Volume 5, Issue 2, February – 2020 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology ISSN No:-2456-2165 Overview of Himalayan Medicinal Plants and Phytomedicine

Prashant Neupane*, Janardan Lamichhane Department of Biotechnology, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal.

Abstract:- Modern exploration of medicinal plants, used practicing this science of herbalism. Subsequent in traditional systems for curing and development in science and technology contributed better maintaining holistic health, have revealed high understanding of the chemical constitution and respective therapeutic value against infectious and chronic physiological activity thereby expediting the development conditions. Traditional which rely on of modern phytomedicine. multicomponent mixtures of medicinal plants and their complex interactions are finding renewed relevance in II. OVERVIEW ON USAGE OF MEDICINAL disease management. Recent understanding that PLANTS majority of diseases are multi-factorial and targeting a single cause of a disease by a single drug may not Phytomedicine often referred to as herbalism and deliver satisfactory treatment results has increased the phytotherapy in the west, is a field of that uses acceptance of multicomponent therapies in western plants and their preparations either to treat disease or as medicine. Such strategies have been particularly health-promoting agents. Most traditional systems of important in treating diseases such as HIV, medicine throughout the world are based on phytotherapy Tuberculosis, Malaria, different Cancers, Alzheimer's, [1]. Some of the earliest practices of traditional herbal Parkinson's, Diabetes, Hypertension and Inflammation medicine includes , Traditional Chinese medicine, among others. The increasing popularity and Traditional Korean medicine, Traditional African acceptability of has raised concerns medicine, Ancient Iranian medicine, Persian medicine, regarding the standardization, therapeutic efficiency, Islamic medicine, , Unani, and Ifa chemical integrity, drug-herb and herb-herb interaction [2]. Primary drugs in these traditional systems existed in and adverse reactions. Hence, coordinated research and forms of powders, granules, infusions, decoctions, oils, clinical trials are necessary to study the efficacy and tinctures, pastes, poultices and compresses of medicinal safety of herbal medicines as well as to determine the plants [3, 4]. mechanism of actions. Moreover, it is imperative to develop delivery systems that target multiple and Since ancient times, paramount civilizations all over overlapping pathways in order to effectively deliver the world consumed Harmal (Peganum harmala), Cannabis multiple active agents, increase bioavailability and (Cannabis sativa), Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans), Coca concentration of therapeutic agents at the target. (Theobroma cacao), magic Mushrooms (Psilocybe sp.), Himalayan medicinal plants from remote and virgin Opium (Papaver somniferum), Willow bark (Salix sp.), habitats long been regarded as sources of new Indian lilac (Azadiracta indica), Rhubarb (Rheum sp.) and therapeutic lead remain unexplored under modern Ginsing (Panax sp.) among others as recreational and/or technological advancement. Ethnopharmacology guided medicinal drugs [5]. Moreover, plants like Cinnamon selection and high-throughput bioactivity screening can (Cinnamomum tamala), Ginger (Zingiber officinale), Holy translate the potential of these medicinal plants into Basil (Ocimum santrum), Red pepper (Zanthoxylum therapeutically significant biopharmaceuticals. aromatum), Cumin (Cuminum cyminum), Asparagus (Asparagus racemosus), Gooseberry (Emblica officinalis), Keywords:- Medicinal Plants; Phytotherapy; Drug Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Discovery; Active compounds; Disease Management; Thyme ( Thymus vulgaris), Garlic (Allium sativum) and Ethnopharmacology. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) are found in kitchens all around the world and have been used as home I. INTRODUCTION remedies for simple ailments [6]. These herbs used in traditional systems for maintaining holistic health have high Throughout the history, humans have relied on plants medicinal value and serve as a potential source of for food, shelter and most importantly medicines. therapeutic new drugs [7-11]. Generations of human ancestors became part of a vast trial by error experiments aiming to decipher the medicinal and Scientific works from Charles Derosne, Friedrich toxicological properties of several plants. Thousands of Sertürner and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussác on poppy (P. years of such research and clinical trials authenticate the somniferum.) extracts led to the isolation of Morphine safety and effectiveness of several plants against general which became the ultimate pain medication in the 19th and specific ailments. And this seasoned knowledge would century [12]. Similarly, the isolation of a bitter glycoside, be passed onto next generation through traditional healers Salicin, by Johann Buchner as active ingredient of Willow who carried the responsibility of nurturing, developing and bark (Salix alba) in 1828 and its subsequent translation into

IJISRT20FEB524 www.ijisrt.com 857 Volume 5, Issue 2, February – 2020 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology ISSN No:-2456-2165 ASPIRIN[13] pioneered a quest of isolating active synthetic and 67% drugs were either natural, or natural constituents of medicinal plant extracts with greater product derived or at least contained pharmacophore of therapeutic values. Extensive screening of medicinal plants natural origin. This was also true for Anticancer drugs in led to the isolation of number of pure compounds or new which 87% of all anticancer drugs were natural product chemical entities which have successfully developed into derivatives and only 17% was synthetic [14]. Therefore, it important drugs of the modern era. is evident that plants will continue to be indispensable source for new drugs discovery in the future. Some of the Of all drugs produced between 1981 and 2014, it was important drugs discovered prom plant source are found that only 33% antiinfective drugs (including summarized in Table 1. antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic and antiviral) were

Compound Effect/Activity Plant Derived From Reference Artemisinin Antimalarial Artemisia annua L. [15-17]

Berberine Antimicrobial, Antidaibetic Berberis vulgaris L. [18-20]

Bergenin Immunomodulatory, Antitussive Berginia ciliata [21, 22] Analgesic, Anti-inflammatory Capsicum frutescens L. [23, 24] Catechin Antimicrobial, Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. [25-27] Catechol Anti-inflammatory, Anticancer Epigallocatechin

Cucurmin Anti-inflammatory Curcuma longa L. [28, 29] Digitoxin Cardiotonic Digitalis purpurea L. [30, 31] Digoxin Paclitaxel Antitumor Taxus brevifolia Nutt. [32, 33] Podophyllotoxin Anticancer Podophyllum peltatum L. [34, 35] Quinidine Antiarrhythmic Cinchona ledgeriana (Howard) [36, 37] Quinine Antimalarial, Antipyretic Bern.Moens ex Trimen [38, 39] Reserpine Antihypertensive, Ttranquilizer Rauvolfia serpentine (L.) Benth. Ex Kurz [40, 41] Rescinnamine Resveratol Anti-inflammatory Veratrum album L. [42]

Scopolamine Sedative Datura innoxia Mill. [43-45] Atropine Duboisia myoporoides R.Br. Hyoscyamine Tetrahydro Antiemetic, Cannabis sativa L. [46-48] cannabinol Decreases occular tension Vinblastine Antitumor, Antileukemia Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don [49-52] Vincistrine Withanolide Immunomodulatory Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal [53] Table 1:- List of important Plant derived active compounds and their biological effect.

In general, medicinal plants and phytomedicine found that usage of increased when (preparations of medicinal plants) are used for health conventional medicine was ineffective and in the face of promotion and therapy for chronic diseases as opposed to new infectious outbreak [11]. life threatening conditions. Phytomedicine several advantages such as fewer side effects, better patient Before the advent of modern pharmaceutical industry tolerance, acceptance due to long history of use and being in the 20th century, medicines were exclusively obtained affordable and renewable in nature. Further, positive from the natural sources and the preventive and curative experience with using herbal medicine in the past, prophylaxis were due to mixture of several plant extracts including treatment successes and a positive impact on and their complex interactions. The modern pharmaceutics health and a failed conventional treatment effort, lack of exclusively expedited the use of single-ingredient drugs or treatment effect and adverse side effects of conventional new chemical entities often isolated or derived from the drugs has increased the use of phytomedicine as an natural source. In a highly publicized “one target - one alternative to conventional treatment methods. It was also drug” concept of modern therapy, a defined biological

IJISRT20FEB524 www.ijisrt.com 858 Volume 5, Issue 2, February – 2020 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology ISSN No:-2456-2165 function/activity is defined at a specified target through a formulations to cure illness. The selection of plants is specific therapeutic compound. These specific compounds purely based on the ancient knowledge that is passed on were hypothesized by Paul Ehrlich as “magic bullets” that from one generation to the other which is confined to and would specifically target diseases. Subsequently major drug safeguarded by the practitioner. development programs aimed at designing selective molecules that act on a single disease target were successful Further, Nepal owing to its geographical and climate in obtaining number of highly effective and safe drugs with conditions, is one of the most biodiverse nation in the world a low side effects in clinical trials. with 807 algae, 2025 fungi, 771 lichens, 1150 bryophytes, 534 pteridophytes, 28 gymnosperms and 6653 species of However, recent understanding that majority of angiosperms [54]. Among these at least 1600-1900 species diseases are multi-factorial and targeting a single cause of a of plants are used in traditional medical systems [55]. The disease by a single drug may not deliver satisfactory fact that there are more than 36 ethnological groups in treatment results has increased the acceptance of Nepal, each having distinct traditional medical treatment multicomponent therapies in Western medicine. Traditional system highlights the vast repertoire of traditional medicinal systems which rely on multicomponent mixtures knowledge available in the Himalayas[56]. Plants that are of medicinal plants and their complex interactions instead prominently used in traditional medical systems provide an of mono-substances, are finding renewed relevance in important basis for selection of plants for bioprospecting. disease management. Because diseases are driven by Such plants have a long history of use and can provide several signaling pathways, multi-targeted therapies are information on both therapeutic and toxicological theoretically more efficient and could potentially evade the properties. drug resistance that occurs when cells and pathogens acquire new mutations. Such strategies have been Medicinal plants such as Jatamansi (Nardostachys particularly important in treating diseases such as HIV, jatamansi), Lauth Salla (Taxus baccata), Padamchal Tuberculosis, Malaria, different Cancers, Alzheimer’s, (Rheum australe), Panchaunle (Dactylorhiza hatagirea), Parkinson’s, Diabetes, Hypertension and Inflammation Chiraito (Swertia chairayita), Kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa), among others. Satuwa (Paris polyphylla), Sarpagandha (Rauwolfia serpentina), Pakhanbed (Bergina ciliata), Punarnava Medicinal plants are important sources for both (Boerhavia diffusa), Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) preventive and curative medicinal preparations in various are prominently used in traditional medical preparations in medical systems worldwide. Till today, many medicinal Nepal, China and India. They also have long history of use, plants written in historic documents/monuments and proven physiological benefits and thus a huge demand ethnopharmacology provide the integral foundation for within the country and abroad [57-59]. Majority of the modern medicine. They provide a tried and tested basis for Nepalese medicinal plants are exported to India, China, selection of plants that often produce potent therapeutic Europe (Germany, France, Finland, Hungary, Switzerland, leads thereby forming a bridge between traditional and Belgium), Japan, Pakistan, USA, Canada, Singapore and modern system. Hongkong[59].

III. PHYTOMEDICINE IN THE NEPALESE Panchaunle, Pakhanbed, Kutki, Padamchal and HIMALAYAS Satuwa are most prominently traded plants from Nepal. Various studies summarized in Table 2, highlight the Nepalese Himalayas have been a home to a diversity bioactive potential of these plants. Kafle et. al. reported that of medicinal plants that have been used for millennia to Kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa syn. Neopicrorhiza treat conditions and ailments. In fact, Ayurveda the oldest scrophulariiflora) was found as a constituent in at least 45 science of natural healing originated in the foothills of the herbal products marketed as ayurvedic medicines by 23 Himalayas and these practices still exist today. Further, manufacturing industries. The annual demand for dry geographical and climatic diversity of the Himalayas rhizomes of Kutki in Nepal alone was found to be worth augment to a rare biodiversity and in with it a number of NRs 8573236 (USD 83235.30) in 2015/016[60]. The valuable medicinal plants. Ethnopharmacology and healing demand is much higher for more potent plants such as with medicinal plants is deep rooted in indigenous Satuwa (Paris polyphylla), Pakhanbed (Berginia ciliata), Nepalese societies and medical practices described by the Ashwagandha(Withania somnifera) and Sarpagandha Ayurvedic and Traditional Chinese medical system are still (Rauwolfia serpentina) which are multifaceted with wide popular and often the only available forms of treatment. range of bioactivities [57, 58, 61].

Nepal has deeply rooted Traditional medical systems Reports show that Nepal exported medicinal plants that are derived from Ayurveda, Unani and Traditional worth $60.09 million in 2014 compared to US$27.49 Chinese Medicine. Despite the development of modern or million US in 2005. However, this growth in export amount western medicine, people in these regions still rely on was primarily due to increase in price rather than volume of traditional medicine and practices for the prevention and trade[57]. This suggests a high demand for these plants and cure of illnesses and often are the only measures for disease short supply leading to higher price. Such high demand for management. Tribal Healers, Dhamis, Amchis, Baidhyas herbal raw materials and products in domestic and foreign and Hakims use plants singly or in combinatorial markets presents a severe threat of overexploitation of

IJISRT20FEB524 www.ijisrt.com 859 Volume 5, Issue 2, February – 2020 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology ISSN No:-2456-2165 medicinal plants. Higher demand often leads to supply, the price inflates which further encourages illegal unsustainable overharvesting which causes loss of collection, smuggling and adulteration. medicinal plants in the wild. As a result of decreased

Plant Name Traditional Use Active Compounds Reported Bio-Activity References Padamchal - as laxative, appetizer, blood - - inhibition of carrageenin induced edema [64] (Rheum purifier and tonic to immune (Rhein, Emodin, demonstrating anti-inflammatory activity australe) system Chrysophanol, - prominent antimicrobial against B. [65] - leaves used to treat oral and Physcion) subtilis, S. aureus, E. cloacae, E. coli, K. gum disease -Stilbenes pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. - root in treatment of (Picetannol, typhimurium and Sh. flexneri [66, 67] gastric disorders and Resveratrol) - invitro DPPH, ABTS and FRAP [68] inflammation - antioxidant activity [69] - rehabilitation of fractured (Catechin, - Antidiabetic activity bones Epicatechin, - hepatoprotective effect against [70] - relieving menstrual cramps Carpusin, paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity and pain Maesopsin) -anticancer effect via induction of [71, 72] [62, 63] -Phenols (Gallic apoptosis in stomach cancer KATO III acid, Quercetin) cells β-Sitosterol - immunomodulatory activity

Panchaunle - rhizome used as rejuvenating - Dactylorhin A, B, - Antioxidant [74] (Dactylorhiza nervine tonic, C, D and E - Antibacterial against E. coli, S aureus, B. [75] hatagirea) - paste of petiole and rhizome - Dactylose A and B subtilis and Sh. Flexinerai in treatment of skin disease - Militarine - Aphrodisiac activity in rats [76] and as emollient, - Loroglosssin - root extracts used as - (2R)-2-β-D- aphrodisiac and antidiabetic glucopyranosyloxy- - antimicrobial and wound 2-(2-methylpropyl) healing butanedioic acid - also useful in dysentery, chronic diarrhea, weakness and general fatigue [55, 73] Satuwa - prominently used as antidote - Paris I, II, - DPPH Antioxidant activity (Paris against poisonous snake and III and IV - Antimicrobial against E. coli, S. aureus, [80-82] polyphylla) insect bites - Polyphyllin II and B. subtilis, P. aeruginosa, A. niger and - as depurative agent and VII, Trichoderma reesei. [83] digestive stomachic -1,5-dihydroxy-7- - Immunomodulatory activity through - as analgesic, antipyretic and methoxy-3- increased respiratory brust, elevated levels [84] expectorant methylanthraquinone of nitric oxide and enhanced phagocytic - to treat inflammation and - Formosanin C activity - Diosgenin - Anticancer activity against prostate [73, 77-79] cancer through induction of cell cycle [85] arrest and apoptosis - Inhibition of growth of breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 by inducing apoptosis via the mitochondrial [86, 87] dysfunction pathway - Induction of apoptosis through inhibition of Bcl-2 and enhancement of caspase-3 in gefitinib-resistant non-small cell lung cancer and anti-metastatic activity by [88] suppression of migration, adhesion and invasion of A549 lung cancer cells via

IJISRT20FEB524 www.ijisrt.com 860 Volume 5, Issue 2, February – 2020 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology ISSN No:-2456-2165 downregulation of MMP-2 and MMP-9 - Elevation of proapoptotic elements such as Bax,cytosolic cytochrome c, activated caspase-3 and caspase- 9 in treated SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells Kutki - root has bitter taste and - Picroside I, ii, iii, iv - Antibacterial activity against P. [90] (Picrorhiza produces cooling effect - Vanillic acid aeruginosa and S. aureus, E. coli, B. kurroa) - root extracts are used as - Kutkoside subtilis and M. luteus [91] antipyretic, anthelmintic and - Pikuroside - Antifungal against Candida tropicalis, C. laxative - Apocyanin albicans, Penecillium marneffi and [92] - useful in management of - Veronicoside Trichophyton rubrum cold, coughs and indigestion - Picroliv - Antioxidant and protection against [93] - treatment of jaundice, - Kutkin oxidative damage of macromolecules such hepatitis and liver disease - 6-Feruloylcatalpol as DNA, protein and lipids - as a cardio tonic and - Hepatoprotective benefits in [94] regulator of high blood nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and pressure and diabetes provides resistance against hepatic damage [89] and remarkable structural and architectural integrity - Anticancer activity through induction of apoptosis in MDA-MB- 435S, Hep3B and PC-3 cell lines Pashanbed - well documented use as - [10]-3-O- - Inhibitory effects against Bacillus [99] (Berginia lithotrophic (breaking gall and galloylepicatechin subtilis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus pacumbis) renal stones) - [10]-3-O- aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa - as a tonic and diuretic galloylcatechin - Inhibition of the influenza virus A and [100] - treat coughs and colds, - Berginin Herpes simplex virus - treatment of pulmonary - Sitosterol - Inhibitory activity against rat intestinal infections, asthma and urinary - Stigmesterol digestive enzyme, α-glucosidase and [101] problems - Afzelechin porcine, pancreatic α-amylase - healing, fresh cuts, wounds -Dissolution of calcium oxalate and and fractured bones calcium phosphate stones [102] - as a tonic in the treatment of fevers, stomach disorders like diarrhea, constipation and parasite infection [73, 95-98] Table 2:- Some ethnopharmacologically important Nepalese medicinal herbs and their reported bioactivity.

Adulteration through mixing or substitution of more accurate and rapid biodiversity monitoring after medicinal herb(s) with materials of substandard quality implementation of conservation actions. The surveillance may lead to decreased efficacy and adverse effects. The data can be used to evaluate the efficiency of conservation growing concern regarding medicinal plants are the correct measures as well as to prioritize conservation areas based identification when a small amount of dried/powdered on phylogenetic diversity [105]. Nepalese medicinal plants sample provided and adulteration of rare, expensive which seek high price in local and foreign markets are often medicinal plants with easily available local plants. Hence, subject to illegal trade and adulteration. Implementation of scientists needed a tool that provides correct identification DNA barcoding can effectively establish the authenticity of of plant at the molecular level. Recently, DNA barcoding traded material as well as help in surveillance and has been proposed as possible method for identification and conservation of endangered and threatened species. authentication of medicinal plants in herbal products. DNA barcoding can be applied for the correct identification as Another effective measure in conservation of high well as in forensic determination and verification of herbal valued Nepalese medicinal plants in the wild can be and dietary supplements[103, 104]. adoption of sustainable farming and harvesting methods. This ensures a continued supply of raw materials as well as These barcodes primarily used for species conservation of the rare valuable herbs in the wild. The dentification tool can also be used for biodiversity economy of some rural Nepalese communities in the high- conservation. The diversity in DNA barcodes of species altitude regions that dependent on trade of medicinal plants sampled in a specific area can provide an estimate of can be improved by engaging in cultivation. Large number biological diversity in that location. Further barcode data if of people, are engaged in the collection and trade of incorporated in trade surveillance can check illegal trading Medicinal and Aromatic Plants for their livelihood. of species/commodities. Also, DNA barcoding can assist in Therefore, by providing training and education to farmers,

IJISRT20FEB524 www.ijisrt.com 861 Volume 5, Issue 2, February – 2020 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology ISSN No:-2456-2165 prioritizing medicinal plant cultivation and investment on art technology and methods can help researchers to processing and standardization, greater benefits can be elucidate the molecular mode of actions of phyto- reaped from the medicinal plant sector which ultimately therapeutics. In addition, new tools such as DNA contributes in uplifting the socio-economic status of local microarrays, proteomics and metabolomics may be used for people. the diversity-oriented screening of herbal drugs.

IV. CURRENT TREND AND FUTURE Importantly, population and availability of medicinal PERSPECTIVES herbs will limit the number of herbal drugs produced for therapeutic purpose. Majority of the demand for medicinal Herbal medicine continues to be the major healthcare herbs is met by exporting the herbs collected by local system in developing countries and its popularity has people from the wild. However, collection from the wild is escalated in developed countries throughout the word. This destructive and appropriate cultivation technologies must popularity upsurges the global demand for medicinal herbs be developed and adopted to protect these valuable and herbal medicine. The WHO has stated that trade in medicinal plants from irrational exploitation. Hence, medicinal plants, herbal raw materials, and herbal drugs is scientific community should also be engaged conservation growing at annual growth rate of about 15%. A report in vivo and development of modern, sustainable cultivation published by Market Research Future has projected that the and harvesting methods apart from conducting advanced market for Herbal medicine is growing at a CAGR close to research and clinical trials that establish the safety and 7.2% during 2017-2023 and expects the market for herbal biological activity of herbal formulations. Investment on medicine to reach $ 111 billion by the end of 2023. education and research infrastructure, vocational training Incorporation of cutting-edge analytical techniques and on cultivation and sustainable harvesting and adoption of research methodologies will improve the safety, efficacy modern technology for qualitative and quantitative and quality of Herbal medicines and inevitably herbal improvement of medicinal plants is important to maintain medicine will be integrated into modern medical systems in authenticity and sustain the demands for genuine Nepalese the near future. medicinal herbs.

The increasing popularity and acceptability of herbal V. CONCLUSION medicine has raised concerns regarding the standardization, therapeutic efficiency, chemical integrity, drug-herb and Modern exploration of medicinal plants, used in herb-herb interaction and adverse reactions. Hence, traditional systems for curing infection and maintaining coordinated research and clinical trials are necessary to holistic health, have revealed high therapeutic value against study the efficacy and safety of herbal medicines and infectious and chronic conditions. Himalayan medicinal determine the mechanism of actions. Further, the modern plants contain great variety of medicinal properties healthcare system has shifted from being general to what is including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, now customized and personal medicine. In this scenario, anticancer, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective and researchers should determine the specific molecular targets immunomodulatory functions. Recent understanding that of the under study and adopt appropriate majority of diseases are multi-factorial and targeting a targeting and delivery methods that effectively increase single cause of a disease by a single drug may not deliver bioavailability and of the drug at the target site. Moreover, satisfactory treatment results has increased the acceptance delivery systems that target multiple and overlapping of plant based multicomponent therapies in western pathways, could effectively deliver multiple active agents, medicine. Such strategies have been particularly important increase bioavailability and concentration of therapeutic in treating diseases such as HIV, Tuberculosis, Malaria, agents at the target. different Cancers, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Diabetes, Hypertension and Inflammation among others. Traditional Pharmacological and therapeutic effects of plant medicines which rely on multicomponent mixtures of extracts are derived from additive or synergistic effects of medicinal plants and their complex interactions are finding several compounds only measurable in the total extract. renewed relevance in disease management. The synergistic interaction of these compounds vanishes during the isolation procedure. Using concepts of systems As medicinal plants continue to provide new chemical biology may offer new opportunities for the scientific entities and alternative treatment measures, Nepal has a evaluation of herbal preparations whose therapeutic huge possibility of deriving social and economic benefits efficacy is caused by the combined action of a mixture of from the commercial cultivation and industrial utilization of constituents. Holistic in vivo test systems and complex these magical medicinal herbs. Further, molecular functional tests such as cellular and isolated organ assays, validation of medicinal herbs/herbal products using DNA animal experiments may be superior subcellular single barcoding techniques, incorporation of high-throughput target test systems (e.g. enzyme and receptor binding screening techniques, drug standardization and subsequent assays) that are usually target-driven and do not allow the translation into biopharmaceuticals through clinical detection complex effects caused by the interaction of research could promote this richly biodiverse country as a different constituents. Moreover, using robust state of the hub for novel therapeutic discoveries.

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