–57; Joan Montgomerie, “The Family Plan- 4. Proverb repeated in numerous linguistic and ning Soap Opera,” Peace Magazine, October- ethnic groups in West Africa; Waly Diouf, Barry G. December 2001, p. 27. Sheckley, and Marijke Kehrhahn, “Adult Learning in a Non-Western Context: The Influence of Cul- 12. Vaughan, Regis, and St. Catherine, op. cit. ture in a Senegalese Farming Village,” Adult Edu- note 11. cation Quarterly, November 2000, pp. 32–44; N. K. Chadha, “Understanding Intergenerational 13. Blaine Harden, “Japanese Voters Eager for Relationships in India,” Journal of Intergenera- Change,” Washington Post, 27 August 2009; Bon- tional Relationships, vol. 2, issue 3/4 (2004), pp. nie Malkin (and news agencies), “Russians Told to 63–73. Skip Work and Have Sex,” The Telegraph (Lon- don), 12 September 2007. 5. The Elders, at www.theelders.org.

14. Alma Cohen, Rajeev Dehejia, and Dmitri 6. Ageist biases against women versus men from Romanov, “Do Financial Incentives Affect Fertility?” C. Sweetman, ed., “Editorial,” Gender and Lifecy- NBER Working Paper No. 13700 (Cambridge, cles (Oxford: Oxfam, 2000); biases against older

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 201 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 women in non-western societies from Judi Aubel, of Generations United, a U.S. nonprofit organiza- Ibrahima Touré, and Mamadou Diagne, “Sene- tion, at www.gu.org. galese Grandmothers Improve Maternal and Child Nutrition Practices: The Guardians of Tradition 14. “Lelum’uy’lh Child Development Centre,” Are Not Averse to Change,” Social Science & Med- at cowichantribes.com/memberservices/Education icine, September 2004, pp. 945–59. %20and%20Culture/Child%20Development%20 Centre. 7. United Nations, World Youth Report 2005 (New York: 2005), p. 76; Cara Heaven and 15. Judi Aubel et al., Rapid Review of ‘Time with Matthew Tubridy, “Global Youth Culture and Youth Grandmas Initiative’ (Accra, Ghana: Government Identity,” in Oxfam, Highly Affected, Rarely Con- of Ghana and U.N. Population Fund, 2007). sidered (Oxford: 2008), pp. 149–60, with quote on p. 154. 16. Judi Aubel et al., The “Custodians of Tradition” Promote Positive Changes for the Health of New- 8. Akopovire Oduaran, “Intergenerational Soli- borns: Rapid Assessment of Ekwendeni Agogo Strat- darity: Strengthening Economic and Social Ties,” egy (Lilongwe, Malawi: Save the Children–US, Background Paper, Expert Group Meeting, United 2006). Nations, New York, 23–25 October 2007, pp. 1–13, with quote on p. 10. 17. Ian S. McIntosh, “Nurturing Galiwin’ku Youth in Northeast Arnhem Land: Yalu Mar- 9. Haatso Youth Club of Ghana from Oxfam, op. rngikunharaw,” Cultural Survival Quarterly, sum- cit. note 7, p. 157; quote from Senegalese man mer 2002. from Grandmother Project and World Vision, op. cit. note 2. 18. For information on the Grandmother Pro- ject, see www.grandmotherproject.org. 10. Jan Servaes and S. Lui, eds., Moving Targets: Mapping the Paths between Communication, Tech- 19. “Enquete d’Evaluation Finale: Rapport nology and Social Change in Communities (Penang, d’Analyse,” INFO-STAT, Bamako, Mali, 2004; Malaysia: Southbound, 2007); quote on media role Christian Children’s Fund project from Aubel, from Oxfam, op. cit. note 7, p. 154. Touré, and Diagne, op. cit. note 6.

11. Grandmother Project field notes, Koulikoro, 20. Quote from World Vision and Grandmother Mali, June 2004; maternal and child health pro- Project, June 2006, Velingara, Senegal. grams from Judi Aubel, “Participatory Communi- cation Unlocks a Powerful Cultural Resource: 21. Findings from group interviews with com- Grandmother Networks Promote Maternal and munity members from 12 villages, Girls Develop- Child Health,” Communication for Development ment Project, World Vision and Grandmother and Social Change, vol. 2, no. 1 (2008), pp. 7–30. Project, Velingara, Senegal; Bam Tare local radio sta- tion, Velingara, Senegal; author’s field notes during 12. Deepa Srikantaiah, “Education: Building on an intergenerational forum, SareFaremba village, Indigenous Knowledge,” IK Notes (World Bank), Velingara, Senegal. No. 85, 2005; Pat Pridmore and David Stephens, Children as Partners for Health: A Critical Review 22. Helen Gould, “Culture and Social Capital,” in of the Child-to-Child Approach (London: Zed Books, UNESCO, Recognising Culture (Paris: 2001), p. 69. 2000), p. 127; G. Mishra, “When Child Becomes a Teacher–The Child to Child Programme,” Indian From Agriculture to Permaculture Journal of Community Medicine, October-Decem- ber 2006, pp. 277–78. 1. Jacques Cauvin, The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of Agriculture (Cambridge, U.K.: Cam- 13. Description of many intergenerational pro- bridge University Press, 2000). grams in North America is found on the Web site

202 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

2. Ibid., pp. 51–61, and Jared Diamond, Guns, 5,524–29, from Michael Mason, “One for the Ages: Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New A Prescription That May Extend Life,” New York York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997); Steven Times, 31 October 2006, from Ricki J. Colman et Mithen, After the Ice: A Global Human History al., “Caloric Restriction Delays Disease Onset and 20,000–5,000 BC (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Mortality in Rhesus Monkeys,” Science, 10 July Ltd, 2003), p. 4. 2009, pp. 201–04, and from Roy B. Verdery and Roy L. Walford, “Changes in Plasma Lipids and 3. A. P. Sokolov et al., “Probabilistic Forecast for Lipoproteins in Humans During a 2-year Period of 21st Century Climate Based on Uncertainties in Dietary Restriction in Biosphere 2,” Archives of Emissions (Without Policy) and Climate Parame- Internal Medicine, 27 April 1998, pp. 900–06; ters,” American Meteorological Society’s Journal of ecological benefits from Erik Assadourian, “The Climate, 19 May 2009; Thomas R. Karl, Jerry M. Living Earth Ethical Principles: Right Diet and Melillo, and Thomas C. Peterson, eds., Global Cli- Renewing Rituals,” World Watch, November/ mate Change Impacts in the United States (Cam- December 2008, p. 32, from David Pimentel et al., bridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2009), “Reducing Energy Inputs in the US Food System,” p. 12; J. Schahczenski and H. Hill, Agriculture, Cli- Human Ecology, August 2008, from Akifumi Ogino mate Change and Carbon Sequestration (Fayet- et al., “Evaluating Environmental Impacts of the teville, AR: National Sustainable Agriculture Japanese Beef Cow-calf System by the Life Cycle Information Service, 2009), pp. 15, 104–05; Joseph Assessment Method,” Animal Science Journal, vol. Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies (Cam- 78, issue 4 (2007), pp. 424–32, and from Daniele bridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Fanelli, “Meat is Murder on the Environment,” Thomas Homer-Dixon, The Upside of Down: Cat- New Scientist, 18 July 2007. astrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2006). Box 5 from 4. Union of Concerned Scientists, Industrial the following: Patricia Gadsby, “The Inuit Para- Agriculture: Features and Policy (Cambridge, MA: dox,” Discover, 1 October 2004; Committee on 2007); D. Pimentel et al., “Impact of Population Food Marketing and the Diets of Children and Growth on Food Supplies and Environment,” Pop- Youth, Institute of Medicine, Food Marketing to ulation and Environment, September 1997, pp. Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity? (Wash- 9–14; A. Bouwman, Global Estimates of Gaseous ington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 2006), Emissions from Agricultural Land (Rome: FAO, p. 164; World Health Organization, “Obesity and 2002); C. W. Rice, “Introduction to Special Section Overweight,” Fact Sheet No. 311 (Geneva: Sep- on Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Sequestration in tember 2006); greenhouse gases from Henning Agriculture and Forestry,” Journal of Environ- Steinfeld et al., Livestock’s Long Shadow, Environ- mental Quality, vol. 35 (2006), pp. 1,338–40; U.S. mental Issues and Options (Rome: Food and Agri- Environmental Protection Agency, Global Anthro- culture Organization (FAO), 2006); meat pogenic Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: consumption from Brian Halweil, “Meat Produc- 1990–2020 (Washington, DC: 2006). tion Continues to Rise,” in Worldwatch Institute, Vital Signs 2009 (Washington, DC: 2009), pp. 5. Secretariat of the United Nations Conven- 15–17; long-lived cultures from John Robbins, tion to Combat Desertification, “SLM Techniques Healthy at 100 (New York: Random House, 2006), Related to Climate Change Mitigation/Adaptation p. 57; U.S. consumption from FAO, “Dietary and Desertification,” North American Biochar Con- Energy, Protein and Fat Database,” 7 August 2008, ference, 2009. at www.fao.org/economic/ess/food-security-sta tistics/en/, viewed 22 September 2009; Michael 6. F. H. King, Farmers of Forty Centuries: or Pollan, In Defense of Food: An Eater’s Manifesto Permanent Agriculture in China, Korea and Japan (New York: The Penguin Group, 2008); calorie (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 1990, originally pub- restriction from Joseph M. Dhahbi et al., “Temporal lished in 1911). Linkage Between the Phenotypic and Genomic Responses to Caloric Restriction,” Proceedings of the 7. D. C. Coleman, “Through a Ped Darkly: An National Academy of Sciences, 13 April 2004, pp. Ecological Assessment of Root-Soil-Microbial-Fau-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 203 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 nal Interactions,” in A. H. Fitter et al., eds., Eco- July 2003; T. X. Cox et al., “Prospects for Devel- logical Interactions in Soil (Cambridge, U.K.: Black- oping Perennial Grain Crops,” Bioscience, August well Scientific Publications, 1985), pp. 1–21; B. 2006, pp. 649–59. Anderson, “Soil Food Web—Opening the Lid of the Black Box,” The Permaculture Activist, 16. M. H. Bender, An Economic Comparison of fall 2006. Traditional and Conventional Agricultural Systems at a County Level (Salina, KS: The Land Institute, 8. J. Benyus, “Nature’s Designs,” TED Talk, 2000); J. Dewar, Perennial Polyculture Farming: February 2005; see also J. Benyus, Biomimicry: Seeds of Another Agricultural Revolution? (Santa Innovation Inspired by Nature (New York: William Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2007). Morrow, 1998). 17. Nesbitt from A. Bates, “Going Deep in 9. D. Pimentel, “Soil Erosion: A Food and Envi- Belize,” The Permaculture Activist, spring 2009; see ronmental Threat,” Environment, Development and also R. Nigh, “Trees, Fire And Farmers: Making Sustainability, February 2006, pp. 119–37; Philip Woods and Soil in The Maya Forest,” Journal Of H. Abelson, “A Potential Phosphate Crisis,” Science, Ethnobiology, fall/winter 2008. 26 March 1999, p. 2,015. 18. World Agroforestry Centre Communications 10. Francis Urban, “Energy, Agriculture, and the Unit, “Trees on Farms Key to Climate and Food Middle East Crisis,” World Agriculture, April 1991; Security,” press release (Nairobi: 24 July 2009); K. D. Pfeiffer, Eating Fossil Fuels: Oil, Food and the Trumper et al., Natural Fix? The Role of Ecosys- Coming Crisis in Agriculture (Gabriola Island, BC: tems in Climate Mitigation: A UNEP Rapid New Society Publishers, 2006). Response Assessment (Cambridge, U.K.: UNEP- WCMC, 2009). 11. For information on recalcitrant carbon, such as found in biochar or terra preta, see J. Lehmann 19. P. Bohlen and G. House, eds. Sustainable and S. Joseph, eds., Biochar for Environmental Agroecosystem Management: Integrating Ecology, Management: Science and Technology (London: Economics, and Society (Advances in Agroecology) Earthscan, 2009). (London: CRC Press, 2009); R. Hotinski, Stabi- lization Wedges: A Concept and Game; Carbon Mit- 12. P. Hepperly, Sequesters igation Initiative (Trenton, NJ: Princeton Atmospheric Carbon and Nutrients in Soils (Emmaus Environmental Institute, 2007). PA: Rodale Institute, 2003). 20. A. Lawson, “Never Let Paddocks Go Naked: 13. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Family’s ‘No Kill’ Pasture Cropping Plan,” Meat & “Existing Electric Generating Units in the United Livestock Australia: The Land, 24 July 2008. States, (2007),” at www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/ electricity/page/capacity/capacity.html; U.S. 21. S. W. Duiker and J. C. Myers, Better Soils with Department of Energy, “Carbon Dioxide Emis- the No-till System (Pennsylvania Conservation Part- sions from the Generation of Electric Power in the nership, 2002); Lawson, op. cit. note 20. United States (2000),” at www.eia.doe.gov/ cneaf/electricity/page/co2_report/co2report.html. 22. B. Mollison and D. Holmgren, Permaculture One: A Perennial Agriculture for Human Settle- 14. E. R. Ingham, D. C. Coleman, and J. C. ments (Tyalgum, NSW, Australia: Tagari Publica- Moore, “An Analysis of Food-web Structure and tions, 1978). Function in a Shortgrass Prairie, a Mountain Meadow, and a Lodgepole Pine Forest,” Biology and 23. D. A. Perry, “Bootstrapping in Ecosystems,” Fertility of Soils, July 1989, pp. 29–37. BioScience, April 1989, pp. 230–37; S. R. Gliessman, Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agri- 15. Robert Jensen, “Sustainability and Politics: culture (Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Press, 1998). An Interview with Wes Jackson,” Counterpunch, 10

204 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

24. For an overview of this project, see “Jordan tute of Health, at www.nih.gov/news/Wordon Valley Permaculture Project,” The Permaculture Health/jun2002/childhoodobesity.htm; positive Research Institute of Australia, at permaculture experiences from Sustainable Development Com- .org.au/project_profiles/middle_east/jordan_valley mission, “Outdoor Experiences,” at www.sd-com _permaculture_project.htm. mission.org.uk/breakthrough.php?breakthrough=22, viewed 6 August 2009, and from Kahn and Kellert, 25. Credits for sequestering carbon are discussed op. cit. this note; No Child Left Inside Coalition, in Lehmann and Joseph, op. cit. note 11. “About the No Child Left Inside Act,” at www.cbf.org/Page.aspx?pid=948; outdoor and Education’s New Assignment: Sustainability wilderness traditions from L. Cook, “The 1944 Education Act and Outdoor Education: From Pol- 1. UNESCO, “Educating for Sustainability,” at icy to Practice,” History of Education, vol. 28, no. portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=1216& 2 (1999), pp. 157–72, from B. Humberstone and URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201 K. Pedersen, “Gender, Class and Outdoor Traditions .html. in the UK and Norway,” Sport, Education and Society, March 2001, pp. 23–33, from P. Lynch, Early Childhood Education to Transform Camping in the Curriculum: A History of Outdoor Cultures for Sustainability Education in New Zealand Schools (Canterbury, New Zealand: PML Publications, 2006), and from 1. A. N. Meltzoff, A. M. Gopnik, and P. K. Kuhl, R. Ramsing, “Organized Camping: A Historical The Scientist in the Crib: Minds, Brains, and How Perspective,” Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clin- Children Learn (New York: William Morrow & ics of North America, October 2007, pp. 751–54. Company, Inc., 1999); J. P. Shonkoff and D. Phillips, eds., From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The 2. M. Woodhead, “Early Childhood and Pri- Science of Early Childhood Development (Washing- mary Education,” in M. Woodhead and P. Moss, ton, DC: National Academy Press, 2000); D. Baily eds., Early Childhood and Primary Education. Early et al., Critical Thinking About Critical Periods (Bal- Childhood in Focus 2: Transitions in the Lives of timore: Paul H. Brooks, 2001); Organisation for Young Children (Milton Keynes, U.K.: The Open Economic Co-operation and Development University, 2007); UNICEF, The Child Care Tran- (OECD), Starting Strong II: Early Childhood Edu- sition. A League Table of Early Childhood Education cation and Care (Paris: 2006). Box 6 is based on the and Care in Economically Advanced Countries (Flo- following: healthy and ecological development from rence: UNICEF Innicenti Research Centre, 2008); S. Clayton and S. Opotow, eds., Identity and the OECD, Starting Strong: Early Childhood Education Natural Environment: The Psychological Signifi- and Care (Paris: 2001); UNESCO, EFA Monitor- cance of Nature (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, ing Report 2009. Education For All (Oxford: Oxford 2003), from P. H. Kahn and S. R. Kellert, eds., Chil- University Press, 2008). dren and Nature: Psychological, Sociocultural, and Evolutionary Investigations (Cambridge, MA: The 3. International Workshop, “The Role of Early MIT Press, 2002), and from R. Louv, Last Child in Childhood Education for a Sustainable Society,” the Woods (updated ed.) (Chapel Hill, NC: Algo- Gothenburg, Sweden, 2–4 May 2007; Centre for nquin Books, 2008); U.S. youth outdoor partici- Environment and Sustainability, The Gothenburg pation rates from Outdoor Foundation, Outdoor Recommendations on Education for Sustainable Recreation Participation Report 2008 (Boulder, Development (Gothenburg, Sweden: Chalmers Uni- CO: 2008); negative health effects of sedentary versity of Technology and University of Gothen- activities from R. R. Pate, J. R. O’Neill and F. burg, 2008), p. 28. Lobelo, “The Evolving Definition of ‘sedentary’: Studies of Sedentary Behavior,” Exercise and Sport 4. I. Pramling Samuelsson and Y. Kaga, eds., Sciences Reviews, vol. 36, no.4 (2008), pp. 173–78, The Contribution of Early Childhood Education to and from C. Torgan, “Childhood Obesity on the Sustainable Society (Paris: UNESCO, 2008); the Rise,” Word on Health: Consumer Health Infor- list of 7Rs has been expanded from the 4Rs model mation Based on Research from the National Insti- proposed in L. Katz, “The Role of Early Childhood

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 205 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Education for a Sustainable Society,” prepared for 13. I. Engdahl and E. Ärlemalm-Hagsér, “Swedish International Workshop, Gothenburg, 2–4 May Preschool Children Show Interest and Are Involved 2007. in the Future of the World—Children’s Voices Must Influence Education for Sustainable Development,” 5. D. Sommer, I. Pramling Samuelsson, and K. in Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga, op. cit. note 4, Hundheide, Child Perspectives and Children’s Per- pp. 116–22; SOU, Jämställd Förskola—Om Bety- spectives in Theory and Practice (New York: Springer, delsen av Jämställdhet och Genus i Förskolans Peda- in press); Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga, op. cit. gogiska Arbetet (An Equal Preschool—About the note 4. Importance of Equality and Gender in Preschool Practice), Slutbetänkande från delegationen för 6. E. Johansson, Etiska Möten i Förskolebarns jämställdhet i förskolan (Stockholm: Fritzes, 2006), Världar (Ethical Encounters in Preschool Chil- p. 75. dren’s Worlds), Göteborg Studies in Educational Sci- ences 251 (Gothenburg, Sweden: University of 14. OECD, op. cit. note 1. Gothenburg, 2007). 15. T. Herbert, “Eco-intelligent Education for a 7. E. Johansson and I. Pramling Samuelsson, Sustainable Future Life,” in Pramling Samuelsson Lek och Läroplan. Möten Mellan Barn och Lärare i and Kaga, op. cit. note 4, pp. 63–67. Förskola och Skola (Play and Curricula. Encounters between Children and Teachers in Preschool and Commercialism in Children’s Lives School) (Gothenburg, Sweden: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, 2006); E. Johansson and I. Pram- 1. Portions of this article first appeared in Susan ling Samuelsson, “Play and Learning—An Inte- Linn, The Case for Make Believe: Saving Play in a grated Wholeness,” in R. New and M. Cochran, Commercialized World (New York: The New Press, eds., Early Childhood Education—An International 2006); World Health Organization (WHO), Diet, Early Childhood Encyclopedia, Vol. 4 (Westport, Nutrition, and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases CT: Praeger Publishers, 2007), pp. 1270–73; L. (Geneva: 2003); A. E. Becker et al., “Eating Behav- Katz and S. Chard, Engaging Children’s Minds: iors and Attitudes Following Prolonged Exposure to The Project Approach (Norwood, NJ: Ablex Pub- Television Among Ethnic Fijian Adolescent Girls,” lishing Corporation, 1989). British Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 180 (2002), pp. 509–14; American Psychological Association (APA), 8. A. Wals, TheEnd of ESD…The Beginning of Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (Washington, Transformative Learning—Emphasizing the E in DC: 2007), p. 3; American Academy of Pediatrics, ESD, presented at the Gothenburg Consultation on “Joint Statement on the Impact of Entertainment Sustainability in Higher Education, 2006, p. 45. Violence on Children,” Congressional Public Health Summit, 26 July 2000; M. Buijzen and P.M. Valken- 9. Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga, op. cit. note 4. burg, “The Effects of Television Advertising on Materialism, Parent–Child Conflict, and Unhappi- 10. Y. Kaga, “The Role of Early Childhood Edu- ness: A Review of Research,” Applied Developmen- cation in a Sustainable World,” in Pramling Samuels- tal Psychology, September 2003, pp. 437–56; U.S. son and Kaga, op. cit. note 4, pp. 9–18. Federal Trade Commission, Self-Regulation in the Alcohol Industry: A Review of Industry Efforts to 11. Pramling Samuelsson and Kaga, op. cit. note Avoid Promoting Alcohol to Underage Consumers 4; J. Davis, “What Might Education for Sustain- (Washington, DC: 1999), p. 4; National Cancer ability Look Like in Early Childhood? A Case for Institute, Changing Adolescent Smoking Prevalence, Participatory, Whole-of-Settings Approach,” in Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 14 ibid., pp. 18–25. (Washington, DC: November 2001.

12. O. Fujii and C. Izumi, “A Silkworm is a Fas- 2. Linn, op. cit. note 1. cinating Insect for Children,” in Pramling Samuels- son and Kaga, op. cit. note 4, pp. 87–93. 3. Office of the United Nations High Commis-

206 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes sioner for Human Rights, “Convention on the ture (New York: Scribner, 2004), p. 21; Roisin Rights of the Child: General Assembly Resolution Burke, “Food Giants Serve Up a €1.2bn Dish to 44/25,” 20 November 1989. Children,” The Sunday Independent (Ireland), 14 June 2009. Table 7 from the following: James T. 4. Donald Winnicott, Playing and Reality (New Areddy and Peter Sanders, “In China Children York: Basic Books, 1971); Linn, op. cit. note 1, pp. Learn English the Disney Way,” Wall Street Jour- 85–153; Angeline Lillard, “Pretend Play as Twin nal, 20 April 2009; Eric Bellman, “McDonald’s to Earth: A Social-cognitive Analysis,” Developmental Expand in India,” Wall Street Journal, 30 June Review, December 2001, pp. 495–531; Susan M. 2009; Anurag Sharma, “Cartoons—Animators Look Burns and Charles Brainerd, “Effects of Construc- at Licensing, Business Deals,” The Press Trust of tive and Dramatic Play on Perspective Taking in Very India Limited, 10 May 2009; MTV Networks, Young Children,” Developmental Psychology, Sep- Africa, “SpongeBob SquarePants Surfs into tember 1979, pp. 512–21; Dorothy Singer, “Team Namibia,” 24 June 2009. Building in the Classroom,” Early Childhood Today, April 2002, pp. 37–41; Shirley R. Wyver and Susan 8. Becker et al., op. cit. note 1; Israel from H. Spence, “Play and Divergent Problem Solving: Daphne Lemish, “The School as a Wrestling Arena: Evidence Supporting a Reciprocal Relationship,” The Modelling of a Television Series,” Communi- Early Education and Development, October 1999, cation, vol. 22, no. 4 (1997), pp. 395–418. pp. 419–44; Sandra Russ, Andrew L. Robins, and Beth A. Christiano, “Pretend Play: Longitudinal 9. Sam Schechner and Joseoph Pereira, “Hasbro Prediction of Creativity and Affect in Fantasy in and Discovery Form Children’s TV Network,” Children,” Creativity Research Journal, vol. 12, Wall Street Journal, 2 May 2009; Dorothy G. Singer no. 2 (1999), pp. 129–39; Elena Bodrova and Deb- et al., “Children’s Pastimes and Play in Sixteen orah Leong, “Self-Regulation as a Key to School Nations: Is Free-Play Declining?” American Jour- Readiness: How Early Childhood Teachers Can nal of Play, winter 2009, pp. 283–312. Promote this Critical Competency,” in Martha Zaslow and Ivelisse Martinez-Beck, eds., Critical 10. Capitalism from Allen Kanner, “Globalization Issues in Early Childhood Professional Development and the Commercialization of Childhood,” Tikkun, (Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing, 2006), September/October 2005, pp. 49–51; depression pp. 203–24. from Schor, op. cit. note 7; sustainable behavior from Tim Kasser, “Frugality, Generosity, and Mate- 5. U.S. pretend play time from Sandra Hofferth, rialism in Children and Adolescents,” in Kristin unpublished data from two Child Development Anderson Moore and Laura H. Lippman, eds., Supplements to the Michigan Panel Study of What Do Children Need to Flourish? Conceptualiz- Income Dynamics, 2006; Japan and France from ing and Measuring Indicators of Positive Develop- Lego Learning Institute, Time for Playful Learning? ment (New York: Springer, 2005), pp. 357–74. A Cross-cultural Study of Parental Values and Atti- tudes Toward Children’s Time for Play (Slough, 11. Leisure activity from Singer et al., op. cit. Berks, U.K.: 2002). note 9; 40 hours from Donald F. Roberts et al., Kids & Media @ the New Millennium (Menlo Park, 6. Jill Casner-Lotto and Linda Barrington, Are CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 1999), p. They Really Ready to Work? Employers’ Perspectives 78; babies from Victoria Rideout and Elizabeth on the Basic Knowledge and Applied Skills of New Hamel, The Media Family: Electronic Media in the Entrants to the 21st Century U.S. Workforce (New Lives of Infants, Toddlers, Preschoolers, and Their York: Conference Board, 2006). Parents (Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, May 2006), p. 18, and from Fred J. 7. Figure of $100 million from Bruce Horovitz, Zimmerman, Dmitri A. Christakis, and Andrew “Six Strategies Marketers Use to Make Kids Want N. Meltzoff, “Television and DVD/Video View- Things Bad,” USA Today, 22 November 2006; ing in Children Younger than 2 Years,” Archives of $17 billion from Juliet Schor, Born to Buy: The Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine, vol. 161, no. 5 Commercialized Child and the New Consumer Cul- (2007), pp. 473–79; Viet Nam and other countries

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 207 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 from Singer et al., op. cit. note 9. Rating from U.S. Green Building Council: LEED Platinum,” press release (San Francisco: 8 October 12. Less time in creative play from Elizabeth A. 2008); for more information on the Academy and Vandewater, David S. Bickham, and June H. Lee, its programs, see www.calacademy.org. “Time Well Spent? Relating Television Use to Chil- dren’s Free-Time Activities,” Pediatrics, February 17. Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood, 2006, pp. 181–91; some screen media encourage “TV Cultura Goes Commercial-Free,” News, Octo- play from Dorothy G. Singer and Jerome L. Singer, ber 2008. The House of Make-Believe: Play and the Developing Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University 18. American Academy of Pediatrics, “News Briefs,” Press, 1990), pp. 177–98; reading and radio from 3 October 2005; Brian L. Wilcox et al., Report of the M. M. Vibbert and L. K. Meringoff, Children’s APA Task Force on Advertising and Children (Wash- Production and Application of Story Imagery: A ington, DC: APA, 20 February 2004). Cross-medium Investigation (Cambridge, MA: Pro- ject Zero, Harvard University, 1981), and from 19. Christopher Morgan, “Archbishop Warns of Patti M. Valkenberg, “Television and the Child’s Dysfunctional ‘Infant Adults,’” Sunday Times (Lon- Developing Imagination,” in Dorothy G. Singer and don), 17 September 2006; Zoe Williams, The Com- Jerome L. Singer, eds., Handbook of Children and mercialisation of Childhood (London: Compass, the Media (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, December 2006). 2001), pp. 121–34; boon to certain learning from Daniel R. Anderson, “Educational Television Is 20. Green space from Mary Ann Kirkby, “Nature Not an Oxymoron,” Annals of the American Acad- as a Refuge in Children’s Environments,” Chil- emy of Political and Social Science, vol. 557, no. 1 dren’s Environments Quarterly, spring 1989, pp. (1998), pp. 24–38. 7–12; Children & Nature Network from Richard Louv, Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children 13. Box 7 based on Lucie K. Ozanne and Julie L. from Nature-Deficit Disorder (New York: Algo- Ozanne, “Parental Mediation of the Market’s Influ- nquin Publishing, 2005); No Child Left Inside Act ence on their Children: Toy Libraries as Safe and Netherlands from Cheryl Charles et al., Chil- Havens,” paper presented at The Academy of Mar- dren and Nature 2008: A Report on the Movement keting Conference, Leeds, U.K., 7–9 July 2009. to Reconnect Children to the Natural World (Santa Fe, NM: Children & Nature Network, January 14. Estimate of $6.2 billion from Anita Frazier, 2008), pp. 10, 38; Waldkindergärtens from Harry Toy Industry Analyst, NPD Group, New York, dis- de Quetteville, “Waldkindergärten: The Forest Nurs- cussion with author, 11 September 2009. eries Where Children Learn in Nature’s Classroom,” Daily Telegraph (London), 18 October 2008. 15. Quebec, Norway, Sweden, and Greece from Corinna Hawkes, Marketing Food to Children: The Rethinking School Food: Global Regulatory Environment (Geneva: WHO, The Power of the Public Plate 2004), p. 19; France from “Shows Aimed at Tod- dlers Banned,” The Independent (London), 21 1. K. Morgan and R. Sonnino, The School Food August 2008. Revolution: Public Food and the Challenge of Sus- tainable Development (London: Earthscan, 2008). 16. Box 8 based on the following: data on envi- ronmental benefits from Arup (consulting firm), 2. R. Sonnino, “Quality Food, Public Procure- “California Academy of Sciences,” at www.arup ment and Sustainable Development: The School .com/Projects/California_Academy_of_Sciences.aspx; Meal Revolution in Rome,” Environment and Plan- Rana Creek Living Architecture, “California Acad- ning A, vol. 41, no. 2 (2009), pp. 425–40. emy of Sciences, The Osher Living Roof,” at www.greenroofs.com/projects/pview.php?id=509; 3. Morgan and Sonnino, op. cit. note 1, pp. California Academy of Sciences, “New California 137–64, 177. Academy of Sciences Receives Highest Possible

208 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

4. K. Morgan, “Greening the Realm: Sustainable 14. Ibid. Food Chains and the Public Plate,” Regional Stud- ies, November 2008, pp. 1,237–50. 15. A. Dobson, Citizenship and the Environment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); J. Mead- 5. K. J. Morgan and R. Sonnino, “Empowering owcroft, “Who Is in Charge Here? Governance for Consumers: Creative Procurement and School Sustainable Development in a Complex World,” Meals in Italy and the UK,” International Journal Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, Sep- of Consumer Studies, vol. 31, no. 1 (2007), pp. tember 2007, pp. 299–314; L. B. DeLind, “Of 19–25. Bodies, Place, and Culture: Re-situating Local Food,” Journal of Agricultural and Environmental 6. S. Garnett, School Districts and Federal Pro- Ethics, April 2006, pp. 121–46. curement Regulations (Alexandria, VA: Food and Nutrition Service, U.S. Department of Agricul- 16. K. Morgan and R. Sonnino, “The Urban ture, 2007). Foodscape: World Cities and the New Food Equa- tion,” Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and 7. Jamie’s School Dinners, Channel 4, at Society, forthcoming; R. Sonnino, “Feeding the www.channel4.com/life/microsites/J/jamies_scho City: Towards a New Research and Planning ol_dinners; investment and reform description from Agenda,” International Planning Studies, forth- Scottish Executive, Hungry for Success: A Whole coming. School Approach to School Meals in Scotland (Edin- burgh: The Stationery Office, 2002). What Is Higher Education for Now?

8. R. Sonnino, “Escaping the Local Trap: Insights 1. “The Tbilisi Declaration—Intergovernmen- on Re-Localization from School Food Reform,” tal Conference on Environmental Education: Octo- Journal of Environmental Policy and Planning, ber 14–26, 1977,” at www.cnr.uidaho.edu/css487/ forthcoming. The_Tbilisi_Declaration.pdf.

9. R. Sonnino and K. Morgan, “Localizing the 2. Chet Bowers, Education, Cultural Myths, and Economy: The Untapped Potential of Green Pro- the Ecological Crisis (Albany: State University of curement,” in A. Cumbers and G. Whittam, eds., New York Press, 1993); Chet Bowers, Educating for Reclaiming the Economy: Alternatives to Market an Ecologically Sustainable Culture (Albany: State in Scotland and Beyond (Biggar, University of New York Press, 1995); Stephen Ster- U.K.: Scottish Left Review Press, 2007), pp. ling, Sustainable Education (Dartington, U.K.: 127–40. Green Books, 2001); John Huckle and Stephen Sterling, eds., Education for Sustainability (London: 10. R. Gourlay, “Sustainable School Meals: Local Earthscan, 1996); John Blewitt and Cedric Culling- and Organic Produce,” in V. Wheelock, ed., Healthy ford, eds., The Sustainability Curriculum (Lon- Eating in Schools: A Handbook of Practical Case don: Earthscan, 2004). Box 9 from the following: Studies (Skipton, U.K.: Verner Wheelock Associates, Herman Kahn, William Brown, and Leon Martel, 2007); C. Bowden, M. Holmes, and H. MacKen- The Next 200 Years (New York: William Morrow, zie, Evaluation of a Pilot Scheme to Encourage Local 1976), pp. 163–80; for a discussion of what is “nat- Suppliers to Supply Food to Schools (Edinburgh: Scot- ural,” see Lawrence Krieger, “What’s Wrong with tish Executive, Environment and Rural Affairs Divi- Plastic Trees,” Science, 2 February 1973. sion, 2006). 3. Box 10 from the following: Winnie Carruth, 11. Soil Association, Food for Life: Healthy, Local, Administration Manager, IUCN Academy of Envi- Organic School Meals (Bristol, U.K.: 2003). ronmental Law, e-mail to Stefanie Bowles, World- watch Institute, 16 September 2009; Elizabeth 12. Morgan and Sonnino, op. cit. note 1. Redden, “Green Revolution” Inside Higher Ed, 23 April 2009; Harvard Medical School Green Pro- 13. Sonnino, op. cit. note 2, p. 432. gram, at www.greencampus.harvard.edu/hms/

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 209 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 green-program; “‘Green’ Initiatives Move Medical 9. David W. Orr, “The Liberal Arts, the Campus, School toward Sustainability,” Medicine@Yale, Jan- and the Biosphere,” Harvard Educational Review, uary/February 2009, p. 7; Francesca Di Meglio, summer 1990; Sarah Hammond Creighton, Green- “MBA Programs Go Green,” Business Week, 19 ing the Ivory Tower (Cambridge, MA: The MIT January 2009; Presidio School of Management, at Press, 1998); Peggy Barlett and Geoffrey Chase, www.presidioedu.org; Bainbridge Graduate Insti- eds., Sustainability on Campus (Cambridge: The tute, at www.bgiedu.org; Aspen Institute Centre for MIT Press, 2004). Business Education, Beyond Grey Pinstripes 2007–2008: Preparing MBA’s for Social and Envi- 10. David W. Orr, Design on the Edge (Cambridge: ronmental Stewardship, at www.beyondgrey The MIT Press, 2006). pinstripes.org; “The MBA Oath: Responsible Value Creation,” at www.mbaoath.com; “Forswearing 11. For details of the four reports, see Intergov- Greed,” The Economist, 6 June 2009, pp. 66–68; ernmental Panel on Climate Change, at Anne VanderMey, “Harvard’s MBA Oath Goes www.ipcc.ch. Viral,” Business Week, 11 June 2009; Brenda Kiefer, “Magnify Your Impact,” Net Impact Media Kit 12. David W. Orr, “2020: A Proposal,” Conser- (San Francisco: Net Impact, 2009); Net Impact, vation Biology , April 2000, reprinted in the Chron- “Curriculum Change” and “Service Corps,” at icle of Higher Education, 2000; Ann Rappaport and www.netimpact.org. Sarah Creighton, Degrees that Matter (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2007); American College & 4. Peter Corcoran and Arjen Wals, Higher Edu- University Presidents’ Climate Commitment, at cation and the Challenge of Sustainability (Dor- www.presidentsclimatecommitment.org/signatories; drecht, Netherlands: Kluwer, 2004); Association Architecture2020.org, “Think You’re Making a Dif- of University Leaders for a Sustainable Future, ference? Think Again,” ad in The New Yorker. “Talloires Declaration,” at www.ulsf.org/programs _talloires.html. 13. Box 11 from the following: For the possibil- ities of collapse, see, for example, P. R. Ehrlich and 5. Karin E. Karlfeldt and Jennica M. Kjällstrand, A. H. Ehrlich, The Dominant Animal: Human “Campus Greening at Chalmers University of Tech- Evolution and the Environment (Washington, DC: nology,” prepared for Environmental Management Island Press, 2009); for evolution of norms and for Sustainable Universities Fifth International Con- cultures, see P. Ehrlich and S. Levin, “The Evolu- ference, Barcelona, 15–17 October 2008; D. Fer- tion of Norms,” Public Library of Science, June rer-Balas et al., “An International Comparative 2005, pp. 943–48, and D. Rogers and P. Ehrlich, Analysis of Sustainability Transformation across “Natural Selection and Cultural Rates of Change. Seven Universities,” International Journal of Sus- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 4 tainability in Higher Education, forthcoming; March 2008, pp. 3,416–20, and references therein; UNESCO chairs from Ariana Stahmer, UNESCO for more on the concept of the MAHB, see P. R. Division for Higher Education, e-mail to Erik Ehrlich and A. H. Ehrlich, One with Nineveh: Pol- Assadourian, 16 September 2009. itics, Consumption, and the Human Future (Wash- ington, DC: Island Press, 2004), pp. 282–85, and 6. Ferrer-Balas et al., op. cit. note 5. P. R. Ehrlich and D. Kennedy, “Millennium Assess- ment of Human Behavior: A Challenge to Scien- 7. National Wildlife Federation, Campus Envi- tists,” Science, 22 July 2005, pp. 562–63. ronmental Report 2008 (Washington, DC: 2008). 14. M. Rubio, C. Hidalgo, and P. Ysern, “Col- 8. April Smith, “In Our Backyard,” Master’s laboraton between Universities and Local Admin- Thesis in Urban Planning, University of Califor- istrations to Promote Sustainability through nia–Los Angeles, unpublished, 1989; Sam Pass- Greening Events: A Case Study,” Environment more, “A Study of Hendrix College Food System,” Office, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, pre- unpublished, 1989. pared for Environmental Management for Sustain- able Universities Fifth International Conference,

210 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

Barcelona, 15–17 October 2008; Judith Rodin, 3. Pew Campaign for Responsible Mining, “Wait- The University and Urban Revival: Out of the Ivory ing for Mining Reform,” www.pewminingreform Tower and Into the Streets (Philadelphia: University .org/137years.html, 6 May 2009. of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). 4. Herman E. Daly, “On Economics as a Life Sci- 15. Ronald Coleman, founder, Genuine Progress ence,” Journal of Political Economy, vol. 76 (1968), Indicator Atlantic, discussion with author, Decem- pp. 392–406; Robert Costanza and Herman E. ber 2008. Daly, “Natural Capital and Sustainable Develop- ment,” , March 1992, pp. Business and Economy: Management Priorities 37–46. Box 12 based on the following: “A Blueprint for Survival,” The Ecologist, January 1972; Jay For- 1. Paul Hawken, “Commencement Address to rester, World Dynamics (Cambridge, MA: Wright the Class of 2009,” University of Portland, Maine, Allen Press, 1970); World Wide Fund for Nature 3 May 2009. (WWF), Zoological Society of London, and Global Footprint Network, Living Planet Report 2006 2. Gross world product from International Mon- (Gland, Switzerland: WWF, 2006); John Stuart etary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, Mill, Principles of Political Economy, Vol. II (London: April 2009; transnational corporations from U.N. John W Parker, 1857); Kenneth Boulding, “Envi- Conference on Trade and Development, World ronment and Economics,” in William W. Murdoch, Investment Report 2008 (New York: 2008), pp. ed., Environment: Resources, Pollution & Society 26–30. (Stamford, CT: Sinauer Associates, 1971), pp. 359–67; Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins, and L. Adapting Institutions for Life in a Full World Hunter Lovins, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution (New York: Little, 1. This article is based in part on a longer version Brown and Company, 1999); 1958 car fleet from by Rachael Beddoe et al., “Overcoming Systemic American Automobile Manufacturers Association, Roadblocks to Sustainability: The Evolutionary World Motor Vehicle Data, 1998 edition (Washing- Redesign of Worldviews, Institutions and Tech- ton, DC: 1998); 2008 fleet from Michael Renner, nologies,” Proceedings of the National Academy of “Global Auto Industry in Crisis,” Vital Signs Online, Sciences, 24 February 2009, pp. 2,483–89. We Worldwatch Institute, 18 May 2009; Zoë Chafe, thank the co-authors of the longer version and two “Air Travel Reaches New Heights,” in Worldwatch anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on ear- Institute, Vital Signs 2007–2008 (New York: W. W. lier versions. Herman E. Daly and Joshua Farley, Norton & Company, 2007), pp. 70–71. Ecological Economics: Principles and Applications (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2005); Robert 5. John Talberth, Clifford Cobb, and Noah Slat- Costanza, “Stewardship for a ‘Full’ World,” Cur- tery, The Genuine Progress Indicator 2006: A Tool for rent History, vol. 107 (2008), pp. 30–35. Sustainable Development (Oakland, CA: Redefining Progress, 2007); Figure 3 from Redefining Progress 2. Thomas R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle Web site, www.rprogress.org. of Population (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford World’s Clas- sics reprint, 1999); Joseph A. Tainter, The Collapse 6. Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons from a of Complex Societies (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge New Science (New York: Penguin Press, 2005); University Press, 1988); Joseph A. Tainter, “Prob- Richard Easterlin, “Explaining Happiness,” Pro- lem Solving: Complexity, History, Sustainability,” ceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 4 Sep- Population and Environment, September 2000, pp. tember 2003, pp. 11,176–83. 3–41; Joseph A. Tainter, “Social Complexity and Sus- tainability,” Ecological Complexity, June 2006, pp. 7. Robert Costanza et al., “The Value of the 91–103; P. O’Sullivan, “The ‘Collapse’ of Civiliza- World’s Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital,” tions: What Palaeoenvironmental Reconstruction Nature, 15 May 1997, pp. 253–60. Cannot Tell Us, But Anthropology Can,” The Holocene, vol. 18, no. 1 (2008), pp. 45–55. 8. Figure of $2 trillion from Norman Myers and

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 211 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Jennifer Kent, The Citizen is Willing but Society Sustainable Work Schedules for All Won’t Deliver: The Problem of Institutional Road- blocks (Winnipeg, MB: International Institute for 1. Annual hours from Lawrence Mishel, Jared Sustainable Development, 2008); commons from Bernstein, and Heidi Shierholz, The State of Work- Peter Barnes, Capitalism 3.0 (San Francisco: Berrett- ing America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, Koehler Publishers, Inc., 2006); Peter G. Brown, 2009), Table 3.2; employment to population ratio The Commonwealth of Life: New Environmental from Council of Economic Advisers, Economic Economics—A Treatise on Stewardship (Montreal: Report of the President (Washington, DC: Govern- Black Rose Books, 2007); Peter R. Barnes et al., ment Printing Office, 2009), pp. 326–27. “Creating an Earth Atmospheric Trust,” Science, 8 February 2008, p. 724; Herman Daly, Ecological 2. Decline of 600 hours from Angus Maddi- Economics and Sustainable Development, Selected son, “Growth and Slowdown in Advanced Capi- Essays of Herman Daly (Northampton, MA: Edward talist Economies: Techniques of Quantitative Elgar, 2007). Assessment,” Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 25, no. 2 (1987), pp. 649–98; A. Maddison, The 9. Robert Costanza et al., Beyond GDP: The Need World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: for New Measures of Progress, The Pardee Papers No. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and 4 (Boston: The Frederick S. Pardee Center for the Development, 2001); 400 hours reduction calcu- Study of the Longer-Range Future, Boston Uni- lated from Conference Board, Groningen Total versity, 2009). Economy Data Base 2008, at www.conference -board.org/economics/database.cfm, viewed 15 10. Steve Bernow et al., “Ecological Tax Reform,” March 2009. BioScience, vol. 48 (1998), pp. 193–96. 3. Figure 4 from Conference Board, op. cit. 11. Harvey Weiss and Raymond S. Bradley, note 2. “What Drives Societal Collapse?” Science, 26 Jan- uary 2001, pp. 609–10; Robert Boyd and Peter J. 4. David Rosnick and Mark Weisbrot, Are Shorter Richerson, The Origin and Evolution of Cultures Work Hours Good for the Environment? A Com- (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Tain- parison of U.S. and European Energy Consumption, ter, “Problem Solving: Complexity, History, Sus- Working Paper (Washington, DC: Center for Eco- tainability,” op. cit. note 2; Tainter, “Social nomic and Policy Research, 2006). Complexity and Sustainability,” op. cit. note 2; Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to 5. Ibid. Fail or Succeed (New York: Viking, 2005); Robert Costanza, Lisa J. Graumlich, and Will L. Steffen, 6. Juliet B. Schor, Plenitude: The New Econom- eds., Sustainability or Collapse? An Integrated His- ics of True Wealth (New York: The Penguin Press, tory and Future of People on Earth (Cambridge, forthcoming), Chapter 4. MA: The MIT Press, 2007). 7. Benjamin Hunnicutt, Work Without End 12. Tainter, The Collapse of Complex Societies, op. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); cit. note 2. Juliet B. Schor, The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure (New York: Basic 13. Peter Barnes, Who Owns the Sky? Our Common Books, 1992); Gary Cross, Of Time and Money Assets and the Future of Capitalism (Washington, (London: Routledge, 1993). DC: Island Press, 2003). 8. Schor, op. cit. note 6; Christopher Nyland, 14. Aaron Smith, The Internet’s Role in Cam- Reduced Working Time and the Management of paign 2008 (Washington, DC: Pew Internet & Production (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univer- American Life Project, April 2009). sity Press, 1991).

9. Juliet B. Schor, The Overspent American (New

212 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

York: Basic Books, 1997), Chapter 4. A 2004 poll Changing Business Cultures from Within found that 48 percent of a national sample of adults said that within the last five years they had made 1. Paul Hawken, Blessed Unrest (New York: Pen- lifestyle changes that entailed earning less money; guin Group, 2007); Paul H. Ray and Sherry Ruth Center for a New American Dream, More of What Anderson, The Cultural Creatives (New York: Three Matters Poll, 2005, at newdream.org/about/ Rivers Press, 2000); Mary Jo Hatch and Majken polls.php. Schultz, “Dynamics of Organizational Identity,” Human Relations, vol. 55, no. 8 (2002), pp. 10. Center for a New American Dream, op. cit. 989–1,018; Pasquale Gagliardi, “The Creation of note 9. Change of Organizational Cultures: A Conceptual Framework,” Organizational Studies, January 1986, 11. Elizabeth D. Elmerm, Jeffrey R. Cohen, and pp. 117–34; Edgar H. Schein, “Coming to New Louise E. Single, “Is it the Kids or the Schedule? Awareness of Organizational Culture,” Sloan Man- The Incremental Effect of Families and Flexible agement Review, 1985; Jean M. Bartunek and Scheduling on Perceived Career Success,” Journal Michael K. Mock, “First-Order, Second-Order, and of Business Ethics, vol. 54, no. 1 (2004), pp. 51–65. Third-Order Change and Organizational Devel- opment Interventions: A Cognitive Approach,” 12. Average time worked in 2007 (33.9 hours) Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, December from “Employment and Earnings, Average Weekly 1987, pp. 483–500; Terry E. Deal and Allan A. Hours, Establishment Data, by Major Industry Sec- Kennedy, Corporate Culture (Reading, PA: Addison- tor, 1964 to Date,” at ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/ Wesley, 1982). suppl/empsit.ceseeb2.txt; time worked in July 2009 (33.1 hours) from Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Eco- 2. Lovins quoted in Carl Fussman, “The Ener- nomic News Release,” 7 August 2009, at www.bls gizer,” Discover, February 2006. .gov/news.release/empsit.t15.htm. 3. Romona A. Amodeo, “Becoming Sustainable 13. Hewitt survey from “Survey Highlights: Cost at Interface: A Study of Identity Dynamics Within Reduction & Engagement Survey, 2009,” at Transformational Culture Change,” unpublished www.hewittassociates.com/_MetaBasicCMAssetCac doctoral dissertation, Benedictine University, 2005; he_/Assets/Articles/2009/ Hewitt_Survey_Highlig Romona A. Amodeo, “Interface Inc.’s Journey to hts_Cost_Reduction_and_Engagement_042009 Sustainability,” in Peter Docherty, Jan Forslin, and .pdf; Towers Perrin survey from: “Cross Cutting A. B. Shani, eds., Creating Sustainable Work Systems, Strategies in the Downturn—A Balancing Act,” at 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2008); Mona Amodeo www.towersperrin.com/.../2009/200906/cost and C. K. Cox, “Systemic Sustainability: Moving -cutting_strategies_pulse-svy_6-5-09.pdf; Jim Ideas to Action,” in William Rothwell, Roland Sul- McNett, “High-tech Companies Use Furloughs to livan, and J. Stravos, eds., Practicing Organization Weather Recession,” The Oregonian, 14 March Development, 3rd ed. (San Francisco: Josey Bass, 2009. 2009); Romona A. Amodeo and Jim Hartzfeld, “The Next Ascent Using Appreciative Inquiry to 14. Utah experience from Bryan Walsh, “The Support Interface’s Continuing Sustainability Jour- Four Day Workweek is Winning Fans,” Time, 7 ney,” AI Practitioner, August 2008, pp. 6–13. September 2009. 4. Amodeo and Cox, op. cit. note 3. 15. Atlanta and California examples from Shaila Dewan, “A Slowdown that May Slow Us Down,” 5. A deeper survey of Interface’s “EcoMetrics” New York Times, 1 March 2009; Office of the Pres- can be found at Interface, Inc., “Metrics: What ident, “Furlough Program Begins across UC,” press Gets Measured Gets Managed,” at www.interface release (Oakland, CA: University of California, 9 global.com/Media-Center/Ecometrics.aspx. March 2009). 6. Globescan, “Companies and Governments Lag NGOs in Driving Sustainability but New Corporate

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Leaders Emerging, According to Experts,” press 15. InterfaceRAISE Web site, at www.interfaceraise release (London: 22 July 2009); Amodeo, “Becom- .com. ing Sustainable at Interface,” op. cit. note 3. 16. Box 13 from the following: “B Corporations,” 7. Nike from David Vogel, The Market for at www.bcorporation.net; Richard Stengel, “For Virtue (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution American Consumers, a Responsibility Revolution,” Press, 2005), pp. 77–82; Electrolux from Samuel Time Magazine, 10 September 2009; World Bank, O. Idowu and Walter Leal Filho, Global Practices World Development Indicators 2008 (Washington, of Corporate Social Responsibility (New York: DC: 2008); Hannah Clark, “A New Kind of Com- Springer, 2009); Tachi Kiuchi and William Shire- pany,” Inc., 1 July 2007. man, What We Learned in the Rainforest: Business Lessons from Nature (San Francisco: Berrett- Social Entrepreneurs: Koehler, 2002). Innovating Toward Sustainability

8. Paul Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce (New 1. Office of the Press Secretary, The White York: Harper Business, 1993); KB Home, KB Home House, “President Obama to Request $50 Million Sustainability Report (Los Angeles: July 2008). to Identify and Expand Effective, Innovative Non- Profits,” press release (Washington, DC: 5 May 9. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., “Lee Scott’s 21st Cen- 2009). tury Leadership Speech” (Bentonville, AR: 24 Octo- ber 2005). 2. J. Defourny and M. Nyssens, eds., Social Enterprise in Europe: Recent Trends and Develop- 10. Marvin Ross Weisbord and Sandra Janoff, ments, Working Paper 08/01 (Liège, Belgium: Future Search (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, EMES European Research Network, 2008); infor- 1995); Peter M. Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art mation on La Fageda from Schwab Foundation and Practice of the Learning Organization (New profile, at www.schwabfound.org, viewed 16 July York: Doubleday Currency, 1990); quote from 2009; information on community interest compa- Amodeo and Cox, op. cit. note 3, p. 413. nies from Social Enterprise Coalition (UK), at www.socialenterprise.org.uk. 11. Vogel, op. cit. note 7. 3. Celia W. Dugger, “Peace Prize to Pioneer of 12. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., “Wal-Mart CEO Leads Loans to Poor No Bank Would Touch,” New York Quarterly Sustainability Network Meeting,” press Times, 14 October 2006; information on Grameen release (Bentonville, AR: 12 July 2006); Amanda Bank available at www.grameen-info.org. Little, “Al Gore Takes His Green Message to Wal- Mart Headquarters,” Grist Magazine, 19 July 2006. 4. C. Borzaga, G. Galera, and R. Nogales, eds., Social Enterprise: A New Model for Poverty Reduc- 13. Bradley K. Googins, Philip H. Mirvis, and tion and Employment Generation (Bratislava, Slovak Steven A. Rochlin, Beyond Good Company: Next Republic: UNDP Regional Bureau for Europe and Generation Corporate Citizenship (New York: Pal- the CIS, 2008); Office of the Third Sector–Cabinet grave Macmillan, 2007); Paul Kielstra, Doing Good: Office, Social Enterprise Action Plan: Scaling New Business and the Sustainability Challenge (London: Heights (London: U.K. Government, 2006); R. Economist Intelligence Unit, 2008). Harding, GEM UK: Social Entrepreneurs Specialist Summary (London: Global Entrepreneurship Mon- 14. Walmart Stores, Inc., “Walmart Associates itor, 2006); Y. Inoue, D. Hirose, and M. Nakayama, Develop Personal Sustainability Projects,” fact sheet Framework for Venture Philanthropy Country Mar- (Bentonville, AK: 1 September 2009); Wal-Mart ket Studies: Japan Briefing Study (Asia Venture Phil- Stores, Inc., “Wal-Mart Announces Initial Results anthropy Network, 2009). of Packaging Scorecard,” press release (Bentonville, AR: 12 March 2007). 5. Origin of the phrase from P. Light, “Social Entrepreneurship Revisited,” Stanford Social Inno-

214 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes vation Review, summer 2009, pp. 21–22; informa- viewed 7 August 2009; Robert Kropp, “S&P Adds tion on Ashoka at www.ashoka.org, on the Schwab Carbon Index to Its Family of Environmental Foundation at www.schwabfound.org, and on the Indices,” SocialFunds.com, 16 March 2009; STOXX Skoll Foundation at www.skollfoundation.org. Indexes, at www.stoxx.com/index.html, viewed 8 August 2009; U.S. Environmental Protection 6. Information on Global Giving at www Agency, “Greenhouse Gas Reporting Rule,” at .globalgiving.com; U.S. examples of venture phil- www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/ghgrulema anthropy organizations include the Acumen Fund, king.html, viewed 9 August 2009; BM& Good Capital, and Social Investment Forum, while FBOVESPA, at www.bmfbovespa.com.br; Eduardo European ones include Triodos Bank, Bonventure, Athayde, “Principio do Preservador-Pagador,” O and LGT Venture Philanthropy. Estado de São Paulo (Brazil), 4 June 2009.

7. J. Mair and S. Seelos, The Sekem Initiative, 11. Transfair USA, at www.transfairusa.org; Rug- IESE Case Study DG-1466-E (Barcelona: IESE mark, at www.rugmark.org/home.php. Business School, 2004); Sekem Web site, at www.sekem.com/english/default.aspx; I. Abouleish 12. For information on El Poder de Consumidor and H. Abouleish, “Garden in the Desert: Sekem and Interrupcion, see Alejandro Cavillo Unna and Makes Comprehensive Sustainable Development a Diego Carvajal profiles, at www.ashoka.org/fellows; Reality in Egypt,” Innovations, summer 2008. Box for the Akatu Institute for Conscious Consumption, 14 based on William McDonough and Michael see Mattar Helio profile, at www.schwabfound Braungart, Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We .org/sf/SocialEntrepreneurs/Profiles/index.htm; Make Things (New York: North Point Press, 2002). for Polish organizations addressing the problems caused by mass consumption, see Zdzislaw Nitak, 8. J. Mair and J. Mitchell, Waste Concern, IESE Jacek Schindler, and Ewa Smuk Stratenwerth pro- Case Study DG-1502-E (Barcelona: IESE Busi- files, at www.ashoka.org/fellows. ness School, 2006); Waste Concern’s impact from the Dhaka Case Study at the 2007 C40 Large Cities 13. O. Sulla, “Philanthropic Foundations and Climate Summit, New York, at www.nycclimate Multilateral Aid Institutions like the World Bank: summit.com/casestudies_waste.html, viewed 15 Increased Opportunities for Collaboration in ACP July 2009. Agriculture,” presented at 6th Brussels Development Briefing, Brussels, 2 July 2008; M. Jarvis and J. 9. J. Mair and J. Shortall, PDA (Barcelona: IESE Goldberg, Business and Philanthropy: The Blurring Business School, in press). of Boundaries, Business and Development Discus- sion Paper No. 09 (Washington, DC: World Bank 10. J. Mair and C. Seelos, “The Sekem Initiative: Institute, fall 2008). A Holistic Vision to Develop People,” in F. Perrini, ed., New Social Entrepreneurship: What Awaits Relocalizing Business Social Entrepreneurship Ventures? (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 2006), pp. 210–23; Waste 1. Natural Resources Defense Council, at Concern as best practice for Clean Development smartercities.nrdc.org/rankings/small; Sustainable Mechanism projects from UNESCAP, Economic Connections, at www.sustainableconnections.org. and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific, 2008, at www.unescap.org/survey2008/download/index 2. Applied Research Northwest survey from New .asp. Box 15 based on the following: World Feder- Rules Project, “Study Finds More People Shop- ation of Exchanges, “The World Federation of ping Locally Thanks to ‘Think Local First’,” 3 Exchanges,” at www.world-exchanges.org/about December 2006, at www.newrules.org; Michelle -wfe, viewed 7 August 2009; Bank for Interna- Long, executive director, Sustainable Connections, tional Settlements, “Statistical Annex,” in BIS Quar- e-mail to author, 14 August 2009. terly Review (Basel, Switzerland: December 2008); Standard & Poor’s, “S&P U.S. Carbon Efficient 3. Numbers of communities affiliated with U.S. Index,” fact sheet, at www2.standardandpoors.com, business alliances available at Web sites of BALLE

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 215 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

(www.livingeconomies.org), AMIBA (www.amiba Impact Analysis: A Case Study (Austin, TX: Decem- .net), and the Post-Carbon Institute (www ber 2002). .postcarbon.org); Michael Brownlee, U.S. director, Transition Towns, e-mail to author, 8 August 2009. 14. For other studies on this point, see Institute for Local Self-Reliance, The Economic Impact of 4. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of Locally Owned Businesses vs. Chains: A Case Study in the United States: 2009 (Washington, DC: U.S. Midcoast Maine (Minneapolis, MN: September Government Printing Office, 2009), Table 738, p. 2003); David Morris, The New City-States (Wash- 493. ington, DC: Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 1982), p. 6; Christopher Gunn and Hazel Dayton Gunn, 5. Sustainability definition from World Com- Reclaiming Capital: Democratic Initiatives and mission on Environment and Development, Our Community Control (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univer- Common Future (Oxford: Oxford University Press, sity Press, 1991); Gbenga Ajilore, “Toledo-Lucas 1987), p. 8. County Merchant Study,” Urban Affairs Center, Toledo, OH, 21 June 2004; and Justin Sachs, The 6. Pete Hurrey, “Chicken Poop a Real Concern Money Trail (London: New Economics Foundation, for Chesapeake Bay Waters,” 24 April 2009, at 2002), whose multiplier methodology has been www.thebaynet.com/news/index.cfm/fa/viewSto used in dozens of small U.K. communities ry/story_ID/12976. 15. Richard Florida, The Rise of the Creative Class 7. Stacy Mitchell, “Will Wal-Mart Eat Britain,” (New York: Basic Books, 2002). speech to the New Economics Foundation, 25 May 2005. 16. Stewart Smith, e-mail to author, 2 December 2005, updating Stewart Smith, “Sustainable Agri- 8. National Federation of Independent Business, culture and Public Policy,” Maine Policy Review, “Charitable Contributions Comparison,” January April 1993, pp. 68–78. 2003. 17. See Michael H. Shuman, The Small-Mart Rev- 9. See, for example, Annelies Van Hauwermeiren olution: How Local Businesses Are Beating the Global et al., “Energy Lifecycle Inputs in Food Systems: A Competition (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2006), Comparison of Local versus Mainstream Cases,” pp. 65–67. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, March 2007, pp. 31–51. 18. Descriptions of these tools can be found in Shuman, op. cit. note 17, and in Stacy Mitchell, The 10. James McWilliams, “Food That Travels Well,” Big Box Swindle: The True Cost of Mega Retailers New York Times, 6 August 2007; for a critique, see and the Fight for America’s Independent Businesses Michael H. Shuman, “On the Lamb,” The Ethicu- (Boston: Beacon Press, 2006). rian, 10 August 2007. 19. Sustainable Business Network of Greater 11. Oklahoma Food Coop, at www.oklahoma Philadelphia, at www.sbnphiladelphia.org; Tucson food.coop; David Shapero, managing director, Originals, at www.tucsonoriginals.com. Future Energy Pty. Ltd., “Going Local” Workshop, Melbourne, Australia, 24 June 2009. 20. Calculated from Australian Bureau of Statistics, “Counts of Australian Businesses, Including Entries 12. Sherri Buri McDonald and Christian Wihtol, and Exits,” Report 8165, 14 December 2007. “Small Businesses: The Success Story,” The Regis- ter-Guard (Eugene, OR), 10 August 2003; Michael 21. Lisa Lerer, “Chamber Under Fire on Warm- H. Shuman, “Go Local and Prosper,” Eugene ing,” The Politico, 5 May 2009, p. 1. Weekly, 8 January 2004. 22. See, for example, the unsuccessful initiative in 13. Austin study in Civic Economics, Economic Austin, Texas, to eliminate all city “economic devel-

216 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes opment” subsidies for chain and other nonlocal from the following: signatory countries committed stores; Leigh McIlvaine, “State and Local Ballot Ini- to the 10-year framework at www.un.org/esa/ tiative Round-Up, 7 November 2007, at sustdev/documents/WSSD_POI_PD/English/ www.clawback.org/2008/11/07/state-and-local WSSD_PlanImpl.pdf; U.N. Department of Eco- -ballot-initiative-round-up. nomic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) and U.N. Environment Programme (UNEP), Proposed Input Government’s Role in Design to CSD 18 and 19 on a 10 Year Framework of Pro- grammes on Sustainable Consumption and Produc- 1. Rwanda Environment Management Author- tion (10YFP on SCP): Third Public Draft (2 ity, “FAQs,” at www.rema.gov.rw/index.php?option September 2009), at esa.un.org/marrakechpro =com_content&view=article&id=93&Itemid=41&l cess/pdf/Draft3_10yfpniputtoCSD2Sep09.pdf; ang=en; Karen Ann Gajewski, “Nations Set Goals overview of the work of the Marrakech Task Force to Phase Out the Use and Sale of Incandescent on Sustainable Lifestyles, at www.unep.fr/scp/mar Light Bulbs,” The Humanist, July-August 2007, p. rakech/taskforces/lifestyles.htm; UNDESA/UNEP, 48; Gwladys Fouché, “Sweden’s Carbon-Tax Solu- Marrakech Task Force on Cooperation with Africa, tion to Climate Change Puts It Top of the Green at esa.un.org/marrakechprocess/tfcooperationafrica List,” Guardian (London), 29 April 2008; Jim Bai .shtml; UNDESA/UNEP, Marrakech Task Force and Leonora Walet, “China Offers Big Solar Sub- on Sustainable Public Procurement, at esa.un.org/ sidy, Shares Up,” Reuters, 21 July 2009. marrakechprocess/tfsuspubproc.shtml; Interna- tional Task Force on Sustainable Products, at 2. Sam Perlo-Freeman, “Military Expenditure,” www.itfsp.org; Marrakech Task Force on Sustainable in Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Tourism, Green Passport Program, at www.unep SIPRI Yearbook 2009. Armaments, Disarmament .fr/greenpassport; UNEP, Sowing the Seeds of and International Security (Oxford: Oxford Uni- Change: An Environmental and Sustainable Tourism versity Press, 2009), p. 179. Teaching Pack for the Hospitality Industry (Nairobi: 2008); Task Force on Sustainable Tourism Devel- Editing Out Unsustainable Behavior opment, at www.veilleinfotourisme.fr/taskforce, Marrakech Task Force on Sustainable Buildings 1. Karen Ann Gajewski, “Nations Set Goals to and Construction, at www.environment.fi/default Phase Out the Use and Sale of Incandescent Light .asp?contentid=328751&lan=EN, Marrakech Task Bulbs,” The Humanist, July-August 2007, p. 48; Force on Education for Sustainable Consumption, Alexander Jung, “Getting Around the EU Ban: at esa.un.org/marrakechprocess/tfedususconsump Germans Hoarding Traditional Light Bulbs,” .shtml; UNESCO Associated Schools Network, at Seigel Online International, 27 July 2009. portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID= 7366&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION 2. Lester R. Brown, “Ban the Bulb: Worldwide =201.html. Shift from Incandescents to Compact Fluorescents Could Close 270 Coal-Fired Power Plants,” Earth 4. Marla Cone, “Barbecue Ruling Adopted to Policy Update (Washington, DC: Earth Policy Insti- Take a Bite Out of Smog,” Los Angeles Times, 6 tute, 9 May 2007); Jung, op. cit. note 1; Warna October 1990; Bob Pool, “Fanning the Flames,” Los Oosterbaan, “Good Light Bulbs are Hard on the Angeles Times, 10 March 1991; shift from leaded to Eyes,” NRC Handelsblad, 19 January 2009; “The unleaded petrol from Sustainable Consumption Rise of the Light Bulb Fascist,” 27 July 2009, at Roundtable, op. cit. note 3, and from U.S. Envi- freestudents.blogspot.com/2009/07/rise-of-light ronmental Protection Agency, “EPA Takes Final -bulb-fascist.html; “Liberal Fascism,” TheAmeri- Step in Phaseout of Leaded Gasoline,” press release canScene.com, 6 February 2008. (Washington, DC: 29 January 1996); Frank Con- very, Simon McDonnell, and Susana Ferreira, “The 3. Sustainable Consumption Roundtable, Look- Most Popular Tax in Europe? Lessons from the ing Back, Looking Forward: Lessons in Choice Edit- Irish Plastic Bags Levy,” Environmental and ing for Sustainability (London: Sustainable Resource Economics, September 2007, pp. 1–12; Development Commission, May 2006). Box 16 Leo Hickman, “Should You Have the Choice to

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 217 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Choose?” Guardian (London), 7 September 2007. ihal and T. S. Reddy, “Assessment of the Impact of Improvement Measures on Air Quality: Case Study 5. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The of Delhi,” Journal of Transportation Engineering, Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America June 2006. (New York: Vintage Books, 2004), p. 7; David St. Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New 14. Home Depot “Wood Purchasing Policy,” at York: Praeger, 1986); Jim Klein and Martha Olson, corporate.homedepot.com/wps/portal/Wood_ Taken for a Ride (videorecording) (Hohokus, NJ: Purchasing. New Day Films, 1996). 15. Knight quote from Michael Jenkins and Emily 6. Sustainable Consumption Roundtable, op. Smith, The Business of Sustainable Forestry (Wash- cit. note 3, p. 2. ington DC: Island Press, 1999), p. 75.

7. James Maxwell and Sanford Weiner, “Green 16. “Wal-Mart Stores Inc., Introduces New Label Consciousness or Dollar Diplomacy?” Interna- to Distinguish Sustainable Seafood,” press release tional Environmental Affairs, winter 1993, p. 36. (Bentonville, AK: 31 August 2006).

8. Lang quote from Leo Hickman, “Does the 17. “Hannaford Supermarkets to License Guiding Consumer Really Know Best?” Guardian (Lon- Stars,” press release (Portland, ME: 29 November don), 25 October 2007; Paul Hawken, The Ecology 2007); Dan Goleman, “Look to the Future, Not the of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability (New Past,” Greenbiz.com, 17 June 2009; Andrew Mar- York: HarperBusiness, 1994). tin, “Store Chain’s Test Concludes That Nutrition Sells,” New York Times, 6 September 2007. 9. Ralph Horne, “Limits to Labels: The Role of Eco-Labels in the Assessment of Product Sustain- 18. “Hannaford Supermarkets,” op. cit. note 17. ability and Routes to Sustainable Consumption,” International Journal of Consumer Studies, March 19. Thomas Princen, “Consumer Sovereignty, 2009; Isabelle Szmigin, Marylyn Carrigan, and Heroic Sacrifice: Two Insidious Concepts in an Morven G. McEachern, “The Conscious Con- Endlessly Expansionist Economy,” in Michael Mani- sumer: Taking a Flexible Approach to Ethical Behav- ates and John M. Meyer, eds., The Environmental iour,” International Journal of Consumer Studies, Politics of Sacrifice (Cambridge, Mass: The MIT March 2009. Press, forthcoming).

10. Marion Nestle, What to Eat: An Aisle-by-Aisle 20. Maike Bunse et al., Top Runner Approach Guide to Savvy Food Choices and Good Eating (New (Wuppertal, Germany: UNEP–Wuppertal Institute York: North Point Press, 2007); Sustainable Con- Collaborating Center on Sustainable Consumption sumption Roundtable, op. cit. note 3, p. 3. and Production, September 2007); Joakim Nordqvist, “The Top Runner Policy Concept: Pass 11. For sustainability initiatives in higher education it Down?” Proceedings of the European Council for in the United States, see Association for the an Energy Efficient Economy (ECEEE) 2007 Sum- Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education, mer Study (Stockholm: 2007), pp. 1209–14; Ben at www.aashe.org. Block, “Wal-Mart Scrutinizes Supply-Chain Sus- tainability,” Eye on Earth (Worldwatch Institute), 20 12. “Renewable & Alternative Energy Portfolio July 2009. Standards,” Pew Center on Global Climate Change, at www.pewclimate.org/what_s_being_done/in 21. See John de Graaf, “Reducing Work Time as _the_states/rps.cfm. a Path to Sustainability” in this volume; see also Anders Hayden, Sharing the Work, Sparing the 13. Todd Litman, London Congestion Pricing: Planet (Ontario, Canada: Zed Books, 1999). Implications for Other Cities (Victoria, BC: Victo- ria Transport Policy Institute, 2004); Santosh A. Jal- 22. Robert H. Frank, “Just What This Downturn

218 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

Demands: A Consumption Tax,” New York Times, Human Tide: The Real Migration Crisis (London: 8 November 2008; Robert H. Frank, Luxury Fever May 2007), p. 5; 2050 projections from Interna- (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999). tional Organization for Migration, “Migration, Cli- mate Change, and the Environment,” IOM Policy 23. Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein, Nudge: Brief (Geneva: May 2009), p. 1; unrest in host Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and areas from Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Happiness (New York: Penguin, 2008). Zusammenarbeit, Climate Change and Security. Challenges for German Development Cooperation Broadening the Understanding of Security (Eschborn, Germany: April 2008), p. 23, and from WBGU, op. cit. note 3, pp. 124–25. 1. Daniel Deudney, “Forging Missiles into Space- ships,” World Policy Journal, spring 1985, p. 273. 7. Human Security Network, at www.human securitynetwork.org/network-e.php; Institute for 2. Michael Klare, Rising Powers, Shrinking Environmental Security, Inventory of Environment Planet: The New Geopolitics of Energy (New York: and Security Policies and Practices (The Hague, Macmillan, 2008). October 2006); United Nations Security Council, “Security Council Holds First-ever Debate on 3. Water scarcity from Wissenschaftlicher Beirat Impact of Climate Change on Peace, Security, Hear- Globale Umweltveränderungen der Bun- ing over 50 Speakers,” press release (New York: desregierung (WBGU, German Advisory Council 17 April 2007). for Global Change), Climate Change as a Security Risk (London: Earthscan, 2008), pp. 64–65; food 8. See, for instance, CNA Corporation, National security study from Ian Sample, “Billions Face Food Security and the Threat of Climate Change (Alexan- Shortages, Study Warns,” Guardian (London), 9 dria, VA: 2007); John M. Broder, “Climate Change January 2009. Seen as Threat to U.S. Security,” New York Times, 9 August 2009. 4. Disaster trends from Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Université 9. Sam Perlo-Freeman, “Military Expenditure,” Catholique de Louvain, Belgium, “EM-DAT Emer- in Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, gency Events Database,” at www.emdat.be/ SIPRI Yearbook 2009. Armaments, Disarmament Database/AdvanceSearch/advsearch.php, viewed and International Security (Oxford: Oxford Uni- 7 August 2009; cases of unrest and conflict from versity Press, 2009), p. 179; Organisation for WBGU, op. cit. note 3, pp. 31–33, and from Economic Co-operation and Development, “Inter- Michael Renner and Zoë Chafe, Beyond Disasters: national Development Statistics,” online database, Creating Opportunities for Peace (Washington, DC: at www.oecd.org/dac/stats/idsonline, viewed 14 Worldwatch Institute, 2007). August 2009.

5. International Labour Organization, Global 10. U.S. military and climate budget ratio from Employment Trends Update, May 2009, at Miriam Pemberton, Military vs. Climate Security. www.ilo.org/public/libdoc/ilo/P/09332/09332 Mapping the Shift from the Bush Years to the Obama (2009-May).pdf. Era (Washington, DC: Institute for Policy Studies, July 2009); nuclear weapons and renewable 6. Refugees and internally displaced from U.N. energy/energy efficiency budget from U.S. Depart- High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 2008 ment of Energy, FY 2010 Congressional Budget Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum-seekers, Returnees, Request. Budget Highlights (Washington, DC: May Internally-Displaced and Stateless Persons (Geneva: 2009), pp. 24, 63; Germany from Presse- und June 2009), p. 3; disaster-uprooted people from Informationsamt der Bundesregierung (Press and UNHCR, 2007 Global Trends: Refugees, Asylum- Information Office of the German Federal Gov- seekers, Returnees, Internally-Displaced and Stateless ernment), “Bundesregierung beschließt Energie- Persons (Geneva: June 2009), p. 2; number dis- und Klimaprogramm,” press release (: 5 placed by development projects from Christian Aid, December 2007), and from Bundesfinanzminis-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 219 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 terium, “Bundeshaushaltsplan 2008,” at www.bun Environmental Cooperation,” in Worldwatch Insti- desfinanzministerium.de/bundeshaushalt2008/ tute, State of the World 2005 (New York: W. W. html/vsp2i-e.html; Japan from Shigeru Sato and Norton & Company, 2005), pp. 144–57. Yuji Okada, “Japan Plans 27% Increase in Budget to Cut Emissions,” Bloomberg, 27 August 2009; 16. Aaron T. Wolf et al., “Managing Water Con- Ministry of Finance Japan, “Budget,” at www.mof flict and Cooperation,” in Worldwatch Institute, op. .go.jp/english/budget/budget.htm. cit. note 15, pp. 80–95.

11. Funds for climate mitigation and adaptation 17. Saleem H. Ali, ed., Peace Parks. Conservation based on the following: Gareth Porter et al., New and Conflict Resolution (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Finance for Climate Change and the Environment Press, 2007). (Washington, DC: WWF and Heinrich Böll Stiftung, July 2008), pp. 24–25; U.N. Framework Conven- 18. United Nations News Centre, “Blue Helmets tion on Climate Change, Investment and Financial Planting Trees in Bid to ‘Green’ Planet,” press Flows to Address Climate Change (: 2007); release (New York: 22 July 2009); Nathanial Manish Bapna and Heather McGray, Financing Gronewold, “Environmental Demands Grow for Adaptation: Opportunities for Innovation and Exper- U.N. Peacekeeping Troops,” New York Times, 11 imentation (Washington, DC: World Resources August 2009. Institute, 2008); and World Bank, “Climate Invest- ment Funds (CIF),” at www.worldbank.org/cif. 19. U.N. Environment Programme (UNEP), U.S. military aid from Pemberton, op. cit. note “Disasters and Conflicts,” at www.unep.org/ 10, p. 26. Arms transfers to developing countries conflictsanddisasters/Home/tabid/146/language/ from Richard F. Grimmett, Conventional Arms en-US/Default.aspx. Transfers to Developing Nations, 2000–2007, CRS Report (Washington, DC: Congressional Research 20. Renner and Chafe, op. cit. note 4. Service, October 2008), p. 45. 21. Ibid. 12. U.N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division, “Millennium Develop- 22. Thomas Novotny and Vincanne Adams, ment Goals: 2009 Progress Chart,” at mdgs.un Global Health Diplomacy, Global Health Sciences .org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Static/Products/Prog Working Paper (La Jolla, CA: Institute on Global ress2009/MDG_Report_2009_Progress_Chart_En Conflict and Cooperation, University of California, .pdf. 16 January 2007); “Global Health Diplomacy,” Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation, Uni- 13. International Renewable Energy Agency, at versity of California, at igcc.ucsd.edu/research/ www.irena.org/foundingcon.htm; Ottmar Eden- globalhealth/index.php. hofer and Lord Nicholas Stern, Towards a Green Recovery: Recommendations for Immediate G20 23. Margaret Blunden, “South-South Develop- Action (Berlin and London: Institute for ment Cooperation: Cuba’s Health Programmes In Climate Impacts Research and Grantham Research Africa,” The International Journal of Cuban Stud- Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, ies, June 2008; C. William Keck, “Cuba’s Contri- April 2009), pp. 37–38. bution to Global Health Diplomacy,” Global Health Diplomacy Workshop, Institute on Global Con- 14. For examples of transparency initiatives, see the flict and Cooperation, University of California, 12 Kimberley Process, at www.kimberleyprocess.com, March 2007. the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, at eitransparency.org, and Forest Law Enforcement, 24. Group, A Green New Deal Governance and Trade Regulation, at ec.europa (London: New Economics Foundation, July 2008); .eu/environment/forests/flegt.htm. UNEP, Global Green New Deal: Policy Brief (Nairobi: March 2009); Maikel R. Lieuw-Kie- 15. Ken Conca et al., “Building Peace Through Song, Green Jobs for the Poor: A Public Employ-

220 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes ment Approach, Poverty Reduction Discussion 10. See R. Salzman, “TravelSmart: A Marketing Paper (New York: U.N. Development Programme, Program Empowers Citizens to be a Part of the April 2009). Solution in Improving the Environment,” Mass Transit: Sustainability Concepts, April 2008, pp. Building the Cities of the Future 8–11; R. Salzman, “Now That’s What I Call Intel- ligent Transport…SmartTravel,” Thinking High- 1. J. Scheurer and P. Newman, “Vauban: A Euro- ways, March 2008, pp. 51–58. pean Model Bridging the Brown and Green Agen- das,” case study prepared for UN Habitat, Global 11. Department of Transport, Government of Report on Human Settlements 2009 (Nairobi: 2009); Western Australia, “Publication and Maps,” at City of Hanover, Hannover-Kronsberg: Model of a www.dpi.wa.gov.au/travelsmart; R. Salzman and Sustainable Community (Hanover, Germany: 1998); P. Newman, Kicking the Car Habit (New York:

City of Hanover, CO2 Audit 1991–2001 (Hanover, New Society Press, forthcoming). Germany: 2003). 12. C. Ashton-Graham, TravelSmart + TOD = 2. P. Newman and I. Jennings, Cities as Sus- Sustainability and Synergy, Transit-Oriented Devel- tainable Ecosystems (Washington DC: Island Press, opment Conference Fremantle, at: www.trans 2008). port.wa.gov.au/mediaFils/ts_tod.pdf.

3. P. Newman, T. Beatley, and H. Boyer, Resilient 13. I. Ker, North Brisbane Household TravelSmart: Cities: Responding to Peak Oil and Climate Change Peer Review and Evaluation, for Brisbane City (Washington DC: Island Press, 2009). Council, Queensland Transport, and Australian Greenhouse Office (Brisbane, Australia: February 4. WWF, Zoological Society of London, and 2008). Global Footprint Network, Living Planet Report 2008 (Gland, Switzerland: WWF, 2008), p. 32. 14. Socialdata Australia, TravelSmart Household Final Evaluation Report Murdoch Station Catch- 5. Jan Scheurer, “Urban Ecology,” PhD Thesis, ment (City of Melville 2007), Department of Trans- Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy, port (forthcoming); see www.transport.wa.gov.au/ Murdoch University, 2002. travelsmart; Public Transport Authority, Western Australian Government. 6. P. Newman and J. Kenworthy, Sustainability and Cities (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999). 15. Department of Transport, Government of Western Australia, “Living Smart: Acting on Climate 7. Perth data from Public Transport Authority of Change,” at www.dpi.wa.gov.au/livingsmart. Western Australian Government; Copenhagen data from P. Newman and J. Kenworthy, “Greening 16. C. Ashton-Graham, Garnaut Climate Change Urban Transportation,” in Worldwatch Institute, Review: TravelSmart and LivingSmart Case Study— State of the World 2007 (New York: W. W. Norton Western Australia, at www.garnautreview.org & Company, 2007), p. 81. .au/CA25734E0016A131/WebObj/Casestudy -TravelSmartandLivingSmart-WesternAustralia/ 8. Center for Transit-Oriented Development, $File/Case%20study%20-%20TravelSmart%20and Hidden in Plain Sight: Capturing the Demand for %20LivingSmart%20-%20Western%20Australia.pdf; Housing Near Transit (Oakland, CA: 2004). Socialdata Australia, LivingSmart Delivery Report, Department of Transport (forthcoming), see 9. G. P. Metschies, Prices and Vehicle Taxation www.transport.wa.gov.au/livingsmart. (Germany: Deutsche Geslleschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH, 2001); R. Porter, Eco- 17. Synovate, LivingSmart Quality Survey, Depart- nomics at the Wheel: The Costs of Cars and Drivers ment of Transport (forthcoming), see www.trans (London: Academic Press, 1999). port.wa.gov.au/livingsmart.

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18. Cascadia Green Building Council, “The Liv- ments from A. S. Relman, “The New Medical- ing Building Challenge,” at ilbi.org/stuff/lbc-web Industrial Complex,” New England Journal of Med- -brochure.pdf. icine, 23 October 1980, pp. 963–70; ranking from WHO, World Health Report 2000 (Geneva: 2000); Reinventing Health Care: infant mortality from UNICEF, “Childinfo: Mon- From Panacea to Hygeia itoring the Situation of Children and Women,” at www.childinfo.org; P. Starr, The Social Transfor- 1. Theoi Greek Mythology, at www.theoi.com. mation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982); S. J. Olshansky et al., “A Potential 2. A. Behbehani, “The Smallpox Story: Life and Decline in Life Expectancy in the United States in Death of an Old Disease,” Microbiological Reviews, the 21st Century,” New England Journal of Medi- December 1983, pp. 455–509; World Health Orga- cine, 17 March 2005, pp. 1,138–45; M. Ezzati et al., nization (WHO), “Poliomyelitis,” fact sheet, at “The Reversal of Fortunes: Trends in County Mor- www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs114/en/in tality and Cross County Mortality Disparities in the dex.html; life expectancy from T. McKeown, Ori- United States,” PLoS Medicine, April 2008. Table 9 gins of Human Disease (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, from WHO, Statistical Information System Database, 1988), p. 76. at www.who.int/whosis.en, viewed 25 September 2009, and ranking from WHO, World Health Report 3. Food, Inc., documentary distributed by Mag- 2000, op. cit. this note. All data are from 2006, nolia and directed by Robert Kenner, 2009; D. except healthy active life expectancy from 2003. Kessler, The End of Overeating (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, 2009); C. Newman, “The Heavy Cost of 8. Kenneth J. Arrow, “Uncertainty and the Wel- Fat,” National Geographic, August 2004, pp. 48–61. fare Economics of Medical Care,” American Eco- nomic Review, December 1963, pp. 941–69. 4. “Years of life lost” takes into account the age at which deaths occur by giving greater weight to 9. J. M. McGinnis and W. H. Foege, “Actual deaths occurring at younger ages and lower weight Causes of Death,” Journal of the American Medical to deaths occurring at older ages; WHO, World Association, November 1993, pp. 2,207–12. Box 17 Health Report 2002, Statistical Annex #2 (Geneva: from the following: Organisation for Economic 2002), Table 16; Ali H. Mokdad et al., “Actual Co-operation and Development (OECD), “OECD Causes of Death in the United States, 2000,” Jour- Stat Extracts,” at stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?da nal of the American Medical Association, 10 March tasetcode=SOCX_AGG; Gosta Esping-Anderson, 2004, pp. 1,238–45. “After the Welfare State,” Public Welfare, winter 1983, p. 28; Francesco di Iacovo, “Social Farming: 5. John P. Holdren, “Science and Technology for Dealing with Communities Rebuilding Local Econ- Sustainable Well Being,” Science, 25 January 2008, omy,” presentation at Rural Futures Conference, pp. 424–34; A. M. Prentice and S. A. Jebb, “Obe- University of Plymouth, U.K., 1–4 April 2008; sity in Britain: Gluttony or Sloth?” British Medical Laurene Mainguy, “Cell Block Green,” EJ Maga- Journal, 12 August 1995, pp. 437–39. zine, spring 2008, pp. 20–21; Nilsen Arne Kvern- vik, Bastøy Prison warden, discussion with Erik 6. H. J. Aaron and W. B. Schwartz, eds., Coping Assadourian, 3 November 2008; Kathy Lindert, with Methuselah (Washington, DC: Brookings Insti- “Brazil: Bolsa Familia Program—Scaling-up Cash tution Press, 2004). Transfers for the Poor,” in Managing for Develop- ment Results, Principles in Action: Sourcebook of 7. WHO, World Health Report 2005 (Geneva: Emerging Good Practices, 3rd ed. (Paris: OECD, 2005), Annex #6: Selected National Healthcare 2008), pp. 67–74; Gustavo Nigenda and Luz María Indicators: Measured Levels of Expenditures on González-Robledo, Lessons Offered by Latin Amer- Health 1996–2002; Uwe E. Reinhardt, Peter S. ican Cash Transfer Programmes, Mexico’s Oportu- Hussey, and Gerard E. Anderson, “American Health- nidades and Nicaragua’s SPN: Implications for care Spending in an International Context,” Health Africa (London: DFID Health Systems Resource Affairs, vol. 23, no. 3 (2004), pp. 10–25; high pay- Centre, 2005).

222 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

10. P. Puska et al., “Cardiovascular Risk Factor 4. Christopher D. Stone, “Should Trees Have Changes in a Three Year Followup of a Cohort in Standing? Towards Legal Rights for Natural Connection with a Community Program (the North Objects,” Southern California Law Review, vol. 45 Karelia Project),” Acta Medica Scandinavica, vol. (1972), p. 450. 204 (1976), pp. 381–88. 5. Godofredo Stutzin, “Nature’s Rights,” Resur- 11. WHO, World Health Report 2008 (Geneva: gence, January-February 2002, pp. 24–26. 2008); WHO, “The French Country Doctor: Car- ing for the Sick Through the Centuries,” WHO Bul- 6. Thomas Berry, The Great Work: Our Way Into letin, October 2008, pp. 743–44. the Future (New York: Bell Tower, 1999), p. 161.

12. Medical Education Cooperation with Cuba, 7. Cullinan, op. cit. note 3; Mike Bell, “Thomas Salud!, documentary, 2006. Berry and an Earth Jurisprudence: An Exploratory Essay,” The Trumpeter, vol. 19, no. 1 (2003). 13. WHO, World Health Report 2002 (Geneva: 2002), pp. 188, 224–27. 8. For further information regarding the ongo- ing development of Earth jurisprudence, see the 14. Health Care Without Harm, at www.noharm online community wildfrontiers.ning.com. .org, viewed 16 September 2009. 9. The ecosystem approach is described in Deci- 15. Remarks of Governor Christine Todd Whit- sion V/6 of the Fifth Meeting of the Conference man, Administrator of the U.S. Environmental of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Protection Agency, at the Department of Veterans Diversity. Affairs, Washington, D.C., 14 May 2003, at yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/a162fa4bfc0f 10. Ben Price, CELDF director, discussion with d2ef8525701a004f20d7/361ee2b093512fe88525 author, 25 August 2009. 701a0052e4c0!OpenDocument; Susan Germain, “The Ecological Footprint of Lions Gate Hospi- 11. For information on the Democracy School, tal,” Hospital Quarterly, winter 2001/2002, pp. see www.celdf.org/DemocracySchool/tabid/60/ 61–66. Default.aspx.

16. Health Care Without Harm, op. cit. note 14; 12. Price, op. cit. note 10. Trevor Hancock, Doing Less Harm: Assessing and Reducing the Environmental and Health Impact 13. Ibid. of Canada’s Health Care System (Canadian Coali- tion for Green Health Care, 2001). 14. Act 24 of 2008, see www.info.gov.za/view/ DynamicAction?pageid=623&myID=183965. Earth Jurisprucence: From Colonization to Participation 15. For information on the Center for Earth Jurisprudence, see www.earthjuris.org; for infor- 1. Address to the Rights of Nature Conference, mation on the activities of UK Environmental Law 24–26 November 2008, Quito, Ecuador, orga- Association, see www.ukela.org. nized by the Fundación Pachamama; see pachamama.org.ec. 16. Mellese Damtie, unpublished paper presented at Earth Jurisprudence Course at Schumacher Col- 2. For information on the Community Envi- lege, Devon, U.K., October 2009. ronmental Defense Fund, see www.celdf.org. 17. “Speech of President Morales before the UN 3. Cormac Cullinan, Wild Law: A Manifesto for General Assembly on April 22nd, International Earth Justice (Dartington, U.K.: Green Books, Mother Earth Day,” at www.boliviaun.org/cms/ 2003). ?cat=7&paged=2.

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 223 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

18. For information on Navdanya, see ulation: An Analysis of Market Failure,” The Bell www.navdanya/earthdcracy/index.htm; for a syn- Journal of Economics, spring 1981, pp. 27–48; Apple opsis of this approach, see , “Paradigm from Juliann Sivulka, Soap, Sex, and Cigarettes: A Shift: Earth Democracy. Rebuilding True Security Cultural History of American Advertising (Flo- in an Age of Insecurity,” Resurgence, September/ rence, KY: Wadsworth Publishing, 1997), pp. October 2002. 353–56, and from Jeremy Reimer, “Total Share: 30 Years of Personal Computer Market Share Figures,” 19. “Community Ecological Governance Global at arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/12/total Alliance,” Gaia Foundation, at www.gaiafoundation -share.ars; “The Story of Stuff International,” at .org/areas/community.php. www.storyofstuff.com/international; Suemedha Sood, “Weighing the Impact of ‘Super Size Me’,” Media: Broadcasting Sustainability Wiretapmag.org, 29 June 2004.

1. Rosario G. Gómez, “El Fin de la Publicidad 3. Joseph Campbell, The Hero With a Thousand en TVE Revoluciona el Sector Audiovisual,” El Faces (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, Pais, 9 May 2009; Rosario G. Gómez, “TVE dará 1973). Salida Hasta Fin de Año a sus Contratos Publici- tarios,” El Pais, 30 July 2009. 4. Ibid.

2. Chris Jordan, “Running the Numbers II: Por- 5. Joseph Campbell with Bill Moyers, The Power traits of Global Mass Culture,” at www.chrisjordan of Myth (New York: Anchor Books, 1988), p. 48. .com/current_set2.php?id=9 6. “How Can Entertainment-Education Influ- From Selling Soap to Selling Sustainability: ence Behavior?” in INFO Reports: Entertainment- Social Marketing Education for Better Health (The INFO Project, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public 1. Andrea Fuhrel-Forbis, P. Gayle Nadorff, and Health), February 2008. Leslie Snyder, “Analysis of Public Service Announce- ments on National Television, 2001–2006,” Social 7. INFO Reports, op. cit. note 6. Marketing Quarterly, March 2009, pp. 49–69; Robert Coen, “Insider’s Report: Advertising Expen- 8. Based on a survey of the climate “landing ditures,” paper presented by Universal McCann, pages” on the Web sites of Environmental Defense December 2008, p. 2. Fund, Greenpeace, National Audubon Society, Nat- ural Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club, The 2. Table 10 from the following: ICMR Center for Nature Conservancy, World Resources Institute, Management Research, “The Marlboro Story,” at and World Wildlife Fund; Simon Retallack, www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Market “Ankelohe and Beyond: Communicating Climate ing/The%20Marlboro%20Story.htm; Beetle from Change,” opendemocracy.net, 17 May 2006. Brian Akre, “VW Beetle Led the First U.S. Import Invasion,” Associated Press, 6 August 1997, and 9. Edward Maibach, Connie Roser-Renouf, and from Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool: Business Anthony Leiserowitz, Global Warming’s Six Amer- Culture, , and the Rise of Hip Con- icas 2009: An Audience Segmentation Analysis (New sumerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Haven, CT, and Fairfax, VA: Yale Project on Climate 1998), pp. 59–73; seatbelt use from Ad Council, Change and George Mason University Center for “Safety Belt Education (1985–Present),” at Climate Change Communication, May 2009). www.adcouncil.org/default.aspx?id=138, from N. Russell, P. Dreyfuss, and M. Cosgrove, “Legislative 10. Geller cited in D. McKenzie-Mohr and W. History of Recent Primary Safety Belt Laws,” Smith, Fostering Sustainable Behavior: An Intro- National Highway Traffic and Safety Administra- duction to Community-Based Social Marketing tion (Washington, DC: January 1999), and from R. (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, J. Arnould and H. Grabowski, “Auto Safety Reg- 1999), p. 9.

224 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes

11. McKibben quoted in Elizabeth Kolbert, “Pro- 4. Alliance for a Media Literate America, What files: The Catastrophist,” New Yorker, 29 June is Media Literacy? AMLA’s Short Answer and a 2009, p. 39. Longer Thought (Center for Media Literacy Read- ing Room, 2001); Action Coalition for Media Edu- 12. “Understanding 350,” at www.350.org/under cation, About ACME, at www.acmecoalition.org/ standing-350. about_acme; Bill Yousman, “Media Literacy: Cre- ating Better Citizens or Better Consumers?” in 13. Robert Scoble, “What is Social Media?” 16 Andersen and Gray, op. cit. note 2, pp. 238–47. February 2007, at www.scobleizer.com/02/16/ what-is-social-media. 5. Yousman, op. cit. note 4, p. 244.

14. Lee Rainie et al., The Strength of Internet Ties 6. Ibid., p. 238. (Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2006); “Facebook Statistics,” at www 7. Abdul Waheed Khan, “Foreword: UNESCO,” .facebook.com/press/info.php?statistics#/press/ in UN-Alliance of Civilizations in cooperation with info.php?statistics. Grupo Comunicar, Mapping Media Education Poli- cies in the World: Visions, Programmes and Challenges 15. Rainie et al., op. cit. note 14. (New York and Huelva, Spain: 2009), p. 9. Table 11 is based on the following: Argentina from Rox- 16. “Global Advertising: Consumers Trust Real ana Morduchowicz, “When Media Education is Friends and Virtual Strangers the Most,” blog, State Policy,” in UN-Alliance of Civilizations in Nielsen Wire, 7 July 2009. cooperation with Grupo Comunicar, op. cit. this note, pp. 177–87; Australian Communications and 17. “TV Gala Helps Raise 1.5 bln Yuan for Earth- Media Authority, The ACMA Digital Media Liter- quake-hit Areas,” China.com, 19 May 2008. acy Research Program, at www.acma.gov.au/ WEB/STANDARD/pc=PC_311472; Austria from 18. “Protests Worldwide Call for End to Iranian Maria Koller, Astrid Haider, and Elke Dall, Case Rights Abuses,” USA Today, 26 July 2009. Studies of Conditions and Success Criteria in Media Literacy Education (Vienna: Centre for Social Inno- 19. Rainie et al., op. cit. note 14. vation); Carolyn Wilson and Barry Duncan, “Imple- menting Mandates in Media Education: the Ontario 20. “350 Home Page,” at www.350.org. Experience,” in UN-Alliance of Civilizations in cooperation with Grupo Comunicar, op. cit. this Media Literacy, Citizenship, and Sustainability note, pp. 127–40; Finland from Sirkku Kotilainen, “Promoting Youth Civic Participation with Media 1. Terry Richardson/Marcel Paris, “Diesel Global Production: The Case of Youth Voice Editorial Warming Ready,” 2007, advertisment. Board,” in UN-Alliance of Civilizations in cooper- ation with Grupo Comunicar, op. cit. this note, pp. 2. Diane Farsetta, “Video News Releases: A Hid- 243–56; France from Centre for Liaison between den Epidemic of Fake TV News,” in Robin Ander- Teaching and Information Media, “The CLEMI at sen and Jonathan Gray, eds., Battleground: The Media a Glance,” at www.clemi.org/fr/anglais; C. K. Che- (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2008), pp. 542–49. ung, “Education Reform as an Agent of Change: The Development of Media Literacy in Hong Kong 3. Jim Hansen, “The Threat to the Planet,” New During the Last Decade,” in UN-Alliance of Civi- York Review of Books, 13 July 2006; Jules Boykoff lizations in cooperation with Grupo Comunicar, op. and Maxwell Boykoff, “Journalistic Balance as cit. this note, pp. 95–109; Alexander Fedorov, Global Warming Bias,” EXTRA! November/ “Media Education in Russia: A Brief History,” in December 2004; , “The Denial Marcus Leaning, ed., Issues in Information and Industry,” (London) Guardian, 19 September Media Literacy: Criticism, History and Policy (Santa 2006. Rosa, CA: Informing Science Press, 2009), pp. 167–88; Hyeon-Seon Jeong et al., “History, Pol-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 225 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 icy and Practices of Media Education in South 16. David Gauntlett, Video Critical: Children, the Korea,” in UN-Alliance of Civilizations in cooper- Environment and Media Power (Bedfordshire, U.K.: ation with Grupo Comunicar, op. cit. this note, pp. University of Luton Press, 2005). 111–25; Sweden from Nordicom, “The Interna- tional Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and 17. Ibid.; DeeDee Halleck, Handheld Visions: The Media,” at www.nordicom.gu.se/clearinghouse Impossible Possibilities of Community Media (New .php; Turkey from E. Nezih Orhon, “Media Edu- York: Fordham University Press, 2002). cation in Turkey: Toward a Multi-Stakeholder Framework,” in UN-Alliance of Civilizations in Music: Using Education and cooperation with Grupo Comunicar, op. cit. this Entertainment to Motivate Change note, pp. 211–24; United Kingdom from Office of Communications, at www.ofcom.org.uk. 1. Peter Marler and Hans Willem Slabbekoorn, Nature’s Music: The Science of Birdsong (San Diego, 8. UNESCO from Khan, op. cit. note 7, pp. 9–10. CA: Elsevier Academic Press, 2004), p. 386.

9. Divina Frau-Meigs and Jordi Torrent, “Media 2. Neil Edmunds, Soviet Music and Society under Education Policy: Toward a Global Rationale,” in Lenin and Stalin: The Baton and Sickle (London: UN-Alliance of Civilizations in cooperation with Routledge, 2004), p. 182; Ron Eyerman and Grupo Comunicar, op. cit. note 7, pp. 15–21. Andrew Jamison, Music and Social Movements: Mobilizing Traditions in the Twentieth Century 10. Costas Criticos, “Media Education for a Crit- (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, ical Citizenry in South Africa,” in Robert Kubey, ed., 1998), p. 3. Media Literacy in the Information Age (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2001), pp. 229–40. 3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Administrator Lisa P. Jackson, Remarks to the 11. Fackson Banda, “Exploring Media Education National Association of Black Journalists, as Pre- as Civic Praxis in Africa,” in UN-Alliance of Civi- pared,” 7 August 2009. lizations in cooperation with Grupo Comunicar, op. cit. note 7, pp. 225–42. 4. Box 20 from the following: Home from www.home-2009.com; earnings of An Inconvenient 12. Ibid., p. 235. Truth (2006) from Box Office Mojo, at www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=inconvenientt 13. International Telecommunication Union’s ruth.htm; The Age of Stupid (2009) from World Telecommunication Development Report www.ageofstupid.net. Box 21 from the following: database, as cited in World Bank, World Development Beuys cited in Ken Hopper and William Hopper, The Indicators Database 2008 (Washington, DC: April Puritan Gift: Triumph, Collapse and Revival of an 2008). American Dream (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2007), p. 141; Coomaraswamy cited in David 14. Roxana Morduchowicz, “When Media Edu- Nicholls, The Cambridge Companion to John Cage cation is State Policy,” in UN-Alliance of Civiliza- (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, tions in cooperation with Grupo Comunicar, op. cit. 2002), p. 46; William Morris, Hopes and Fears for note 7, pp. 177–87; India Resource Center, Cam- Art (Boston: Robert’s Brothers, 1882), pp. 71–113. paign to Hold Coca-Cola Accountable, at www.indiaresource.org/campaigns/coke; Frau- 5. Frances H. Rauscher, Gordon L. Shaw, and Meigs and Torrent, op. cit. note 9, p. 19. Katherine N. Ky, “Music and Spatial Task Perfor- mance,” Nature, 14 October 1993, p. 611; Anne 15. Robin Blake, “An International Model for Mitchell and Judy David, eds., Explorations with Media Literacy,” International Media Literacy Young Children: A Curriculum Guide from Bank Research Forum (London), 15 May 2008; DeeDee Street College of Education (Beltsville, MD: Gryphon Halleck, Waves of Change Blog, at www.deepdish House, 1992), p. 218; Shinichi Suzuki: His Speeches wavesofchange.blogspot.com. and Essays (Princeton, NJ: Suzuki Method Inter-

226 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes national, 1993); Albert L. Blackwell, The Sacred in 15. Ojai Music Festival, “Ojai Music Festival Goes Music (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Greener,” Shuman Associates News, 30 April 2008; Press, 1999), p. 170. Sarah Van Schagen, “Dave Matthews Band Offers Free Music Downloads for Eco-pledges,” Grist 6. Ecogainder at www.kids-station.com/mini Magazine, 21 August 2009; So Much to Save Web site/ecogainder/about/index.html; RaffiNews Web site, at www.somuchtosave.org. site, at www.raffinews.com; Raffi News, “BG Feed- back,” at www.raffinews.com/beluga-grads/ 16. “Big Yellow Taxi,” Wikipedia, at en.wiki feedback. pedia.org/wiki/Big_Yellow_Taxi; “Tracy Chap- man: The Rape of the World,” Wikia, at 7. Penguins on Thin Ice Web site, at www.pen lyrics.wikia.com/Tracy_Chapman:The_Rape_Of_ guinsonthinice.com. The_World; CultureChange, “Depavers: Eco- Rock,” at www.culturechange.org/cms/index 8. Massukos Web site, at www.massukos.org; .php?option=com_content&task=view&id=225&Ite The Goldman Environmental Prize, “Feliciano dos mid=53. Santos,” at www.goldmanprize.org/2008/africa. 17. Bonnie Raitt Web site, at www.bon 9. “Live Aid,” Wikipedia, at en.wikipedia.org/ nieraitt.com/bio.php; “Bonnie Raitt,” Wikipedia, wiki/Live_Aid; Michael Scott and Mutombo Mpa- at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonnie_Raitt. nya, We Are the World: An Evaluation of Pop Aid for Africa (Washington, DC: InterAction, 1994), p. 18. “Willie Nelson,” Wikipedia, at en.wikipedia 3; “We Are the World,” Wikipedia, at en.wikipedia .org/wiki/Willie_Nelson; Farm Aid Web site, at .org/wiki/We_Are_the_World; $63 million from www.farmaid.org/site/c.qlI5IhNVJsE/b.27236 Cindy Clark et al., “Moments of Sex, Drugs and 09/k.C8F1/About_Us.htm. Rock ’n’ Roll,” USA Today, 28 July 2006. 19. Tipping Point Art & Climate Change Web site, 10. LiveEarth Web site, at liveearth.org/en/ at www.tippingpoint.org.uk/index.htm. liveearth. 20. Judith Marcuse Projects ICASC Web site, at 11. “Josh Tyrangiel, “Bono’s Mission,” Time www.icasc.ca/jmp. Magazine, 23 February 2002; ONE Web site, at www.one.org. 21. The Climate Group, “Live Earth: When the Music Stops, We Must Start,” press release (Lon- 12. Sean Michaels, “U2 Criticised for World Tour don: 9 July 2007). Carbon Footprint,” Guardian (London), 10 July 2009. The Power of Social Movements

13. Roskilde Festival Web site, at www.roskilde-fes 1. Paul Hawken, “Biology, Resistance, and tival.dk/uk/about_the_festival/green_footsteps; Restoration: Sustainability as an Infinite Game,” Glastonbury Festival of Contemporary Perform- presentation at Bioneers Conference, October 2006. ing Arts Web site, at www.glastonburyfestivals .co.uk/information/green-glastonbury/our-green 2. Erik Assadourian, “Engaging Communities -policies. for a Sustainable World,” in Worldwatch Institute, State of the World 2008 (New York: W. W. Norton 14. Glastonbury Festival, op. cit. note 13; Bum- & Company, 2008), pp. 151–65. bershoot 2009, “Greening Bumbershoot,” at www.bumbershoot.org/fresh/green; High Sierra, Reducing Work Time as a Path to Sustainability “Greening,” at www.highsierramusic.com/event- info/greening; Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor 1. Ruhm cited in Drake Bennett, “The Good Ethics, “About Us,” at www.lnt.org/aboutUs/ Recession,” Boston Globe, 23 March 2009; Joe index.php. Rojas-Burke, “Does Our Health Actually Get Bet-

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 227 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 ter in Some Ways During a Down Economy?” The Time’s Right2Vacation Poll,” right2vacation.com, Oregonian, 22 April 2009. at www.timeday.org/right2vacation/poll_results .asp; Scott Gediman, media relations director, 2. Rojas-Burke, op. cit. note 1; see also Stephen Yosemite National Park, discussion with author, Bezruchka, “The Effect of Economic Recessions on August 2008. Population Health,” Canadian Medical Associa- tion Journal, in press. 13. Take Back Your Time, at www.timeday.org.

3. Global Footprint Network, “Earth Overshoot 14. Human Resources and Skills Development Day,” at www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/ Canada, “The Netherlands: Improving Work-Life GFN/page/earth_overshoot_day, updated 16 July Balance—What Are Other Countries Doing?” 24 2009. November 2004.

4. James Gustave Speth, The Bridge at the Edge 15. Heymann and Earle, op. cit. note 12. of the World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), p. 51. 16. See www.momsrising.org.

5. Ibid. 17. Take Back Your Time, op. cit. note 13; John de Graaf, “H.R. 2564: The Paid Vacation Act of 6. Juliet Schor, “The Even More Overworked 2009—Rebutting the Opposition,” Take Back Your American,” in John de Graaf, Take Back Your Time Time, Seattle, WA, undated. (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2003), p. 10. 18. The White House, “President Barack Obama’s 7. Author’s analysis of country-by-country work- Inaugural Address,” Washington, DC, 21 January ing hours at Organisation for Economic Co-oper- 2009; Dean Baker, “When Less Is More,” ation and Development, 2007, at statlinks.oecd Guardian (London), 26 January 2009. code.org/302009011P1T082.XLS. Inspiring People to See That Less Is More 8. U.S. life expectancy from Central Intelligence Agency, The CIA World Factbook, 2009 (New York: 1. Goldian Bandenbroeck, Less is More: The Art Skyhorse Publishing, 2008); Lisa Girion, “Europe of Voluntary Poverty: An Anthology of Ancient and Healthier than U.S.—Older Americans Have Higher Modern Voices Raised in Praise of Simplicity Rates of Serious Diseases than Aging Europeans, A (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International, Study Says,” Los Angeles Times, 2 October 2007. 1991); David E. Shi, The Simple Life: Plain Living and High Thinking in American Culture (Oxford: 9. Lauren Sherman, “Europe’s Happiest Places,” Oxford University Press, 1985). Forbes, 12 August 2009. 2. Abraham Joshua Heschel and Susannah Hes- 10. Center for Economic and Policy Research, chel, Moral Grandeur and Spiritual Audacity: Essays “Long U.S. Work Hours Are Bad for the Environ- (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), p. 31. ment, Study Shows,” press release (Washington, DC: 20 December 2006). 3. Tim Kasser, The High Price of Materialism (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2002). 11. Quote from Donald Worster, A Passion for Nature: The Life of John Muir (Oxford, U.K.: 4. Richard Wilkinson, The Impact of Inequality: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 225. How to Make Sick Societies Healthier (New York: The New Press, 2005); Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pick- 12. Paid vacations from Jody Heymann and Alli- ett, The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost son Earle, Raising the Global Floor (Stanford, CA: Always Do Better (London: Penguin Group, 2009). Stanford University Press, 2009); U.S. median vacation time from “Results of Take Back Your 5. George Lakoff, Thinking Points: Communi-

228 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Notes cating Our American Values and Vision (New York: Food: The Case for Taste (New York: Columbia Uni- Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006). versity Press, 2003); Slow Food International, at www.slowfood.com and www.slowfood.it; Slow 6. Bill McKibben, “Together, We Save the Food Foundation for Biodiversity, at www.slow Planet,” The Nation, 23 March 2009. foodfoundation.org; information on the Ark of Taste from ibid.; Slow Food Earthmarkets, at 7. Myles Horton and Paulo Freire, We Make the www.earthmarkets.net; Slow Fish Exhibition 2009, Road by Walking: Conversations on Education and at www.slowfish.it/welcome_eng.lasso; Slow Food Social Change (Philadelphia: Temple University USA, “Time for Lunch” campaign, at www.slow Press, 1990); Paulo Friere, The Pedagogy of the foodusa.org/index.php/campaign/time_for_lunch/ Oppressed, anniversary ed. (London: Continuum, about. 2000). 11. Take Back Your Time is a U.S. and Canadian 8. “What Is a Transition Town (or village/ initiative to challenge overwork, overscheduling, city/forest/island)?” Transition Towns WIKI, at and time famine; see www.timeday.org. www.transitiontowns.org. Box 22 from the fol- lowing: degrowth in France from the Network of 12. Robert Wuthnow, American Mythos: Why Our Growth Objectors for Post-Development ROCADe, Best Efforts to Be a Better Nation Fall Short (Prince- at www.apres-developpement.org, from Institute ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006). for Social and Economic studies for Sustainable Degrowth, at www.decroissance.org, from the 13. Robert Putnam, Bowling Alone (New York: French Degrowth Party, at www.partipourladecrois Simon & Schuster, 2000). sance.net, and from La Decroissance, at www.lade croissance.net; degrowth in Italy from the Italian 14. Tim Kasser and Tom Crompton, Meeting Degrowth Movement, at www.decrescita.it, from Environmental Challenges: The Role of Human Italian Movement for Happy Degrowth, at Identity (Godalming, Surrey, U.K.: WWF-UK, www.decrescitafelice.it, and from the Italian 2009). Degrowth Party, at www.partitoperladecrescita.it; degrowth in Spain from Spanish Degrowth Move- 15. “Open Space Planning,” Show 413, June ment, at www.decrecimiento.info, from “Diario del 2008, and “Simplicity & Spirituality,” Show 106, Decrecimiento,” Spanish Degrowth News, at August 2004, on Simple Living with Wanda www.decrecimiento.es, from Catalan network for Urbanska. Degrowth, at www.decreixement.info, and from Temps de Re-voltes campaign, at www.temsdere 16. “The Thing That Refused to Die,” Show 108, -voltes.cat; Transition Towns and local currencies September 2004, on Simple Living with Wanda from the Totnes Pound Project, at www.totnes Urbanska. .transitionnetwork.org/totnespound.home, from Ithaca Hours Online, at www.ithacahours.com, 17. For information on the Buy Nothing Day from Transition Towns Wiki, at www.transition campaign, see www..org/campaigns.bnd. towns.org, from Transition Town Kinsale, at www.transitiontownkinsale.org, and from Transition 18. For The Compact, see sfcompact.blog Town Totnes, at www.totnes.transitionnetwork.org. spot.com; freeganism information available at free gan.info/?page_id=2; World Wide Opportunities on 9. Rob Hopkins, The Transition Handbook: From Organic Farms, at www..org. Oil Dependency to Local Resilience (Totnes, Devon, U.K.: Green Books Ltd, 2008). 19. Cecile Andrews, Slow is Beautiful: New Visions of Community, Leisure, and Joie de Vivre (Gabriola 10. Carl Honore, In Praise of Slowness: How a Island, B.C., Canada: New Society Publishers, Worldwide Movement Is Challenging the Cult of 2006); “Barefoot College,” at www.barefoot Speed (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2004). college.org; Alan Weisman, Gaviotas: A Village to Box 23 from the following: Carlo Petrini, Slow Reinvent the World (White River Junction, VT:

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 229 Notes STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Chelsea Green, 1999); “Friends of Gaviotas,” at prepared for Conference on Constructed Wetlands www.friendsofgaviotas.org/Friends_of_Gaviotas/ for Wastewater Treatment in Tropical and Sub- Home.html; Jan Gehl and Lars Gemzoe, Public tropical Regions, December 2000; Raven Le Fay, Spaces, Public Life (Copenhagen: Danish Architec- “From Dust to Dawn,” Permaculture Magazine, tural Press, 2004); “Jan Gehl,” Project for Public No. 45, pp. 39–42; Sólheimar, at solheimar Spaces, at www.pps.org/info/placemakingtools/ .hlutverk.is/page.asp?Id=834; The Farm, at placemakers/jgehl; “The Vision of City Repair,” at www.thefarm.org. cityrepair.org. 10. Russian ecovillage Grishino, at www.grishino Ecovillages and the Transformation of Values .ecology.net.ru/en/index.htm; Findhorn Founda- tion, at www.findhorn.org/index.php?tz=240. 1. Claus Schenk, “Paradise With Side Effects,” Capricorn Film, International Society for Ecology 11. Sarvodaya Empowerment Programmes, at and Culture, Ladakh, India, 2004. www.sarvodaya.org/about/empowerment-program mes. 2. Global Ecovillage Network, at gen.ecovillage .org. 12. The Ladakh Project, International Society for Ecology and Culture, at www.isec.org.uk/pages/ 3. Robert Gilman, “ In Context, summer 1991, ladakh.html#womensallianceofladakh. p. 10. 13. For more on systems thinking, see David W. 4. Information on both from Kom- Orr, Earth in Mind (Washington, DC: Island Press, mune Niederkaufungen, Gemeinschaftlich Nach- rev. 2004), and Fritjof Capra, “Ecoliteracy: The haltig, at www.usf.uni-kassel.de/glww/ziele.htm. Challenge for Education in the Next Century,” Liverpool Schumacher Lectures, Center for Eco- 5. Jason R. Brown, Comparative Analysis of literacy, Berkeley, CA, 20 March 1999. Energy Consumption Trends in Cohousing and Alter- nate Housing Arrangements, Department of Civil 14. The Farm Ecovillage Training Center, at and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts www.thefarm.org/etc; Lotan Center for Creative Institute of Technology, 2004, unpublished thesis; Ecology, at www.kibbutzlotan.com/creativeEcology; Jonathan Dawson, “Findhorn’s Incredible Shrink- EcoCentre, Ecological Solutions, at www.ecologi ing Footprint,” Communities, summer 2009. calsolutions.com.au/venue/ecocentre.html.

6. Kenneth Mulder, Robert Costanza, and Jon 15. CIFAL Findhorn, at www.cifalfindhorn.org. Erickson, “The Contribution of Built, Human, Social and Natural Capital to Quality of Life in 16. Findhorn Foundation College, at www Intentional and Unintentional Communities,” Eco- .findhorncollege.org/index.php; Sustainable Com- logical Economics, August 2006, pp. 18–19. munity Design, Heriot-Watt University, at www.postgraduate.hw.ac.uk/course/327. 7. Ibid., p. 20. 17. Gaia Education, at www.gaiaeducation.org. 8. “Work Areas,” More About Twin Oaks, at www.twinoaks.org/community/index.html. 18. Living Routes, at www.livingroutes.org; “Part- nerships for Sustainability Education,” Ithaca Col- 9. Tency Baetens, “The Use of Horizontal lege, at www.ithaca.edu/hs/science_in_the Planted Filters for Decentralised Wastewater Treat- _community. ment in Auroville, An Overview and Description,”

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A alternative energy sources. See also energy abortion, 37, 38 conservation Abouleish, Ibrahim, 105 cradle-to-cradle design and, 106 Action Coalition for Media Education, 159 electricity generation options in California, Acumen Fund, 105 124 Adbusters Magazine, 184 music concerts and festivals promoting, 168, Adidas, 163 169 advertising and marketing. See also media “non-rival” nature of, 88 children, aimed at, 62, 64–67 as panacea, 173–74 in consumer cultures, 11–13, 15 American Academy of Pediatrics, 67 media literacy, need for, 15, 149, 157–63 American Association for Sustainability in Higher social marketing, 149, 151–56 Education, 79 storytelling approach to, 151–56 American Independent Business Alliance, 110 affluenza, 176 American Psychological Association, 67 Africa. See also specific countries Anderson, E. N., 31 Earth jurisprudence in, 147–48 Anderson, Ray, 99, 100 media literacy in, 161 Apple Computers advertising campaign, 153 obesity in, 138 Apwe Plezi (soap opera), 39 sustainable consumption and production Argentina, 107, 160, 163 framework, 120 Arizona State University, 77 The Age of Stupid (film), 3, 19, 165 Arrow, Kenneth, 139 agriculture the arts. See media in ecovillages, 187 Ashoka, 104–05 Farm Aid, 169 Aspen Institute, 78 local, 110–14 Atlantic, College of the, 77 social farming, 141 Auroville ecovillage, India, 188 sustainable, 22, 47–53 Australia wwoofing, 184 aboriginal communities, role of elders in, 45 agroforestry, 51–52 early childhood education in sustainability in, AIDS/HIV, 44, 105, 154 60–61 Akatu Institute for Conscious Consumption ecovillage movement in, 190 (Brazil), 107 incandescent bulbs banned in, 119, 120 Alliance for a Media Literate America, 159 media literacy in, 160 Alliance for Religions and Conservation, 23 no-till/low-till agriculture in, 52, 53

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 231 Index STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Australia (continued) Brown, Lester, 119 TravelSmart and LivingSmart in, 135, Brown University, 77 136, 137 Buddhism, 23, 25, 26, 27, 29 Austria, 160 Buffett, Warren, 89 automobiles. See transportation/travel Bumbershoot, 168 Bush, George W., 13 B business, 83–115 B Corporations, 18, 102 adapting institutions and practices for B Labs, 102 sustainability, 83, 85–90 Bahá’í faith, 25, 26 choice editing by, 124–25 Bainbridge Graduate Institute, 78 in consumer cultures, 13, 14, 18 Baker, Dean, 177 corporate charters, revising, 102 Ball, Jim, 100 corporate culture, transforming, 83–84, Banda, Fackson, 161 86–102 Bangladesh, 18, 103–04, 105, 107 cradle-to-cradle design, 17, 52, 84, 106 Barcelona, Universitat Autònoma de, 80 ecovillages, labor systems in, 187 Barefoot College, India, 184 education at professional and business schools, Bartholomew (Orthodox patriarch), 25 78 BedZED, 133–34, 136 national security implications of Belgium, 17 unemployment, 128, 132 Belize, 50, 51–52 relocalization of, 84, 110–15, 180 Belk, Russell, 10 social enterprises and entrepreneurs, 84, Bellingham, Washington, 110, 112, 114 103–09 Benedict XVI (Pope), 26 vacation time, 175–77 Bennett, David, 28 work hours and work schedules, 83, 91–95, Benyus, Janine, 50 171, 173–77, 182–83 Berry, Thomas, 16, 145, 147 Business Alliance for Local Living Economies, Beuys, Joseph, 166 110, 114 Bhutan, 81 Buy Nothing Day, 35, 184 Bingham, Sally, 25 , 169 C Bioneers, 80 Cabbages and Condoms restaurant (Thailand), birth control, 38, 39 18, 105, 109 Black Friday, 33, 35, 184 California Academy of Sciences, 68 Blair, Tony, 13 Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood, 67 Blake, Robin, 163 Campbell, Joseph, 152, 154, 155 Bolsa Familia (Brazil), 141 Canada Bono, 168 consumer culture in, 15 Botswana, 44 green commercial developments in, 172 Boulding, Kenneth, 87 health care system, ecological footprint of, B&Q, 125 142 Brand, Stewart, 34 intergenerational learning programs, 44 Brazil media literacy in, 160 advertising to children in, 67 outdoor and environmental education in, 58 carbon index for financial markets, 108 Quebec, advertising to children in, 66 conditional cash transfer programs, 141 carbon emissions popular education movement in, 180 Christian churches, carbon fasts sponsored by, school meals in, 70 27, 33–35 social entrepreneurship in, 107 consumer culture and, 6, 18 broadcasting. See media Earth Atmospheric Trust, 90 Brög, Werner, 135 financial markets, carbon index for, 108

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green campus movement and, 80 agricultural systems and, 47 Waste Concern, Bangladesh, 107 artists, transformation from consumers to, Carnegie-Mellon University, 77 150, 166 cars. See transportation/travel business response to, 88 Carson, Rachel, 77, 175 consumer culture and, 5 celebrations and festivals, 10, 32–35, 188 environmental journalism in India and, 162 Center for a New American Dream, 94 green campus movement and, 80 Center for Earth Jurisprudence, 147 media literacy and, 157–58 Center for Eco-Literacy (Berkeley, California), 80 population levels and, 36, 37, 40 Center for Economic and Policy Research, 92, security issues related to, 128, 129 175 social marketing as means of addressing, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 154–55 (U.S.), 9 social media and, 156 Centre for Green Burial, 33 Taoist response to, 23 Chadha, Narender, 42 UN and Alliance for Religions and Chalmers University (Gothenburg, Sweden), 78 Conservation, partnership between, 23 Channel One News, 15 Clinton, Bill, 168 Chapman, Tracy, 169 Coca-Cola, 163 charcoal lighter fluid ban in Los Angeles, Califor- Cohen, Lizbeth, 121 nia, 120 cohousing, 172, 180 Charity in Truth (2009 papal encyclical), 26, 29 collective versus individualistic values, 41, 183 Charles, Prince of Wales, 25 college buildings and operations, 79–80 Child Nutrition Act (U.S.), 182 college-level education, 56, 75–82 childbearing, ecologically sustainable, 21, 36–40 Colombia, 148, 184 children Colorado, University of, 79 in consumer cultures, 9–10, 15–16, 18, 55, common asset trusts, 89–90 62–67 “commons sector” of economy, expanding, 89–90 education of. See education communitarian versus individualistic values, 41, human/nature relationship, fostering, 58 183 music for, 167 community ecological governance, 148 play and commercialism, 62–67 Community Environmental Legal Defense Fund, toys, 64–66 144, 146–48 Children & Nature Network, 67 The Compact, 184 China complexity, 89 agricultural systems in, 47 conditional cash transfer programs, 141 Disney-themed English language programs in, Confucianism, 23, 26 64 Congo, Democratic Republic of, 130 one-child policy in, 36, 37 consumer cultures, 3–20 religious heritage of, 23 advertising and marketing in, 11–13, 15. See Sichuan earthquake (2008), 156 also advertising and marketing chlorofluorocarbons, phaseout of, 122, 123 ageism in, 41, 43 choice editing, 117, 119–26 artists, transformation from consumers to, Christian Children’s Fund, 45 150, 166 Christianity, 26, 27, 29, 33–35 children and, 9–10, 15–16, 18, 55, 62–67 Christmas, 10, 32, 33 defining culture, 7–8 Church of Stop Shopping, 10 dominant cultural paradigm, consumerism as, cinema, social power of, 150, 165 8–11 cities and towns, 117, 133–37, 180, 184 education and, 9–10, 15–16, 18, 55, 62–67 Clean Development Mechanism, Kyoto Protocol, happiness in, 8, 9, 10, 13, 27, 44, 64, 121, 107 157 climate change historical development of, 11

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 233 Index STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 consumer cultures (continued) D importance/difficulty of transforming, 3–4, 7, Damtie, Mellese, 147 18–20, 184 Daniel Pennock Democracy School, 147 institutional drivers of, 11–16, 18–20 Dave Matthews Band, 168 Marrakech Process project on education in DCarb Index, 108 sustainable consumption, 121 DCI Group, 158 population levels and, 4, 36 de Graaf, John, 126 promoting sustainable cultures, 16–20 décroissance (degrowth) movement, 172, 181 quality of life and consumption levels, 8, 9 democracy, improving, 90 religion, role of, 20, 25–27, 29 Democratic Republic of Congo, 130 rituals and taboos in, 10, 31–33 Denmark, 180 shopping, 33, 35, 63, 184 Depavers, 169 social marketing as means of transforming, Deudney, Daniel, 127 153, 154 Development Through Radio project, 161 symbols in, 8–9 Dewey, John, 75 unsustainability of, 4–7 Diamond, Jared, 99 voluntary simplicity movement as means of Diesel brand clothing ad campaign, 157–58, 163 changing, 8, 9 diet. See food/eating contraception, 38, 39 disasters, natural, 128, 131–32 Cool Congregations, 25 Discovery Channel, 64 Coomaraswamy, A. K., 166 Disney, 12, 64, 67 Cornell University, 186, 190 disposable paper products, 14 corporate charters, 102 diversity, celebration of, 106 corporate culture, transforming, 83–84, 86–102 dos Santos, Feliciano, 167 Counting Crows, 169 Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes, 108 Cowichan Tribes of British Columbia, 44 downshifting, 94 cradle-to-cradle design, 17, 52, 84, 106 Dylan, Bob, 169 Criança e Consumo, 67 Criticos, Costas, 161 E Crompton, Tom, 183 early childhood education in sustainability, 55, CrystalWaters, Australia, 190 57–61 Cuba, 132, 139, 140 Earth Atmospheric Trust, 90 culture change Earth Charter, 80 academic/scientific understanding of, 81 Earth Day, 33 in business, 83–115. See also business Earth Hour, 35 community involvement and, 183 Earth jurisprudence, 118, 143–48 in consumer societies, 3–20. See also consumer Earth Markets, 182 cultures Earth Policy Institute, 119 defining culture, 7–8 Earth Summit (Rio, 1992), 162 education as means of, 55–82. See also Easter Island, Rapanui culture of, 22 education ecoAmerica, 80 governments’ role in, 117–48. See also Ecogainder (television program), 167 governments Ecological Footprint Indicator, 4, 5, 7 Great Network approach to, 19 “ecology monks” in Thailand, 25 importance/difficulty of, 3–4, 7, 18–20 economics long-term thinking, role of, 34 adapting institutions and practices for social movements fomenting, 171–90. See also sustainability, 83, 85–90 social movements carbon index for financial markets, 108 traditions and, 21–53. See also traditions “commons sector,” expanding, 89–90 unlimited growth in limited world, problem ecocentric versus anthropocentric ethics of, 28 of, 4–7, 88–88 global financial collapse (2008), 95, 128, 173

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media literacy programs, funding of, 163 Interfaith Power and Light, 25 media reports, funding of, 158 national security consequences of, 130–31 metrics of well-being, redefining, 88–89 as panacea, 173–74 national security, relationship to, 127–29 enterprises and entrepreneurs, social, 84, 103–09 religious teachings and precepts, 27, 29 Entertainment-Education in Mexico, 153–54 relocalization of business, capital for, 115 environmental G8, 154 sustainable investments by religious Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.), 108, institutions, 27 142, 164 ecovillages movement, 20, 133, 172, 180, 185–90 equity/inequality Ecuador, 19, 131, 143 consumer cultures and, 6, 16–17 editing out unsustainable behavior, 117, 119–26 economic and business transition, populations education, 55–82 affected by, 89 California Academy of Sciences, greening of, national security, relationship to, 127–29, 130 68 Erin Brockovich (film), 165 consumer culture and, 9–10, 15–16, 18, 55, ethics. See values and ethics 62–67 Ethiopia, 147–48 early childhood, 55, 57–61 Europe. See also specific countries ecovillage initiatives, 189–90 consumer culture in, 4, 7, 11, 36 elders, cultural role of, 41–46 early childhood education in, 57 within the family, 60 green building movement and college campus family size and, 38–39 design and operation, 79 human/nature relationship, fostering, 58 green burials in, 33 journalism as force for, 150 placemaking in, 184 Marrakech Process project on education in school meals in, 69, 71 sustainable consumption, 121 Slow movement in, 180 media literacy, 15, 149, 157–63 social entrepreneurship in, 103 music as education and entertainment, 149, social farming in, 141 164–69 work hours in, 92, 93, 174–76 planetary lifestyles, encouraging, 137 European Union, 71, 119, 182 play, role of, 62–67 ExxonMobil, 158 popular education movement in Brazil, 180 professional and business schools, 78 F religious, 27 Facebook, 150, 155, 164 school meals, 55, 69–74, 182 La Fageda, 103 university-level, 56, 75–82 Fair Trade movement unresolved questions in environmental educa- choice editing and, 123, 124 tion, 77 relocalized businesses and, 112 Egypt, 105, 107 school meals and, 73–74 Ekins, Paul, 8 Slow Food movement and, 182 Ekwendeni Hospital (Malawi), 45 social entrepreneurship and, 107 elders as cultural and environmental resources, Take Back Your Time movement and, 175 21–22, 41–46, 185 families Electrolux, 99 childbearing, ecologically sustainable, 21, Elgin, Duane, 13 36–40 employment. See business as educators, 60 empty-world vision, 85 Farm Aid, 169 . See also alternative energy The Farm, Tennessee, 190 sources farming. See agriculture electricity generation options in California, fast food/junk food, 14, 17, 70, 153 124 Federal Communications Commission (U.S.), 67 incandescent bulbs, banning, 119, 120 female genital mutilation, 45–46

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 235 Index STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 fertility, controlling, 21, 36–40 Gauntlett, David, 163 festivals and celebrations, 10, 32–35, 188 Gaye, Marvin, 164 Fiji, 64 Gehl, Jan, 184 film, social power of, 150, 165 Geldof, Bob, 167 finances. See economics Geller, Scott, 154–55 Findhorn ecovillage, Scotland, 186, 187, 188, 190 gender issues. See women Finland, 121, 140, 160 genuine progress indicator, 86, 88, 89 Flickr, 155 George Mason University Center for Climate Florida, Richard, 113 Change Communication, 154 food/eating Ger, Güliz, 10 cultural determination of, 8 Germany dietary norms, 49 Cooperation with Africa project, Marrakech disease burden and, 128 Process, 120 fast food/junk food, 14, 17, 70 ecovillages in, 133, 186 The Meatrix (marketing campaign), 17, 20 military spending in, 129 product labeling, 123–24, 125–26 outdoor and environmental education in, 58, relocalized food production, 110–14 67 school meals, 55, 69–74, 182 Ghana, 31, 43, 44–45, 70 Slow Food movement, 20, 49, 172, 182 Gilman, Robert, 185 university food systems, 79 Glastonbury Festival, 168 vegetarianism, 17, 20, 27, 49 Global Ecovillage Network, 185, 189 waste equals food principle, 106 global financial collapse (2008), 95, 128, 173 Food Inc. (film), 49 Global Footprint Network, 173 forest conservation, 25, 28, 51–52 Global Giving, 105 Forrester, Jay, 87 Global Sustainability 50 Index, 108 France Global Sustainability Alliance, 81 advertising to children in, 66–67 global warming. See climate change children’s play in, 63 globalization décroissance (degrowth) movement in, 181 early childhood education and, 61 health care in, 139, 140 elders and, 41, 42, 43 media literacy in, 160 marketing to children and, 64–65 social entrepreneurship in, 103 university-level education and, 76 social farming in, 141 Goldman Environmental Prize, 167 Sustainable Tourism project, Marrakech Goleman, Dan, 125 Process, 121 Gore, Al, 100, 162, 167 work hours in, 176 governments, 117–48 Frank, Robert, 126 choice editing, 117, 119–26 Frau-Meigs, Divina, 160–61 consumer culture and, 13–15, 18–19 Frayton, Bill, 104 health care, 117–18, 138–42 Free Range Studios, 20 legal system, Earth jurisprudence in, 118, French Revolution, 11 143–48 Friere, Paulo, 180 national security issues, 114, 117, 127–32 Fuglesang, Andreas, 42 population concerns of, 37, 39–40 funding. See economics public procurement, 71, 120 funerals, 10, 32, 33 urban environments and, 117, 133–37 work schedules, changes in, 95 G Grameen Bank, 18, 103–04 Gaia Education, 190 Grandmother Project, 45–46 Gaia Foundation, 145, 148 Grayson, Alan, 177 Ganesh Chathauri festival, 32–33 Great Network approach, 19 Gates, Bill, 105 Green Bibles, 20, 24

236 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Index green building movement, 79–80, 121 Helen Keller International, 45 green burial, 33 Heriot-Watt University (Edinburgh, Scotland), green jobs, 132 190 “Green nuns,” 25 Heschel, Abraham, 178 green Ramadan, 35 Hewitt Associates, 95 Green Revolution, 50 Hickman, Leo, 120 greenhouse gases. See carbon emissions High Sierra Music Festival, 168 Greenland ice sheet, 5 higher-level education, 56, 75–82 Greenpeace, 99 Highlander Center (Tennessee), 180 Grishino ecovillage, Russia, 188 Hillis, Danny, 34 gross domestic product, alternatives to, 81, 87, Hinduism, 26 88, 89 HIV/AIDS, 44, 105, 154 “gross national happiness” measures (Bhutan), 81 Hokusai, Katsushika, 149 gross national product, 87 holiday celebrations, 10, 32–35 Grossman, Richard, 147 Holmgren, David, 52 Grunwald Declaration (1982), 159 Home (film), 165 Home Depot, 124–25 H homeland security issues, 114, 117, 127–32 Halleck, DeeDee, 163 Hong Kong, China, 160 Hampâté Bâ, Amadou, 42 Honore, Carl, 180 Hannaford Supermarkets, 125 Hornborg, Anne-Christine, 31 Hansen, James, 155, 158 Horton, Myles, 180 happiness hospitals, greening, 140–42 Bhutan, “gross national happiness” measures hours of work, 83, 91–95, 171, 173–77, 182–83 in, 81 Howard, Sir Albert, 48, 50 in consumer cultures, 8, 9, 10, 13, 27, 44, 64, Howard, Steve, 169 121, 157 human/nature relationship, fostering, 58 ecovillage movement and, 186 Human Security Network, 129 religious precepts regarding, 27, 29 Hungry for Success report (2002), 72 voluntary simplicity and, 178, 179, 181 Hunter, James Davison, 19 work hours and, 175 Hartzfeld, Jim, 100 I Harvard Business School, 78 An Inconvenient Truth (film), 100, 162, 165 Hasbro, 64 India Hawken, Paul, 20, 83, 123 Barefoot College, 184 health, 117–18, 138–42 consumer culture in, 6–7 childbearing, ecologically sustainable, 21, Earth jurisprudence in, 148 36–40 ecovillages in, 188 in consumer cultures, 9, 17 elders, cultural role of, 42 diet. See food/eating environmental journalism in, 162 diplomacy, as form of, 132 Ganesh Chathauri festival, 32–33 disease burden, security issues related to, 128 Ladakh Project, 185, 189 female genital mutilation, 45–46 McDonald’s in, 64 focus on promoting health versus curing dis- natural gas for urban transport, switch to, 124 ease, 117–18, 138–40 population concerns in, 37 global financial collapse (2008) and, 173 indigenous peoples. See also specific groups greening health care systems, 140–42 Earth jurisprudence, practice of, 143 social marketing in, 152–54 economic precepts and practices, 29 social welfare programs, sustainability of, 141 elders, cultural role of, 42, 44, 45 work schedules and, 94, 173–75 rituals and taboos, ecological roles of, 31, 35 Health Care Without Harm, 142 individualistic versus collective values, 41, 183

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 237 Index STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Indonesia, 65, 119, 132 Jevons Paradox, 135 industry. See business John Paul II (Pope), 25, 168 inequality. See equity/inequality Jordan, 6, 53 infinite growth in a finite world, problem of, 4–7, Jordan, Chris, 149 88–88 journalism standards, 150, 158, 162 institutional drivers of consumer cultures, 11–16 Judaism, 26, 29, 30 Integrated Global Systems Model, 5 judicial system, Earth’s rights under, 118, 143–48 Interface, Inc., 97–98, 99, 100, 101 Judith Marcuse Projects, 169 Interfaith Power and Light, 25 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 80, K 81, 162 Kahn, Herman, 77 International Centre of Art for Social Change, Kasser, Tim, 179, 183 169 Kaza, Stephanie, 27 International Interfaith Investment Group, 27 KB Home, 99 International Labour Organization, 128 Keniry, Julian, 79 Internet. See media Kenya, 148 Iranian presidential elections (2009), 156 Kibbutz Lotan, Israel, 189, 190 Ireland, 10, 120 King, Franklin Hiram, 48 Irthlingz, 167 Knight, Allen, 125 Islam, 26, 29, 35 Knight, Phil, 100 Israel, 64, 189 Korea, 47, 160 Italy Korowai people of New Guinea, 8 décroissance (degrowth) movement in, 181 kosher practices, 30 Education for Sustainable Consumption pro- Kyoto Protocol, 107 ject, Marrakech Process, 121 Kyoto University (Japan), 79 Lecco, piedibuses in, 18 school meals in, 71, 72–74 L Slow Food movement in, 182 labor. See business social entrepreneurship in, 103 Ladakh Project, 185, 189 Ithaca (New York), Ecovillage at, 186, 190 Land, Edwin, 97 Land Institute (Salina, Kansas), 51 J Lang, Tim, 123 Jackson, Lisa, 164 Latin America. See also specific countries Jackson, Michael, 167 New Year celebrations in, 33 Jackson, Wes, 51 social entrepreneurship in, 107 Jainism, 27 law, Earth jurisprudence in, 118, 143–48 Jamie’s School Dinners (television program), 72 Lawton, Geoff, 53 Japan Lden, Tsewang, 185, 189 agricultural systems in, 47 Lebow, Victor, 12–13, 15 children’s eco-programming in, 167 legal system, Earth jurisprudence in, 118, 143–48 children’s play in, 63 Leonard, Annie, 153 consumer culture in, 9, 10, 12 Leopold, Aldo, 77, 175 early childhood education in sustainability in, life expectancy statistics, 139 61 Linzey, Thomas, 146 military spending in, 129 Live Aid, 167 New Year celebrations in, 33 Live Earth, 167–68 population concerns in, 39 LivingRoots, 190 product labeling in, 125–26 LivingSmart, 137 social entrepreneurship in, 104 local businesses, revival of, 84, 110–15, 180 university-level education in, 78, 79 Locke, John, 75 Jefferson, Thomas, 75 Long Bets, 34

238 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Index long-distance travel, 35 music as education and entertainment, 149, Long Now Foundation, 34 164–69 Los Angeles, California, ban on charcoal lighter social marketing, 149, 151–56 fluid in, 120 social media, 155–56 Louv, Richard, 58 women and sexuality in, 39 Lovelock, James, 19 Media Link Worldwide, 158 Lovins, Amory, 97 media literacy, 15, 149, 157–63 Lyonchen Jigmi, 81 metrics of well-being, redefining, 88–89 Mexico M conditional cash transfer programs, 141 Maathai, Wangari, 77 social entrepreneurship in, 107 Madonna, 168 social marketing in, 153–54, 155 Malawi, 45, 161 Tlaxcala, history of agriculture in, 47, 53 Mali, 44, 45 Mezger, Jeff, 99 Malthus, Thomas, 85 micro-credit programs, 103–04 Mandela, Nelson, 42–43 Microsoft, 163 marketing. See advertising and marketing Middlebury College, 77 Marlboro Man advertising campaign, 151,153 migration patterns and national security, 128–29 Marrakech Process, United Nations, 118, 120 Mi’kmaq people (Nova Scotia), 31 Maryland, poultry industry in, 111 Mill, John Stuart, 87 mass transit. See transportation/travel Millennium Assessment of Human Behavior, 56, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 5, 78–79, 81–82 186 Millennium Development Goals, 130 Massukos, 167 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 4–5 materialism, 10, 64–65, 179 Milliband, Ed, 34 Mattel, 64 Mining Act (1872; U.S.), 85 Maurice, Angus, 52, 53 Mitchell, Joni, 169 Mauritania, 45 Mitsubishi, 99 Maxwell, James, 123 Moai statues, Easter Island, 22 Maya Mountain Research Farm, Belize, 50, 51–52 Mollison, Bill, 52 Mayer, Jean, 77 MomsRising, 177 Mazria, Edward, 80 Montreal Protocol, 122, 123 McDonald’s, 9, 14, 64, 67, 153, 182 Moore, Charles, 17–18 McKibben, Bill, 155, 179–80 Morales, Evo, 148 Mead, Margaret, 20 morality. See values and ethics Meadowcreek Project, 79 Morris, William, 166 Meadows, Donella, 16 mortality rates, 139, 140 The Meatrix (marketing campaign), 17, 20 motor vehicles. See transportation/travel media, 149–69 movies, social power of, 150, 165 advertising and marketing in. See advertising Mozambique, 167 and marketing Muir, John, 175–76 artists, transformation of consumers into, 150, music as education and entertainment, 149, 166 164–69 children’s play affected by, 64–65 music concerts and festivals, carbon footprint of, in consumer cultures, 13, 19–20, 64–65, 149 168–69 economic transformation, role in, 90 Musicians United for Safe Energy, 169 education regarding (media literacy), 15, 149, 157–63 N film, social power of, 150, 165 Namibia, 64 globalization of, 43–44 National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), 12 journalism standards, 150, 158, 162 National Adaptation Programmes of Action, 37

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 239 Index STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

National Association for Media Education, 159 perennial polycultures, 51 national security issues, 114, 117, 127–32 permaculture, 52–53 National Wildlife Federation, 79 Peru, 33, 131 natural disasters, 128, 131–32, 156, 162 Pickett, Kate, 179 nature, fostering human relationship with, 58 Pimentel, David, 49 Navdanya, 148 placemaking, 184 Nelson, Willie, 169 planetary lifestyles, encouraging, 137 Nesbitt, Christopher, 51 plastic waste, 18, 117, 120, 149, 168 Net Impact, 78 play, children at, 62–67 Netherlands, 67, 141, 176 El Poder de Consumidor (Mexico), 107 New Guinea, 8, 31 Poland, 107 New Year celebrations, 33 The Police (rock band), 168 New Zealand, 18, 58, 66, 112, 180 Pollan, Michael, 49 Nickelodeon Channel, 64 polycultures, perennial, 51 Nike, 99, 100 population Ningo people of Ghana, 31 consumption patterns and, 4, 36 No Child Left Inside Act (U.S.), 58, 67 family size, ecologically sustainable, 21, 36–40 no-till/low-till agriculture, 52 migration patterns and national security, North American Association for Environmental 128–29 Education, 79 Population and Community Development North American Industrial Classification System, Association, Thailand, 105 114 Porini, 148 North Karelia Project (Finland), 140 Portugal, 103 Norway, 58, 141 Presidio School of Management, 78 Pridmore, Pat, 44 O Princen, Thomas, 125 Obama, Barack, 103, 105, 177 procurement, public, 71, 120 Oberlin College, 80 product labeling, 123–24, 125–26 obesity, as health issue, 138, 140 product placement, 12 Oduaran, Akopovire, 43 productivity, work schedules, and ecological Office of Communications (U.K.), 163 footprint, 91–93, 173–77 Ojai Music Festival, 168 professional and business schools, 78 Oklahoma Food Coop, 111 project approach to teaching, 59–60 ONE Campaign, 168 public procurement, 71, 120 Oportunidades (Mexico), 141 public service announcements (social marketing), organic agriculture, 50–51 149, 151–56 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and public transport. See transportation/travel Development, 13 Pullman, Phillip, 67 Outdoor Recreation Participation Report (2008), Putnam, Robert, 183 58 Q P Quebec (Canada), advertising to children in, 66 Pacala, Stephen, 6 Pachauri, R. K., 162 R Paid Vacation Act of 2009 (U.S.), 177 radio and television. See media Pan Yue, 23 Raffi, 167 Panos Southern Africa, 161 Rainforest Action Network, 99 Paris Agenda (2007), 159 Raitt, Bonnie, 169 Parliament of the World’s Religions, 24 Ramadan, greening of, 35 Peace Parks, 131 Rapanui culture, Easter Island, 22 Pennsylvania, University of, 80–81 Rappaport, Roy, 31

240 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Index

Red List (World Conservation Union), 31 Sieben Linden ecovillage, Germany, 186 regulatory capture, 13–14 silkworm life cycle, as educational tool, 61 religion. See also specific faiths Simple Living with Wanda Urbanska (television consumer cultures, role in, 20, 25–27, 29 series), 183–84 family size and, 40 simplicity, voluntary, 171–72, 177, 178–84 Green Bibles, 20, 24 Simpson, Walter, 79 rituals and taboos, 21, 27, 30–35 Skoll, Jeff, and Skoll Foundation, 105 support for sustainable cultures from, 21, sky burials in Tibet, 32 23–29 Slow Cities movement, 180 Religion, Science and the Environment, 25 Slow Fish (2009), 182 relocalization movement, 84, 110–15, 180 Slow Food cafés and restaurants, 182 resilience, 89 Slow Food Foundation for Biodiversity, 182 resource conflicts, national security issues Slow Food movement, 20, 49, 172, 180, 182 stemming from, 127–28, 130–31 Slow movement generally, 180–83 Richie, Lionel, 167 Smith, Stewart, 113–14 rituals and taboos, 21, 27, 30–35 Smithsonian, National Anthropological Archive, Rodale Institute, 50 34 Rodin, Judith, 80 Snoop Dogg, 168 Roman empire, 89 soap operas used for social marketing, 39, Rosetta Project, 34 153–54, 155 Roskilde Festival, 168 social enterprises and entrepreneurs, 84, 103–09 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 75 social farming, 141 Rugmark, 107 social marketing, 149, 151–56 Ruhm, Christopher, 173 social media, 155–56 Russia, 39, 160, 164, 188 social movements, 171–90 décroissance (degrowth) movement, 172, 181 S ecovillages, 20, 133, 172, 180, 185–90 Sabbath economics, 29 Fair Trade. See Fair Trade movement Sabido, Miguel, 153–54 green building movement, 79–80, 121 Sagan, Carl, 26 popular education movement in Brazil, 180 Sago grubs, 8 relocalization movement, 84, 110–15 Sample Lab Ltd., 12 Slow Cities movement, 180 Sarvodaya, 189 Slow Food movement, 20, 49, 172, 180, 182 Sawtell, Peter, 35 Slow movement generally, 180–83 schools and schooling. See education Take Back Your Time movement, 35, 171, Schumacher College (Devon, U.K.), 80 173–77, 182–83 Schwab Foundation, 105 voluntary simplicity movement, 171–72, 177, Scotland, 72, 186, 187, 188, 190. See also United 178–84 Kingdom social welfare programs, sustainability of, 141 Scott, Lee, 99 soil erosion and fertility, 48 scouting tradition, 58 in no-till/low-till systems, 52 seat belt use public service announcements, 153 in perennial polycultures, 51 Second Nature, 80 permaculture affecting, 53 security issues, 114, 117, 127–32 Soros, George, 105 Sekem, 105, 107 South Africa, 147, 154, 161 Senegal, 41, 42, 43, 45–46 South Korea, 47, 160 September 11th terrorist attacks, 13 Soylent Green (film), 150 7Rs, 59, 61 Spain, 79, 80, 103, 149, 181 Shiva, Vandana, 148 Speth, Gus, 174 shopping, 33, 35, 63, 184 spirituality. See religion Sichuan earthquake (2008), China, 156 SpongeBob Squarepants in Namibia, 64

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 241 Index STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Sprengel, Carl, 48 Thailand, 18, 25, 105, 109 Spurlock, Morgan, 153 Thaler, Richard, 126 Sri Lanka, 132, 189 Three Mile Island, 169 St. Andrews, University of (Scotland), 190 350.org, 156 St. Lucia, 39 Tibet, sky burials in, 32 Standard & Poor U.S. Carbon Efficient Index, Tikopians, sustainable culture change made by, 22 108 time use and work schedules, 83, 91–95, 171, State University of New York–Buffalo, 79 173–77, 182–83 Stockholm Environment Institute, 186 Time with Grandma program, 44–45 Stone, Christopher, 145 TimeWarner, 159 The Story of Stuff (film), 153, 154 Tlingit people of Alaska, 35 storytelling, advertising, and social marketing, Tokyo, University of, 78 151–56 Toor, Will, 79 Stutzin, Godofredo, 145 top runner program, Japan, 125–26 Sunstein, Cass, 126 Torrent, Jordi, 160–61 Supersize Me (film), 153 tourism, sustainable, 121 Sustainable Business Network of Greater Towers Perrin, 95 Philadelphia, 114 towns and cities, 117, 133–37, 180, 184 Sustainable Connections, 110 toy libraries, 65, 66 Sustainable Development Commission/Council toys, 64–66 (U.K.), 119, 124, 1231 traditions, 21–53 Sustainable Development Roundtable, 123 agriculture, sustainable, 22, 47–53 Sweden celebrations and festivals, 10, 32–35, 188 early childhood education in sustainability in, in consumer cultures, 10, 20 61 elders as cultural and environmental resources, green commercial developments in, 172 21–22, 41–46, 185 media literacy in, 160 family size, 21, 36–40 Sustainable Lifestyles project, Marrakech religion, support for sustainable cultures from, Process, 120 20, 21, 23–29, 35 university-level education in, 78 rituals and taboos, 21, 27, 30–35 voluntary simplicity movement, 180 sustainability, reorientation towards, 20 Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, 78 Training the Trainer on Media and Information Switzerland, 120 Literacy Curricula (UNESCO), 159 Sylvan, Richard, 28 Transfair USA, 107 symbols in consumer cultures, 8–9 Transition Towns, 20, 110, 172, 180, 181 transitional agriculture, 53 T transportation/travel taboos and rituals, 21, 27, 30–35 car tax in London, 124 Take Back Your Time movement, 35, 171, in consumer cultures, 14, 17, 18 173–77, 182–83 long-distance travel, attitude towards, 35 Talloires Declaration (1990), 77 natural gas for urban transport, Indian switch Tanzania, 154 to, 124 Taoism, 23, 26, 27 seat belt use public service announcements, Tbilisi Declaration (1977), 76, 80 153 teaching and teachers. See education in urban environments, 134–37 Tech Central Station Science Roundtable, 158 for weddings, 31 Technical University of Catalonia (Spain), 79 World Carfree Day, 35 Telecom, 163 TravelSmart, 135–37 television. See media trees and forest conservation, 25 Temps de Re-voltes, 181 Tsembaga people of New Guinea, 31 TERI University (India), 79 Tsering, Dolma, 185, 189

242 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG STATE OF THE WORLD 2010 Index

Tsha-Tsha (television drama), 154 child tax credits and population levels in, 39 tsunami of 2004, 132 children’s play in, 58, 63, 67 Tucker, Mary Evelyn, 23 choice editing in, 121, 124–25 Turkey, 160 consumer culture in, 6, 9, 10, 11–12, 13, 33 Tuscon Originals, 115 Earth jurisprudence in, 147 TV Turnoff Week, 35 ecovillages in, 186, 187, 190 Twende na Wakati (radio drama), 154 green celebrations in, 35 Twin Oaks ecovillage, Virginia, 187 health and health care in, 138, 139, 140, 142 Twitter, 155, 164 intergenerational learning programs, 44 investment portfolios, sustainability of, 27 U labor productivity and work hours in, 92–95, U2, 168 174–77 UN-Alliance of Civilization, 159–61 military spending in, 129 UNESCO, 46, 55, 76, 79, 120, 159 music and social engagement in, 164 United Kingdom relocalization of businesses in, 110–15 advertising to children in, 67 school meals in, 70, 71 BedZED, 133–34, 136 Slow movement in, 180–83 carbon fasting in, 33–35 social entrepreneurship in, 107 choice editing in, 124, 125 TravelSmart, 135 consumer culture in, 9, 10, 13 university-level education in, 75, 77, 80 Earth jurisprudence in, 147 United Support of Artists, 167 ecovillages in, 186, 187, 188, 190 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 159 green burials in, 33 Universal Declaration of the Rights of Mother London car tax, 124 Earth, call for, 148 media literacy in, 160, 163 university buildings and operations, 79–80 school meals in, 71, 72 university-level education, 56, 75–82 social entrepreneurship in, 103, 104, 107 unlimited growth in limited world, problem of, Sustainable Product project, Marrakech 4–7, 88–88 Process, 120–21 urban environments, 117, 133–37, 180, 184 Transition Towns in, 181 Ure, Midge, 167 TravelSmart, 135 university-level education in, 80 V United Nations vacation time, 175–77 Alliance for Religions and Conservation, part- values and ethics nership with, 23 in consumer cultures, 10, 16, 18, 27, 64–65 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 62 ecocentric versus anthropocentric, 28 Decade of Education for Sustainable Develop- ecovillage movement and, 186, 189 ment, 190 individualistic versus collective, 41, 183 Environment Programme, 52, 76, 131 materialism, 10, 64–65, 179 Framework Convention on Climate Change, religious, 27, 28 37 vegetarianism, 17, 20, 27, 49. See also food/eating Marrakech Process, 118, 120 Viet Nam, 37, 65 Millennium Development Goals, 130 Vivanco, Luis, 8 peacekeeping forces, 130, 131 Volkswagen Beetle advertising campaign, 153 Population Fund, 44 voluntary simplicity movement, 171–72, 177, on security issues of climate change, 129 178–84 World Food Programme, 70–71 von Liebig, Justus, 50 World Youth Report, 2005, 43 United States W advertising to children in, 64, 67 WALL-E (film), 150, 165 carbon indexes for financial markets, 108 Wall, Kevin, 167

BLOGS.WORLDWATCH.ORG/TRANSFORMINGCULTURES 243 Index STATE OF THE WORLD 2010

Walmart Women’s Alliance of Ladakh, 189 Buy Nothing Day at, 184 work. See business choice editing at, 125, 126 World Agroforestry Centre, 52 corporate culture, changing, 99, 100, 101, World Bank Institute, 109 111–12 World Carfree Day, 35 Wals, Arjen, 60 World Conservation Union, 31 Waste Concern (Bangladesh), 104, 105, 107 World Health Organization, 138, 139, 140 waste equals food principle, 106 World Trade Organization, 88 water and water conservation, 14, 25, 53, 131 World Values Survey, 24 Waves of Change (documentary), 163 World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms, weddings, 10, 31 184 Wedgwood, Josiah, 11 World Wrestling Entertainment programming in Weiner, Sanford, 123 Israel, 64 well-being metrics, redefining, 88–89 World Youth Report, 2005 (UN), 43 Welsch, Robert, 8 WTOK-11 (Meridian, Mississippi) news, 158 Western Antarctica ice sheet, 5 Wuthnow, Robert, 183 White, Leslie, 8 wwoofing, 184 Wikipedia, 90 Wild Law (Gaia Foundation), 145–47 Y Wilkinson, Richard, 179 Yale Project on Climate Change, 154 Williams College, 77 Yolngu tribe, Australia, 45 women Yosemite National Park, 176 ageist bias against, 43, 44 Yousman, Bill, 159 childbearing, ecologically sustainable, 21, Youth Commission on Globalisation, 43, 44 36–40 YouTube, 90, 150, 155 female genital mutilation, 45–46 Yunus, Muhammad, 103 introduction of television and rise in eating disorders, 64 Z micro-financing for, 104 Zambia, 161

244 WWW.WORLDWATCH.ORG SCIENCE/ENVIRONMENT 2 0 1 0 STATE OF THE WORLD Transforming Cultures From Consumerism to Sustainability

Advance Praise for State of the World 2010: “If we continue to think of ourselves mostly as consumers, it’s going to be very hard to bring our environmental troubles under control. But it’s also going to be very hard to live the rounded and joyful lives that could be ours. This is a subversive volume in all the best ways!” —Bill McKibben, author of Deep Economy and full image The End of Nature “Worldwatch has taken on an ambitious agenda in this volume. No generation in history has achieved a cultural transformation as sweeping as the one called for here…it is hard not to be impressed with the book’s boldness.” —Muhammad Yunus, founder of the Grameen Bank extreme close-up “This year’s State of the World report is a cultural Several million pounds of plastic mindbomb exploding with devastating force. I hope enter the world’s oceans every hour, it wakes a few people up.” portrayed on the cover by the 2.4 million bits of plastic that make up —Kalle Lasn, Editor of Adbusters magazine Gyre, Chris Jordan’s 8- by 11-foot of the famous 1820s Like a tsunami, consumerism has engulfed human woodblock print, The Great Wave cultures and Earth’s ecosystems. Left unaddressed, we Off Kanagawa, by the Japanese artist risk global disaster. But if we channel this wave, intention- Katsushika Hokusai. ally transforming our cultures to center on sustainability, For discussion questions, we will not only prevent catastrophe but may usher in an additional essays, era of sustainability—one that allows all people to thrive video presentations, and event calendar, visit while protecting, even restoring, Earth. blogs.worldwatch.org/ In this year’s State of the World report, 50+ renowned transformingcultures. researchers and practitioners describe how we can Cover image: Gyre by Chris Jordan harness the world’s leading institutions—education, the Cover design: Lyle Rosbotham media, business, governments, traditions, and social movements—to reorient cultures toward sustainability.

W.W.NORTON B NEWYORK•LONDON www.worldwatch.org