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Bond to Society, Collectivism, and Conformity: a Comparative Study of Japanese and American College Students

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Bond to Society, Collectivism, and Conformity: a Comparative Study of Japanese and American College Students Cleveland State University EngagedScholarship@CSU Sociology & Criminology Faculty Publications Sociology & Criminology Department 7-2009 Bond to Society, Collectivism, and Conformity: A Comparative Study of Japanese and American College Students. Miyuki Fukushima Cleveland State University, [email protected] Susan F. Sharp University of Oklahoma Norman Campus Emiko Kobayashi Kanazawa University Follow this and additional works at: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/clsoc_crim_facpub Part of the Race and Ethnicity Commons, Social Control, Law, Crime, and Deviance Commons, and the Sociology of Culture Commons How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! Publisher's Statement This is an Author’s Accepted Manuscript of an article published in Deviant Behavior, July 2009, available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/10.1080/01639620802296212. Repository Citation Fukushima, Miyuki; Sharp, Susan F.; and Kobayashi, Emiko, "Bond to Society, Collectivism, and Conformity: A Comparative Study of Japanese and American College Students." (2009). Sociology & Criminology Faculty Publications. 101. https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/clsoc_crim_facpub/101 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Sociology & Criminology Department at EngagedScholarship@CSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Sociology & Criminology Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of EngagedScholarship@CSU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. bond to society, collectivism, and conformity: a comparative study of Japanese and American college students Miyuki Fukushima and Susan F. Sharp Department of Sociology, University of Oklahoma, Normal, Oklahoma, USA Emiko Kobayashi Foreign Language Institute, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan An argument is developed that the purported collectivism in Japanese society generates stronger social bonds in Japan than in the more individualistic United States, which might then explain the lower level of deviance often found in Japan. We test this using survey data from samples of Japanese and American college students on measures of deviance and social bonds. Results indicate that Japanese students engage in significantly less deviance than Americans, and Funding for the surveys reported was provided by the College of Arts and Sciences, Uni- versity of Oklahoma and by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research #16730274 from the Japa- nese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Emiko Kobayashi, investigator). An earlier version of this article was presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southwes- tern Social Science Association in 2005. We are most grateful to Dr. Harold G. Grasmick for his contributions to collecting the U.S. data and his invaluable input into the manuscript. We also thank anonymous reviewers of this journal for their insightful comments and critiques. Address correspondence to Miyuki Fukushima, Department of Sociology, University of Oklahoma, 780 Van Vleet Oval, Kaufman Hall, Room 342, Norman, OK 73019, USA. E-mail: [email protected] although variables from Hirschi’s (1969) social control theory behave similarly across cultures as predictors of deviance, the theory failed to account for the lower level of deviance among Japanese. INTRODUCTION The contrast in crime rates between Japan and the United States carries salience for comparative sociology, as Japan is a non-Western country that is relatively comparable to the United States in economic development. Scholars have repeat- edly noted evidence of much lower crime rates in Japan than in the United States and other Western nations (see Adler 1983; Braithwaite 1989; Dussich et al. 2001; Gruszczynska 2002; Hendry 1989; Komiya 1999; Roberts and Lafree 2001, 2004). However, only a handful of studies (e.g., Grasmick and Kobayashi 2002; Kobayashi and Grasmick 2002; Kobaya- shi et al. 2001; Vazsonyi et al. 2004) have used comparable self-report data demonstrating lower levels of deviance among Japanese than Americans or used conventional theories of deviance to attempt to explain this difference. The present study employs identical self-reported deviance measures administered to samples of Japanese and American college students in April 2003. Although our study deals with the relatively nondeviant group of college students, we none- theless found the expected difference in the levels of deviance between the Japanese and American samples—the level of deviance measured in this study is lower among the Japanese students. Our research is guided by the literature on collectivis- tic and individualistic culture in comparative sociology and psychology, which we argue can be tied to Travis Hirschi’s (1969) social control theory of deviance as an explanation of compliance with norms. We hypothesize that social bonds will be stronger in a collectivistic culture like Japan, leading to higher levels of compliance with norms. Our survey contains direct measures of variables from Hirschi’s social control theory to test the hypothesis that Japanese engage in less deviant behavior because they are more strongly bonded than Americans to conventional society. Hirschi (1969) argues that his social control theory is applicable in explaining deviant behaviors across groups and cultures and should explain differences in levels of deviance between groups (see also Chapple et al. 2005; for a similar argument concerning Gottfredson and Hirschi’s more recent self-control theory, see Tittle and Botchkovar 2005)—the two important issues for comparative criminol- ogy originally raised by feminist scholars. Namely, can crim- inological theory (1) explain equally well delinquency= deviance of different groups and (2) account for the differ- ences in the level of delinquency=deviance of groups? The first issue pertains to the generalizability or applicability of a theory of deviance across diverse groups, whereas the sec- ond issue pertains to how well a theory accounts for the gap in deviance between groups. Hirschi (1969) argues that as a universal theory of deviance, his social control theory should account for both of these issues. Some empirical studies testing Hirschi’s social control theory of deviance, or part of the theory, beyond Western culture have been reported. Without exception, however, all these studies test the theory within only non-Western cultures and thus lack a comparison group from a Western culture. These studies can demonstrate only whether social bond variables affect deviance beyond Western culture or whether Hirschi’s social control theory is applicable in non-Western culture (i.e., the first issue). They cannot, how- ever, demonstrate whether social bond variables can account for differences in levels of deviance across cultures (i.e., the second issue). Using comparable data from Japa- nese and American college students on deviance and social bonds, our main objective is to examine the second issue, that is, can Hirschi’s social control theory account for the expected gap in deviance between Japanese and American students? HIRSCHI’S SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY Travis Hirschi (1969) introduced a refined version of control theory into the field of deviance, building on existing control theories (cf., Reckless 1967), and focusing on the social bond. Hirschi draws a sharp distinction between control the- ory, which emphasizes constraints against deviance, and other theories that concentrate on factors that push people into deviance, such as Merton’s anomie theory (see also Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990; Kornhauser 1978). For control theory, all actors are assumed to be equally motivated to transgress, but people vary in the constraints they experience that more or less prevent them from acting on this universal motivation to engage in acts of force and fraud in pursuit of their self-interest; thus, control theory is about these constraints. According to Hirschi (1969), the controls or constraints acting on individuals and preventing deviance are found in their bonds to conventional society. Deviance occurs when ‘‘[an] individual’s bond to society is weak or broken’’ (Hirschi 1969:16). In other words, the stronger an individual’s bond to society, the less likely the individual is to deviate from societal norms. Hirschi (1969) identifies four elements of the social bond: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. The ele- ment of attachment is the ‘‘bond of affection’’ to conventional persons and institutions. Commitment refers to the ‘‘stakes in conformity that are built up by pursuit of, and by a desire to achieve, conventional goals’’ (Hirschi 1969:162). Involve- ment, as argued by Hirschi (1969:185) is ‘‘the most obviously related to delinquent behavior,’’ for the more time people spend in conventional activities, the less time they have for delinquent and criminal activities. Finally, for Hirschi (1969:198), the element of belief in the legitimacy of law is related to deviance in that the ‘‘absence of (effective) beliefs’’ that forbid deviance, free one to engage in it. A handful of studies test Hirschi’s version of social control theory in Asian societies (Hwang and Akers 2003; Miller 1992; Saito 2002; Shoemaker 1994; Tanioka and Glaser 1991; Wang et al. 2002; Zhang and Messner 1995, 1996). Generally, but with exceptions, they find some evidence that in Asian samples at least some of the elements of the social bond are linked to lower levels of self-reported deviance. Notable anomalies are Zhang and Messner (1996) in China and Hwang and Akers (2003) in South Korea,
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