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Culture-Specific Patterns in the Prediction of Life Satisfaction: Roles of Emotion, Relationship Quality, and Self-Esteem

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Culture-Specific Patterns in the Prediction of Life Satisfaction: Roles of Emotion, Relationship Quality, and Self-Esteem 10.1177/0146167203255986PERSONALITYKang et al. / CULTURE, AND SOCIAL EMOTION, PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE BULLETIN SATISFACTION Culture-Specific Patterns in the Prediction of Life Satisfaction: Roles of Emotion, Relationship Quality, and Self-Esteem Sun-Mee Kang Phillip R. Shaver Stanley Sue University of California, Davis Kyung-Hwan Min Seoul National University Hauibin Jing Sun Yet–Sen University This study was conducted to explore the culture-specific roles of Smith, & Shao, 1995), such as differences in resources to emotion, relationship quality, and self-esteem in determining meet basic needs, upward or downward comparison life satisfaction. It was hypothesized that maintaining good among societies, and cultural differences in valuing per- interpersonal relationships would make individuals in sonal happiness. However, less attention has been paid collectivistic cultures not only feel good about their lives but also to another kind of cross-cultural difference: relative feel better about themselves. Furthermore, two emotion vari- importance of predictors that contribute to life ables—emotional expression and emotion differentiation—were satisfaction. proposed as possible determinants of relationship quality. It was Life satisfaction is a multifaceted construct that refers hypothesized that emotional expressiveness would be more impor- to one’s overall evaluation of life domains such as health, tant for maintaining good interpersonal relationships in indi- finances, job, self-esteem, and interpersonal relation- vidualistic societies but emotion differentiation would be more ships (Michalos, 1991). Societies differ in the emphasis important in collectivistic cultures. These hypotheses were tested they place on certain values and resources, so it seems with Euro-American, Asian American, Korean, and Chinese likely that the life satisfaction levels of members in vari- groups using multigroup analyses in a structural equation ous societies are influenced to different degrees by model. Results supported all proposed hypotheses and indicated various predictors of life satisfaction. Two predictors of that emotion differentiation contributes to maintaining good life satisfaction—self-esteem and the quality of inter- interpersonal relationships in collectivistic cultures, which personal relationships, which is defined as maintaining contributes to self-esteem and satisfaction with life. good interpersonal relationships with others—have Authors’ Note: This research was supported in part by a grant from the Keywords: culture; emotion; interpersonal relationships; life Pacific Rim Research Program of the University of California. Portions satisfaction of this research were presented at the meetings of the Western Psycho- logical Association, Maui, Hawaii, May 2001. We are grateful to Anita E. Kelly, Ke-Hai Yuan, Jo Kung-Chiao Hsieh, Stephen D. Jefferson, and Cultural differences in life satisfaction have been well anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier versions of documented (e.g., Diener & Diener, 1995; Michalos, this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- 1991; Myers & Diener, 1995). One major finding is that dressed to Sun-Mee Kang, who is now at the Department of Psychology, individuals in collectivistic cultures report lower life sat- California State University, 18111 Nordhoff Street, Northridge, CA 91330-8255; e-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]. isfaction than people in individualistic cultures. Various PSPB, Vol. 29 No. 12, December 2003 1596-1608 explanations have been offered for this difference (e.g., DOI: 10.1177/0146167203255986 Diener & Lucas, 2000; Diener & Suh, 1999; Diener, Suh, © 2003 by the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc. 1596 Kang et al. / CULTURE, EMOTION, AND LIFE SATISFACTION 1597 received much attention from cross-cultural psycholo- independently predict life satisfaction, Kwan et al. tested gists because the core priorities of individualism (e.g., the model using a multigroup analysis in a structural independence and uniqueness) and collectivism (e.g., equation model. The data from college students in the fitting into a web of interpersonal relationships) are United States and Hong Kong suggested that whereas closely associated with self-esteem and relationship self-esteem was a more important predictor of life satis- quality, respectively (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, faction than relationship harmony among students in 1989). the United States, the two domains contributed equally to The main purpose of the present study is to explore life satisfaction among students in Hong Kong. Their culture-specific patterns in the prediction of life satisfac- results were replicated by Uchida, Kitayama, Mesquita, tion, focusing on the relative importance of relationship and Reyes (2001). Although Uchida et al.’s concepts quality in collectivistic cultures. To address this goal, we were somewhat different from those of Kwan et al. (i.e., first argue that previous studies failed to reveal impor- happiness and perceived social support instead of life tant culture-specific patterns because of (a) misspeci- satisfaction and relationship harmony), Uchida et al. fications of models that predict life satisfaction and (b) obtained a comparable pattern of results: Self-esteem assessing relationship quality based on only a few close was more important than perceived social support in relationships. As an alternative model, we propose that predicting happiness in the U.S. sample, whereas these relationship quality predicts not only life satisfaction but two factors contributed equally to happiness in samples also self-esteem in collectivistic societies when a new from Japan and the Philippines. measure of relationship quality is employed. We also These studies suggest that relationship quality is not demonstrate the significant roles of emotion in the as important in collectivistic cultures as theories of indi- culture-specific psychological processes that determine vidualism and collectivism have implied (Kagitcibasi, relationship quality and self-esteem. 1995; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989, 1995), at least where the prediction of life satisfaction is con- RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF RELATIONSHIP cerned. However, this conclusion may be premature. QUALITY IN COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURES Careful examination of the previous studies suggests to us that the relation between self-esteem and relationship A review of previous studies on life satisfaction, self- quality was incorrectly conceptualized in their structural esteem, and relationship quality reveals somewhat equation models, which led to underestimation of the perplexing findings: Although the importance of main- importance of relationship quality in predicting life taining good interpersonal relationships in collectivistic satisfaction. cultures has been underscored by a number of theorists (e.g., Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989), empiri- cal studies have not seemed to support that argument. REFINING THE RELATION BETWEEN For example, Diener and Diener (1995) were among the SELF-ESTEEM AND RELATIONSHIP QUALITY first to discuss the relative contributions of self-esteem In Kwan et al.’s study (1997), self-esteem and relation- and interpersonal relationships to life satisfaction in ship harmony were constrained to be independent, individualistic and collectivistic cultures. After analyzing which was supported by their data. Kwan et al. did not data from 31 countries (Michalos, 1991), they found that provide the reasoning behind this independence self-esteem was a more important predictor of life satis- hypothesis but the hypothesis might make sense from an faction in individualistic than in collectivistic societies. individualistic perspective. It has been argued that self- This finding was consistent with expectations derived esteem in individualistic cultures is based mainly on per- from the core assumptions of individualism. However, sonal achievement and self-expression (Markus & Diener and Diener (1995) also found no difference in Kitayama, 1991), as depicted in “expressive individual- the association between family satisfaction and life satis- ism” (Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, & Tipton, faction between individualistic and collectivistic societ- 1985). Having good relationships with others might not ies. Furthermore, the relation between friendship satis- necessarily boost self-esteem in those societies, although faction and life satisfaction was much stronger in it certainly contributes to life satisfaction. However, this individualistic than in collectivistic cultures. This made it independence hypothesis may not work in collectivistic seem that quality of interpersonal relationships might cultures because maintaining harmonious interper- actually matter more in individualistic than in collectiv- sonal relationships with others may be important for istic cultures. both self-esteem and life satisfaction: If the basic value of The results from Kwan, Bond, and Singelis’s study collectivism is connectedness with others and maintain- (1997) also did not support the importance of relation- ing good interpersonal relationships with others is con- ship quality in collectivistic societies. After proposing a sidered to be “a culturally mandated task” (Markus & model in which self-esteem and relationship harmony Kitayama, 1991, p. 230), performing the task successfully 1598 PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN should lead members of collectivist societies to feel their sense of self (Aron
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