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M. Katičić in Deep and -Theory: A Contribution to Eco-Geological...

ISSN 1848-0071 UDC 171+179.3=111 Recieved: 2013-02-25 Accepted: 2013-03-25 Original scientific paper

HOLISM IN AND GAIA-THEORY: A CONTRIBUTION TO ECO-GEOLOGICAL SCIENCE, A OF OR A STREAM?

MARINA KATINIĆ

Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: [email protected]

In the second half of 20th century three approaches to phenomenon of life and environmental crisis relying to a holistic method arose: ecosophy that gave impetus to the deep ecology movement, Gaia-hypothesis that evolved into an acceptable scientific theory and as one of the New Age spiritual streams. All of this approaches have had different , but came to analogous conclusions on relation man-. The goal of the paper is to introduce the three approaches' theoretical and practical outcomes, compare them and evaluate their potency to stranghten responsibility of man towards Earth ecosystem which is a self-regulating whole which humanity is part of. Key words: holism, ecosophy, deep ecology movement, gaia-theory, new age, responsibility.

Holizam u dubinskoj ekologiji i teoriji Geje: doprinos ekogeološkoj znanosti, filozofija života ili struja New agea? U drugoj polovici 20. stoljeća pojavila su se tri pristupa fenomenu života i ekološkoj krizi s osloncem u holističkoj metodi: ekozofija koja je dala poticaj razvoju pokreta dubinske ekologije, hipoteza Geje koja se razvila u prihvatljivu znanstvenu teoriju i gajanizam kao jedna od New Age duhovnih struja. Ova su se tri pristupa služila različitim metodama, no došla su do analognih zaključaka o odnosu čovjek-ekosustav. Cilj je rada predstaviti navedena tri pristupa, usporediti ih i vrednovati njihovu snagu u podupiranju čovjekove pdgovornosti prema sustavu Zemlje, samoregulativnoj cjelini koje je čovječanstvo dio. Ključne riječi: holizam, ekozofija, pokret dubinske ekologije, teorija geje, new age, odgovornost.

INTRODUCTION

After having observed the Earth from „tribalistic“ as microbiology and ecology in 1966, J. Lovelock, English chemist investigated geoevolution and bioevolution and inventor, started to ponder upon a as two separated objects of research. definition and metamechanism of life as a Eventually, he developed a certain global phenomenon. As such he philosophy of life that depends on an metaphorically described the Planet as a integral – comprising , superorganism./and had a metaphorical experimental science and aesthetical vision of the Planet as a superorganism. fascination. Starting from that vision, not only did he The of A. Naess' ecosophy T come to significant results in Gaia-theory, and the deep ecology movement turned to but he also gave a constructive critic of a have many parallels with Lovelock's notion modern scientific . He criticised of Gaia. Interestingly, both conceptions got the methodology as being reductive and their spiritual and (pseudo)religious

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recognition and interpretation in some New establishing a solid theoretical ground to Age discourses, as they both suggest not just human responsability towards life [1:25]. a cosmic interdependency of beings, but a The paper aims to expose and briefly certain holism refering to human self. compare the two variants of eco-holism; A philosophical approach to an deep ecology and Gaia theory, with special ecological crisis comes down to a regard to position of Croatian historian and fundamental question which relies on a ecological writer Tomislav Markus. It also paradoxical question: how can life, at a aims to shortly consider the relation between certain stage of its natural existence in time – all the three dimensions of relation man – the subjectivity of homo faber – come to the Earth – scientific, philosophical and point of addressing its own life in form of (pseudo) religious, as well as between threat to his survival? The solution to this is holism and reductionism, in order to value it highly problematic as it deals with critically as possible theoretical paths contradictory moments in human condition. towards responsibility and sustainability. However, it is a crucial question to

DEEP ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY DARWINISM

Terms ecosophy and deep ecology framework cosmos is perceived as an were introduced in 1972 by Norwegian organic whole, with species being equal philosopher and environmental activist Arne partners in maintenance of the equilibrium, Naess, meaning philosophy of ecological which opposes ecoanthropocentric . harmony or equilibrium: Naess differs two possible types of “A philosophy as a kind of sofia (or) environmetalism which need not be wisdom, is openly normative, it contains neccessarily compatible: a long-range, deep both norms, rules, postulates, value priority ecology and a shallow ecological movement announcements and hypotheses concerning based on mainstream anthropocentric and the state of affairs in our universe. Wisdom technoconsumer thinking, that rely on is policy wisdom, prescription, not only instrumental rationality. In Naess the scientific description and . The attribute „deep“ suggests a grade of details of an ecosophy will show many theoretical questioning on purposes and variations due to significant differences norms.[3] The proccess that he advocates concerning not only the „facts‟ of pollution, seeks to move from initial theoretical resources, population, etc. but also value (“deep”) assumptions towards practical priorities.” [2:8] actions – a cyclic method having a deductive Naess‟ precursors were Aldo beginning that strives towards concrete, to Leopold‟s land (1887-1848) and come again to the original point. Rachel Carson‟s (1907- However, deep ecology gives primate 1964) that suggested that man should hold to ontology, not ethics, arguing that back from deserting nature for short-term settlement of a mentality preceeds social purposes of civilisation. action. Deep means an ecology asking basic However, ecosophy must be distinguished philosophical questions such as man's from deep ecology movement which, position in the cosmos, mehcanism and although related to it, is theoretically broader meaning of life as a complex and global and practice-driven. In ecosophical phenomenon. At the other hand, Naess was

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aware that ecological movements often have argues be a fundamental human attitude populistic and international character, having towards life. Flourishing of mankind is their actors starting from different possible only if the other species fulfill their and , implying full evolutionary potential, too. variety of cultural and social structures that Consequently, deep ecology aim to solve ecological conflicts, depending advocates biospheric egalitarianism, on local context – so more peculiar diversity, social symbiosis, anticlass posture, ecosophies are possible. complexity instead of complication, local The core of Naess‟ of any authonomy and decentralisation.[5] possible ecosophy is thesis that all beings The other authors have developed have value in themselves and that somewhat different ecosophies oriented biodiversity and cultural variety are values towards social theory of communication, per se. He calls his personal philosophy or religious ecosophy T [4], as being influenced by . As being aware of the differences Norwegian movement of living in the open between various deep ecological air (friluftsliv), Mahayana (all backgrounds, in 1984 Naess has developed world is unity) and Spinozian . (in cooperation with George Sessions) well- This means an known eight fundamental principles that ecosystem in terms of interdependence, integrate deep ecology movement providing interconnectedness and life network in a platform, distinguishing it from more opposition to anthropocentrism which general ecological movement. Four of them suggests a hierarchy of beings and are highlighted as directly relevant for the instrumentalizing the other species to man's topic: purposes. The underlying goal that Naess 1. The well-being and flourishing of promotes is self-realization – the obsession human and non-human life on Earth have of modern man – however, not only for value in themselves. These values are humanity, but for all living beings. The independent of the usefulness of the non- author distinguishes a narrow egoistic self human world for human purposes. from a broadened, ecological Self. The 2. Richness and diversity of life broadend self can be reached in more ways: forms contribute to the realization of these Naess mostly speaks of extension of values and are also values in themselves. identification. Man has a natural capacity to 3. Humans have no right to reduce identify with the other and should cherish this richness and diversity except to satisfy this. Insofar he manages to identify with vital needs. other human nonhuman beings, he 7. The ideological change is mainly acomplishes an inner integration and a sane, that of appreciating quality (dwelling in extended ego. Thus, Self-realization for all situations of inherent worth) rather than beings! becomes a norm based on adhering to an increasingly higher standard transcending the narrow self. of living. There will be a profound Given that, a shift from of the difference between big and anthropocentrism to ecocentrism is on its great. way. In favouring life in small -saving Significantly, in his private letters communities outside of urban, economic Naess claimed that mentioning biodiversity growth and technical expansion-driven world, deep ecology (a practical realization of ecosophy) provides a framework to solidarity and responsibility, which H. Jonas

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and life did not refer to individual oganisms, technical production is incompatible with but totality of organic and inorganic Darwininan adaptation principle which he processes in ecosystem [7: 31]. The other adheres to. Following Riley Dunlap and principles proclaim that present human William Cuttton's critic of modern social interference with the non-human world is constructivism that defines man as primarily excessive, advocate a decrease in human a mutable being through cultural population, require changes in policies, but interpretation/ creation of environment, this is not as significant for a pondering upon Markus criticizes overlooking man's natural holism. Naess also held that different constitution dveloped through ages lived in ecosophies could be built on different wild ecological surroundings, in small tribal traditions and that the eight principles hunter-gatherer communities. He holds that platform were still open to discussion. man's alleged detachment from nature – in Naess called deep ecology new ontological and phisical terms – is a fallacy, philosophy of nature, though he insisted that even an . Starting from naodarwinian it was not an academic philosophical thinking, he defines man as „an animal discourse, or but marked by its evolutionary past and composition of different positions and ideas optimally adapted to life in small groups and [8:199]. wild organic environment, which very teško Despite some general principles, a and with great difficulties can survive in plurality of „ecosophies“ emerged [7: 33- essentially different circumstances“ [7: 11] . 70]. This, as well as of extended This leads to Rousseauan ecological self, as being close to of technical civilisation as man's alianation transpersonal psychology and its idea of from his genuine position. Markus, further transpersonal self, linked some aspects of analyzing the biological and anthropological deep ecology to New Age, liberal secular data, adopts a rather radical view that „in religion that permits plurality of streams. biological evolution cannot occur Naess himself firmly claimed that deep because bacteria and all of the lower ecology was not a religion, but had a had adopted optimally to all religious dimension. It encourages re- circumstances, as well as because of the sacralisation of nature as mysterious cradle optimal adaptation of more complex of all life, an appropriate whole in which organisms to the realm of bacteria. In human man finds its true maternal home. For its history progress cannot occur for man's ecocentristic shift, majority of deep ecologist accomodation to tribal [which has have been reluctant to conform to comprised 99 % human and 99% hominide Judeochristian tradition and more prone to history] and his inaptitude to abrupt cultural adopt some views of buddhism (source of changes such as building up civilisations discontentment is wish to possess), and, in particular, modern cities.“ [7:36] (omnipresence of divinity, unity of cosmos), Also, there is no ontological (living in harmony with the supreme discontinuity between man and the other principle) and jainism (Jaina dharma or species, opposite to what has been held by principle). In general, deep dominant Western philosophical tradition. ecology movement insists in change of Markus sees in neodarwinism (Darwinism conscience of an individual and his lifestyle, combined with Mendelian genetics) a solid it does not encompass far-reaching political scientific ground for main deep ecological programmes. holistic views – that man is a part of the In Tomislav Markus' view, whole of nature and not a being that can perceiving progress as expansion of transcend, master and overcome it – so his

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position is (neo)darwinian deep ecology. Markus rejects evolutionary This view is permeated with critic of settled determinism as concept of survival of the culture that started with a turning point – fittest and considers the cooperation factor as discovery of agriculture: man's immanence important for successful adaptation. man in wilderness was natural, as a result of Most of the deep ecologists consider long and slow evolution, and man's sustainable developement concept shallow transcendence, expansion and affecting the and unrealistic as they do not believe that environment (a mark of settled culture) is an sophisticated technology can help preser- artificial deviation of man's natural vation of the key (rainforests, constitution (In Markus, pathological atti- etc.), as it maintains the logic or tude towards aging, , sexuality and death urban, technicized framework that defines is a risult of man's incapacity to adapt to the man as ontologically dettached from nature technical environment of urban civilisation). [7: 72-73]. Markus follows this view, Given that, Baconian project of mastering suggesting that only preservation of the nature and instrumental rationality that wilderness and readopting appropriate small- brought to its technical realization, is an community lifestyles could direct ecology to ontological fallacy. the right way. How this be realized he does The ecological crisis is a material not propose, as this is not an issue of deep consequence of a false philosophical ecology and evolutionary biology. paradigm – exemptionism which suggests Markus remindes of reliable that man, as distinguished from other species scientific evidence which explains man's in terms of superiority and dignity, is not natural constitution in terms of restricted with ecological limitations. In interdependence and holism, giving a Markus' view, what links neodarwinian constructive critic of modern/postmodern evolutionism to deep ecology is – holism. constructivism. Also, he emphasizes positive Accordingly, while humanistic contributions of deep ecology to a right constructivsm (the idea that main is approacht to ecsoystems. However, he left a primarily a cultural being so the notion of ground problem intact: the anthropological nature is a culturale construct) nourishes evidence that man as such has ever since individualism, liberal policies and been both natural and cultural being ecoanthropocentrism which urge ecological relatively emancipated from his , destruction, the core of crisis cannot be capable of intepreting experience through addressed unless one gets back to the basic symbolic and radicaly change the truths, namely that man is fully independent nature, including himself. The inner clash on other species and that no specie has real between those two human , the core evolutionary superiority but perhaps those of ecological crisis, lays in condicio humana that have best adopted and survived for the itself. Also, he does not say wheather longest period of time, the microorganisms. hystorical processes are reversible or not.

GAIA-THEORY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS

When J. Lovelock first in 1966 citic, provoking a sparkling debate and formulated Gaia-hypothesis, which would be research activity. It was based on chemical later developed into Gaia-theory, it was first science, intuition and an aesthetical ignored in scientific circles, later it bore experience in observing planet Earth as a

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whole from the space: a chance to look at the regulation, Lovelock defined an important azure-green Earth from a spacecraft gave trait of all life through termodinamics: rise to author's thought of the planet as a reversal of entropy through exchange of living organism. Emotional response to the energy. complex beauty he was touched with urged In first edition of his first book his further research and reflections. Later „Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth“ (1969) Lovelock find out that Y. M. Korolenko and he explained that by term Gaia he did not V.I.Vernadskij aldredy had formulated idea meant biosphere but „the superorganism of „Earth-being“, as well as that James composed of all life tightly coupled with the Hutton had in 1785 called Earth a air, the oceans, and the surface rocks.“ metaorganism whose phisiology should be [10:10] explored. He described Gaia using a As a starting point, Lovelock tried to metaphorical language, talking of her as if explore possible answers to question what is she were known to be sentient: life and how it can be recognized. He noted „...the quest for Gaia is an attempt to find the the incapacity of microbiology, biology and largest living creature on Earth.“ [10:1] ecology to define and understand life on When idea that chemical composition Earth in its logic and totality. The living of the and oceans was beings, he held, once they have developed, biologically controlled got spread, it interact with their environment and affect it, provoked twofold critic by microbiologist making it suitable for further developement Ford Doolittle and biologists R. Dawkins of life forms. Lovelock noted that and S. J.Gould. Firstly, they objected that compositional changes in planetary hypothesis suggested teleology in evolution atmosphere were associated with the which would contradict Darwinian principles presence of life„Furthermore, any planetary of accidental mutations, adaptation and biota which interacts with its atmosphere natural selection. In a consequent evolutio- will drive that atmosphere to a state of nionism, organisms do not act purposefully disequilibrium which, if recognized, would and no predeterminism is possible. All also constitute direct evidence of life, lliving beings have no influence but to their provided the extent of the disequilibrium is phenotype, argued Dawkins. Also, significantly greater than abiological climatologist Stephen Schneider and processes would permit.“ [9] geochemist H. D. Holland argued that The pivotal hypothesis he proposed geological evolution schould be attributed was that the planet Earth – with its four solely to chemical and phisical forces, not components – atmosphere, , biota. and biosphere – was an integral In „The Ages of Gaia“ (1979) self-regulating system. Through cybernetic Lovelock admitted the first criticism, mechanism, evolution of living explainig that his metaphoric discourse did oganisms has been tightly coupled with the not aim to suggest that Gaia was a general geoevolution, making Earth a superbeing with some kind of personal suitable habitat for life. Evidently, biota . The evolution process could influence abiotic world in terms of not be intended or planned; the cybernetic regulation of temperature, composition of feedbek of the self-regulating Gaia has been atmosphere and salinity of the oceans. automatic. Gaia-theory, Lovelock argued, The state of dynamic is was not a denial but an altering complement reached as long a significant impact is not to Darwinism, to adaptation and natural made, to be regained. Apart from self- selection principle. The second criticism he

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mostly refuted as there was a clear evidence ecosystem led to two opposite views – first, that Earth's crust and sediments were either that a large number od species is redundant product of living beings or changed by them. and second, that biodiversity enables Moreover, Lovelock argues, living beings do equilibrium be maintained. An eleven year adapt to the environment that is affected by study has shown that biodiversity is really the other living beings. Atmospheric oxygen functional for an ecosystem's stability. [6: and nitrogen have originated from plants and 137-142] microorganisms. Given that, Lovelock Whereas deep ecology is generally maintained, on the planetary level, living critical towards „green consumism“ and world is so connected with the environment highly distrustful towards technology as that ordinary meaning of „adaptation“ is means to sustainability, Lovelock has had useful no longer. different views. In 1966 he argued that Lovelock suggested that growth of an pollution was a natural proccess, organism affects its physical and chemical omnipresent in the self-regulating chemistry environment; so the evolution of the species of Earth system. In addition, Gaia-theory and the evolution of the rocks are tightly observes life as a whole, in its totality; as a coupled as a single, indivisible process. whole, life does need to reproduce. A Therefore, evolution should be observed as prognosis that man's industrial activities are evolution of Gaia, not of biosphere or solid fouling the nest and pose a threat to the total Earth matter alone, which makes core of his life of the planet are unrealistic as the first holism. and most resistent forms of life – anaerobic „... even pieces of wood and metal when bacterial and other microscopic organisms – specifically designed and assembled may have maintained their presence in Gaia achieve a composite with its own through eons. characteristic signature, as distinct from However, distruction of the vital being the mere sum of its parts.“ [11:18] areas of Gaia that are crucial for ensuring the Lovelock rejects „tribalism“ of living conditions (littoral areas, rainforests overspecialized : in his view, and oceans) would greatly harm human and biology, ecology and Earth sciences should some other species. The core problem he join together in a new Gaia-appropriate sees in reductionist and partial scope of science – geophisiology. His holism is modern natural sciences, which do not descernible also in his claim that life should encourage holistic thinking that all the be explored as a global phenomenon, as it matter and chemicals in the system are shows its essential traits as widespred on the connected. In addition, problem is generated planet: in „carnivore tribe mentality“ of partial „There can be no partial occupation of a interes prevailing in avrage man. Although planet by living organisms. It would be as personally incredulous towards sustainable impermanent as half an animal. The developement concept as tied to liberal presence of sufficient living organisms on a market economies, Lovelock does not planet is needed for the regulation of the believe that preservation of major living environment. Where there is incomplete conditions for humans could succeed occupation, the ineluctable forces of physical without a sophisticated technology. and chemical evolution would soon render it In „The Revenge of Gaia“ (2006) he uninhabitable“ [12: 78]. warns that the Gaia system has its There rose a question whether a limitations; when dynamic equilibrium is number of species mattered for maintanance sufficiently disturbed, Gaia would give a of optimal habitable conditions in an risponse:

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„We have grown in number to the chemical, biological and human components. point where our presence is perceptibly The interactions and disabling the planet like a disease. As in between the component parts are complex human diseases there are four possible and exhibit multi-scale temporal and spatial outcomes: destruction of the invading variability. The understanding of the natural desease organisms; chronic infection; dynamics of the Earth System has advanced destruction of the host; or symbiosis – a greatly in recent years and provides a sound lasting relationship pf mutual benefit to the basis for evaluating the effects and host and the invader.“ [11: 8] consequences of human-driven change.” Alhough Lovelock himself in „The [13] Ages of Gaia“ refuted his preliminary thesis Gaia Conference in 2006 in (that life on Earth actively keeps the surface Arlington, Virginia, USA was a second great conditions always favourable for whatever is academic event dedicated to promotion of the contemporary esemble for organisms) the concept. and revisted the concept, with course of time One of Lovelock's notes tend to Gaia-theory got its recognition from affirm deep ecological point about holistic scientific research and application in approach as a wisdom shared by pleople biogeochemistry, Earth System Science and when atteched to nature: . To present the theory, Lovelock „Scientists are usually condemned to lead also developed Daisy world, a model that urban , but I find that country people has proved stable in mathematical terms. still living close to the Earth often seem The Amsterdam Declaration of 2001 puzzled that anyone should need to make a was first to publicly affirm the concept: formal proposition of anything as obvious as “The Earth System behaves as a single, self- the Gaia hypothesis. For them it is true and regulating system comprised of physical, always has been.“ [10:26]

HOLISM AND NEW AGE

New Age developes at the beginning as oriental and esoteric teachings conformed of second half of 20th century on foundations with Western subjectivism are major traits of of destructed Enlightenment‟s myth of New Age paradigm; it is best defined as a progress. It grew out of disappointment with patchwork postsecular whose Western scientific-technological project central goal is to lead an individual towards driven by instrumental rationality that had self-fulfillment through the extension of evidently failed to solve social problems it counsciousness. New Age greatly favours has been generating. New Age is a naturalistic pantheism. From its beginning, it phenomenon of postsecular desire for the has contributed to growth of ecological sacred, a variant of what Mircea Eliade calls sensibility. religious nostalgy and ontological As foretold, deep ecology has some obsession.[18:58] It is hard to define it as it ovelapping elements with transpersonal is a heterogene compilation of numerous psychology which is characteristic for New elements from various scientific, religious, Age: one should pursuit for the extended esoteric, and philosophical traditions. ecological Self through identification with Rejection of dogmas, syncretism, holism, other beings in the universal life network. plurality, , experience- Some New Age streams promote living in seeking, sacralisation of psychology as well simple and sustainable manner. Both deep

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ecological and Gaian holism are potent to from deep ecological or Gaia-tehorety one. affect postsecular subject. The example of Whereas the letter are theoretical views that tihs is James Cameron' successful use of it in tend to be routed in science (in case of Gaia- his famous movie, Avatar theory) and disciplined philosophy (in case (2009). Harmony with nature and its lows as of deep ecology), New Age holism is an automatic harmony with oneself is expressed in mixed terminologies, often in strongly encouraged in New Age, with very general or hermetic terms that coquet holistic approach being one of its both with theoretical phisics, Eastern identification cards. and hermetic philosophical As Gaia-theory was named after streams. Greek mythological godess-Earth, some Generally, it suggests that the energy authors incorporated it in New Age which makes the whole universe consists of teachings thus constructing gaianism, a consciousness, which is an universal spirituality that considers cherishing that in a mysterious way supports the connectedness with Gaia – „life network“ – material world as its basic matter. Intending necessary for man's fullfilment, global to take quantum physics into consideration, homeostasis and world peace realization. Amit Goswami suggests: Accordingly, anthropogene influence to Gaia „As experiencer [of the nonlocal should be minimized. Some more radical consciousness] I operate from outside the variants of gaianism hold that Gaia has system – transcending my -mind that is counsciousness – so consciousness of living localized in space-time – from behind the beings, not exclusively humans, is preserved veil of the tangled hierarchy of my brain- after their bodies get disintegrated. A Gaian mind‟s systems. My separateness – my ego – manifesto („General Statements of “) emerges only as the apparent agency for the of sorts proclaims: free will of this cosmic “I,” obscuring the „Sacred Evolution! discontinuity in space-time that the collapse This Universal power imbued in all things of the quantum brain-mind state represents“ Toward preservation [17:192] . In ever-changing manifestation An another example of New Age Beloved Gaian expression holism-approach is found in bestselling self- I sing Your song Great Mother help manual The Secret (2006) by Rhonda For we know ourselves Bryne: And all of our siblings “Everything is energy. You are an energy Through You!“ [16] magnet, so you electrically energize The understanding of divinity in everything to you and electrically energize gaianism is left to individual definition. yourself to everything you want.” Gaia-theory has had some echoes in „We are all connected and we are all One.“ feministic theology, too. [17] [19: 191] However, whereas deep ecology and „ confirms it [the Gaia-theory are rationally worried for the Secret]. Quantum cosmology confirms it. human future in life network, New Age/ That the Universe essentially Next Age are permeated by a emerges from thought and all of this matter futurist optimism, looking foward to close around us is just precipitated thought. future where a turning point will take place Ultimately we are the source of the – a new enlightened mentality will lead the Universe, and when we understand that West towards true blossom of freedom and power directly by experience, we can start to harmony. Also, New Age holism differs exercise our authority and begin to achieve

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more and more. ...[...]...Know anything from tism which carefully avoids scientific within the field of our own consciousness, discipline and theoretical consistency. It is which ultimately is Universal consciousness ecocentricly oriented, however, not very that runs the Universe. . . . So we are the interested in bringig proposals of social creators, not only of our own destiny, but action. ultimately we are the creators of Universal There are two for that. First, destiny. [...] If everything is One Universal similarly to deep ecology, New Age is not Consciousness that as a whole exists directed towards coordinated social action, everywhere, then this whole Conciousness is but towards extension of an individual in You! [19:191-912] consciousness, in order to increase an As evident, New Age discourse individual life's quality. expresses the idea of unity of the cosmos Secondly, it rejects dogmas and using a „holistic approach“, which would norms so is meek in morality. Given these comprehend both science and . traits, it turns to be a peculiar postsecular However, it is usually a pseudoreligion. terminological and methodological syncre-

CONCLUSION

Life is a complex phenomenon, not self-distructive dettachment can go so far to apprehensible by methodological apparatus call civilization a form of sickness, a of one single science, not even of natural complete self-alienation of man – a sciences exclusively. It is characterized by Nietzschean idea which Markus adopts attributes that stay wondrous and fascinating, through neodarwinism joined to deep both for urban scientist and people that live ecology. close to nature: from formation of the first Comparatively, as a rational subject, living matter on, all the organic systems man is the only being whose appropriate have been transactive, entropy-reductive, attitude towards the ecosystem is self-regulating, self-differentiating and responsibility. It is man‟s self-transcendent developing towards greater complexity. As a and mutable nature that enables his eventual natural being, man is dependent on other identification with other species and the life- forms of life and part of the great self- guarding network which Naess proposes. regulating natural system. Ony man can articulate the idea of other Techical civilization, driven by species‟ right to fulfill their evovutionary instrumental rationality and economical potential and excercise it, which Naess growth as supreme value, penetrates the advocates. areas of key importance for mantaining the Lovelock's methodological holism habitable conditions for humans in the Earth which brought him to Gaia-theory and system. There is anthropological evidence pleading for Earth System Science as an that man has ever since been both natural appropriate discipline to life-research, is a and cultural specie, the latter being his science-accepted fruit of independent differentia specifica among higher primates. holistic thinking. [13] Rejecting every kind Culture is related to restraint of of scientific reductionism, he correctly instincts and self-transcendence which in a argued that a better look at life is achieved if peculiar way dettaches man from his it is observed as a phenomenon of a whole material ground – nature. The critic of this which is of a different quality than a mere

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summation of its parts: „Gaia is a new solution is abong the most challenging and telescope for observing life on Earth, a new most difficult to find, as the problem springs theoretical model.“ [12:46] from condicio humana as such. Considering New Age mentality brings man's culturality as a fallacy, as well as environment and transpersonal self into proposing the return to premordial tribal focus. However, its pseudoscientific and lifesyle in wilderness, does not seem pseudoreligious holism (all is one and one is realistic. all) is shallow as it does not meet criteria of However, deep ecology and Gaia- consistency and does not nourish austere theory may be a source of motivation to responsibility for there lacks ground of developing risponsibility in terms of simple morality. and fulfilling lifestyles, as well as The problem of anthropogene sustainable policies. A form of liberating intervention in the self-regulating Earth ascetism is to be suggested and discovered. system that supports (also) human habitation As a risponsible, both natural and cultural and the quality of life is the most urgent. The being, man is capable of this.

REFERENCES

[1] H. Jonas, „Pokušaj jedne etike za idigenous people lifestyles and tehnološku civilizaciju“, Veselin technological solutions that they may Masleša, Sarajevo, 1990. offer is particularly appreciated.

[2] A. Drengson, Y. Inoue (eds), The Deep [6] R. E. Leakey; R. Lewin: “The Sixth Ecology Movement: An Introductory Extinction: Biodiversity And Its Anthology, North Atlantic Books, Survival“, Phoenix (1996) pp. 137– Berkeley (1995). 142.

[3] Naess differs four grades of [7] T. Markus, „Dubinska ekologija i quastioning and articulation of the suvremena ekološka kriza. Jedan environmental attitudes: the first grade bioekološki pogled“, Hrvatsko consists of ground assumptions, the sociološko društvo i Institut za second of the principles that underline društvena istraživanja, Zagreb (2006). the deep ecology movement, the third of policies and the fourth practical [8] M. Zimmerman (ed.), Environmental actions. Philosophy, Prentice Hall, New York (2001). [4] „T“ comes from „Tvergastein“, a Norwegian mountain where Naess [9] J. Lovelock, „Life Detection by used to stay. „Tolkining“ is Atmospheric “, Icarus: Norwegian for „interpretation“. International Journal of the Solar System, Vol. 7 (1967), No.4. [5] In context of deep ecology movement some peculiar appear: [10] J. Lovelock, „Gaia – A New Look at bioregionalism, natural capitalism, Life on Earth“, Oxford University transpersonal ecology, psychoecology Press (1979). etc. Besides, value of genuine

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M. Katičić Holism in Deep Ecology and Gaia-Theory: A Contribution to Eco-Geological...

[11] J. Lovelock, „The Revenge of Gaia. Rythms of Nature“, HarperCollins Why the Earth is fighting back and Publishers, Inc., San Francisco (2004). How we can still save humanity“, Penguin Books Ltd., London (2007). [16] http://www.gaianism.com/index.php?o [12] J. Lovelock, „The Ages of Gaia. A ption=com_content&view=article&id= Biography of Our Living Earth“, 4&Itemid=. W.W.W Norton & Company, New York (1988). [17] A. Primavesi, „Gaia' s Gift: Earth, Ourselves and God after Copernicus“, [13] The Amsterdam Declaration On Routlege, New York (2004). (2001), http://www.essp.org/index.php?id=41. [18] A. Geoswami, „Self-aware Universe“, Penguin Putnam Inc., New York [14] M. Eliade, „Sveto i profano“, AGM, (1993). Zagreb (2002). [19] R. Brne, „The Secret“, Atria Books, [15] Starhawk (M. Simos), „The Earth Path. New York (2006). Grounding Your Spirituality in the

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