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Americans at the Leipzig Conservatory (1843–1918) and Their Impact on AJoamnnae Perpipclean Musical Culture

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COLLEGE OF MUSIC

AMERICANS AT THE LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY (1843–1918)

AND THEIR IMPACT ON AMERICAN MUSICAL CULTURE

By

JOANNA PEPPLE

A Dissertation submitted to the College of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

2019

Copyright © 2019 Joanna Pepple Joanna Pepple defended this dissertation on December 14, 2018. The members of the supervisory committee were:

S. Douglass Seaton Professor Directing Dissertation

George Williamson University Representative

Sarah Eyerly Committee Member

Iain Quinn Committee Member

Denise Von Glahn Committee Member

The Graduate School has verified and approved the above-named committee members and certifies that the dissertation has been approved in accordance with university requirements.

ii

Soli Deo gloria

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am so grateful for many professors, mentors, family, and friends who contributed to the success of this dissertation project. Their support had a direct role in motiving me to strive for my best and to finish well. I owe great thanks to the following teachers, scholars, librarians and archivists, family and friends.

To my dissertation committee, who helped in shaping my thoughts and challenging me with thoughtful questions: Dr. Eyerly for her encouragement and attention to detail, Dr. Quinn for his insight and parallel research of English students at the Leipzig Conservatory, Dr. Von

Glahn for her enthusiasm and expertise on American music, and Dr. Williamson for his thoughtfulness regarding German history and culture.

To Douglass Seaton, my dissertation advisor, who spent years mentoring me and guiding me in research and writing. He exhibited a genuine interest in my research from the start of the project and continued to encourage me through each step of the way, from the initial reading and planning, through the archival study in Germany, Boston, and Oberlin, through the tedious data entry, and finally, through interpretation of the data and the writing. I greatly appreciate his keen attention to my writing, his expert advice, and his artistic input in guiding me to weave together a cohesive narrative of the research. The enthusiasm with which he approached my research and his belief in my work helped me continue even when I felt like giving up. His honesty, kindness, and dedication gave me the hope I needed to continue putting forth my best efforts. I am a better thinker, researcher, and writer because of his patient mentorship.

To Laura Gayle Green, Head of the Warren D. Allen Music Library at The Florida State

University, who bent over backwards to use her creative skills to help me with difficult research puzzles, always displaying an eagerness for the quest of learning.

iv To the librarians and archivists who assisted me during my research in Germany. I want to thank especially Ingrid Jach, Archivist at the Hochschule für Musik und Theater “Felix

Mendelssohn Bartholdy” Leipzig (HMT Leipzig), who answered numerous questions via e-mail and in person, who allowed me to work alongside of her in her office, who shared tremendous insight and knowledge regarding the HMT Leipzig Archiv, and who patiently interpreted my attempts at speaking in German. I also want to thank Dr. Barbara Wiermann, Head of the Music

Division at SLUB Dresden, and Anke Hofmann, Head of the Library at HMT Leipzig, both of whom welcomed me warmly during my first trip to Leipzig and who guided me in my first steps of research in Germany. I thank Christoph Kaufmann at the Stadtgeschichtliches Museum

Leipzig Fotothek, who kindly assisted me in finding photographs to help my readers envision the images associated with the Leipzig Conservatory.

To Nara Newcomer, Head of the University of Missouri Kansas City Music/Media

Library, who initially introduced me to Dr. Barbara Wiermann and Anke Hofmann, and for her continual encouragement as well as training me in data entry and music library cataloging at East

Carolina University.

To the archivists at the New England Conservatory and Oberlin Conservatory, who answered many questions and opened their archives to me. I thank Maryalice Perrin-Mohr,

Archivist at New England Conservatory Library, who supplied the requested materials I needed while in Boston as well as suggesting other resources I was unaware of, and for pointing me to useful digital resources after my time in Boston. I also thank Ken Grossi, College Archivist at

Oberlin College, who listened carefully to my research requests and helped me navigate the

Oberlin Conservatory Archives.

To the Musicology faculty at The Florida State University who equipped me in core classes and taught me effective research and writing tools that I needed to succeed in my

v individual research. I am particularly grateful to the FSU Musicology faculty for believing in me by awarding me the Curtis Mayes scholarship to fund my trips to Boston and Oberlin, as well funding for my three years of course work at FSU.

To the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) for funding my language course and research grants in Germany, without which I would have never been able to procure the wealth of archival data and research from the Leipzig Conservatory for the project.

To my family and friends who have been with me through thick and thin, encouraging me to finish and complete this project. I am grateful for my parents, who have always loved me, believed in me, and taught me to give my all in all that I do. I thank them for modeling a great work ethic and encouraging me to finish strong. I also thank Carita Sims for being a true friend and support in Tallahassee, cheering my successes, listening to my defeats, and making many meals and snacks to sustain me during my studies and research. Finally, I thank my Tallahassee violin students and their families, as well as the families of the Tallahassee Homeschool String

Orchestra, who have provided an inspiration to me throughout this degree, reminding me of my joy in teaching, as well as showing genuine interest in my academic journey.

There are countless others who have had a part in praying for me, encouraging me, and inspiring me. I am so grateful for those mentioned above as well as many others who believed in me throughout this process.

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... x List of Figures ...... xi Abstract ...... xiii

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Background and Significance ...... 2 Purpose ...... 9 Survey of Literature ...... 10 Research Methods ...... 17 Brief Chapter Overview ...... 22

2. AMERICAN EDUCATION AND MUSIC CULTURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ...... 24

Historical Background ...... 24 American Musical Culture ...... 25 Journals about Music ...... 26 Music Printing ...... 29 Vocal Music ...... 30 Instrumental Music ...... 34 Distinctly “American” Music ...... 37 American Music Education ...... 40 Singing Schools and Sacred Harp ...... 40 Lowell Mason and European Influence ...... 42 The Carlo Bassini Vocal Method ...... 47 Foundations for Music in Public Schools ...... 48 Early Instrumental Music Instruction ...... 53 Music and Its Role in America in the Mid-Nineteenth Century ...... 54

3. GERMAN EDUCATION AND MUSIC CULTURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ...... 56

Enlightenment and Early Educational Reforms ...... 56 Early Enlightenment ...... 57 Pestalozzian Pedagogy ...... 58 Humboldt and the German Concept of Bildung ...... 60 Carl Friedrich Zelter and Prussian Reforms ...... 61 Mendelssohn’s Opera Die beiden Pädagogen ...... 63 Nineteenth-Century Practical and Private Music Instruction ...... 64 Early Higher Education Models for Music in Germany ...... 68 Plans ...... 68 Realizations ...... 71

vii 4. FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND PEDAGOGY OF THE LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY ...... 73

Reasons for the Success of the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 73 First Instructors at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 77 Conservatory Curriculum ...... 86

5. AMERICANS AT THE LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY ...... 94

American Student Population at the Conservatory ...... 94 Accommodations and Opportunities for American Students ...... 105 Further Impact of American Students at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 108

6. IMPACT OF LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY GRADUATES IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION ...... 110

The Oberlin Conservatory of Music ...... 110 New England Conservatory of Music ...... 118 General Comparisons at Leipzig, Oberlin, and NEC ...... 121 Concert Programming at Leipzig, Oberlin, and NEC ...... 126 Other American Conservatories and Music Schools ...... 146 Lasting Pedagogical Impacts in the United States ...... 150

7. IMPACT OF THE LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY GRADUATES IN AMERICAN MUSICAL LIFE ...... 152

American Students from the Leipzig Conservatory: Performers ...... 152 James Cutler Dunn Parker (1828–1916) ...... 153 Bruno Emil Wollenhaupt (1833–1903) ...... 156 Heman Aloysius Allen (1836–1893) ...... 156 Julius Ernst Perabo (1845–1920) ...... 157 Richard Arnold (1845–1918) ...... 158 Louis Anton Rudolph Fridolin Falk (1848–1925) ...... 158 William Leonard Blumenschein (1849–1916) ...... 159 Henry Heyman (1850–1924) ...... 160 Marcus Isaac Epstein (1855–1915) ...... 160 Charles Eugen van Laer (1854–1919) ...... 161 Peter August Schnecker (1850–1903) ...... 161 August Friedrich Zech (1857–1891) ...... 162 Otto Carl William Fleissner (1858–1944) ...... 162 Alfred Herbert Schellschmidt (1863–1883) ...... 163 Harrison M. Wild (1861–1929) ...... 163 Louis Ehrgott (1858–1938) ...... 164 Maud Powell (1867–1920) ...... 164 American Students from the Leipzig Conservatory: Composers ...... 165 Charles Crozat Converse (1832–1918) ...... 165 Oscar Weil (1839–1921) ...... 166 George Whitfield Chadwick (1854–1931) ...... 167

viii Charles Henshaw Dana (Smith) (1846–1883) ...... 169 American Students from the Leipzig Conservatory: Other Music Careers ...... 169 John Comfort Fillmore (1843–1898) ...... 170 Albert Ross Parsons (1847–1933) ...... 170 Friedrich Horace Clark (1860–1917) ...... 171 Theodore Presser (1848–1925) ...... 173 Victor Lichtenstein (1871–1940) ...... 175 Leipzig Conservatory Students Who Immigrated to the USA: Performers ...... 176 Sebastian Bach Mills (1839–1898) ...... 177 Adolphe Rosenbecker (1851–1919) ...... 178 Leandre Arthur du Mouchel (1841–1915) ...... 179 Angelo McCallum Read (1854–1926) ...... 179 Max Spicker (1858–1912) ...... 180 Contributions to American Musical Life through Varied Musical Activities ...... 180

8. CONCLUSIONS ...... 182

Summary ...... 182 Significance of This Study ...... 186 Opportunities for Further Research ...... 189 Program Research ...... 190 American Individuals ...... 192 Impact of Leipzig Conservatory Pedagogy on America Musical Life ...... 193

APPENDICES ...... 194

A. LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY FACULTY MEMBERS FROM 1843 TO 1918 ...... 194 B. LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY CURRICULUM AS GIVEN BY THE LEIPZIG PROSPEKTE ...... 195 C. MOST FREQUENTLY PROGRAMMED COMPOSERS AND NUMBER OF PERFORMANCES: LEIPZIG, OBERLIN, NEC ...... 206 D. LEIPZIG STUDENTS IN EARLY AMERICAN SYMPHONY ORCHESTRAS ...... 210

References ...... 215

Biographical Sketch ...... 227

ix LIST OF TABLES

4.1 Comparison of Leipzig Conservatory Faculty Rosters in 1843 and 1846 ...... 79

5.1 Totals of American Students at the Leipzig Conservatory Divided by Age Range ...... 99

5.2 Student Enrollment at the Leipzig Conservatory from Each State (1843–1914) ...... 101

5.3 Applied Study Areas by American Students at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 105

6.1 Oberlin Faculty Members Who Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 116

6.2 Students of Oberlin Who Later Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 117

6.3 Faculty Members at the New England Conservatory Who Studied/Taught at Leipzig ...... 120

6.4 Students of NEC Who Later Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 120

6.5 A Comparison of General Characteristics in the Foundation of Musical Institutes ...... 122

6.6 Concert Program Archives Used in the Present Study ...... 131

6.7 Most Frequently Programmed Composers and Number of Performances ...... 132

6.8 American Institutes of Advanced Learning Impacted by Leipzig Conservatory Students ...... 147

7.1 American Students Who Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory and Later Became American Performers ...... 154

7.2 Leading American Composers Who Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 167

7.3 Americans Who Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in Music Careers ...... 172

7.4 Organizations That Theodore Presser (1848–1925) Founded ...... 174

7.5 Leipzig Students Who Immigrated to America and Became Performers ...... 177

x LIST OF FIGURES

4.1 Leipzig Conservatory at the Gewandhaus Building ...... 75

4.2 Leipzig Conservatory in New Facilities...... 76

4.3 Collectible Postcard of Leipzig Conservatory in Its New Facilities (Featuring Conservatory Building, Large Concert Hall, and the Crystal Palace in Leipzig) ...... 76

4.4 Leipzig Conservatory Postcard Featuring Salomon Jadassohn ...... 85

4.5 Conservatory Faculty in 1879 ...... 87

4.6 Zeugnis for Otto Goldschmidt (1846) ...... 93

5.1 American Students Enrolling at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 95

5.2 American Male/Female Students Enrolling at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 98

5.3 Ages of American Students Enrolling at the Leipzig Conservatory Each Year ...... 99

5.4 Percentages of Immigrants within American Student Population at Leipzig ...... 103

5.5 Applied Study Areas by American Students Over Time (1851–1917) ...... 105

6.1 Number of Programs Archived per Year at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 129

6.2 Number of Programs Archived per Year at the Oberlin Conservatory ...... 130

6.3 Number of Programs Archived per Year at the New England Conservatory ...... 130

6.4 Top 6 Most Frequently Performed Composers at Leipzig ...... 135

6.5 Top 6 Most Frequently Performed Composer at Oberlin ...... 135

6.6 Top 6 Most Frequently Performed Composers at NEC ...... 136

6.7 Leipzig Conservatory Faculty Programmed at the Leipzig Conservatory ...... 137

6.8 Leipzig Faculty Programmed at Oberlin Conservatory ...... 137

6.9 Leipzig Faculty Programmed at New England Conservatory ...... 138

6.10 Oberlin Faculty (George Andrews) Programmed at Oberlin Conservatory ...... 139

6.11 NEC Faculty Programmed at NEC ...... 140

xi 6.12 French Composers Programmed at Oberlin ...... 142

6.13 French Composers Programmed at NEC ...... 142

6.14 American Composers Programmed at Oberlin ...... 143

6.15 American Composers Programmed at NEC ...... 144

6.16 Frequency of Mendelssohn Programmed at Leipzig, Oberlin, and NEC ...... 145

xii ABSTRACT

In 1842 Felix Mendelssohn gained approval from the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm

IV to apply the late Supreme Court Justice’s Heinrich Blümner’s 20,000-Thaler gift to the founding of Germany’s first music education institution dedicated to the higher-level training of musicians. The establishment of the Leipzig Conservatory in 1843 was a milestone in Germany’s history, as this was Germany’s first national conservatory of music, with the goal to train and educate “complete” musicians in both applied and theoretical studies. Due to its highly-esteemed faculty, the Leipzig Conservatory immediately drew attention from music students not only nationally but also internationally. The Leipzig Conservatory was known for its “conservative” leanings as well as the strong foundation students received in harmony, counterpoint, and voice- leading.

The pedagogy of the Leipzig Conservatory not only had a great impact in Germany and the surrounding European countries, but its influence reached across the Atlantic to American musical life. Nineteenth-century Americans held German musical training in high regard.

Between 1843 and 1918 over 1,500 Americans traveled across the Atlantic to study with the renowned faculty at the Leipzig Conservatory. Receiving a comprehensive music education and being exposed to world-class visiting soloists such as Clara Schumann and Franz Liszt, these

American students returned to the United States as music teachers, administrators, music writers and publishers, and performers, prepared to influence their music culture in numerous ways.

These American individuals had a great impact in numerous cities throughout the United

States, and several of them had a role in founding America’s first music conservatories: Oberlin

Conservatory of Music (1865) and New England Conservatory of Music (1867). By studying the original documents and concert programs at these institutions, one can trace direct pedagogical approaches and institutional policies transferred from Leipzig to Oberlin and Boston. xiii Furthermore, many early faculty members at Oberlin and NEC themselves had studied at the

Leipzig Conservatory, bringing Leipziger tastes and pedagogy to American students. While the

Leipzig influence impacted Oberlin and NEC greatly, its pedagogy and principles shaped many other aspects of American music life and education throughout multiple cities and regions in the

United States, leaving lasting imprints on American music culture, including music education, concert life, music criticism, and composition. The supplementary Excel spreadsheet shows

Leipzig Conservatory faculty members and the duration of their tenure at the Conservatory.

xiv CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Boarding a ship for Europe, traveling for six to ten days at sea, arriving in a foreign country with limited fluency in the language, and finding living accommodations and striving to meet basic needs with no family to help were just some of the challenges that nineteenth-century

American students faced when they set out to pursue musical studies at the Leipzig

Conservatory.1 A journey to study at the Conservatory was not possible for all nineteenth- century American musicians. It was expensive and required considerable strength and independence, both physically and emotionally. Despite the challenges, hundreds of Americans chose to study at the Leipzig Conservatory from its founding in 1843 through the critical period of the First World War in 1918, and gladly confronted any obstacles in order to cultivate their musical skills and to study with the Conservatory’s renowned faculty. Those individuals in turn gained musical experiences that they recorded in journals and letters sent home, such as seeing and hearing world-renowned guest soloists performing with the Gewandhaus Orchestra and receiving a complete musical education from esteemed Leipzig Conservatory faculty. The

Leipzig Conservatory was held in high regard in the United States as well as abroad, and the education that students received there set them apart from their musical colleagues. The stories of these American musicians shape the content of this study and reveal the impact the Leipzig

Conservatory and its pedagogy had on numerous American students and the societies, institutions, cities, and generations they influenced upon their return to the United States.

1In 1843 the average days to cross the Atlantic was twelve, ten days in 1858, eight days in 1874, six days in the 1880s, five and a half days in 1897, and four and a half days in 1907. See Peter J. Hugill, World Trade Since 1431: Geography, Technology, and Capitalism (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1993), 128. 1

Background and Significance

The Leipzig Conservatory was founded in 1843 by Felix Mendelssohn and a Board of

Directors2 as the first professional music conservatory in Germany. Shortly after its founding,

Americans began traveling to Germany to study at the Conservatory, and an estimated 1,500

Americans studied there between 1843 and 1918. According to the Conservatory’s records,

George L. Babcock was the first American to study at the Leipzig Conservatory, entering in

1843 and presumably studying with Mendelssohn and the early faculty. The next entry of

American students occurred in 1851, with Carl Wilhelm Schumann, James Cutler Dunn Parker, and Bruno Emil Wollenhaupt. American students accounted for a sixth of the entire student population at the Conservatory in its first half century.3 Most of these students returned to the

United States upon finishing their studies, bringing with them the experiences and influences that they had acquired in Germany.

In addition to Americans travelling to Germany for musical study, several non-American graduates of the Leipzig Conservatory also immigrated to the United States after their studies, having a parallel impact on American musical culture. These individuals taught in American conservatories and schools as well as performing widely, conducting symphony orchestras, and writing about music. For example, Louis Maas was both a professor at the Leipzig Conservatory and later a professor at the New England Conservatory. Pianist Sebastian Bach Mills and conductor Max Spicker are among the immigrants in America who attended the Leipzig

2The initial Board of Directors for the Leipzig Conservatory was made up of five board members of the Gewandhaus Orchestra: Kreisdirector Johann Paul von Falkenstein; Hofrat Johann Georg Keil, chairman; Herr Friedrich Kistner, the well-known Leipzig music publisher; Advocat Moritz Seeburg; and Advocat Conrad Schleinitz. These Board members were typically not professional musicians but instead affluent members of the community. See Leonard Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881” (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1979), 86. 3Elam Douglas Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900” (Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland at College Park, 1991), 40-41. 2

Conservatory. Further mention of the influence of Leipzig Conservatory immigrants will follow in Chapters 6 and 7.

The aspiration to complete advanced studies in Germany, and more broadly, in Europe, was a common one among Americans. Nineteenth-century Americans were particularly interested in German culture and pedagogy, and many American university professors in the nineteenth century took degrees in Germany and returned with a desire to mold education in the

United States through similar principles.4 Indeed, this fascination with German culture is evident in many books, pamphlets, and newspaper articles published during this time.5 American music culture and education was no doubt shaped by these Americans who had studied at German musical centers of training, particularly the Leipzig Conservatory.

There were also several influential American musicians who do not appear on the Leipzig

Conservatory Registrar, but a variety of sources claim that they studied at the Leipzig

Conservatory, including their own personal accounts. One can assume that these individuals studied privately with the Conservatory faculty but did not enroll officially at the Conservatory.

The Protestant hymn composer William Bradbury (1816–1868) spent time studying at the

Leipzig Conservatory in its early years and returned to the United States to contribute to religious musical life, as well as to childhood education and music publishing.6 William Mason

(1829–1908), the third child of Lowell Mason, studied privately in Leipzig with Moscheles and

Dreyshock and returned and settled in New York to impact numerous piano students and concertgoers through his performances.7 Louis Elson (1848–1920) was another unofficial student

4Gerald L. Gutek, A History of the Western Educational Experience (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1987), 375. 5For examples, see Friedrich Paulsen, Frank Thilly, and William Eilson Elwang, The German Universities and University Study (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1906), and L.R. Klemm, Public Education in Germany and in the United States (Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1911). 6Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 63. For more information on Bradbury’s experiences in Leipzig, including attending Felix Mendelssohn’s funeral, see also Robert Murrell Stevenson, “Bradbury in Europe,” The Hymn 29, no. 3 (July 1978): 147–151. 7Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 1. 3 at the Leipzig Conservatory. Elson was best known as a writer, critic, and lecturer who became a

New England Conservatory faculty member in 1880 and was promoted to the Head of the

Theory Department in 1882. An avid writer on music, he published numerous music history books and was music editor for the Boston Courier as well as serving for thirty years as music editor of the Boston Daily Advertiser (1886–1917).8

Among the official American students who appeared on the Leipzig Inskriptionen, these graduates of the Leipzig Conservatory influenced various aspects of American musical life: music education, music publishing and printing, music criticism, performance, instrument building, and religious life. Chapter 7 details the leading musicians and professionals from the

Leipzig Conservatory who impacted American life in ways other than education. In performance virtuoso pianists such as Ernst Perabo and Carlyle Petersilea settled in Boston in the 1860s and

1870s, introducing German music and technique. Others performed with leading orchestras, such as the violinist Sebastian Bach Mills, who performed frequently with the New York

Philharmonic in the 1860s. Still others traveled west to Chicago, such as the pianist William

Sherwood.9 Violinist Maud Powell, another graduate from the Conservatory, became especially successful in bringing Western art music to audiences all over America.10

George Whitefield Chadwick was one of the best-known American graduates from the

Leipzig Conservatory, who later became an influential composer in the Second New England

School, as well as Professor, and later Director, at the New England Conservatory. Many other

8Karl Kroeger, "Elson, Louis Charles," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000008752 (accessed August 19, 2018). The music history books that Elson wrote include the following: The History of German Song (1888), European Reminiscences, Musical and Otherwise (1891), Great Composers and their Work (1892), The History of American Music (1904, rev. 1925), Elson’s Music Dictionary (1905), Children in Music (1918), and Women in Music (1918). 9Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 223–25. 10Karen A. Shaffer, “Powell, Maud.” Grove Music Online, Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/43691 (accessed August 6, 2014). 4 professors at the New England Conservatory also studied in Leipzig, including James W. Hill,

Louis Maas, and James C. D. Parker.11 The relationship between the Leipzig Conservatory and the New England Conservatory is particularly important to this study because NEC is known to be the first free-standing conservatory of music established in the United States in 1867 and still thriving. Many of the founding documents show early influences of the Leipzig Conservatory, and several of the early instructors at NEC had connections to the Leipzig Conservatory as well, detailed in Chapter 6.

The New England Conservatory was not the only American conservatory to benefit from

Leipzig Conservatory graduates. The Oberlin Conservatory, established in 1865 as a branch of

Oberlin College, also had strong ties to the Leipzig Conservatory in their founding and throughout their early years as well. The founders of the Oberlin Conservatory, John P. Morgan and George W. Steele, took principles from the Leipzig Conservatory when organizing their curriculum, such as applied music taught in groups, a three-year theory curriculum, weekly student recitals, and examinations at Michaelmas and Easter, depending on when students began their studies.12 Leipzig graduates influenced American musical education at many institutes of higher learning, including the Cincinnati Conservatory, the Atlanta College of Music, the

University of Michigan, the Savannah Conservatory of Music, and the Boston Conservatory.13

Musicians studying at the Leipzig Conservatory received a distinctive type of training, and this will be further explored in Chapter 4. As stated in Mendelssohn’s initial proposals, the goal of the Conservatory was to train professional musicians. While the Leipzig Conservatory was the first professional conservatory in Germany, other conservatories already existed in Italy and France. One major difference between the Leipzig Conservatory and the Paris Conservatoire

11Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 230. 12Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 227–29. 13Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 233–34. 5 was that the Leipzig Conservatory, like other German institutions of higher education during this period, welcomed foreigners from its foundation, whereas the Paris Conservatoire was much more restrictive and focused on enrolling French students. Furthermore, the subjects offered at the Leipzig Conservatory were also specific to the musical strengths in the city and the instructors who were recruited. Initial instruction was limited to composition, violin, piano, organ, and singing. Theoretical and historical training figured prominently in the curriculum. An announcement printed in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik on 23 January 1843 stated the mission of the Conservatory clearly:

A music school will be opened in Leipzig with highest authorization, whose aim is the cultivation of the theoretical and practical study of music. Men and women, both native and foreign, may participate. The areas of instruction will consist of the following: composition, violin playing, piano playing, organ playing, and singing. (In addition academic lectures in the history of music, participation in ensemble playing, and choral singing will be offered.) This instruction will be conducted by the following: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy [sic], Moritz Hauptmann, Ferdinand David, Robert Schumann, August Pohlenz, and Carl Ferdinand Becker.14

In an educational institution such as the Leipzig Conservatory the character of the institution often reflects the collective character of individuals, both instructors and students. In the case of the Leipzig Conservatory the initial instructors were selected and appointed by

Mendelssohn through the Board of Directors, and they all shared similar ideas about musical composition. These instructors were part of a movement in the nineteenth century often described as conservative; they valued counterpoint and traditional tonal language above newer ideas of composition promulgated by Wagner and Liszt in the progressive movement known as

14“Program Regarding the Founding of a Music School in Leipzig,” Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, January 23, 1843, 28, as cited in and translated by Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 84. Original heading and text: “Programm die Errichtung einer Musikschule in Leipzig betreffend. Mit allerhöchster Genehmigung wird in Leipzig eine Musikschule eröffnet, deren Zweck die Forderung des theoretischen und praktischen Studiums der Musik ist. Schüler und Schülerinnen des In- und Auslandes können daran Theil nehmen. Der zu ertheilende Unterricht umfasst zunächst folgende Gegenstände: Composition, Violinspiel, Clavierspiel, Orgelspiel und Gesang. (Hieran werden sich wissenschaftliche Vorträge über Geschichte der Musik u., Uebungen in Zusammenspiel, Chorgesang u. schließen.) Die Ertheilung dieses Unterrichts haben übernommen die Herren Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy [sic], Moritz Hauptmann, Ferdinand David, Robert Schumann, August Pohlenz und Carl Ferdinand Becker.” 6 the New German School. The conservative approach in instruction, at times criticized as limiting, exposed students mainly to “classics,” which would have included works by composers ranging from the time of Bach through Mendelssohn.15 This emphasis on a German canon in turn had an impact on the music culture that was spread to America. For example, Dwight’s Journal of Music and Boston’s Handel and Haydn Society evidenced how late-nineteenth-century

Americans were embracing “conservative” German and British musical tastes, and in large part points back to the principles and teaching at the Leipzig Conservatory.

There were alternatives to studying at the Leipzig Conservatory, as well as to studying at

American institutions highly indebted to its pedagogy. While the Leipzig Conservatory was the first professional Conservatory founded in Germany that proved successful, many other German conservatories followed: Munich (1846), Berlin (1850), Cologne (1850), Dresden (1856),

Stuttgart (1857), Bremen (1873), and Frankfurt (1878). For example, Edward MacDowell never studied in Leipzig but rather at the Paris Conservatoire and in Frankfurt with Joachim Raff, and

George W. Chadwick studied with Rheinberger in Munich following his studies in Leipzig.

Horatio Parker also studied in Munich, and John Knowles Paine studied in Berlin.16 These other

German conservatories offered other perspectives and did not necessarily reflect the same

“conservative” values as those espoused in Leipzig. Similarly, following the foundings of

Oberlin and NEC, Jeannette Thurber opened the National Conservatory of Music in New York in

1885, based on the teaching and structure of the Paris Conservatoire, an institution very different from Leipzig or any other German conservatory.17 These other music education institutions provided multiple influences on the development of American music. The impact of Leipzig

15Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 80–81. 16Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 20–24, and Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 231. 17Emanuel Rubin, “Jeannette Meyers Thurber and the National Conservatory of Music,” American Music 8, no. 3 (1990), 295. 7

Conservatory pedagogy was thus one contributor, albeit a powerfully influential one, that acted in shaping American musical identity in the nineteenth century.

As Americans were drawn to Germany for musical study during these years, it is worth noting that this occurred against a larger background, reflecting a broad interest from Americans in advanced university study in Germany, particularly in the sciences, but also in law and in the humanities. Historian Jurgen Herbst notes that there were almost 9,000 Americans who studied at German universities between 1820 and 1920. Americans were seeking professional training in their various studies, but they were also drawn to the exotic allure of studying abroad.18

Furthermore, French universities were not as attractive to Americans in the nineteenth century, because French education focused primarily on University of Paris, rather than other provincial universities, attracting the most accomplished professors to Paris alone. French universities also required a nine-year course plan with the end result of being able to work in Paris, not a goal shared by many American students. There were also misgivings about moral standards in France at the time.19

Advanced education was treated differently in Germany than in America, as well.

University students were treated as professionals, deciding how often to attend lectures and seminars, finding their own housing and food (no dormitories or meal plans), and this professional freedom was quite appealing to Americans, who were willing to exercise a great deal of self-discipline while achieving their professional goals.20 Eventually universities in the

United States began to adopt German models, such as Johns Hopkins University, founded in

1876 on the educational precepts of Wilhelm von Humbolt, including “freedom of scientific

18Jurgen Herbst, The German Historical School in American Scholarship: A Study in the Transfer of Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1965), 1, 7, 10–12. 19Herbst, The German Historical School in American Scholarship, 10–12. 20Herbst, The German Historical School in American Scholarship, 19–21. 8 inquiry and the uniting of teaching and research.”21 As more American universities began incorporating a commitment to scientific inquiry and a research emphasis for advanced education, more Americans invested in the universities at home and fewer traveled abroad. The same parallels can be seen in the fluctuating numbers of Americans studying at the Leipzig

Conservatory during the nineteenth century, discussed further in Chapter 5.

Purpose

The Leipzig Conservatory had an undeniable impact on nineteenth-century American musical life. In this study I seek to answer two main questions: what became of the American graduates from the Leipzig Conservatory, and how they specifically influenced American music culture between the years 1843 and 1918. While this study observes Leipzig’s influence on a variety of aspects of music culture in the United States, I emphasize the history of American music education, particularly in higher musical institutions. The history of institutions such as the Oberlin Conservatory and the New England Conservatory are my primary educational focus, but I have also expanded my research to other musical institutions, as well as to other aspects of musical life in America: music publishing and printing, newspapers and magazines, religious life, music societies, concerts and performances, and composing. In addition, this study garners insight into why American music institutions function in particular ways today, from elementary- to higher-level institutions. This study therefore examines the relationship between the Leipzig

Conservatory and American musical life through the lives and careers of individuals who carried ideas from one country to another.

While many influences shaped American musical culture during these years, including indigenous music, musical training from non-German institutions, and composers seeking to

21Steven Muller, “Wilhelm von Humboldt and the University in the United States,” Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest 6, no. 3 (1985): 253–54. 9 reject the European hegemony in American music, the purpose of this study is to delve deeply into the specific impact of the Leipzig Conservatory. In particular, I underline the pedagogical and repertorial traditions from the Leipzig Conservatory that affected American musical institutions, in particular Oberlin and NEC.

Survey of Literature

The resources from which this study draws include both primary and secondary documents. Since the Leipzig Conservatory was one of the few major German conservatories not destroyed by bombing in World War II, many primary source documents remain in the

Conservatory’s library.22 Over the years the Conservatory has expanded its course offerings to include more applied instruction, an institute of music pedagogy, a school of theater, a department of musicology, and many more departments, and the institution is now known officially as the Hochschule für Musik und Theater (HMT) “Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy”

Leipzig.

Today the HMT library has original documents from the nineteenth century, such as the registry used to record students entering the Conservatory and draft documents of student

Zeugnisse, the certificates given upon successful completion of their studies. The Zeugnis documents are in the instructors’ original handwriting, since these were drafts that were given to a copyist to write neatly for the student. These certificates reveal information about each student’s time at the university in terms of mastery of skills and work ethic. In addition to the

Zeugnisse, all programs of concerts sponsored by the Conservatory have also been retained, showing the types of compositions that were performed, as well as the performers. These programs reflect many traditional works by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Moscheles,

22Rubin, “Jeannette Meyers Thurber and the National Conservatory of Music,” 43. 10

Mendelssohn, Schumann, and others, but also numerous contemporary works by the composition students at the Conservatory.23

While the Zeugnis records and concert programs indicate what the students were doing while enrolled in the institution, another collection of primary documents supplies information beyond the students’ musical and academic performance: a registry that catalogues each student’s arrival and personal information during and after her or his time at the Conservatory.

From the founding of the Conservatory, every student was given a number according to their order of enrollment, beginning with number 1 (Leipzig student no. 1 was Theodor Kirchner from

Neukirchen). Next to each number the registry supplies the student’s full name, along with information regarding city and country of origin, parents’ names and professions, residence in

Leipzig, years of arrival and departure, and finally, where the student went after leaving the

Conservatory. These documents have proven particularly useful in order to discover information on the individual students and where they went after completing their studies. Through a digitization project that took place in 2004, this registry is currently available at the HMT library in both original and digital form. A database at the library allows for certain search techniques, including searches by student number, by country, by city, and by date.

The Conservatory has also produced a number of publications related to its own history.

These histories appear as early as 1868, the institution’s twentieth-fifth anniversary, with subsequent issues in anniversary years 1883, 1893, and 1918.24 Since many of these texts not

23See also William Weber, “Concerts at Four Conservatories in the 1880s: A Comparative Analysis,” in Musical Education in Europe (1770–1914): Compositional, Institutional, and Political Challenges, edited by Michael Fend and Michel Noiray, 331–49 (Berlin: BWV Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag, 2005), 344. 24See the following histories produced by the Leipzig Conservatory: Emil Kneschke, Das Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig (1868); Karl W. Whistling, Statistik des Königlichen Conservatoriums der Musik zu Leipzig: 1843–1883 (1883); Otto Günther, Das Königliche Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig: 1843–1893 (1893); Emil Kneschke, Das Königliche Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig: 1843–1893 (1893); and Festschrift zum 75-jährigen Bestehen des Königlichen Conservatoriums der Musik zu Leipzig am 2. April 1918 (1918). More histories followed after 1918, but those issued in 1918 and prior have been the most pertinent in this study. 11 only cover the most recent history but also return to the original founding of the institution, it was valuable to compare the histories by the different authors in seeking to understand the type of environment and instruction that students of different generations experienced in their studies in Germany.

Primary sources do not merely end at the registry, concert programs, Zeugnis documents, or histories published by the Conservatory. Many students kept personal records of their experiences in Leipzig, such as the English composer Ethel Smyth, whose experiences as a student at the Conservatory (1877–78) have been chronicled and preserved in 57 letters. The lesson and composition book of Edvard Grieg has also been preserved, providing detailed insights into the type of composition instruction and exercises taught during his years at the

Conservatory (1858–62).25 Grieg studied with Friedrich Richter, Robert Papperitz, and Moritz

Hauptmann.26 While Smyth and Grieg were not Americans, their documents illuminate the atmosphere and instruction that many Americans experienced when attending the Conservatory.

American students also wrote articles about their impressions of life at the Conservatory for readers back home in America; these were frequently published by Dwight’s Journal of Music.27

In Germany the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung and the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik published many articles on the Conservatory.28

This study also relies on publications and documents related to the history of American musical culture. In the early twentieth century Americans were captivated by German pedagogy, and many books were published just before World War I praising the educational principles

25See Patrick Dinslage, “Edvard Griegs Unterricht in Musiktheorie während seines Studiums am Leipziger Konservatorium, dargestellt an seinen eigenen Aufzeichnungen,” in Bericht über den 3. Deutschen Edvard-Grieg- Kongress (2001): 94–105. 26Dinslage, “Edvard Griegs Unterricht in Musiktheorie während seines Studiums am Leipziger Konservatorium, dargestellt an seinen eigenen Aufzeichnungen,” 94. 27See Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 37–38, and Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 235–39. 28Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 87. 12 developed in Germany and imploring American teachers to adopt these methods, as well.29 Also valuable for this topic are histories of American music in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, such as works by H. Wiley Hitchcock, Richard Crawford, and Bill Faucett and

Michael Budds.30 In studying American history, it is especially useful to note changes in music culture before 1850 and after 1850, in order to observe the impact that students from the Leipzig

Conservatory had in America. Chapter 2 discusses American musical life prior to 1850, and

Chapters 6 and 7 portray the impacts and influences the Leipzig graduates made.

Finally, I have also completed archival research at the New England Conservatory and the Oberlin Conservatory, and the results of that work play a major role in Chapter 6. According to the New England Conservatory (NEC) Archives website, its mission is “to document the history, activities, and contributions of the Conservatory since its founding in 1867 as the oldest continually operating independent music school in the United States.”31 My primary focus in my

Conservatory archival research in the United States has been concert programs. The New

England Conservatory has preserved concert programs from the founding year 1867 onwards, with some years having more or less representation based on what was preserved in those years.

There is a gap in concert program archives between fall of 1900 and spring 1903, possibly due to a move in buildings. I have cataloged 2,395 NEC programs between 1867 and 1918. Beyond their concert programs, their archives are also organized by significant individuals, with an extensive collection on George W. Chadwick, including memoirs/diaries, newspaper clippings,

29See Friedrich Paulsen, et al., The German Universities and University Study (1906), and L.R. Klemm, Public Education in Germany and in the United States (1911), for example. Gerald L. Gutek, A History of Western Educational Experience (1987) also covers a wider span of comparison and offers commentary and interpretation of the historic events. 30See H. Wiley Hitchcock, Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1988); Richard Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History (New York: Norton, 2001); and Bill F. Faucett and Michael J. Budds, eds., Music in America 1860–1918: Essays, Reviews, and Remarks on Critical Issues (Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2008). 31“Archives & Special Collections,” last modified April 4, 2012, New England Conservatory of Music, http://necmusic.edu/archives-special-collections (accessed July 19, 2014). 13 photographs, and numerous documents within thirty-nine document cases and five drop-front storage boxes. Chadwick was the institution’s second director. Eben Tourjée, the first director and founder of the school, had already chosen to model the institution after Mendelssohn’s

Leipzig Conservatory.32 The NEC Archives has a smaller selection of papers on Tourjée, consisting of a single clamshell box with ten file folders.33 Their archives also include personal and professional collections of various faculty members.

The Oberlin archives contain numerous Conservatory concert programs as well, giving information on the repertoire and performance life of the Conservatory. I cataloged 1,913 programs between the Conservatory’s founding year, 1865, and 1918, the ending year of my study. Programs are few and far between in the early years, but there is sizeable representation in other years. Just as NEC has a gap in their concert program archives, Oberlin has two gaps, one between 1867 and 1870, and another from the fall of 1903 to the spring of 1904. The Oberlin

College archives that relate to music date from 1841, when there was a music department but not a Conservatory. Oberlin Conservatory became an official division of Oberlin College in 1867.34

There are minutes from the Conservatory Faculty Council, the Conservatory Faculty, and other governing bodies that date from the 1860s and 1870s.35 Additionally, the Oberlin archives contain Conservatory catalogs dating from 1865 forward, offering a rich history of the philosophies, faculty, students, and policies.

32E. J. Fitzpatrick, Jr., “The History of the New England Conservatory,” The New England Conservatory of Music Centennial Convocation and Inauguration of Gunther Schuller as Ninth President of the Conservatory (Boston: New England Conservatory of Music, 1967), 12, as cited in “National Historic Landmark Nomination: New England Conservatory of Music,” United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 11, http://pdfhost.focus.nps.gov/docs/NHLS/Text/80000672.pdf (accessed July 19, 2014). 33“Archives & Special Collections,” New England Conservatory of Music. 34“Conservatory of Music Records, 1841–present,” Oberlin College Archives, http://www.oberlinlibstaff.com/archon/index.php?p=collections/controlcard&id=105 (accessed July 19, 2014). 35“Conservatory of Music Records, 1841–present,” Oberlin College Archives. 14

Source documents from these institutions, such as bulletins, announcements, and early catalogues, describe initial curricula and goals patterned on the Leipzig Conservatory, revealing the reach of influence of the Leipzig Conservatory. This is especially due to the high number of

Leipzig graduates who held leadership positions at these institutions. Tracing the paths of these musicians upon their departure from Leipzig has also led to other institutions to study, which are given in Chapter 6. While archives are less available at smaller schools, it has been an enlightening project to track the various regions to which these Leipzig graduates returned, thereby influencing the music culture around them.

Just as the Leipzig Conservatory has produced several histories to mark anniversary years, there are also many histories of the New England and Oberlin conservatories in the form of institutional publications, articles, and theses and dissertations. For its centennial anniversary in 1967 the New England Conservatory produced a program booklet in honor of Gunther

Schuller as the ninth president of the Conservatory, and this document also contains historical information by E. J. Fitzpatrick.36 E. J. Fitzpatrick’s 1963 dissertation, “The Music Conservatory in America,” contains more historical information about the New England Conservatory and other early American conservatories.37 There are also nearly thirty pages of history on the New

England Conservatory contained in the National Historic Landmark Nomination form submitted to the National Park Service.38 Much earlier in the 1930s Eleanor Miller (1933) wrote a bachelor’s degree thesis on the history and development of the Conservatory, and Allan Langley

(1935) published an article in The Musical Quarterly specifically on Chadwick and the

36The New England Conservatory of Music Centennial Convocation and Inauguration of Gunther Schuller as Ninth President of the Conservatory (Boston: New England Conservatory of Music, 1967). 37Fitzpatrick, Jr., E. J. “The Music Conservatory in America.” D.M.A. diss., Boston University, 1963. 38“New England Conservatory of Music,” National Historic Landmark Registration, United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service (February 13, 2004), https://npgallery.nps.gov/NRHP/GetAsset/NHLS/80000672_text (accessed September 29, 2018). 15

Conservatory.39 Likewise, there are histories on Oberlin’s College of Music and Conservatory, such as Richard Dean Skyrm’s 1962 dissertation and Willard Warch’s history published by

Oberlin College in 1967.40

In terms of recent sources for this study, dissertations including important information about Americans at the Leipzig Conservatory have been written by Leonard Phillips (1975) and

Douglas Bomberger (1991), respectively. In his dissertation, titled “The Leipzig Conservatory:

1845–1881,” Phillips limits his study to the years that encompass the founding of the

Conservatory to the death of Conrad Schleinitz (1805–1881), a chairman of the Board of

Directors. Phillips argues that Schleinitz represented the end of Mendelssohn’s “direct influence,” since Schleinitz had close contact with Mendelssohn and served on the Board of

Directors in the Conservatory’s earliest years.41 Phillips’s research is valuable in the historic background that he provides regarding the musical culture in Germany and particularly in

Leipzig in the early nineteenth century. Much of his dissertation covers the first four years of the institution, as well as descriptions of faculty members teaching in the nineteenth century. He includes one brief chapter, titled “The Influence of the Leipzig Conservatory on Music in

Nineteenth-Century America,” in which he discusses prominent American students at the

Conservatory and influences of the Leipzig Conservatory on the Oberlin Conservatory, the New

England Conservatory, the Chicago Musical College, Boston’s cultural life, and Dwight’s

Journal of Music. Phillips’s chapter on the Leipzig Conservatory and nineteenth-century

America is quite short, only twenty pages in all, and each section is rather brief.

39See Eleanor Miller, “The History and Development of the New England Conservatory” (B.M. Thesis, New England Conservatory, 1933), and Allan Lincoln Langley, “Chadwick and the New England Conservatory of Music,” The Musical Quarterly 21 (1935): 39–52. 40See Richard Dean Skyrm, “Oberlin Conservatory: A Century of Musical Growth and Influence” (Ph.D. diss., University of Southern California, 1962), and Willard Warch, Our First Hundred Years: A Brief History of the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music. (Oberlin: Oberlin College, 1967). 41Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 240. 16

Bomberger’s dissertation studies American students at German conservatories between

1850 and 1900, focusing primarily on conservatory life in Germany, as well as impacts these students made in American musical life after their studies. In addition to the Leipzig

Conservatory, Bomberger includes chapters on Berlin, Munich, Frankfurt, Dresden and Stuttgart,

Weimar, and a number of minor conservatories. He is therefore able to make generalizations and comparisons among the various institutions. Bomberger provides useful information in regard to the structure of curriculum in German conservatories in general—for example, a standard three- year curriculum, classes meeting typically two to three sessions a week from Monday through

Saturday, all classes (including applied lessons) being taught in a group setting, and a yearly

Prüfung (examination) including assessments in history, theory, and public performance.42 In his chapter devoted to the Leipzig Conservatory he characterizes principal teachers and students and provides specific details related to the instruction and environment at Leipzig. Among the important features in Bomberger’s dissertation are a translation of Hugo Riemann’s “Our

Conservatories” (1895) from Präludien und Studien I and a roster of American students at

German conservatories between 1850 and 1900.

Previous studies have considered the history of German conservatories, the Leipzig

Conservatory, music conservatories in the United States, and even American students at German conservatories. My study focuses on the individual students who studied specifically at the

Leipzig Conservatory and on their impact in the United States following their studies.

Research Methods

Through the studies of previous researchers such as Leonard Phillips and Douglas

Bomberger, as well as the availability of several primary source documents, there is a rich

42Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 9–12. 17 repository of research for the present study on Americans who attended the Leipzig

Conservatory. In pursuing this study, I used several different research methodologies. One primary mode of research for this work was archival studies, which involved consulting archives both in Germany at the HMT Library and in the United States at the New England Conservatory of Music, and the Oberlin College Library, searching for information related to the course curricula for these institutions and the accomplishments of the Leipzig graduates in the United

States.

I began my archival research at the HMT library by making lists of American students who appear on the registry of the Conservatory, what cities they came from, the duration of their studies in Leipzig, and what documents (Registry, Zeugnis, etc.) are available for each of these students. Some students, such as William Bradbury, Louis Elson, William Mason, and Eben

Tourjée, are not found in the official Conservatory Registry, indicating that their contact with the

Conservatory was most likely through private instruction with one or more instructors on the faculty. For this reason, tracking their relationship to the institution is more difficult. On occasion some instructors kept lists of their private students, but this was not always the case.

While working in the archives, I also created a large repository of scans of concert programs, particularly the Hauptprüfung programs, which took place annually at Easter, as a final examination for students. I also gathered a parallel repository of NEC and Oberlin concert programs by taking pictures of the documents during my archive visits. In addition to identifying

Leipzig students and gathering records of concert programs, I searched the HMT, NEC, and

Oberlin archives for bylaws or rules set by the Board of Directors regarding expectations in a student’s course of study, founding philosophies, and other information that was useful in understanding the curriculum that was taught during these years.

18

While the majority of my archival research about the Leipzig Conservatory came from the time I spent in the HMT library and archive, I also visited other archives in Leipzig, including the Leipzig Fotothek, the Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig Sammlungen, the

Stadtarchiv Leipzig, and the Leipziger Städtische Musikbibliothek und Sondersammlungen. I found many interesting documents at these libraries that pertained to musical life in Leipzig and often musical life at the Leipzig Conservatory. The pictures and photos from the Leipzig

Fotothek were most helpful in offering a visual history of the Conservatory.

After collecting scans of concert programs, I cataloged the data in an Excel spreadsheet and recorded the frequency of composers and performers appearing on concert programs. When all data was entered, I used Excel to generate graphs showing trends of popular composers over time. When one compares graphs from the Leipzig Conservatory, New England Conservatory, and Oberlin Conservatory side by side, similarities and differences between the schools are more evident. The analysis of data is an important aspect of my research methods in order to give meaning to the numbers by sharing trends and the significance of the same composers recurring on concert programs, or the absence of well-known composers.

Gathering and interpreting data provided background to other research methods that serve primarily to interpret the source material, such as reception history, social and cultural history, criticism, the history of theory, and biography. Biography played a major role in understanding the institutional character of conservatories in both Germany and the United States, as well as the lives of the Leipzig graduates from America. While background information about the conservatories provides a foundation to the study, the true character of these institutions was determined by the lives of individual students, instructors, and board members. With their names and biographies I have traced their accomplishments and contributions to musical culture and

19 education, understanding that these graduates all shared some common cultural experiences as students and studied music under a more or less consistent philosophy of pedagogy.

In addition to biography, I have studied the social and cultural history of American musical life between 1843 and 1918. I have sought to answer questions such as the following:

How was musical life in the United States affected specifically by graduates of the Leipzig

Conservatory? Which students contributed to musical societies, schools, and organizations that in turn carried the greatest influence in American musical culture? This has involved an exploration of concert programs, the study of societies and institutions, and a close study of various American music journals, such as Dwight’s Journal of Music.43

In terms of institutional pedagogy, the history of theory has been an important outlet to pursue, since the Leipzig Conservatory was founded upon strong composition instruction.

Theory and composition instruction at the Leipzig Conservatory is explained in Chapter 4. Some professors produced instructional books for the Conservatory, such as Ernst Friedrich Richter’s

Lehrbuch der Harmonie: Praktische Anleitung zu den Studien in derselben, zunächst für das

Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig bearbeitet (1857), which was later translated to English by

John P. Morgan, one of the founders of the Oberlin Conservatory.44 Following the translation of theory textbooks and the translators shows clearly that the Leipzig style and mode of instruction

43Most articles that students wrote for journals back home were in Dwight’s Journal of Music, as it was a leading musical journal in the nineteenth century. For example, Alexander Wheelock Thayer wrote a number of “Diary Abroad” or “Musical Correspondence” articles for DJM. Other students wrote for newspapers in their local region, for instance, Henry Wilson writing for the Daily Republican (Springfield, Massachusetts) in 1844 and 1845 (see Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 38). 44Ernst Friedrich Richter, Lehrbuch der Harmonie. Praktische Anleitung zu den Studien in derselben, zunächst für das Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig bearbeitet (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1857). For the English version, see Ernst Friedrich Richter, Manual of Harmony. A Practical Guide to its Study. Prepared Especially for the Conservatory at Leipzig, trans. John P. Morgan (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1867). See also Moritz Hauptmann, Die Lehrer von der Harmonik, ed. Oscar Paul (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1868), and Salomon Jadassohn, Lehrbuch der Harmonie (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, 1883), translated to English by Theodore Baker (New York: G. Schirmer, 1893). 20 had a great influence on the methods of teaching theory and composition in American institutions.

Another branch of institutional history is the American reception history of the Leipzig

Conservatory. This will answer questions related to the rapid influx of American students at the

Conservatory in the late nineteenth century. How did the reputation and image of the

Conservatory change over time in the minds of American musicians? What caused many

Americans to look to the Leipzig Conservatory as a model to emulate back home? In what years did Americans seem to hold greater esteem for the Conservatory? When World War I began, most American students had to withdraw from their studies and return home. It was informative to uncover the years in the history of the institution in which the Conservatory was either more or less popular in the eyes of its American beholders. Due to its well-known conservative musical leanings, the Conservatory inevitably met both positive and negative reception throughout the years. The rapid increase of American students in the 1860s and 1870s suggests a prevailing positive attitude held among American citizens, and this esteem continued into the late nineteenth century, even when American musical institutions of higher learning were becoming well established and offering somewhat comparable music education experiences.

Journals such as the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik and the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung contain critiques of the Conservatory as an institution and reviews of performances by faculty and students. These reflect the German perspective on not only the Leipzig Conservatory but also its growing international character. In the United States, journals such as Dwight’s Journal of Music and Presser’s Etude contain articles that reveal American sentiment toward music instruction in Germany, sometimes specifically related to the Leipzig Conservatory. While John

Sullivan Dwight was not a direct student of the Conservatory, Theodore Presser was a registered

21 student and later impacted American musical culture as the editor of the Etude magazine as well as in other ways.45

Since the ultimate aim of this study has been to determine the impact of Leipzig

Conservatory graduates in American musical life, these methodologies have provided varying perspectives and interpretations on data gathered from archival studies, such as student entrance and completion dates, Zeugnis records, and concert programs. The activities of the students have guided my study, focusing specifically on their impact in American education, choice of musical repertoire, American publications on music, and other important aspects of musical life between

1843 and 1918.

Brief Chapter Overview

The following study investigates the transfer of pedagogical ideas from Leipzig to

America, through the American students who spent time at the Leipzig Conservatory. Focusing on musical culture before the establishment of the Leipzig Conservatory, Chapters 2 and 3 give vignettes of musical life in two very different countries. Chapter 2 explores American musical culture and education prior to 1850, before a great number of students began bringing back

German music teaching influences and implementing them. Offering a view from Germany,

Chapter 3 explains musical life in Germany and the deep-seated philosophies of the nation that created a need for the founding of the Leipzig Conservatory. Chapters 4 and 5 cover life at the

Leipzig Conservatory between 1843 and 1918, focusing on the tenets and founding philosophies of the Conservatory in Chapter 4, and the American demographics and lifestyle at the

Conservatory in Chapter 5. The stories of the American students and their impact in American

45Warren Storey Smith and Martha Furman Schleifer, “Presser, Theodore,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2088707 (accessed July 23, 2014). 22 music life take the center stage in Chapters 6 and 7. Chapter 6 focuses on the educational impact at musical institutions of higher learning, with emphasis on the New England Conservatory and the Oberlin Conservatory, and Chapter 7 illuminates various Leipzig students as individuals and their contribution to American musical life apart from these educational institutions. Finally,

Chapter 8 concludes the study with final analysis, synthesis, and suggestions for future research.

Throughout the years American musical culture has changed greatly through the influences that have impacted it and through its own musical voices that have emerged from the

American musical landscape. Since music is largely an art that is passed down from generation to generation, pedagogy plays a significant role in shaping the culture as well. This study reveals a link between Leipzig Conservatory pedagogy and its far-reaching impacts in American musical life and pedagogy, bearing influence in the founding years of America’s first conservatories of music, shaping American approaches to music instruction, and leaving lasting imprints on music culture in the United States.

This study presents the far-reaching impact of Leipzig Conservatory pedagogy, specifically on music institutions and musical life in the United States in the nineteenth century.

American students from the Leipzig Conservatory passed along their German musical training by patterning their practices after repertoire choices, curriculum, compositional principles, and educational philosophies, as well as on a grander scale, at American music conservatories. In addition to the pedagogical influence of the Leipzig Conservatory, these students also invested in

American concert life, composition, music printing, writing, and other aspects that contributed greatly to United States musical culture.

23

CHAPTER 2

AMERICAN EDUCATION AND MUSIC CULTURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

American musicians in the early nineteenth century found themselves in a musical culture divided between British-inspired singing schools and an increasing European influence. The era of singing masters, such as William Billings (1746–1800), Daniel Read (1757–1836), and

Timothy Swan (1758–1842), became less prominent as new music teachers began leading the younger generation of musicians. More and more Europeans began immigrating to America with hopes of brighter and more stable futures, and Americans became interested in these new musical traditions that the European immigrants brought with them. Ambitious American-born musicians subsequently turned to Europe as a model for music education. With a foundation in the pedagogy of the singing school traditions and the introduction of other European music,

Americans sought to establish their own music and instruction, building upon both tradition and new techniques. The late 1830s and early 1840s began an era of shifting pedagogical ideas and music culture in United States, motivated particularly through a growing interest in European music with a simultaneous desire to establish a distinct American musical voice.

Historical Background

The current chapter reflects a growing shift in the ideology of American music education until the foundation of the first music conservatory for higher learning in the United States. I will therefore begin just before 1827, the year that Lowell Mason began his first singing school for children in Boston.46 Lowell Mason’s approach to music education was much different from the

46Wilfried Gruhn, “European ‘Methods’ for American Nineteenth-Century Singing Instruction: A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Historical Research,” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 23, no. 1 (2001): 6. 24 eighteenth-century conception of singing schools and singing masters, as his pedagogy reflected

European ideas, specifically German educational theories. After describing these new European developments in American musical culture and education, I will then limit the discussion of this era to the mid-1860s, when the first musical conservatory—Oberlin Conservatory—was founded in Oberlin, Ohio in 1865.47 This chapter will thus broadly cover a span of forty years, from 1825 to 1865.

American Musical Culture

Viewed by Euro-American settlers as a land of unexplored territories with bursting frontiers, the United States attracted many Europeans in the nineteenth century. US census records show that nearly 20 million immigrants settled in the United States in the nineteenth century and 5 million of those settlers came from Germany.48 This large influx of immigrants impacted American culture in numerous areas, including music culture and education. In addition to European influence, American music culture was also distinctly “American”— carrying vestiges of colonial practices, Afro-American and indigenous influences, and the spirit of the new nation. Not only was there an assimilation of European music into the culture, but there was also an adaptation of these practices in pre-existing traditions and sometimes a reaction against European music. Both a love for European ways and a spirit of national independence thus coexisted in these years of transition between 1827 and 1865, reflected through journals, publications, and vocal and instrumental performance.

47Warch, Our First Hundred Years: A Brief History of the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music, 10. 48Don Heinrich Tolzmann, The German-American Experience (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 1999), 223. 25

Journals about Music

Journals dealing with reviews about musical performances were slow to emerge in the nineteenth century. One of the earliest newspapers to offer music reviews was the New York

Albion, a weekly newspaper that published frequent music reviews as early as the 1820s. The

Albion was ahead of its time compared to other journals during this period. Also in the 1820s, an anonymous, albeit highly trained, musician published a number of musical criticisms regarding the New York Philharmonic Society for the New-York American, beginning in March 1825. He wrote his reviews under the pseudonym, “Musoeus,” and he was particularly well-spoken regarding issues of instrumentation, opera, and many other musical topics.49

By the 1830s New York publishers introduced “penny papers,” or daily newspapers that could be bought at the price of a penny; these papers supplied advertising space for cultural events, mostly drama and theatrical events, but many music announcements also appeared in these papers. Publisher James Gordon Bennett established his penny paper, the New-York

Morning Herald in 1835. His papers ran more musical content than others at the time. The type of music information readers typically read about concerned encouraging the public to buy tickets to various programs even though the readers could not afford such excesses. Mark Grant explains that “[the] point was the aspiration to cultural grandeur.”50 As revealed in Grant’s statement, New York society in the 1830s was often pulled between an emerging European cultural tradition of elite music and art and the current financial statuses of American readers.

Music criticism began to grow steadily in the 1840s, with more consistent music reviews and insightful statements about concerts and musical life. English immigrant Henry C. Watson

(1815–75) was an active music critic in the New York area in the 1840s, contributing to journals

49Mark N. Grant, Maestros of the Pen: A History of Classical Music Criticism in America (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998), 10–14. 50Grant, Maestros of the Pen: A History of Classical Music Criticism in America, 12–13. 26 such as the Albion, the American Musical Times, and the New Mirror. He also founded his own journal, the Musical Chronicle (1843), and co-founded the Broadway Journal (1840s) with

Charles Briggs and Edgar Allen Poe. Like the writings of “Museous,” Watson’s criticisms demonstrated his knowledge and training as a musician, and while his critiques were often harsh and honest, he wrote from the perspective of a teacher or conductor, with the aim of educating and inspiring performers to rise to higher standards. He may have been the first American music critic to support himself financially through is music criticism.51

General tendencies of criticism in American literature in the 1840s reveal many critics who were not as musically proficient as Watson. In addition, without access to scores or scholarly information regarding the music that they were reviewing, many 1840s music critics resorted to making lofty and poetic allusions to what they were hearing, describing the audiences at the events instead of the music itself, or pointing out the lack of cultivated taste in America.

Furthermore, it was common for music critics to issue harsh statements about performers and to favor institutions and societies who were advertising in their papers or giving complimentary tickets to the critics, rather than those who were not.52

In the 1850s writers brought a new perspective for music criticism, in which many took on the responsibility of educating their readership on what was good music and what was not, or promoting a certain cause, such as the construction of a new concert hall or the need for distinctive “American” talent and music.53 In 1852 John Sullivan Dwight (1813–93) began printing Dwight’s Journal of Music in Boston on behalf of the Harvard Musical Association, and his Journal would last until 1881 and produce 8,062 pages within forty-one volumes.54 Dwight,

51Grant, Maestros of the Pen: A History of Classical Music Criticism in America, 16–18. 52Grant, Maestros of the Pen: A History of Classical Music Criticism in America, 15, 19–20. 53Grant, Maestros of the Pen: A History of Classical Music Criticism in America, 28–29. 54Marcia Wilson Lebow, “A Systematic Examination of the Journal of Music and Art edited by John Sullivan Dwight, 1851–1881, Boston, Massachusetts” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1969), 311. 27 an 1836 graduate of Harvard Divinity School, was an amateur flutist and clarinetist, and he had a particular passion for poetry.55 Breaking away from the Unitarian church in 1841, Dwight followed the American philosophical movement of Transcendentalism, a philosophy that advocated for reaching the spiritual world through nature, music, and other mediums.56

Dwight’s writings focused more on compositions and their composers than the technique and execution of the performers.57 This style of criticism contrasted with that of Dwight’s predecessors in the 1840s, who focused on audiences, performance, and spectacle. He was also most interested in abstract, instrumental compositions and performances of these works.58

Beethoven was featured quite favorably in several of Dwight’s reviews.59 Similar to many of the music critics of the 1850s, Dwight also had certain causes and “evangelistic” aims throughout his

Journal. Some of his primary goals were to educate and create an audience who would appreciate classical music and to support all efforts in introducing music education in public schools.60 Dwight made an undeniable impact on American culture in the mid-nineteenth century through his Journal of Music, and likewise, his Journal reflects much of the music culture in

New England in those years.61

55Laura Moore Pruett, “Louis Moreau Gottschalk, John Sullivan Dwight, and the Development of Musical Culture in the United States, 1853–1865” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 2007), 14–16. 56Pruett, “Louis Moreau Gottschalk, John Sullivan Dwight, and the Development of Musical Culture in the United States, 1853–1865,” 189. 57Grant, Maestros of the Pen: A History of Classical Music Criticism in America, 49. 58Pruett, “Louis Moreau Gottschalk, John Sullivan Dwight, and the Development of Musical Culture in the United States, 1853–1865,” 28. 59Grant, Maestros of the Pen: A History of Classical Music Criticism in America, 49. 60Lebow, “A Systematic Examination of the Journal of Music and Art edited by John Sullivan Dwight, 1851–1881, Boston, Massachusetts,” 299. 61Lebow, “A Systematic Examination of the Journal of Music and Art edited by John Sullivan Dwight, 1851–1881, Boston, Massachusetts,” 311. 28

Music Printing

Of equal importance with the journals and criticism about music was the actual printing of music in the United States. Music printing in America had first begun in the colonies with the publication of the Bay Psalm Book in 1640.62 Over the next two centuries, the printing industry grew, and by the beginning of the nineteenth century German immigrant Gottlieb Graupner

(1767–1836) founded the American Conservatorio (1801) in Boston, which became known for its music printing.63 Graupner was an especially well-known music printer and engraver in

Boston, in addition to contributing to other aspects of musical life, such as selling instruments and performing.64

When Lowell Mason came to the Boston in the 1820s, music printing developed further.

Sales of Mason’s sacred music books were quite successful, with 500,000 copies of his Carmina

Sacra sold in a period of eighteen years (1841–58), and 150,000 copies of his Hallelujah (1854) within five years.65 Mason’s publications resonated thoroughly with the American public since sacred musical publications, especially hymns, were more widely distributed in the nineteenth century as opposed to secular music.66 Much of the music found in his collections was European, featuring Palestrina, Handel, Cherubini, Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Schubert, and Weber.67

While Mason’s publications represent an innovative American perspective in the mid- nineteenth century that esteemed European works over indigenous compositions, it is important

62Patricia Robertson, “Early American Singing Organizations and Lowell Mason,” The Choral Journal 42, no. 4 (2001): 19. 63Douglas A. Lee and Debra L. Hess, “Graupner, Gottlieb,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2256734 (accessed January 25, 2015). Graupner initially founded this company with Francis Mallet and Filippo Trajetta, but by 1802, he was the sole manager of the company. 64Lee and Hess, “Graupner, Gottlieb,” Grove Music Online. 65Gilbert Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, rev. 3rd ed. (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 131. 66Michael Broyles, “Music of the Highest Class”: Elitism and Populism in Antebellum Boston (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 62. 67Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 134. Chase notes that these specific composers were found in Mason’s The New Carmina Sacra (1850). 29 to note that there was also a parallel movement seeking to revive the old tunes of New England psalmody that hearkened back to colonial days. Publications such as The Billings and Holden

Collection of Ancient Psalmody (Boston, 1836) and Ancient Harmony Revived (Hallowell,

Maine, and Boston, 1847) appeared alongside some of Mason’s most popular collections.68

These volumes differed greatly from Mason’s work, using fuging tunes and basic psalms that had been taught in eighteenth-century singing schools.

Music printing in the mid-nineteenth century thus featured a duality of style: publications that featured the earlier musical and instructional practices of William Billings and colonial singing schools and music inspired by the European tradition, with some of the most popular collections being published by Lowell Mason. As a whole, these collections were mostly vocal and sacred.

Vocal Music

The demand for music printing was a response to nineteenth-century music culture and concert life in the United States, which was predominantly a vocal art. This included singing societies as well as theater and opera. Founded in 1815 as America’s “oldest oratorio society,” the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston proposed in its original bylaws to “[improve] the style of performing sacred music” and to “[introduce] into more general use the works of Handel and

Haydn and other eminent composers.”69 Many other singing organizations were established in the first half of the nineteenth century and dedicated to similar purposes, such as the Beethoven

Musical Society of Portland, Maine, the Hanover Musical Society in New Hampshire, and the

68Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 135. 69See H. Earle Johnson, Hallelujah, Amen! The Story of the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston (New York: Da Capo Press, 1981), 17, and Charles C. Perkins and John S. Dwight, History of the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston, Massachusetts. Vol. 1: From the Foundation of the Society through its Seventy-Fifth Season: 1815–1890 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1977), 39. 30

Baltimore Harmonic Society in Maryland, all actively performing in 1821. These singing societies were strongly influenced by European culture, performing oratorios and other sacred works, for example, Haydn’s Creation or Handel’s Messiah. In a partnership with the Boston

Handel and Haydn Society, Lowell Mason edited a volume of sacred music, The Boston Handel and Haydn Society Collection of Church Music (1822).70 While promoting European sacred music, these societies impacted their cities by giving regular concerts, in some cases producing edited volumes of music, as in Boston.

Performing music within a larger group such as a singing society was certainly one opportunity for American musicians to engage in music culture, whereas others preferred to be entertained at opera houses and theaters. Singing societies and music publishing practices in early American history were largely informed by English and German influences, and European styles subsequently swept through the secular vocal entertainment scene in America as well.

Although English ballad opera had been a staple in the colonies in the eighteenth century, opera was introduced to the United States in the nineteenth century particularly through Italian and

French styles. The success of opera in nineteenth-century America was highly influenced by the public’s approval or rejection (i.e., the selling of tickets), since there was no aristocratic patronage or government support for traveling troupes and opera companies as there was in

European cities.71 Opera performances were thus treated as a commodity, and they reveal certain tastes of the American public.

The 1820s and 1830s were important decades for both French and Italian opera in the

United States. New Orleans and New York were especially significant for the United States performance history of French and Italian opera, respectively. In New Orleans opera manager

70Robertson, “Early American Singing Organizations and Lowell Mason,” 19. 71Katherine K. Preston, “To the Opera House? The Trials and Tribulations of Operatic Production in Nineteenth- Century American,” The Opera Quarterly 23, no. 1 (2007): 41. 31

John Davis was committed to offering the best French opera to audience members at the Théâtre d’Orléans by bringing singers, ballet dancers, and orchestral players from France as early as their

1822–23 season. This type of opera thrived in New Orleans, a city with a large Creole population—citizens who were interested in preserving their French language and ties.72 Their tours to northern cities such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Baltimore brought French opera to wider audiences while simultaneously impressing northern crowds.73 English opera also existed in New Orleans as early as the 1820s, performed at the Camp Street Theater managed by

James Caldwell, creating competition between the two groups and a rich operatic tradition for

Creole concert life.74

In addition to the established opera companies in New Orleans, many European soloists toured throughout the United States in the 1820s and 30s, and opera was led primarily by the concept of the “star” singer, quite similar to the bel canto tradition in Europe. Many of the operas that were presented in the States during this period were indeed bel canto operas of Rossini and

Bellini. In the North, New York led the culture in Italian opera with the famous visiting troupe of

Manuel García and his daughters Pauline Viardot and Maria Malibran as early as 1825.75 Many of these performances took place at local theaters, such as New York’s Park Theater, but the city opened its first dedicated opera house in 1833.76 This “Italian Opera House” was opened due to

Lorenzo da Ponte’s work in finding sponsors for its construction. He also directed the opera house alongside Count Chevalier Rivafinoli and Carlo Salvioni of Milan in its first season.77

English stock companies also arose, and many opera troupes performing Italian operas that had

72Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 190–191. 73Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 190–191. John Davis brought the Théâter d’Orléans to tour these cities between 1827 and 1833. 74Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 191. 75Preston, “To the Opera House? The Trials and Tribulations of Operatic Production in Nineteenth-Century American,” 42–43. 76Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 181. 77Otto Biba, “Da Ponte in New York, Mozart in New York,” Current Musicology 81 (Spring 2006): 114. 32 been translated to English were popular as well. Overall, Americans were hearing Italian operas in both Italian and English, as well as French operas and English theater pieces. Opera in

America was much more about production, theatrical entertainment, and stardom than about aesthetic sophistication.78

The Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind visited the United States between 1850 and 1852, enticed to the country by the American impresario and circus leader Phineas Taylor Barnum for the enormous sum of $187,000. Lind was well known in Europe and quickly became a sensation in America, too. Barnum created extraordinary excitement for Lind’s concerts and was particularly talented in both understanding American entertainment tastes and shaping them as well.79 Concertgoers in the 1850s also enjoyed an exponential increase in travelling Italian opera troupes: there were at least seventy performing Italian troupes in America between 1847 and

1860. These troupes also frequently left talented singers behind when they returned to Europe, infiltrating American music culture with several great Italian singers.80

Much of the entertainment sphere of vocal art music in the country was thus largely an imported European tradition, coming from both Italy and France, as well as England. European opera in America, however, was much different from opera in Europe. With no established system of patronage or support, opera in America was solely dependent on ticket sales and became an aspect of popular culture. This gave extra emphasis to the theatrical display as well as the “star” ideal. In addition, some opera companies focused exclusively on performing bel canto operas in English, developing a special type of opera. While there is no doubt of the influence of

78Preston, “To the Opera House? The Trials and Tribulations of Operatic Production in Nineteenth-Century American,” 42–44. 79Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 186, 189. 80Preston, “To the Opera House? The Trials and Tribulations of Operatic Production in Nineteenth-Century American,” 47–48. 33

French and Italian music in American opera culture of the nineteenth century, it is also important to note that Americans created a distinct culture in terms of vocal performance.

Instrumental Music

While vocal music was much more prevalent in the concert life of mid-nineteenth- century America, instrumental music also had a place in the nation’s cultural life. Military bands from the American Revolution continued to prosper in civic and concert roles, alongside the introduction of the orchestra in the United States. Early nineteenth-century bands were made up of small numbers of winds and brass, such as the Boston Band in 1800, comprising four players: oboe, clarinet, horn, and bassoon. By the 1820s many brass instruments were produced with valves, allowing for greater melodic capabilities, and thus they began to carry a more significant role in wind ensembles and bands. Finally, percussion instruments were included in bands in the

1830s, such as triangles, tambourines, cymbals, and the bass drum.81

Some of the first college bands to form in the United States were at Harvard (1827), Yale

(1827), and the College of Charleston (1828). Brass bands multiplied in remarkable numbers in

New England between 1830 and 1865. And while brass bands were the most common wind bands, there was also room for added performing forces in concerts, such as vocal soloists, orchestras (“full band”), and even a violin soloist at times. Performances were a mixture of classical transcriptions, patriotic tunes, and dance tunes (i.e., quick steps). Brass bands introduced American audiences to transcriptions of Beethoven symphony finales in the late

1830s, encouraging performance of European music. The popularity of bands in the community and at the university spread to school students, and in 1848 students of the Boston Farms and

Trades School came together to form the first documented school band in the United States.82

81Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 273–74. 82Richard K. Hansen, The American Wind Band: A Cultural History (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2005), 24–29. 34

Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore (1829–92) was another representative of the early American wind band movement, and his contributions to the band ensemble were often epic and of grand proportions. Gilmore was an Irish immigrant who worked for the famed impresario P. T.

Barnum. He directed several bands in the 1850s, and as early as 1856 Gilmore presented a grand

Fourth of July concert in Boston by combining his Salem Brass Band with a number of other bands. The following year the Salem Band received an invitation to march in President James

Buchanan’s inaugural parade. In 1859 he founded his own band, which would play a major role in the Civil War and beyond.83

As the brass band was gaining popularity and growing in variety through its functional purposes throughout the United States, European-inspired ensembles were also developing. In orchestral music Gottlieb Graupner, the aforementioned music printer, also played the oboe and the double bass and led the Boston Philharmonic Society from 1809 to 1824.84 This seems to have been one of the earliest orchestras to perform together in the United States. It comprised sixteen players who convened to play Haydn symphonies.85 The early introduction of orchestra music in Boston was motivated by European music and recent immigrants.

Although Graupner’s orchestra stopped meeting in 1824, another group of instrumentalists formed in New York in 1842, known as the Philharmonic-Symphony Society of

New York, to bring symphony concerts to America that were modeled on European concert life.

The idea to form the Society was initially conceived by Daniel Schlesinger, William

Scharfenberg, and Ureli Corelli Hill. When Schlesinger died at thirty-eight years of age, symphonic musicians from the community came together to commemorate his life, and in turn, they decided that it would be advantageous to gather at other times of the year to make music on

83Frank J. Cipolla, “Patrick S. Gilmore: The Boston Years,” American Music 6, no. 3 (1988): 281–84. 84Lee and Hess, “Graupner, Gottlieb,” Grove Music Online. 85Robertson, “Early American Singing Organizations and Lowell Mason,” 18. 35 happy occasions.86 The group began with performances of European works and seems to have favored Beethoven at the beginning, performing his Fifth Symphony at their inaugural concert in

April 1842. In their first constitution (April 1842) they specified that membership would be

“limited to seventy men all professional musicians.”87 By the second season, the program listed sixty-three musicians, and the orchestra gave about three concerts per season.88

Another European-inspired orchestra rose to prominence in the mid-nineteenth century: the Germania Orchestra. The title alone suggests German influence, and indeed the Orchestra was founded in New York in 1848 by musicians who had immigrated to America from Germany as a result of the failed 1848 revolutions in Germany. Their roster included about twenty-five musicians.89 The Orchestra eventually moved to Boston in 1851 and frequently toured and performed in New England and in cities such as Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington D.C., and places in eastern Canada.90 They were one of the first orchestras in America to introduce the concept of a professional orchestra rehearsing every day.91 They disbanded in 1854, but several players later participated in New England and New York concert life, such as Carl Zerrahn, who directed the Boston Handel and Haydn Society from 1854 to 1898, and Carl Bergmann who conducted the New York Philharmonic Society from 1855 to 1876.92 John Tasker Howard describes the playing of the Germania Orchestra as “better than any that Americans had heard

86Erskine, John, The Philharmonic-Symphony Society of New York: Its First Hundred Years (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1943), 1, 4. 87James Gibbons Huneker, The Philharmonic Society of New York and Its Seventy-fifth Anniversary: A Retrospect ([New York: Printed for the Society?, 1917]), 4–7. 88Huneker, The Philharmonic Society of New York and Its Seventy-fifth Anniversary: A Retrospect, 6–7, and Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 280. 89Nancy Newman, “Gender and Germanians: ‘Art-Loving Ladies’ in Nineteenth-Century Concert Life,” in American Orchestras in the Nineteenth Century, edited by John Spitzer, 289–310 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2012), 292. These Germans who immigrated to America due to the 1848 revolutions became known as the “Forty-Eighters.” See also Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 283. 90Nancy Newman, “Gender and Germanians: ‘Art-Loving Ladies’ in Nineteenth-Century Concert Life,” 292. 91Howard B. Furer, ed., The Germans in America, 1607–1970: A Chronology & Fact Book (New York: Oceana Publications, 1973), 36. 92Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 285–86. 36 before,” and that was certainly a widespread sentiment among concert attendants in the mid- nineteenth century.93

Richard Crawford describes other meanings of the term, “orchestra,” in the United States in the 1850s. Besides professional organizations such as the Philharmonic-Symphony Society of

New York or the Germania Orchestra, there were also large orchestras and chamber ensembles that traveled with opera and theater companies. There was also the “social orchestra,” a group of three to five musicians who would play dance music in homes for social gatherings. Dance music was indeed programmed prominently by early instrumental ensembles in mid-nineteenth-century

America and served as a popular entertainment among audiences. Ensembles such as the

Germania Orchestra performed dances by Johann Strauss and Joseph Lanner on many of their programs, perhaps in an effort to satisfy the American public.94

Just as singers could participate in elite singing societies that promoted the performance of European works, accomplished instrumentalists formed smaller societies dedicated to the performance of chamber pieces. For example, the Mendelssohn Quintette Club was founded in

1849 in Boston, performing Mendelssohn’s Quintet in A major, Op. 18 at its first concert.

William Mason, son of Lowell Mason, also organized chamber music “soirées” in New York between 1855 and 1868.95

Distinctly “American” Music

A brief survey of the vocal and instrumental traditions in the mid-nineteenth century reveals a heavy influence of European music and style. Aside from the efforts by music printing companies to revive more indigenous colonial singing traditions, there were other rumblings

93John Tasker Howard, Our American Music: A Comprehensive History from 1620 to the Present, 4th ed. (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1965), 212. 94Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 280–84. 95Joseph A. Mussulman, “Mendelssohnism in America,” The Musical Quarterly 53, no. 3 (1967): 336. 37 pointing to the lack of a distinctly “American” style in the music traditions flourishing in the

1800s. Among the early generation of American composers who sought to establish a “native” musical style were Anthony Philip Heinrich, William Henry Fry, and George F. Bristow.

Although Anthony Philip Heinrich (1781–1861) was born in Austria, he immigrated to America in 1818 and began writing European-based music that drew upon vernacular American styles such as Indian melodies and patriotic tunes.96

While Heinrich paid tribute to American identity through his use of vernacular melodies,

William Henry Fry (1813–64) was more outspoken in calling composers to develop a distinct national voice. Well-known for his 1853 lecture urging for an American “Independence in Art,” the final lecture in his eleven lectures at the New York Metropolitan Hall, Fry urged composers to resist European influence in American music. In order to resist the European influence, Fry encouraged American audiences to listen to American music and music societies to give rehearsal time to symphonies and other works by American composers.97 He wrote frequently for the National Gazette (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), and he was particularly passionate about presenting French grand opera to American audiences, in English translations.98 Later he wrote a letter arguing that music of the United States should be based on “genius and not conformity.”99

In spite of all of his pleas that American music break away from the European stylistic norms, his own music was indebted to the European tradition, similar to Heinrich’s.100 Speaking to Fry’s struggle to free American music from European practices, Denise Von Glahn explains, “While

96Barbara A. Zuck, A History of Musical America (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1980), 28–9. 97Vera Brodsky Lawrence, “William Henry Fry’s Messianic Yearnings: The Eleven Lectures, 1852–53,” American Music 7, no. 4 (Winter 1989): 397. 98Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, A History, 304–5. 99From Fry’s letter to Richard Storrs Willis, Jan. 10, 1854, printed in Musical World and New York Musical Times (hereafter Musical World), Jan. 21, 1854; reprinted in Dwight’s Journal of Music 4 (Feb. 4, 1854): 140, as cited in Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 306. 100David E. Campbell and Laura Moore Pruett, “Fry, William Henry,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/om o-9781561592630-e-1002249600 (accessed October 7, 2018). 38 championing as vehemently as anyone in his time the urgent need of an original American music, Fry could do little better than write within the European tradition in his own compositions and encourage others to seek a truly national voice.”101

George F. Bristow (1825–98) was less vocal than Fry in his promotion of American music, but instead, he fought the battle primarily through his compositions.102 As a violinist who played in the New York Philharmonic Society from 1843 to 1879,103 Bristow was most interested in the American symphony orchestra and its programming. He was especially frustrated by the dominance of German music and musicians in New York Philharmonic concerts and the slim representation of American music. Bristow responded to an attack from

Dwight’s Journal of Music by stating his perspective:

From the commencement there has been on the part of the performing members or the direction of the Philharmonic Society little short of a conspiracy against the Art of a country to which they have come for a living; and, it is very bad taste, to say the least, for men to bite the hand that feeds them. If all their artistic affections are unalterably German, let them pack and go back to Germany . . .104

Early symphonic culture in the mid-1850s was strongly dominated by German music, and

American composers had limited opportunities to hear their works performed. The Philharmonic

Society did eventually grant Bristow performances of four of his symphonies, and he also enjoyed great success with his opera Rip Van Winkle (1855).105 Since concert life had been thoroughly “colonized” by European culture, American composers were only beginning to see and hear the products of their labor. Furthermore, much of their music reflected European styles, and it seemed more important during this period for them to gain an audience than to develop a distinct national identity in their music. As Americans were developing their own musical culture

101Denise Von Glahn, The Sounds of Place: Music and the American Cultural Landscape (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2003), 50. 102Zuck, A History of Musical America, 30. 103Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 309. 104Musical World, Mar. 4, 1854, as cited in Chase, 309. 105Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 330–31. 39 in the nineteenth century, European styles and influences were strong in all aspects of American culture, including music printing, writing about music, and vocal and instrumental traditions.

Within each of these areas other voices and styles began emerging in order to forge an American music. Nineteenth-century American culture thus resulted from a combination of European styles and their assimilation within American values and practices.

American Music Education

Music education in nineteenth-century America presented numerous perspectives, from the enduring traditions of the past to new ideas for teaching and instruction. Discussion about

American music education often presented debates over indigenous American styles and continental European styles, or learning by rote as opposed to learning by note-reading, and many other methods of pedagogy. Over the course of the century American music education moved from a focus on community experience to the training of qualified music teachers who could thus give back to the community. Nineteenth-century American music education was led by a variety of individuals and institutions, from American singing schools, to the highly influential Lowell Mason, to private instruction, to pedagogical literature, to music instruction in public schools, and finally, to the first Conservatory in the United States intended for higher- level music training.

Singing Schools and Sacred Harp

One of the most pervasive music teaching practices in the early nineteenth century was the American singing school. Singing schools in America were a long-standing tradition established in colonial days and were made particularly well-known by singing school masters and composers including William Billings (1746–1800). These schools were directed by various

40 singing masters who traveled from town to town and held a singing school for men and women in the evenings, typically over a period of about two weeks. These classes became especially effective through teaching singing by rote and continual repetition. Notes were drilled and words were later added.106 Singers were divided between treble, alto, tenor, and bass parts, with the melody typically found in the tenor. Men and women doubled both the treble and tenor parts in octaves.107 Singing masters were often self-taught musicians who had learned to sing themselves in singing schools, and they held a variety professions, such as tanners, tavern keepers, carpenters, hatters, judges, and ministers.108 The classes provided an opportunity for adults to learn how to sing, and in the late eighteenth century it was a common practice to hold singing classes intended specifically for children.109

Singing with European solmization syllables (fa sol la) was introduced early by Reverend

John Tufts in his A Very Plain and Easy Introduction to the Art of Singing Psalm Tunes (11 editions between 1721 and 1744).110 These syllables were later given particular shapes in the

American tunebook The Easy Instructor, compiled by William Little and William Smith in 1801.

The use of shape notes became a popular approach to teaching singing in large groups in New

England singing schools, and the approach quickly spread to other regions in the United States.

By 1844 the shapes of the noteheads were standardized in a tunebook known as The Sacred

Harp, published by Elisha J. King and Benjamin F. White, and this became a common textbook

106Buell E. Cobb, The Sacred Harp: A Tradition and Its Music (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1978), 60. 107Cobb, The Sacred Harp: A Tradition and Its Music, 8. 108Charles Hamm, Music in the New World (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1983), 154. 109Alan C. Buechner, “Lowell Mason: Not ‘Father of Singing Among the Children,’” The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning 3, no. 3 (1992): 45. Buechner lists certain examples of singing masters in the eighteenth century teaching classes prepared especially for children: John Waghorne in Boston (1739), Abia Holbroook (1744), and Jacob Buckham (1768). See Buechner, 43. 110Nym Cooke, “Tufts, John,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/48190 (accessed January 19, 2015). 41 for many singing schools.111 King and White’s Sacred Harp became quite popular, and as a result the term “Sacred Harp” was applied to an entire tradition of nineteenth-century American singing that reflected the historic New England approaches to singing schools, involving the use of fuging tunes, melodies in the tenor, shape-note music, and the communal gathering of women and men and boys and girls to sing loudly at full voice. The Sacred Harp tradition thus preserved eighteenth-century American music cultural and educational traditions into the nineteenth (and later, the twentieth and twenty-first) centuries.

Lowell Mason and European Influence

While the Sacred Harp tradition sustained older traditions of American music, other approaches in American music education were also emerging in the early nineteenth century.

Even before the turn of the century there were stirrings of discontent regarding the instruction of singing schools and singing masters. Led by individuals Andrew Law and William Cooper, reforms that questioned the practices of traditional singing schools began as early as 1793, decrying specific traditions of the singing school, such as out-of-tune singing, unsophisticated vocal techniques, and music by composers who were not formally trained.112 Andrew Law

(1749–1821), an ordained minister who had studied at Rhode Island College (later to become

Brown University) and Yale, published his Musical Primer (1793), which included more

European tunes than American. He openly criticized the “harsh singing” encouraged by

American singing masters. William Cooper’s Salem Collection (1805) also revealed his distaste for the current state of American sacred music by including solely European sacred pieces.113

111James Scholten, “The Tunebook That Roars: The Sound and Style of Sacred Harp Singing,” Music Educators Journal 66, no. 6 (1980): 33. 112Carolyn Livingston, “Theme and Variations: European Imports to American Music Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning 3, no. 3 (1992): 34. 113Hamm, Music in the New World, 154, 159–61. 42

These kinds of tune books emerging in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries represented an opposition to the prevailing traditions marked by the New England singing schools and the music of William Billings.

Despite calls for reform from Law, Cooper, and others, the older tradition of American singing schools continued to prevail into the early nineteenth century. Thomas Hastings (1784–

1872) and Lowell Mason (1792–1872) were in a later generation of music educators who advocated moving away from the old singing school traditions. Instead, they encouraged the promulgation of more “scientific music.” By invoking the term “scientific music” they were referring to European art traditions and harmonies, as well as music learned by note reading rather than by rote.114 Lowell Mason became the loudest voice in the reform effort, declaring fuging tunes of the New England singing schools to be out of date and advocating for the inclusion of music by Palestrina, Handel, Cherubini, Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, Schubert, and

Weber, as noted earlier.115 While he also turned to European repertoire and teaching methods, he contributed greatly to the American singing repertoire through his own compositions. Mason and his contemporaries were primarily interested in the production and instruction of singing with a parallel desire to raise singing in America to a literate art.116

The story of Lowell Mason’s impact in American music begins in 1827, when he moved back to Massachusetts and settled in Boston in order to work as the choirmaster at three

Congregationalist churches. He became the President of the Boston Handel and Haydn Society in the same year, leading the organization through 1832.117 In addition to his church appointments and leadership of the Handel and Haydn Society, in 1827 that Mason also began the first singing

114Livingston, “Theme and Variations: European Imports to American Music Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” 34. 115Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 134–35. 116Hamm, Music in the New World, 170–71. 117Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 133. 43 school for children in Boston.118 Even though temporary New England singing schools were common in colonial days and beyond, Mason’s Boston singing school was different from those of his contemporaries. For instance, rather than teaching the children fuging tunes and works by

Billings and other Americans, Mason used European music and compositions of his own. He was also against the shape-note singing introduced by William Little and William Smith. Mason preferred European solmization syllables and traditional, rounded note heads, referring to the shape notes as “dunce notes.”119 By instructing children in the rudiments of singing, Mason believed that he could improve church choir musicianship in years to come.120 Mason composed numerous hymns and gathered hymns in sacred music collections. He wrote some texts but was much more prolific at writing, arranging, and adapting tunes for hymns, such as composing the tune BETHANY for “Nearer my God to Thee,” and creating a tune for Isaac Watts’s “Joy to the

World” (ANTIOCH) by patching together motives taken from Handel’s Messiah.121

In the 1830s Mason met William C. Woodbridge (1794–1845), a disciple of the Swiss education reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827).122 The introduction to Pestalozzian thoughts and principles sparked the beginning of Mason’s curiosity and admiration for the Swiss educator’s pedagogy. Both William Woodbridge and Elam Ives (1802–64) were instrumental in bringing Pestalozzian theories to the United States and applying them specifically to music

118Gruhn, “European ‘Methods’ for American Nineteenth-Century Singing Instruction: A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Historical Research,” 6. 119Scholten, 33–34. Even though Lowell Mason was strongly opposed to shape-note instruction, he published a tunebook with his brother Timothy Mason in Cincinnati (The Sacred Harp, or Eclectic Harmony, 1834) which featured shape-note notation. Christina Mennel explains that this uncharacteristic decision of the Mason brothers was due to the publisher’s assertion that their tunebook would be unsuccessful without these shapes, which had become a common American standard used by singers in the South and West. While the brothers eventually conceded to allowing shapes in this particular publication, the contents of the publication were largely inspired by European melodies, as opposed to fuging tunes and folk tunes of other shape-note counterparts. See Christina Mennel, “Timothy B. Mason and The Sacred Harp (1834),” Hymn 49, no. 2 (1998): 30. 120Gruhn, 6. 121“Lowell Mason,” Hymnary.org, https://hymnary.org/person/Mason_Lowell (accessed November 21, 2018). 122Broyles, Michael et al., “Mason,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2258960 (accessed January 19, 2015). 44 education. Pestalozzi advocated experiential and active learning through the senses, in contrast to methodical drills that were common during his time.123 Mason relied on Woodbridge and Ives and their previous work on applying Pestalozzian principles to music education, and he too used more active learning in his schools: first by teaching the children to sing by rote (active, experiential learning), then to sing by note reading (introduction of symbols), and finally, the technique of singing in harmony through canons.124

Mason continued to apply Pestalozzian principles in the founding of the Boston Academy of Music in 1833. The aims of this Academy were much broader than his singing school for children, as he focused on vocal training for both children and adults, instruction for future music teachers, and sacred music concerts and publications.125 Teacher education was of primary importance at the Academy, with a goal of sending these teachers to public schools. In addition, it became a national center for other American music educators.126 By the Academy’s second year there were 3,000 students, including an amateur orchestra and a choir of 200 members.127

Mason had also published his Manual of the Boston Academy of Music (1834).128 The full title of the book was Manual of the Boston Academy of Music for Instruction in Elements of Vocal

Music on the System of Pestalozzi, and this text once again revealed his pedagogical inspirations, based largely on Pestalozzian principles and specifically modeled on German educator Georg

Friedrich Kübler’s Guide to the Study of Singing in Schools (1826).129 Lowell Mason’s affinity

123James A. Keene, A History of Music Education in the United States, 2nd ed. (Centennial, CO: Glenbridge Publishing, 2009), 96, 87. 124Broyles, Michael et al., “Mason,” Grove Music Online. 125Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 133. 126Livingston, “Theme and Variations: European Imports to American Music Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” 35. It should be noted, however, that music was not a part of public school curriculum when the Academy opened in 1833. Mason and the Academy would later serve an integral role in bring music to public schools in Boston. 127Livingston, “Theme and Variations: European Imports to American Music Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” 35. 128Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 133. 129Livingston, “Theme and Variations: European Imports to American Music Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” 36–37. Kübler’s Guide to the Study of Singing is Schools was written in German: Anleitung zum Gesang-Unterrichte in Schulen. 45 for German educational thought was not limited to isolated publications or adaptations. In April

1837 he left for his first European trip, during which he observed music teaching in England,

Germany, Switzerland, and France. He returned to Europe on a second trip between 1851 and

1853.130 His teaching philosophies and convictions were thus greatly influenced by his experiences and observations in Europe.

Lowell Mason’s work in public schools in Boston in the late 1830s is especially noteworthy and will receive more attention in a succeeding section of the present chapter. His vision and promotion of music in public schools in Boston set an example for other American cities to follow by including music in their core school curriculums. In addition to his extensive impact in the schools, Mason returned from his second European trip in the fall of 1853 to co- found the New York Normal Institute with George F. Root (1820–95) and William Bradbury

(1816–68).131 This Institute had the specific purpose to train music teachers in courses including pedagogical methods, voice, theory, and piano. Following the founding of the New York Normal

Institute, several other teacher-training institutes opened for music teachers through the United

States.132

As shown through his Boston singing schools, his pedagogical convictions, and his impact as a music teacher, Lowell Mason made a tremendous impact in nineteenth-century

American music education. No summary of the developments of nineteenth-century music education would be complete without a mention of his efforts and accomplishments. Yet many scholars point to Mason’s self-promoting tendency to make exaggerated claims about his own

130Broyles, Michael et al., “Mason,” Grove Music Online. 131Livingston, “Theme and Variations: European Imports to American Music Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” 36. Root was a composer and vocal instructor who wrote the importance of shifting between vocal registers at the time, and Bradbury was a hymn writer and publisher and known particularly for childhood education throughout his career. See Stephen Austin, “Carlo Bassini’s The Art of Singing, Part 1,” Journal of Singing 66, no. 5 (2010): 595, and Alan Burl Wingard, “The Life and Works of William Batchelder Bradbury, 1816–1868” (DMA, Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1973), 253–54. 132Livingston, “Theme and Variations: European Imports to American Music Education in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries,” 36. 46 accomplishments and likewise his failure to give credit to his collaborators.133 Michael Broyles emphasizes the dual nature of Lowell Mason in describing the ambiguity of his contribution to

American music education:

[Mason] has been considered a hero, a villain, an upholder of taste, a destroyer of standards, an anti-American, a suppressor of American indigenous music, and the founder of an American national musical culture.134

The Carlo Bassini Vocal Method

While Lowell Mason was extremely well-known through his self-advocacy and publications, there were other contemporaneous vocal teachers in the nineteenth century. Carlo

Bassini, an immigrant of Italian birth, moved to New York to begin a career and later became a voice teacher. Bassini wrote often for The New York Music World, and in particular he authored articles about vocal pedagogy. He argued that everyone has a chest voice, including men, women, and children, and he believed that singing instruction should begin with chest voice. In

1857 Bassini published The Art of Singing, a pedagogical text that described the tradition of bel canto singing, indebted to Manuel Garcia II (1805–1906).135 In his manual on singing he described the chest voice (C), the medium voice (M), and the head voice (H), three different registers in the human voice and how singers should strive to shift smoothly between the registers.136

Stephen Austin posits that Bassini’s Art of Singing “was perhaps the most popular text on the art of singing published in America during this period.”137 This statement is particularly

133For examples of these self-promotion tendencies, see Keene, 100, regarding his collaboration with Elam Ives in the Juvenile Lyre (1831) and Buechner, 45, regarding his false claims to being the first person to teach children how to sing in the United States. 134Broyles, “Music of the Highest Class”: Elitism and Populism in Antebellum Boston, 63. 135A well-known European voice teacher in the nineteenth century, Manuel Garcia II published his Nouveau traité sommaire sur l’art du chant (Geneva: Minkoff, 1847), and it was later translated to English by Donald Paschke: Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing, Part I (New York: Da Capo, 1984). Bassini would have had access to the French text, and many of his pedagogical principles seem to reflect those of Garcia. 136Austin, “Carlo Bassini’s The Art of Singing, Part 1,” 591–95. 137Austin, “Carlo Bassini’s The Art of Singing, Part 1,” 591. 47 significant, given the great success of Lowell Mason’s singing books, revealing another facet of singing instruction in America. It also points to the impact of Italian bel canto singing and Italian pedagogy in American musical life. As Italian opera troupes were successfully touring throughout the United States, many Italian singers remained behind, and young American singers were no doubt inspired by this European tradition. Bassini therefore had an opportunity to teach

American musicians the art of Italian singing while Mason simultaneously continued to direct singing schools based on Pestalozzian principles. This dichotomy of two different styles and aspects of singing instruction (i.e., European art tradition versus basic vernacular singing and musicianship) were co-existing influences in nineteenth-century music life in the United States.

Bassini’s role in American culture reveals that Americans were exposed to various European pedagogical music instruction, favoring the singing styles of both Italy and Germany.

Foundations for Music in Public Schools

Integrating music into public school curricula began in the late 1830s as a result of the passion and energy of Lowell Mason and through the facilities of the Boston public school system. When Mason arrived back in the United States in 1837, after his first trip to Europe, he proposed to the Boston School Board that he would volunteer to teach music for a year as a trial in order to show how important music study was in public school instruction. Upon their agreement, Mason implemented his trial music program at the old Hawes School House in South

Boston between 1837 and 1838.138 His trial was successful; in 1838 music became a part of the

Boston school curriculum on account of his influence. His desire was that all school-age children learn how to sing.139 When music became a part of the Boston curriculum in 1838, Mason needed more financial support to cover music instruction in Boston schools. At that time he was

138Buechner, “Lowell Mason: Not the ‘Father of Singing Among the Children,’” 42. 139Chase, America’s Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present, 133. 48 appointed to superintendent of music in Boston schools and was given a meager allowance to hire assistants. Music instruction was then relegated to certain times of the day with no more than two hours of instruction a week given at any school. Teachers (including Mason) earned a salary of thirty dollars a year.140

What was Mason’s style of teaching in those early years, and how did the first public school students learn about music? Just as in Mason’s early singing schools and at his Boston

Academy of Music, music instruction was largely about the voice and teaching children proper techniques of singing. His method of teaching began primarily through rote instruction, with note reading introduced gradually over time.141 The two primary texts that Mason used were his

Manual of the Boston Academy of Music (1834) and The Juvenile Singing School (1837). Classes for the Hawes School were divided into classes of boys and girls ranging from eight to fourteen each, with two classes a week lasting thirty minutes, meeting on Wednesday and Saturday mornings. By the end of the year students were reading music in multiple time signatures and standard rhythmic patterns, including the dotted-eighth-sixteenth figure.142 Mason had proven his ability to teach school-age children to sing and read music, and he was successful in making music a part of the public school curriculum in Boston for years to come. In 1845 the Boston

School Committee dismissed Mason as the superintendent of music in schools, acknowledging his “integrity and competency,” but suggesting that he had held the position for a long time and

140Keene, A History of Music Education in the United States, 122. As a comparison to other teacher salaries during that year, male school teachers in Suffolk and Essex counties in Massachusetts received average monthly wages of $21.52 and female teachers in the same counties received average wages of $5.75 a month. Male school teachers in Boston, specifically, received $92.08 a month. See Abstract of the Massachusetts School Returns 1838/39 (Boston: Dutton and Wentworth, 1839). Mason’s $30 wages were annual, showing that his salary was very low in comparison to other Boston school teachers at the same time. 141Martha Chrisman Riley, “Portrait of a Nineteenth-Century School Music Program,” Journal of Research in Music Education 38, no. 2 (1990): 83. 142Carol A. Pemberton, “‘Singing Merrily, Merrily, Merrily’: Songs for the Skeptics of 1838,” American Music 6, no. 1 (1988): 77, 85. 49 that it was necessary to bring new leadership to the post.143 The impact Mason had made in the life of public schools in America continued beyond his leadership in public schools.

In the same years that Lowell Mason was experimenting in the Boston public schools,

Calvin E. Stowe (1802–86) of Ohio also spoke about the importance of public music education.

As a professor at Lane Theological Seminary, Stowe traveled to Europe between June 1836 and

January 1837 to collect books for the Seminary Library and also to visit and observe European schools in England, France, Germany, and Russia. As a result of this trip, Stowe was ultimately commissioned on behalf of the Ohio General Assembly to give a report of any findings that would benefit the State of Ohio.144 Upon his return to the States, Stowe shared his findings with the Western Literary Institute, as well as with the Ohio Governor and both Houses of the State

Legislature. Even though his European tour was inspired by a quest to gather European literature, as well as to observe educational practices throughout Europe, Stowe spoke mostly of German schools, particularly schools in Prussia and Wirtemberg [sic], emphasizing both music education and the teaching of moral values. He spoke highly of the musical instruction given to elementary students in German schools.145 By 1838, the same year that Lowell Mason achieved a victory by integrating music into the curriculum at Boston public schools, Stowe released his Report on

Elementary Public Instruction in Europe, a significant document for educators, especially those in Ohio and in the Midwest.146 It encouraged the inclusion of music education in American public schools.

143Keene, A History of Music Education in the United States, 124–25. 144Paul D. Sanders, “Calvin E. Stowe’s Contribution to American Music Education,” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 24, no. 2 (2003): 134–35. 145Sanders, “Calvin E. Stowe’s Contribution to American Music Education,”135–36. In presenting to the Western Literary Institute, Stowe’s remarks were thus published in The Western Academician and the Transactions of the Western Literary Institute, allowing for dissemination of his findings. 146Sanders, “Calvin E. Stowe’s Contribution to American Music Education,” 128. 50

After the submission of Stowe’s report, the Ohio Legislature printed 10,000 copies, the majority to be given to Ohio school districts, and other copies to remain with the State

Legislature and the School Superintendent’s office.147 Music was introduced to the curriculum in

Ohio public schools a few years later in Zanesville (1842), Cincinnati (1844), and Cleveland

(1846). The first Ohio Teachers’ Institute was held in Sandusky, Ohio, in September 1845, with the aims of discussing vocal music education in schools.148 The idea of teacher training had been a progressive pedagogical concept, as modeled by Mason’s Boston Academy of Music (1833) and later the New York Normal Institute (1853), and it demonstrates that among the more western states Ohio was particularly forward-looking in its commitment to music education.

Outside of Ohio, the impact of Stowe’s report was far reaching. The Pennsylvania

Legislature requested 2,000 copies in English and 1,000 copies in German. Furthermore, there were requests for reprints from state legislatures in Massachusetts, North Carolina, and Virginia.

Stowe’s report was also printed in the Transactions of the Western Literary Institute, an organization that by 1839 had chapters in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Iowa

Territory, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio,

Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wisconsin Territory.149 Stowe’s zeal for music education was thus disseminated throughout the United States, and between Lowell

Mason’s example in Boston (1838) and Stowe’s report (1838) music was gradually included in more public schools throughout America through the 1840s and 1850s.

147Sanders, “Calvin E. Stowe’s Contribution to American Music Education,” 139. 148Paul D. Sanders, “Vocal Music Education at Ohio’s First Teachers’ Institute,” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 23, no. 1 (2001): 60–61. 149Sanders, “Calvin E. Stowe’s Contribution to American Music Education,” 139. 51

Louisville was one such city to add music to its public school curriculum in 1844, apparently the first southern city to entertain the idea of music in schools.150 Music teacher

William C. Van Meter worked in Louisville schools from 1844 until 1846, resigning due to the

School Board’s being unable to pay him anymore. In the 1850s the Louisville School Board once again initiated music in the curriculum by hiring Luther Whiting Mason and William Fallin to teach music in six Louisville grammar schools.151 Mason and Fallin applied different approaches,

Luther Mason favoring a singing style using rote instruction first as modeled by Lowell Mason, and William Fallin teaching note reading from the start. While there were criticisms and commentaries about each instructor’s choices, both music teachers were quite successful and invited to continue teaching in Louisville grammar schools as well as beginning music instruction at the city’s primary schools in 1853.152

As was typical of early musical instruction in mid-nineteenth-century America, the music program in Louisville did not last long, after both Fallin and Mason had resigned respectively in

1855 and 1856.153 Even though their positions were initially filled, the School Board lost support and financial means to continue the program in 1857. Nevertheless, they did reinstate the program in the 1860s, with a hybrid curriculum involving a combination of both rote and note learning, focusing on rote singing for children of young ages, moving gradually to the inclusion

150Riley, “Portrait of a Nineteenth-Century School Music Program,” 80. Other Northern and mid-West cities such as Boston, Chicago, Baltimore, Ohio, etc. had already introduced music in their public schools, but no other Southern cities are documented to have music included their curriculums. 151Riley, “Portrait of a Nineteenth-Century School Music Program,” 80. Luther Whiting Mason (1818–96) was a student of Lowell Mason who studied at the Boston Academy of Music and perhaps a distant relative of the famous Bostonian pedagogue. See Bonlyn Hall, “Mason, Luther Whiting,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/51121 (accessed February 1, 2015). 152Riley, “Portrait of a Nineteenth-Century School Music Program,” 81, 83. The decision to incorporate music instruction in Louisville primary schools in 1853 was particularly significant as music only entered Boston primary schools as late as 1864. 153Fallin resigned without giving a reason. Mason’s resignation may be attributed to the complaints lodged against him for his harsh teaching techniques among the children. Riley explains that “[Mason] had been reprimanded by the school board for losing his temper and speaking in a disrespectful manner, for pinching and pulling students’ ears, and for hitting students on the head and hands with his violin bow” (81). 52 of both in middle grades, and mostly sight-reading for junior high and high school students.

During the time of Civil War, music in schools received less attention, but the Louisville program was revived again following the War.154 Overall, the pioneering efforts of individuals in

Boston, Ohio, and Louisville greatly influenced on the nation to broaden the scope of public music education for young children, regardless of class or financial means.

Early Instrumental Music Instruction

Early public school education in the United States was focused almost solely on vocal instruction: instrumental music in schools came later. Aside from a few exceptions such as the first school band in Boston in 1848, instrumental music was typically absent from public school curriculums in the mid-nineteenth century.155 Nevertheless, there were opportunities to study instrumental music, typically through private lessons from renowned performers and European immigrants. The 1840s saw a rise in middle-class homes and families who had considerable leisure time and financial means for private lessons.156 In certain parts of the United States,

Americans could also study stringed instruments in class environments as early as the late 1840s, just as vocal music education in public schools was flourishing.

Lewis A. Benjamin, Sr. was a violinist who performed and taught in New York City and

Brooklyn from 1847 to 1891. He was possibly the first instructor to teach strings in groups and classes in the United States. Benjamin established a music academy in New York with private lessons and instrumental classes arranged by age, organized as a “society,” and with dues of twenty-five cents paid weekly. Scholarships were offered in subsequent years for dedicated students. His pedagogical string text, The Musical Academy (1851), reveals the possible content

154Riley, “Portrait of a Nineteenth-Century School Music Program,” 81–4. 155See Hansen, The American Wind Band: A Cultural History, 29. 156Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History, 281. 53 of his classes. The book is intended for string classes, mostly violin and cello, and includes three- part harmonizations and suggestions for instrumental playing.157

In the West the brothers James and Joseph Howell taught violin classes in Cotton Plant,

Arkansas between 1849 and 1861. They emphasized pentatonic scales in their class instruction, using open strings and first and third fingers. This training was particularly effective for playing simple melodies and harmonies within the range of an octave or tenth. Joseph Howell also published an instructional text, New Class Book (1859), which included songs for singing or playing in one, two, and three parts, as well as several popular Southern hymns and instructions on how to buy a good violin.158 These early texts were rudimentary attempts at string-class instruction in the United States. Even though string classes did not take place in public schools during these early years, string instructors such as Lewis A. Benjamin, Sr. and the Howell brothers may have paved the way for string classes (and band classes) to eventually enter the schools. Since there were not sharp demarcations between “orchestra” and “band” at the time, any instrumental class taught in the United States in the mid-nineteenth century was important to the country’s history, revealing another side of music education in addition to the efforts in vocal instruction by pedagogical pioneers such as Lowell Mason, Calvin E. Stowe, and the teachers and School Board in Louisville.

Music and Its Role in America in the Mid-Nineteenth Century

The forty-year period between 1825 and 1865 was pivotal in America’s history regarding the development of a national music culture and education. During those years the United States saw a variety of both participatory music and performance-based culture. American music culture was a collage of (1) early colonial practices, (2) European tastes and influences, and (3)

157Keene, A History of Music Education in the United States, 290–91. 158Keene, A History of Music Education in the United States, 289. 54 ideas toward a “distinct” American voice. Musical traditions of America’s colonial days remained, including singing schools and English ballad opera. As more European immigrants settled in America, they brought with them a love for art music, symphonies, and great European composers, such as Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn. Finally, some American composers saw the increase of European music as harmful to establishing an individual musical voice for the United States, and they argued strongly against the European influence.

Music in America in the mid-nineteenth century was thus a developing and changing culture, based primarily on European styles that were assimilated into American ensembles and societies through the distinct infrastructure of the nation and the particular taste of the public. As

Americans continued to navigate the musical culture of the time, many looked toward Europe as a paradigm of cultivated music and education. Their curiosity about continental music and instruction would thus continue to shape the cultural landscape and history of music education in the United States.

55

CHAPTER 3

GERMAN EDUCATION AND MUSIC CULTURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

In the years preceding the establishment of the Leipzig Conservatory in 1843 there were many debates and discussions over the status of education in Germany, as well as proposals to improve and reform current practices. These conversations encompassed philosophical ideas as well as their more practical application. Nineteenth-century German educators leaned heavily on

Enlightenment thinkers from the eighteenth century who advocated for more experiential learning. Concepts such as Bildung, morality, and self-awareness emerged, and music became part of the educational process, both as a tool for education and as a separate and distinct art to cultivate its own right. General and musical educational reforms had a far-reaching effect, impacting students from the youngest to those at the university.

As conversations about music education grew more intentional, educators were simultaneously advocating for public and national educational models, and the desire for a public institute of music for higher learning developed. Many proposals emerged for a German national institute of music instruction, but few were realized. In 1843 Felix Mendelssohn founded the

Leipzig Conservatory, and this institution became the first successful German establishment of higher education in music, reflecting the culmination of years of German educational reform.

The success of Mendelssohn’s proposal was due to a confluence of factors that will be discussed further in Chapter 4.

Enlightenment and Early Educational Reforms

The development of music education in Germany in the nineteenth century is best understood in the context of the historical developments in education that began in the eighteenth

56 century, in which Enlightenment thinkers made a great impact on educational thought and practice. Enlightenment ideas were still respected in the early to mid-nineteenth century, and they were adapted to specific subjects, including music.

Early Enlightenment

Many of the educational reforms in Germany in the late eighteenth century can be attributed to the influence and writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778). Rousseau’s

Emile (1762) encouraged teachers to approach education with the individual child in mind, based on the child’s natural development. Enlightenment thought encouraged a sense of imagination within the child and the educator, and music teachers applied these new concepts by directing students to compose short melodies and songs in order to develop their imagination in music.159

Johann Bernhard Basedow (1724–1790), a German contemporary of Rousseau, founded a laboratory school known as Philanthropium in 1774 in Dessau. This school focused on cultivating singing as part of the daily routine; its emphasis on singing generated a need for music and songs to be written especially for children. Several German composers wrote in this new genre of children’s songs, often using texts from the poet Christian Felix Weiße (1726–

1804).160 Basedow believed that education should have a practical goal: to make the student happy. He also advocated for experiential learning instead of the memorization of facts and formulas.161

Before the Enlightenment, music education in Germany was connected to religious education, with the goal of helping children learn the tenets of the faith through song and

159Alexandra Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 26, no. 1 (2004): 11. 160Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 11. 161Frederick C. Beiser, “Romanticism,” in A Companion to the Philosophy of Education, edited by Randall Curren, 130–42 (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2003), 136. 57 participate in congregational worship. Since Enlightenment educational philosophy emphasized the personal development and creativity of the child, music education was no longer directly related to religious education, and as a result many did not see a reason to maintain it. Therefore, despite the infusion of new educational ideas that could be applied to music, music education in

Germany declined after 1750 and suffered because it did not appear to serve a greater utilitarian purpose.162

Pestalozzian Pedagogy

Throughout the ongoing discussions of educational philosophy in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, Swiss educational reformer Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) directed the attention of reformers back to Rousseau and his Enlightenment theories, which promoted childhood education through familiarity with the natural world.163 Pestalozzi focused on the natural sense impressions (Anschauungen) that a person experiences through daily life, while using learning exercises to make these impressions clearer and more meaningful.164 Nature was the source of these sense impressions, and Pestalozzi identified both spoken and sung sounds as belonging to the “hearing” sense impressions.

Another important aspect of Pestalozzian theory is that learning should occur through gradual steps within the development of a child, and this gradation should be barely perceptible to learners, allowing them to learn new skills through small, incremental advances. Pestalozzi’s pedagogical ideas were adapted to the teaching of music through singing and implemented in

162Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 10–11. 163Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 12. 164Arthur D. Efland, “Art and Music in the Pestalozzian Tradition,” Journal of Research in Music Education 31, no. 3 (1983): 168. 58

Swiss schools in 1809 and German schools between 1810 and 1830, even becoming the national music educational system in Prussia.165

While Pestalozzi never published his own instructional texts that applied his educational theories to music, in 1809 his friend Michael Pffeifer published ideas about teaching singing with Pestalozzi-inspired approach. Pffeifer had already been using these methods to teach singing, years before the music publisher Hans Georg Nägeli published Pffeifer’s practices in

Die Pestolozziche Gesangbildungslehre nach Pfeiffer’s Erfindung (The Pestalozzian Method of

Teaching Singing as Contrived by Pfeiffer, 1809). Pestalozzi knew of Pffeifer’s work and was openly pleased with it. In Pfeiffer’s method experiencing musical sounds came before learning the symbols associated with music. Rhythm, melody, and dynamics were covered separately in steps, appealing first to the senses, and then when all exercises were completed, they were combined with the introduction of musical notation. Natural sense impressions always preceded more complex symbols or music notation.166

In Pfeiffer’s strict application of Pestalozzi’s theories to teaching singing, one of the components missing from his treatise was the practical singing of songs. Students were not introduced to practical singing before encountering all of the theoretical exercises. G. F. Kübler’s

Anleitung zum Gesangunterrichte in Schulen (1826) later added practical singing, as well as a component of harmony. Prussian educators also began using musical notation (rather than

Pffeifer’s cipher notation) in their teaching books in the 1830s, further developing and building upon Pffeifer’s original Pestalozzian-inspired course for learning music.167 Since these approaches were used readily as a national system of music education in Prussian schools in the early nineteenth century, it is clear that Pestalozzian methodology made a significant imprint on

165Arthur D. Efland, “Pestalozzi and 19th Century Music Education,” International Journal of Music Education 3, no. 1 (1984): 21–22. 166Efland, “Pestalozzi and 19th Century Music Education,” 22–23. 167Efland, “Pestalozzi and 19th Century Music Education,” 23. 59 early Prussian music education in those decades and that these instructional methods were commonly known in the 1840s, when the Leipzig Conservatory was first established.

Humboldt and the German Concept of Bildung

German educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) was especially successful in synthesizing the reforms of the Enlightenment with the folk music reforms that sought to cultivate a national identity through music education. He also introduced the concept of

Bildung into German educational thought.168 Bildung means “education” in German, but its connotation is much more complex than that simple translation suggests. Other words in German also translate to “education,” with slight nuances, such as Unterricht, Erziehung, or Ausbildung.

Frederick C. Beiser describes Bildung as a “formation” and also as “culture,” combining to imply the idea of “acculturation.” He posits that Bildung can “suggest the ethical idea of self- realization, the process by which someone becomes what they are.”169 Humboldt’s concept of

Bildung is therefore more than an education of learning facts or skills, but rather a process of development and maturity, resulting partly from acquired knowledge but more importantly from life experience and self-awareness.

In addition to introducing the concept of Bildung to German education, Humboldt served as the Prussian Minister of Education from 1809 to 1810, and many of his reforms were inspired by Enlightenment ideas, such as Humboldt’s philosophy of Volkserziehung, a general education principle for all social classes that allowed students to develop their individual and innate abilities.170 He also instituted a three-tiered educational model within the Prussian school system,

168Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 12. 169Beiser, “Romanticism,” 131. 170Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 12. 60 including elementary school (Volkschule), secondary school and preparation for university

(Gymnasium), and specialist and technical classes (Bürgerklassen).171

Many educational reforms based on Enlightenment thinking and the concept of Bildung impacted elementary and secondary schools as well as the university, and these educational reforms carried a moral and nationalistic awareness, in that acquired knowledge could not only help the student become a better individual but also a better equipped citizen for the state.172

Music became a tool by which educators could achieve their goals of moral teaching and character edification. Humboldt recognized the ability of music to create social and moral change, and he therefore encouraged including patriotic songs and chorales in nineteenth-century

German song books as well as incorporating varying social classes within the church. Music education thus had a role in shaping character and influencing behavior, on the personal level and for society.

Carl Friedrich Zelter and Prussian Reforms

Composer and musician Carl Friedrich Zelter (1758–1832) was another educational reformer who also promoted Enlightenment ideas. He was instrumental in the inclusion of music in the core curriculum in Prussia.173 Zelter undertook many different roles throughout his lifetime, from director of the Berliner Singakademie, to composer, and finally, as music teacher.

He was also a confidant of the esteemed poet Goethe and founded the Ripienschule (1807), an instrumental ensemble to accompany the Berliner Singakademie in great sacred choral works, and the Liedertafel (1809), a men’s choir that sang primarily German national songs. Zelter served as a professor at the Academie der Künste in Berlin (1809) and founded and oversaw

171Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 12–13. 172Beiser, “Romanticism,” 135. 173Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 13. 61 educational institutes for the instruction of church musicians and school music teachers in

Königsberg (1814), Breslau (1815), and Berlin (1822).174

Zelter also taught privately, and among his students were Fanny and Felix Mendelssohn, as well as Giacomo Meyerbeer.175 He collaborated with Goethe and Friedrich Schiller (1759–

1805) to promote a philosophy of music education that was closely related to religious life and the development of a national identity. His “Preußische Denkschriften” (1803–1804) was pivotal in convincing the Prussian authorities of the importance of music in education. In 1811 Prussian

King Friedrich Wilhelm III approved the institution of an administrative body to oversee music education in Prussian schools, and Zelter played a large role in developing a music curriculum in order for music to become a standard subject in Prussian schools.176 Music in Prussian schools focused primarily on the development of the voice and ear through singing. Students learned songs primarily through imitation, but some methods of note reading were also attempted.177

Songs could teach character development in students while simultaneously serving religious and state purposes.178

Two primary themes resonate within early nineteenth-century educational developments:

(1) the desire to cultivate national identity through music and (2) the idea of character development through Bildung. There were numerous voices contributing to the discussion on

174Along with the Berlin institute, Zelter also founded two other church/school music institutes in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, 1814) and Breslau (now Wroclaw, 1815), respectively. See Hans-Günter Ottenberg, “Zelter, Carl Friedrich,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/30917 (accessed January 17, 2016) and Elizabeth Janik, Recomposing German Music: Politics and Musical Tradition in Cold War Berlin (Brill Academic Publishing, 2005), 15. 175Ottenberg, “Zelter, Carl Friedrich,” Grove Music Online. 176Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 13. 177While imitation was the primary mode of instruction in Prussian schools, some teachers used textbooks that encouraged students to read standard musical notation and figures. A common textbook at the time was Hans Georg Nägeli’s and Michael Traugott Pfeiffer’s Gesangbildungslehre nach Pestalozzischen Grundsätzen (1810) based on Pestalozzian principles, giving detailed lessons, and proceeding gradually to support the development of the child. See above and Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 14–15 for more discussion about Nägeli and Pfeiffer. 178Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 14. 62 educational reform throughout the century, and many appreciated the utilitarian qualities of music to serve as a tool in achieving character development and national esteem. Others, such as

Zelter, also addressed the role of music in educational reform more directly, contributing to the ways music was taught as well as in establishing music as part of the curriculum in Prussian schools. This allowed music to be used not only as a tool in facilitating general education, but also as a subject on its own, leading to future developments in more advanced music education in the years to come.

Mendelssohn’s Opera Die beiden Pädagogen

Among the many reformers who contributed to the ongoing educational debates of the nineteenth century, two found their way into Mendelssohn’s Die beiden Pädagogen (1821). Felix

Mendelssohn was eleven or twelve years old when he set to music a libretto by Johann Ludwig

Casper (1796–1864) based on the pedagogical ideals of Pestalozzi and Basedow. Casper’s libretto was an adaptation of Eugène Scribe’s earlier work Les deux Précepteurs ou asinus asinum fricat (1817), a French libretto debating the educational principles of Rousseau and

Voltaire. Casper modified Scribe’s work in part by changing the language from French to

German and by replacing Rousseau and Voltaire with Pestalozzi and Basedow. Mendelssohn’s musical setting resulted in a Singspiel that was initially presented in his parents’ home in 1821, with several family friends performing the various roles.179 The Singspiel features two teachers,

Kinderschreck (scare child) and Luftig (airy), who enter into witty debates about the differences in the educational philosophies of Pestalozzi and Basedow, which provided the young Felix with an opportunity to showcase his skill in comic opera.180

179Karl-Heinz Köhler, introduction to Die beiden Pädagogen: Singspiel in einem Aufzug (Leipzig: Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1966), iv. 180R. Larry Todd, Mendelssohn: A Life in Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 69. 63

It is likely that Casper and Abraham Mendelssohn, Felix’s father, first heard Scribe’s original libretto in a comédie-vaudeville in Paris in 1820. Beginning in January 1821 Casper sent

Felix portions of the libretto. Subsequently, Abraham encouraged Felix to complete the Singspiel in time for a piano reading in honor of the birthday of Lea, Felix’s mother. Lea records in a letter to Henriette von Pereira Arnstein that Felix performed the piano part for them at the family home in March of that year, while others sang the parts, and Zelter sat next to Felix turning pages and

“could not keep his eyes dry,” evidently in admiration of the young boy’s talent.181

Mendelssohn’s Die beiden Pädagogen is significant as evidence of his exposure to educational reformers and thinkers even from an early age, and it reflects his parents’ keen interest in the educational debates of the time. While Mendelssohn would not have gone to a Prussian school that implemented Pestalozzian reforms due to his private instruction and tutoring, he was aware of current educational philosophical movements and was certainly exposed to debates over these educational reformers.

Nineteenth-Century Practical and Private Music Instruction

Following the French Revolution and the decline of the aristocracy early nineteenth- century Europe saw a growth of the middle class, and music instruction became more available in homes. Practical and private music instruction, however, required that one was of a high enough economic class to afford instruments, music scores, and tutors. For example, the

Mendelssohn family had financial means to employ as their private music tutor Carl Friedrich

Zelter, who has been mentioned previously as music administer and professor in Berlin as well.

Beginning as a private instructor, Johann Bernhard Logier (1777–1846) was a piano instructor who made an indelible mark on German education in both private and classroom

181Todd, Mendelssohn: A Life in Music, 67–69. 64 instruction. Logier is known primarily for his invention of the Chiroplast (1814), or “hand director,” a teaching device mounted to the piano that allowed for the palms of a student’s hands to rest on a brass rod with two “finger guides” including brass slots for the fingers. These hand molds slid across the long brass rod horizontally, teaching the piano student to move only the fingers up and down vertically while maintaining perfect wrist and hand position. Logier was a

German pianist and educator, but after moving to England at age fourteen, he conducted most of his professional career in London.182 He soon realized that his Chiroplast presented opportunities to teach group classes of young pianists; some of his classes included twenty students, mostly young girls.183 While many of his contemporaries viewed Logier with contempt because of the potential that he would take private students away from them, his instructional techniques were commended by Louis Spohr, and they also paved the way to more public, group instruction.184

In addition to providing a means for piano group instruction, Logier is also important to the history of German music education, since he was one of the few piano instructors at the time who incorporated harmony, thoroughbass, and musical form in his practical lessons in piano playing. He published many books on his technique that reveal his emphasis on the teaching of harmony and analysis. In response to a proposal from Zelter the Prussian government invited

Logier to visit Berlin and share his pedagogical ideas in 1821. He then taught in Berlin from

1822 to 1826, training teachers and establishing Logier Academies in Prussia, as he had already done in England.185 Logier Academies were later established in Leipzig, Dresden, Frankfurt-am-

Main, Frankfurt-am-Elbe, Stettin, Naumburg, Stuttgart, and Hamburg, influencing piano

182Bernarr Rainbow, “Johann Bernhard Logier and the Chiroplast Controversy,” The Musical Times 131, no. 1766 (1990): 193. 183 Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 34. 184Rainbow, “Johann Bernhard Logier and the Chiroplast Controversy,” 193–4. 185David Charlton and Michael Musgrave, “Logier, Johann Bernhard,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/16877 (accessed April 4, 2016). 65 instruction in Germany significantly.186 The inclusion of harmonic training within practical music instruction would impact the principles of German music instruction, especially at higher levels, reflected later in Chapter 4 regarding the goals and pedagogy of the Leipzig

Conservatory.

In Leipzig Friedrich Wieck (1785–1873), father of Clara Schumann, maintained an active piano teaching career and continued the teaching principles of J.B. Logier by including both music theory and practical instruction his students’ lessons.187 Aside from teaching notable piano students such as his daughter Clara and son-in-law Robert, Wieck also published his thoughts on music and pedagogy in a series of essays known as Klavier und Gesang (1852).188 In her dissertation on Friedrich Wieck and his pedagogy, Bonnie Powelson Gritton asserts that Wieck’s approach to teaching as revealed in his essays incorporated philosophical influences from

Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841), the last named another follower of Rousseau.189 Wieck’s writings reflect a belief in the importance of learning piano through the senses, such as understanding the patterns on the keyboard through touch and learning pitch and rhythm first through hearing. He also emphasized the individuality of each student and gave examples of lessons by introducing one concept at a time and subsequently adding more complex concepts. These techniques that Wieck encouraged, of learning through the natural senses and introducing new material through graded steps, reveal a direct influence of his interest in Pestalozzian thought.190

186Rainbow, “Johann Bernhard Logier and the Chiroplast Controversy,” 194. 187Cathleen Köckritz, “Wieck,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/30263pg1 (accessed January 18, 2016). 188Bonnie Powelson Gritton, “The Pedagogy of Friedrich Wieck” (Ph.D. diss., University of California Los Angeles, 1998), 3. 189Gritton, “The Pedagogy of Friedrich Wieck,” 6. 190Gritton, “The Pedagogy of Friedrich Wieck,” 62–7. 66

Other important piano pedagogues contemporaneous with Wieck included Johann

Nepomuk Hummel (1778–1837), Carl Czerny (1791–1857), and Adolf Kullak (1823–1862).

When Wieck’s writings are compared with these other piano pedagogues at the time, they consistently reveal a philosophical bent (i.e., graded steps of instruction, value for the individual learning process, and learning through the senses) that the others did not include. In the cases of both Hummel and Czerny, their keyboard treatises are much more concerned with technical achievement and neglect the enlightened pedagogical approaches that separate Wieck’s methodology from his contemporaries.191 Wieck’s awareness of the various educational practices that were sweeping Prussia at the time is remarkable in that he was able to apply those strategies in the realm of private teaching. His location in Leipzig (and later Dresden) is also significant, since he taught and worked in the same city where Mendelssohn and other musicians would eventually establish the first German conservatory for the training of professional musicians, consisting of professors who were also keenly aware of Enlightenment pedagogy and the need for national musical identity.

Felix Mendelssohn visited Friedrich Wieck in October of 1834, before assuming the directorship of the Gewandhaus, and on that occasion he heard Clara, Wieck’s most advanced student, play Chopin as well as her own Concertsatz. While it is not clear whether Wieck and

Mendelssohn shared any pedagogical thoughts and ideas during that visit, Mendelssohn was pleased with Clara’s playing and planned to return.192 After moving to Leipzig, Mendelssohn supported Robert and Clara Schumann by programming Robert’s music and engaging Clara as a soloist at the Gewandhaus, but little is known about any further connection between

Mendelssohn and Wieck.193 When hiring instructors for the Conservatory, Mendelssohn chose

191Gritton, “The Pedagogy of Friedrich Wieck,” 73–7. 192Todd, Mendelssohn: A Life in Music, 298. 193Todd, Mendelssohn: A Life in Music, 411. 67

Robert Schumann for piano and composition; Wieck had already left Leipzig and moved to

Dresden in 1840, upon Clara’s marriage to Robert.

Early Higher Education Models for Music in Germany

Private music instruction was a well-established tradition in Germany by the turn of the century, but German educators began pursuing the creation of higher-education music schools around 1800. During a period of about forty years (1800–1840), many plans were circulated and some were realized. German philosophers and music educators looked to the models of many other national conservatories already established in other European countries: in Paris (1795), in

Prague (1810), and in Vienna (1817).194 Plans for a national music school, or a broad educational institution dedicated to the arts, often represented a leveling of social and financial status, as instructors and administrators sought talented students, rather than solely students who came from wealthy families.

Plans

German musicologist Georg Sowa identified thirteen specific plans that were proposed in the first half of the nineteenth century with hopes to establish a national German music school:

(1) Singing School (Karl Gottlob Horstig, 1798) (2) Society for Promotion of Music (Tone-Art) (anonymous article in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, 1801) (3) General Art Institute (Ernst Wagner, 1806) (4) Music Conservatory (“D. K.”, 1810) (5) Institute for Aesthetic Education of Composers (J. A. G. Steuber, 1810) (6) General Art Institute for Stuttgart (Karl W. Kastner, 1812) (7) Higher Singing Institute (“a practical musician,” 1813) (8) “Normal Music School” (Christian Urban, 1823) (9) Higher Educational Institute for Cantors and Organists (Heinrich Karl Breidenstein, 1828) (10) “Plan for a complete organization of music life in the Prussian State” (Adolf Bernhard Marx, 1832)

194Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 28. 68

(11) Scholarship Foundation for the Funding of Musical Studies (Johann Gottfried Hientzsch, 1833) (12) Music Conservatory for the Kingdom of Hannover (Eduard Krüger, 1841) (13) Musical Institutes in Factories and in the Country (Theodor Hagen, 1846)195

While each of these plans had individual intentions and emphases, Sowa posits that the majority of these plans, if not all, shared common goals and philosophies, including the (1) the national character that music education in Germany should assume, (2) the type of students these institutes should accept, and (3) the theoretical and scientific objectives of these institutes.

The need for a national German character of music education was commonly touted as an important impetus in founding music institutions for education in Germany. Historically, the quest for “national” character and music had developed simultaneously with the educational

Enlightenment philosophies. The eighteenth-century German folk music movement encouraged the collection of Germans’ folk songs as a way to understand more fully German cultural identity, and Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) was one of the authors who provided patriotic songs for children to sing, promoting their sense of national identity.196 This foundation of “national” or “folk” music for children spread to higher levels of learning, motivated by the desire for a “national” character for music institutes in Germany. Some, such as Horstig, Marx, and Hagan, even advocated for system of national musical education. Others believed that this would happen naturally. There were also questions regarding the funding for these institutes.

Those in Prussia and Hannover believed that the State should be responsible for the funding, whereas others hoped for the generosity of a private donor or planned to solicit friends who would give to the cause.197 Overall, many subscribed to the general idea that art should be free of

195Georg Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843): Pläne, Realisierung und zeitgenössische Kritik mit Darstellung der Bedingungen und Beurteilung der Auswirkungen (Regensburg: Gustav Bosse, 1973), 5–6. 196Kertz-Welzel, “The Singing Muse? Three Centuries of Music Education in Germany,” 11–12. 197Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 84. Urban and Wagner stated in their proposals that they hoped for a private donor to fund their plans, and the anonymous writer in 1801 planned to ask his friends who were willing to give funds. 69 state authorities, which greatly impacted the funding of these institutions. In addition, those proposing plans for music educational institutes believed that music and music education should also have a public character, distancing itself from the private instruction that was already well established in Germany at the time.198

In terms of the type of student these institutions sought to enroll, many were interested in the talent and “giftedness” of the student, regardless of whether the student would become a professional musician or a lay musician. Likewise, there were no barriers regarding financial status or social class, and students from poor families were often given financial aid.199 This allowed students in less fortunate financial situations to receive musical training, which contrasted with private instruction, typically only available to wealthy families. Many of these institutions’ plans offered instruction for composers, singers, and instrumentalists, as well as for specifically religious occupations, such as cantors and organists.200 Most of the plans neglected orchestral instruments in their proposals. “D. K.” (Music Conservatory, 1810) was one of the few individuals to include orchestral instruments in his educational model.201 In any case, singing, composition, and church music were emphasized among all these plans.

Corresponding to a general inclination toward scientific studies in Germany in the early nineteenth century, the proposed curricula generally placed theory as the most important part of music education. Sowa asserts that by emphasizing theory these pedagogical philosophers were confronting superficial virtuosity, with the idea that by understanding the theory of the music one could resist the empty virtuosity that was growing in the nineteenth century. Furthermore, since

198Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 197. 199Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 85. Among the thirteen plans listed above, there was one exception in which the higher singing institute required that students come from good families. 200Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 84. The titles of several of the thirteen proposed institutes above reveal their goals in terms of what types of musicians they wanted to educate, reflecting several singing institutions, general musical schools, and schools with an emphasis on composition or church music. 201Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 86. 70 private teachers, especially piano teachers, were expanding in number and influence, institutes that focused solely on practical instruction without theoretical training were no longer necessary.202 Theory and the scientific side of music were therefore paramount in all of these early proposals.

Realizations

Unfortunately, none of the thirteen plans that Sowa examined were realized, although a few of them were adopted into other successful plans. For example, the Steuber (1810) plan to create a school for composers was carried out by Schneider and Lobe as part of the Academie der

Künste in Berlin. There were also some musical society schools that were prospering in south and southwest Germany.203 In Prussia a cohesive structure of music educational institutions did develop, and Carl Friedrich Zelter’s educational reforms in Prussia did carry similar ideas to the plans proposed by “D. K.” (1810). These music education institutions maintained the view that acceptance should be based on talent and not class, finances, or where someone was from, and as a result, social barriers were broken with music. Accordingly, these first institutions of musical instruction followed similar rules: (1) public tests were mandatory, (2) a procedure of picking the best (Ausleseverfahren) was established, and (3) typical time of training for students was three years.204

The thirteen plans and subsequent realizations proved that many educators and music thinkers in Germany wanted a higher music education institute that they could call their own.

Georg Sowa points to the founding of the Leipzig Conservatory (1843) as the culmination

(Endpunkt) in the forty years of development (1800–1840), which produced a variety of plans

202Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 86. 203Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 197. 204Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 198. 71 addressing the needs for such an institution but only truly reached fulfillment in the Leipzig

Conservatory. This institution thus became the solution to the multiple proposals: it was the first

German music school to offer a systematic education of specialists, and it rose as a higher music educational institution with an academic character. True to the proposals that came before, theory was elevated to a high level of importance in educating the complete musician. While practical musical instruction was still a vital component of a student’s musical education at the

Leipzig Conservatory, Mendelssohn and his founding Directorium confronted the idea of “empty virtuosity” in the nineteenth century, and an emphasis on theory gave a more “scientific” approach to music education in Germany that was essential.205

The Leipzig Conservatory therefore became the first successful German institution to embody the goals of music education for which many German thinkers and pedagogues strived.

Known for a period of time as the Königliche Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig, the Leipzig

Conservatory served as the country’s first national higher-level music school. The curriculum reflected an emphasis on educating the “complete” musician, as explained more thoroughly in the following chapter. Its scientific and academic approach can be attributed to the

Enlightenment educational theories that were well known in nineteenth-century Germany. Some of the best-known Enlightenment theories were the Pestalozzian principles that were already being applied to other aspects of German music teaching, including private teaching and music curricula in Prussian schools. The founding of the Leipzig Conservatory, its students, and its principles of musical instruction will be discussed further in Chapter 4, as well as its reach and impact beyond Germany’s borders, in the following chapters.

205Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 198. 72

CHAPTER 4

FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES AND PEDAGOGY OF THE LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY

The success of the Leipzig Conservatory, in contrast to earlier unsuccessful ventures, can only be explained by a confluence of multiple factors, including the community, the faculty, and

Mendelssohn’s standards of excellence in music training. The Conservatory curriculum reflected

Mendelssohn’s thoughts on music pedagogy and what he believed was needed to develop qualified composers and performers. Music theory was given a prominent role in the curriculum, reflecting the nineteenth-century German attempt to quantify the value of music through scientific measurement. In addition to strong leadership provided by Mendelssohn and his

Direktorium, the talented and prestigious Conservatory faculty were integral in establishing the reputation and pedagogy of the institution.

Reasons for the Success of the Leipzig Conservatory

What were the circumstances that allowed the Leipzig Conservatory to succeed for generations? Georg Sowa’s explanations of the proposed plans and the founding of the Leipzig

Conservatory provide four main reasons that allowed the Leipzig Conservatory to succeed: (1)

Leipzig as a location, (2) its funding by the late Dr. Heinrich Blümner, (3) the personality of

Mendelssohn as the founder, and (4) the academic character of the institution.

Leipzig was a particularly felicitous location for the founding of Germany’s first professional music conservatory. In the early nineteenth century the city could boast of a music culture that included the St. Thomas Choir and the Gewandhaus Orchestra, as well as a history of famous musicians who had lived and invested in the city’s musical life, including Georg Philipp

73

Telemann, Johann Sebastian Bach, Robert and Clara Schumann, and Felix Mendelssohn

Bartholdy.

While many plans were developed in the nineteenth century in efforts to establish a national music establishment, few were implemented due to lack of funds. Leipzig Conservatory plans might have met the same obstacles, but in February of 1839 Supreme Court Justice Dr.

Heinrich Blümner died leaving 20,000 thalers for the founding of a new, or for the support of an existing, national institution of art or science.206 This provision for “art or science” caught

Mendelssohn’s attention, and he pursued the gift, ultimately encouraging others to support its use for a music school. By February of 1842 Mendelssohn had gained the king’s approval to apply the funds to a musical institution, and the Leipzig Conservatory opened in April of 1843, with a faculty of six and a Board of Directors of five. Classes were first taught in the quarters of the

Gewandhaus Orchestra building (see Figure 4.1), until funds could be allocated for new facilities for both the Gewandhaus and the Conservatory. The Conservatory later moved into its new location on Grassistraße in 1887 (see Figures 4.2 and 4.3), which included a 1,000-seat concert hall, forty-four teaching rooms, two smaller concert halls, and two organ rooms.207

Mendelssohn’s persistence in allocating the funds to the founding of a musical institution were representative of his personality and reputation. While Mendelssohn headed the

Conservatory from its founding until his death in 1847, he refused to ever accept the title of

Director, and he was simply listed as an instructor in the early publications of the

Conservatory.208 On the other hand, his influence on the Conservatory lasted for years after his death. Phillips records that even with Mendelssohn’s death in 1847 those faculty members whom

206Paul Röntsch, “Die Gründung und Errichtung des Konservatoriums,” Festschrift zum 75-jährigen Bestehen des königlichen Konservatoriums (Leipzig: C.F.W. Siegel’s Musikalienhandlung, 1918), 6: “Zur Begründung eines neuen oder zu Unterstützung eines bereit bestehenden gemeinnützigen, vaterländischen Instituts für Kunst oder Wissenschaft.” 207Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 45–47. 208Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 114–15. 74 he had appointed during his tenure would serve the Conservatory for the rest of their lives, producing a strong Mendelssohn influence throughout the nineteenth century.209 The

Conservatory concert programs also show an annual concert dedicated to the memory of

Mendelssohn, and this concert was given on the 4th of November each year to commemorate the beloved founder, who died on 4 November 1847. These concerts would consist of works entirely by Mendelssohn; the programs are preserved in the concert archives from the early 1850s to the late 1890s.210 Mendelssohn’s vision and dedication thus played an important role in the

Conservatory’s early success, as well as in its continued operation throughout the following years.

Figure 4.1: Leipzig Conservatory at the Gewandhaus Building211

209Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 125. 210Leipzig Conservatory Concert Programs, 1850–1900, Leipzig Conservatory Archive. 211Photo by Hermann Walter (Leipzig: 1882), reproduced with permission from Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig. 75

Figure 4.2: Leipzig Conservatory in New Facilities212

Figure 4.3: Collectible Postcard of Leipzig Conservatory in Its New Facilities213 (Featuring Conservatory Building, Large Concert Hall, and the Crystal Palace in Leipzig)

212Photo by Hermann Vogel (Leipzig: 1895), reproduced with permission from Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig. 213Postcard: “Gruss aus Leipzig” ([Leipzig: n.d.]), reproduced with permission from Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig. 76

The rigorous academic character of the institution was yet another quality that allowed the Leipzig Conservatory to prosper. In letters to Kreisdirecktor Paul von Falkenstein as early as

1840, Mendelssohn expressed his desire to incorporate different branches of art within the proposed music school in order to encourage students to a higher objective. Johannes Forner posits that Mendelssohn envisioned a unification of theory and praxis, a holistic idea of music education that could instruct students in the science of music (theory) as well as the art of music

(performance and praxis).214 This ideal was achieved, as reflected through the course catalogs, by means of a three-year program of theory instruction involving harmony, counterpoint, double counterpoint, fugue, analysis, composition, form, playing from open score, conducting, and

Italian language for singers. In addition, practical instruction in singing or instrumental study played a very important role in a Leipzig student’s overall education, therefore incorporating both science and praxis within the academic requirements. These high academic standards allowed the Conservatory to develop a solid reputation and attract students both nationally and internationally.

First Instructors at the Leipzig Conservatory

When the Leipzig Conservatory was founded in 1843, Mendelssohn instituted a

Direktorium to lead and oversee administrative affairs. These members also served on the board of directors for the Gewandhaus Concerts, and they most likely volunteered for these responsibilities because of their interest in Mendelssohn and the Conservatory. Members of the original Direktorium included Johann Paul von Falkenstein, Johann Georg Keil (chairman), Carl

Friedrich Kistner, Moritz Seeburg, and Conrad Schleinitz.215 As prominent citizens and officials,

214Johannes Forner, “Leipziger Konservatorium und ‘Leipziger Schule’: Ein Beitrag zur Klassizismus-Diskussion,” Gesellschaft für Musikforschung 50, no. 1 (1997): 31. 215Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 86. 77 they were important for the reputation of the Conservatory, possibly as well as helping in daily operations. As a government official, Falkenstein was key to assuring that the Blümner legacy was granted to the founding of the institution. Keil was a Leipzig citizen with interests in art and music, Kistner owned an important music publishing firm in Leipzig, and Seeburg and Schleinitz were lawyers. Schleinitz was also a friend of Mendelssohn and served as the chairman of the

Direktorium from 1849 to 1881, providing consistent leadership to the Conservatory following

Mendelssohn’s death in 1847. As a lawyer, Schleinitz was able to assume the administrative leadership, relying on the instructors at the Conservatory for musical leadership.216

The members of the faculty at the Leipzig Conservatory in its early years influenced the direction and philosophy of the institution. Emil Kneschke, one of the first historians for the

Leipzig Conservatory, recorded the Conservatory faculty as of its opening on April 2nd, 1843:

Felix Mendelssohn (solo singing, instrumental playing, and composition), Robert Schumann

(piano and composition), Ferdinand David (violin), Moritz Hauptmann (harmony and counterpoint), Carl Ferdinand Becker (organ and conducting), and also Henriette Grabau-Bünau

(solo and choral singing), Moritz Klengel (violin), Ernst Ferdinand Wenzel (piano), and Louis

Plaidy (piano).217 As the first faculty members at the Conservatory, these instructors were all invited and appointed personally by Mendelssohn, and their musical tastes were naturally similar to his. By 1846, three years later, the large majority of the faculty remained the same, with the addition of Niels W. Gade (harmony and composition), Ignaz Moscheles (piano performance and composition), Franz Brendel (lectures on music), and Ernst Friedrich Richter (harmony and instrumentation).218 As the years passed, the majority of the faculty stayed for decades and finished their careers at the Conservatory, showing a deep commitment to the institution. (See

216Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 170–71. 217Emil Kneschke, Das Conservatorium der Musik; seine Geschichte, seine Lehrer und Zöglinge. Festgabe zum 25- jährigen Jubiläum am 2. April 1868. (Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel, [1868]), 10–11. 218Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 117. 78

Table 4.1 for comparison between 1843 faculty roster and 1846 faculty roster as well as

Appendix A, which traces faculty careers from 1843 to 1918.)

Table 4.1: Comparison of Leipzig Conservatory Faculty Rosters in 1843 and 1846 1843 Faculty Roster 1846 Faculty Roster Composition, etc. Felix Mendelssohn Felix Mendelssohn Robert Schumann Ignaz Moscheles

Theory/Harmony/ Moritz Hauptmann Moritz Hauptmann Composition Niels W. Gade Ernst Friedrich Richter

Lectures on Music Franz Brendel

Organ Carl Ferdinand Becker Carl Ferdinand Becker

Piano Louis Plaidy Louis Plaidy Ernst Ferdinand Wenzel Ernst Ferdinand Wenzel

Singing Henriette Grabau-Bünau Franz Böhme

Violin Ferdinand David Ferdinand David Moritz Klengel Moritz Klengel

While Schumann only remained at the Conservatory for a short period, his friendship with Mendelssohn lasted longer. Ignaz Moscheles (1794–1870) was added to the composition and piano faculty shortly after Schumann left. Moscheles had become an intimate friend of

Mendelssohn after meeting the younger composer in 1824 in the Mendelssohns’ Berlin family home. Over twenty years after their initial meeting Moscheles accepted Mendelssohn’s invitation to teach at the new Leipzig Conservatory, becoming the Principal Professor of Piano in 1846.

Moscheles was also a close friend of Beethoven after having met him in Vienna, and he had championed many of Beethoven’s late works by programming them in London.219 Like many of

219Malcolm Miller, “Beethoven and His Jewish Contemporaries,” Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies 18, no. 4 (2000): 51–52. 79 his colleagues at the Leipzig Conservatory, Moscheles had a keen interest in and respect for musical masters of the past, shown by the library he acquired of musical manuscripts for his own collection. He was also one of the first pianists in the nineteenth century to give complete solo keyboard recitals and to encourage the use of the harpsichord when playing works by Domenico

Scarlatti.220

Moritz Hauptmann (1792–1868) had moved to Leipzig one year before the founding of the Conservatory to serve as Kantor at the Thomasschule, upon recommendation by

Mendelssohn and Spohr. In addition to assuming the post of theory and composition instructor at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1843, Hauptmann also edited the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung and later became a founding member and president of the Bach-Gesellschaft.221 Through these activities Hauptmann demonstrated his respect for the music of the past and of traditional harmony. His Die Natur der Harmonik und der Metrik (The Nature of Harmony and Meter,

1853) is one of his best-known works, combining music theory with philosophy, and is often referred to as a Hegelian dialectical approach to the historical development of harmony.222 As a result, the text is valuable in the historiography of music theory but less accessible for the common music student.

Like Moscheles and Hauptmann, Ferdinand David (1810–1873) was another close friend of Mendelssohn who moved to Leipzig in response to Mendelssohn’s request. Mendelssohn asked David to become concertmaster of the Gewandhaus Orchestra in 1836, and he later became the Conservatory’s first violin instructor; he remained in Leipzig for the rest of his

220William S. Newman, “Three Musical Intimates of Mendelssohn and Schumann in Leipzig: Hauptmann, Moscheles, and David,” in Mendelssohn and Schumann: Essays on Their Music and Its Context, edited by Jon W. Finson and R. Larry Todd, 87–98 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1984), 94. 221Janna Saslaw, “Hauptmann, Moritz,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/12555 (accessed September 18, 2016). 222Mark McCune, “Moritz Hauptmann: ‘Ein Haupt Mann’ in Nineteenth Century Music Theory” Indiana Theory Review 7, no. 2 (1986): 2–3. 80 life.223 David and Hauptmann shared a common teacher in their past, the violinist and composer

Louis Spohr (1784–1859). Hauptmann had studied with Spohr in Gotha, and David studied with him in Kassel. German musicologist Johannes Forner has proposed that much of the Classic outlook established in the early years for the Leipzig Conservatory can be traced back to Spohr and his legacy, since “both, Hauptmann and David were founding figures. The first one laid the foundations of the history of theory of music in Leipzig. The other one laid the foundations of the violin classes and other string classes at the Conservatory.”224 Certainly both musicians,

Hauptmann and David, played important roles in shaping the Conservatory’s ideals over a considerable part of its early history, as both remained at the Conservatory for the rest of their lives.

These early instructors were hand-selected by Mendelssohn and brought musical perspectives rooted deeply in their own educational experiences. William S. Newman has commented on the intimate relationship that Ferdinand David, Moritz Hauptmann, and Ignaz

Moscheles shared with both Schumann and Mendelssohn. While each of these instructors brought diverse strengths to the institution, Newman explains the similarities these three musicians evidenced, contributing to their close relationship to Mendelssohn:

All espoused the musical conservatism typical of many Leipzigers, taking special interest in the past masters of the nineteenth, eighteenth, and even earlier centuries, tolerating with difficulty Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner. All belonged to the teaching faculty of the Conservatory. All evinced high purpose and standards of achievement and a strong sense of discipline and work ethic. All engaged in a ceaseless whirl of professional activities both in and away from Leipzig, often commuting on the new trains within the two- hundred-mile radius that included both the Saxon and Brandenburg courts, in Dresden and Berlin. And all still managed to pursue a wide range of cultural interests and intellectual curiosities.225

223Newman, “Three Musical Intimates of Mendelssohn and Schumann in Leipzig: Hauptmann, Moscheles, and David,” 95. 224Forner, 32: “Beide aber, Hauptmann und David, sind Gründergestalten. Der eine legte die Fundamente für die Leipziger Musiktheoriegeschichte, der andere für die Violin- bzw. Streicherklassen am Konservatorium…” 225Newman, “Three Musical Intimates of Mendelssohn and Schumann in Leipzig: Hauptmann, Moscheles, and David,” 89–90. 81

Many of the other instructors, though not as intimately connected to Mendelssohn, could be described similarly through their musical conservatism and their discipline and achievement. In addition to Hauptmann’s Die Natur der Harmonik und Metrik, Ernst Friedrich Richter published a theoretical text in the same year (1853), the Lehrbuch der Harmonie (Manual of Harmony), offering a much more straightforward approach to teaching traditional harmony, and it became the “official textbook of the Leipzig Conservatory.”226

The first singing instructor to appear at the Conservatory was Henriette Grabau-Bünau

(1805–1852), a singer whom Mendelssohn respected and praised. She appeared in

Mendelssohn’s first Gewandhaus concert on 4 October 1835, and had already served as the

“Hauptsängerin” (lead female singer) of the Gewandhaus for nine years prior to Mendelssohn’s arrival. She continued as “Hauptsängerin” for three more years under Mendelssohn’s direction before marrying and raising a family. Kerstin Sieblist has remarked upon Mendelssohn’s high esteem for Grabau-Bünau, since she was the only female instructor listed in his 1843 “founding” instructor list for the Conservatory.227

Organ professor Carl Ferdinand Becker was especially interested in collecting older music and publishing edited scores in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung and the Neue

Zeitschrift für Musik. He, like Mendelssohn, had a special respect for the music of J. S. Bach, and he was a founding member of the Bach Gesellschaft.228 His interest in older music and older styles was welcome among the other Leipzig musicians who valued musical conservatism.

226Janna Saslaw, “Richter, Ernst Friedrich,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/23399 (accessed October 17, 2015). 227Kerstin Sieblist, “‘Auf Flügeln des Gesanges’: Sängerinnen um Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy,” in Frauen um Felix: Vortragsreihe Frühjahr, edited by Veronika Leggewie, 98–120 (Bell: Top Music, Musik-und Bühnenverlag, 2002), 101–05. 228Alec Hyatt King and Peter Krause, “Becker, Carl Ferdinand,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/02475 (accessed September 12, 2016). 82

Louis Plaidy and Ernst Ferdinand Wenzel were among the early piano faculty at the

Conservatory. In regard to the teaching of Plaidy and Wenzel, the young Edvard Grieg took piano from Louis Plaidy, then E. F. Wenzel, and finally Ignaz Moscheles. He was bored by

Plaidy’s pedagogical methods of teaching Czerny, Kuhlau, and Clementi, but he was inspired by

Wenzel’s teaching and his admiration for the works of Schumann.229 In all cases, the original piano and organ instructors at the Conservatory held deep rooted affinities to older music and traditional counterpoint, and this was evidenced by the repertoire they chose for their students to study and perform. Works by Mendelssohn, Beethoven, J. S. Bach, Mozart, and Robert

Schumann figure prominently among the most performed composers at the Conservatory, which will be shown more thoroughly in Chapter 6.

The majority of faculty members at the Leipzig Conservatory did indeed have conservative leanings and admiration for music of the past, an aspect of music education at the

Conservatory that was often criticized in years to come. Despite the seemingly Classicist bent that many of the instructors displayed, Franz Brendel (1811–1868) was added to the faculty in

1846, upon Robert Schumann’s recommendation, to give lectures on music, and he generally served as a foil to the rest of the faculty due to his progressive leanings and interest in composers of the New German School. Organ professor Becker had given the lectures on music before

Brendel joined the faculty, and Brendel must have created much controversy as he espoused his favorable views of the New German School featuring Liszt and Wagner while students were receiving a much different perspective in their theory studies and applied lessons. Leonard

Phillips believes that Brendel’s Geschichte der Musik in Italien, Deutschland, und Frankreich

(History of Music in Italy, Germany, and France, 1852) reflects his Conservatory lectures. The

229John Horton and Nils Grinde, “Grieg, Edvard,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/11757 (accessed September 12, 2016). 83 text emphasizes Liszt and Wagner, while also giving space to Mendelssohn and Schumann, among others.230

Having studied at both the University of Leipzig and the University of Berlin, Brendel first returned to Leipzig to become the editor of the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (NZfM), at

Schumann’s request. He soon used the journal as a platform to promote Zukunftsmusik, or

“music of the future,” and to champion works by Wagner and Liszt. While the journal continued to publish standard announcements about the Conservatory and public concerts, the musical content changed greatly, and the deepest offense to the Conservatory came when Brendel published Wagner’s “Das Judenthum in der Musik” (“Judaism in Music”) under the pseudonym

Karl Freigedank. Many professors, Moscheles among them, were outraged that Brendel as one of their colleagues would agree to publish an anti-Semitic article that more or less condemned

Mendelssohn as a Jew and the founder of the institution, while simultaneously offending

Brendel’s contemporary Jewish musical colleagues. The Direktorium never did dismiss Brendel, and he remained at the Conservatory until his death in 1868. During this period his allegiances became a point of contention among the other professors. Oscar Paul (1836–1898) then continued the lectures on music, later to be joined by Hermann Kretzschmar (1848–1924); Hugo

Riemann (1849–1919) would lead the lectures in 1895.231

One of the more famous professors to teach at the Conservatory in the latter half of the nineteenth century was Salomon Jadassohn (1831–1902), who began teaching harmony, counterpoint, composition, and piano in 1871. Both Jadassohn and Hermann Kretzschmar were added to the Conservatory faculty in 1871 in response to increased student population growth.232

Jadassohn had been a Jewish student at the Conservatory who studied with E. F. Richter and

230Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 166, 168. 231Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 166–69. 232Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 138. 84

Hauptmann. He spent time away from Leipzig studying with Liszt in Weimar and would have been a student when Brendel released the “Judaism in Music” article in the NZfM, and as a student, his reaction is not recorded among the other faculty. He also published a book on harmony, Lehrbuch der Harmonie (Manual of Harmony, 1883), and while it bears some similarity to his teacher Richter’s text, his admiration for the music of Liszt and Wagner emerges in his discussions of voice leading and chromaticism.233 Jadassohn was revered during his tenure at the Conservatory, as shown in Figure 4.4 by the Leipzig postcard made in his honor.

Figure 4.4: Leipzig Conservatory Postcard Featuring Salomon Jadassohn234

As in any educational institution, the faculty provided the backbone of the Leipzig

Conservatory. While the majority of the faculty advocated a deep-seated respect for musical masters of the past, a few faculty members at the Conservatory presented a different viewpoint,

233Janna Saslaw, “Jadassohn, Salomon,” Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.fsu.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/14087 (accessed September 19, 2016). 234Photo by Hermann Vogel (Leipzig: 1890), reproduced with permission from Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig. 85 such as Brendel and Jadassohn. In the end, all the Leipzig Conservatory faculty members were esteemed as the true leaders of the institution, and the names of these instructors were frequently touted in music journals and newspapers within Germany and abroad, which attracted talented, enthusiastic students. Figure 4.5 presents one medium (in addition to the collectible postcard above) of advertising and presenting the Conservatory faculty members to the public. Several of these posters were published throughout the latter half of the nineteenth century; this one is from

1879. Georg Sowa notes that from the foundation of the Conservatory, Mendelssohn and his

Direktorium valued the cultivation of a faculty with artistic personalities (Künstler-

Persönlichkeit).235

Conservatory Curriculum

In addition to the carefully chosen faculty, the Leipzig Conservatory’s curriculum was one of the most important factors in laying a strong academic foundation for the early years of the institution, reflecting Mendelssohn’s pedagogical ideals.236 In the 1843 academic catalog for the Leipzig Conservatory (Prospekt), submitted by the Direktorium the first statement clearly articulated the purpose and objective of the Conservatory to develop a higher level of both theoretical and practical music training:

Das mit königlicher Genehmigung The object of the Conservatorium errichtete Conservatorium der of Music at Leipzig, established Musik zu Leipzig bezweckt die with Royal authority and support, höhere Ausbildung in der Musik, is the higher education in Music. und der zu ertheilende Unterricht The instruction it imparts, erstreckt sich theoretisch und embraces, theoretically and praktisch über alle Zweige der practically, all branches of Music, Musik als Wissenschaft und Kunst considered as a Science and an betrachtet.237 Art.238

235Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 193. 236See Appendix B for the Conservatory curriculum as given by the Leipzig Prospekte. 237Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig, Das Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig ([Leipzig, 1843]), 5. 238English translation taken from an English version of the Leipzig Conservatory Prospekt published in 1901: The Royal Conservatory of Music (Leipzig, 1901), 13. I have made one small adjustment to the translation, that of 86

Figure 4.5: Conservatory Faculty in 1879239

reversing the words Science and Art to reflect to the placement in the original 1843 text. The 1901 German Prospekt still lists Science (Wissenschaft) before Art (Kunst), which implies that the English translation simply rearranged the order. 239Photography by Georg Brokesch (Leipzig: Hermann Hucke, 1879), reproduced with permission from Stadtgeschichtliches Museum Leipzig. 87

Sowa makes an important observation, pointing to the word theoretical preceding the word practical, arguing that this placement must have been a reflection of Mendelssohn’s pedagogical aim and desire.240 The same can be said about Science preceding Art in the final sentence. By elevating the role of theory over praxis, Mendelssohn could more easily argue that music was on the same level of importance as scientific study at the University, gaining more recognition from academic society members. Following this first statement, there comes an extensive explanation of the rigorous three-year program of theoretical study, and only after the discussion of theory classes is a description of practical studies offered, including singing, piano, organ, violin, and declamation for singers. The decision to list the theoretical sequence first, and then the singing and instrumental classes, undergirds the prominence that Mendelssohn and the Direktorium place upon theoretical instruction. Violin, piano, and singing were the main subjects of applied instruction offered in the early years, but students could also study other orchestral instruments with members of the Gewandhaus Orchestra. A full department for orchestral instruction with

Conservatory faculty for each of the orchestral instruments did not exist until 1881, much later than orchestral study was available at the Conservatory of Prague. Even before there was a full orchestral department at the Leipzig Conservatory, orchestra and choir rehearsals were held once a week, using Gewandhaus Orchestra members and piano reductions to supplement missing parts in the orchestra.241

Another foundational characteristic of the Leipzig Conservatory curriculum was the prevalence of group instruction. In the 1843 academic catalog (Prospekt) there is a statement provided by the Direktorium that describes the benefits of group instruction:

An Institution such as the Conservatorium which aims at giving its pupils an opportunity of acquiring practically and theoretically musical efficiency and knowledge in all branches, indispensable to the modern musician, offers great advantages over private tuition. Through participation of several students in the same lesson industry and

240Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 193. 241Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 194–195. 88

emulation is promoted. True musical feeling is engendered and kept alive, the best preventive of one-sidedness in education and taste against which every musician should be on his guard from his early student years. This system has the further advantage that, for a moderate consideration, practical and theoretical instruction of every kind is placed at the disposal of the student who individually would be unable to procure it except at great expense and difficulty.242

This style of group instruction must have continued on some level into the twentieth century, as the same statement from the Direktorium appears in catalogs at the turn of the century. It referred not only to harmony and theory classes but also to applied instruction. While little documentation exists describing how these group classes were conducted, Phillips offers a few vignettes of this classroom-style instruction based on descriptions by students and observers. He describes students in classes of eight to ten for composition lessons with Mendelssohn, those classes being taught in the manner of a modern-day masterclass, with students studying the same composition together. Applied lessons for piano and violin were also taught in groups, and

Schumann’s notes show that his students did work on different pieces at the same time. In violin classes more than one teacher was often present to give feedback.243 Group instruction therefore allowed for more experiential learning with a balance between passive (observation) and active learning.

Class instruction of applied music was not the normal procedure for music education in the United States at the time. In 1852 Lowell Mason published an article in Dwight’s Journal of

242English version taken from Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig, The Royal Conservatorium of Music Leipzig, (Leipzig, 1901), 9–10. The same passage originally printed in Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig, Das Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig, [1843], 3–4, reads as follows: “Ein Institut, wie das gegenwärtige, dessen Zweck ist, dem Schüler Gelegenheit zu geben, sich mit allen den Fächern, deren Kenntniss dem gebildeten Musiker nöthig und unerlässlich ist, gründlich bekannt zu machen und sich in denselben theoretisch und praktisch auszubilden, hat vor dem Privatunterrichte des Einzelnen den Vorzug, dass es durch die Theilnahme Mehrer an denselben Unterrichtsgegenständen und an denselben Studien einen wahren musikalischen Sinn unter den Schülern erweckt und Frisch erhält, dass es zum Fleisse und zur Nacheiferung auffordert und antreibt und dass es vor Einseitigkeit der Bildung und Geschmacksrichtung bewahrt, vor welcher sich jeder Künstler schon während seiner Studienjahre sorgfältig zu hüten hat. Es hat ferner den Vorzug, dass in demselben, gegen Erlegung eines äusserst billigen Honorars, alle die Mittel geboten warden, die der Einzelne nur sehr schwer und mit bedeutenden Kosten erreichen kann, die Mittel, welche nöthig sind, dem Musikschüler sowohl die theoretischen Kenntnisse als auch die praktische Gewandtheit zu verschaffen, deren er bedarf, um[?] einst den grossen Anforderungen, die in unsrer Zeit, so wie an jeden Künstler, auch an den Tonkünstler gemacht warden, auf eine würdige Weise zu entsprechen.” 243Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 177–79. 89

Music with quotations from a letter from “Mr. J. P.,” described as “a Bostonian, a graduate of

Harvard University, now a musical student and member of the Conservatory.”244 In the letter Mr.

J. P. defended the group techniques used at the Leipzig Conservatory. He argued from first-hand experience that students could be exposed to a variety of styles in this type of masterclass instruction, as well as gain numerous performance opportunities among their peers and build greater musical confidence.245 The article lauded the pedagogical techniques at the Leipzig

Conservatory and encouraged the establishment of similar institutions in the United States.

As a result of group instruction Leipzig Conservatory instructors taught for an average of

3.5 hours each week. Students also enjoyed more free time. This academic free time, afforded to instructors and students alike, mimicked nineteenth-century German University practices, which allowed students to use that time to participate creatively in compositional study and with their respective instruments. Sowa believes that this institutional framework was instituted personally by Mendelssohn.246 The idea of emulating the free time found in the University further underscores Mendelssohn’s desire to elevate music education to a higher standard in the

Conservatory, allowing students and professors at the Leipzig Conservatory to achieve educational esteem similar to their scientific counterparts at the University.

Public exams known as Hauptprüfungen were held once a year at the Conservatory, around Easter (March/April), and students could begin new courses around Easter and

Michaelmas (late September).247 Conservatory students were evaluated for their diligence and performance during the Hauptprüfungen, and in the case of the public exams, performances and compositions were given by the most competent students, allowing the Conservatory to display

244L[owell] M[ason], “Correspondence. [Letter from Germany.] The Conservatory of Music. Leipsic, March 22, 1852,” Dwight’s Journal of Music, I (April 24, 1852): 19. “J. P.” appears to be James Cutler Dunn Parker. 245L[owell] M[ason], “Correspondence. [Letter from Germany.] The Conservatory of Music. Leipsic, March 22, 1852,” 20. 246Sowa, Anfänge institutioneller Musikerziehung in Deutschland (1800–1843), 194. 247Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig, Das Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig (Leipzig: 1901), 14. 90 the musical strengths of the institution to the public. The Hauptprüfungen programs have all been preserved in the Conservatory archives, revealing the repertoire studied and promoted at the

Conservatory. Analysis of these programs based on the frequency of composers performed will be discussed further in Chapter 6.

Students also received a Zeugnis, or certificate, upon completion of their studies, and often after each year as well, with comments from their instructors regarding their readiness and skill. Sometimes the instructors listed and expounded upon performances at the student’s latest

Hauptprüfung. A Zeugnis was often divided into sections, including (1) Theory of Music and

Composition, (2) Piano playing, (3) Violin playing, (4) Cello playing, (5) Ensemble playing, (6)

Organ playing, (7) Lectures, (8), Singing, and (9) Italian language. This was a standard form, and the categories not applicable to the respective student would be left blank, while others in the student’s main study area would often be completed by multiple faculty members at the institution. Composition and performance faculty would comment on the respective student’s strengths or weakness. Regarding Franz Brendel’s lectures on music, Brendel would often note whether the student was in the habit of attending class or not. In all cases the various instructors would sign the student’s Zeugnis, confirming their roles as the student’s instructors in particular subjects, and ultimately contributing to the rich historical documentation preserved in the

Conservatory history. Reproduced in Figure 4.6 is a copy of Otto Goldschmidt’s Zeugnis from

1846, featuring notes and signatures from Hauptmann, Mendelssohn, Plaidy, and Sachse.248

Goldschmidt was a pianist who toured widely with the singer Jenny Lind.249 After accompanying

Lind in concert tours in Hamburg and the United States in 1851 and 1852, Goldschmidt and Lind married in Boston in 1852. They first lived in Dresden for a short period and later settled in

248Hochschule für Musik und Theater „Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy“ (Leipzig, Bibliothek/Archiv, A, I.3), 48. 249Yvonne Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert: Anziehungs- und Ausstrahlungskraft eines musikpädagogischen Modells auf das internationale Musikleben (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 2004), 148. 91

England in 1858. Goldschmidt was appointed piano professor at the Royal Academy of Music

(1863) and founded and conducted the London Bach Choir (1875–85).250

Earning a Zeugnis from the Leipzig Conservatory faculty was an honorable sign of achievement. The faculty and the reputation of the Conservatory attracted students both nationally and internationally. Over time some foreign students who had completed their studies there were inspired to replicate the pedagogy and musical training they received in Leipzig in their home countries. Others simply began using their highly developed musical skills and knowledge within Germany. These international students spread the Leipzig Conservatory pedagogy to major musical centers beyond Germany, with many reaching as far as the United

States. American students at the Leipzig Conservatory made up a large percentage of the student population in some years, and they will be discussed further in Chapter 5.

250Gaynor G. Jones and Christopher Fifield, "Goldschmidt, Otto," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000011396 (accessed September 30, 2018). 92

Figure 4.6: Zeugnis for Otto Goldschmidt (1846)251

251Hochschule für Musik und Theater „Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy“ (Leipzig: Bibliothek/Archiv, A, I.3), Inskription Nr. 118. 93

CHAPTER 5

AMERICANS AT THE LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY

The Leipzig Conservatory accepted international students from its founding, and over

1,500 Americans crossed the Atlantic Ocean between 1843 and 1918 to take advantage of the opportunity to pursue musical studies there. The demographics of these students varied considerably in regard to their sex, their age upon enrollment, and what part of the United States they came from. As the reputation of the Leipzig Conservatory spread, it began attracting young

American musicians who saw German musical study as far superior to that provided by early music schools and training offered in America. In turn, this great influx of American students in

Leipzig impacted the Conservatory culture. The present chapter surveys the characteristics of the

American students who enrolled at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1843 and 1918, as well as the accommodations and opportunities available to them during their studies in Leipzig.

American Student Population at the Conservatory

New students entering the Leipzig Conservatory were recorded through an

Inskriptionregister, which logged the student’s full name, city of residence, birthplace, birthdate, and date of entry into the Conservatory. Students were given an official number based chronologically on their dates of entry, allowing for efficient filing and retrieval of student records. Conservatory administration also completed a fuller Inskription for each student, and these records reveal more detailed information on each student’s stay in Leipzig, often including the address of their Leipzig residence, special performances or awards they won during their studies, and relevant information about their former musical studies and professional lives. These

94 records allow researchers to gain additional understanding about who the men and women were who traveled long distances in the pursuit of a promising musical education.

George L. Babcock from Boston, Massachusetts was the first American to enroll at the

Leipzig Conservatory, arriving in the institution’s founding year, 1843. After Babcock there were several years in which Americans were missing from the Conservatory enrollment logs, until 1851, when four more Americans enrolled, later four more again in 1854, followed by a steady stream of American internationals in the subsequent years. The absence of Americans in those early gap years could be attributed to the 1848 revolutions in Germany, or simply the fact that the Conservatory was new, and its reputation had not yet spread to the United States. Figure

5.1 charts the enrollment numbers of Americans between 1843 and 1918. Many students remained at the institution for two to three years, but this graph depicts only entrance enrollment numbers.

Figure 5.1: American Students Enrolling at the Leipzig Conservatory

95

Although enrollment numbers climbed in the late 1850s and early 1860s, they dropped near 1864 and 1865, presumably as a result of the Civil War in the United States. After this initial drop, however, enrollment numbers continued climbing steadily, with averages of 26.7 students enrolling each year in the 1870s and 34.6 students each year in the 1880s. Musicians sought international education in higher numbers while the United States was rebuilding after the war. Enrollment of American students peaked at 59 students in 1892 and leveled off to an average of 30 students each year in the first decade of the twentieth century. Since many

American conservatories were founded in the late 1860s and early 1870s, it is remarkable that

American enrollment at the Leipzig Conservatory continued to grow despite the rise of similar educational institutions back home. A sharp decline occurred in 1914, due to the start of World

War I, decreasing to almost zero by the time the United States entered the War in 1917. The only

American students to enter the Conservatory between 1916 and 1917 were three female students who were already living in Germany. No American students enrolled in 1918. This period between the United States Civil War and World War I caused Americans to question their own identity as well as their indebtedness to the German art tradition. In her dissertation “Music,

Morality, and the Great War: How World War I Molded American Musical Ethics,” Lucy

Church explains that “lingering national identity insecurities from the Civil War and an as-yet- unfulfilled desire to create a distinctly ‘American’ music within the art music realm” created “a chance for America to assert itself culturally. To get rid of German music culture was to make a space for American music culture; German performers, conductors, educators, composers, and repertoire could be replaced by their American counterparts.”252

Before the sharp decline in 1914, enrollments began gradually decreasing around the turn of the century. This could be explained through a number of factors. Other music conservatories

252Lucy Claire Church, “Music, Morality, and the Great War: How World War I Molded American Musical Ethics” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 2015), 116–17. 96 in Europe and the United States had established and were gaining renown. Furthermore, in spite of the prevalent American veneration for German education and music, opposition was rising against European models as a result of their potential role in hindering Americans from establishing their own voice. Denise Von Glahn describes the “often oppressive influence of

European (mostly German) musicians” as deterrent to finding “a nascent American music.”253

Some composers and musicians, such as William Henry Fry discussed in Chapter 2, had spoken out against the bondage of American music to European traditions. In addition to composition,

Leipzig was well known for its organ instruction, and since the United States experienced increased secularization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, fewer students were interested in pursuing sacred music and organ studies. For these reasons, some Americans may have lost interest in studying music in Germany, and specifically at the Leipzig Conservatory, known for its traditional and conservative values.

Trends are also apparent in the numbers of male and female students coming from the

United States. Figure 5.2 shows a curve similar to the one depicted in the previous table, but with further nuance to portray the varying numbers of men and women entering the Conservatory from the United States. American female enrollment is non-existent in the early years of the

Conservatory. In 1854 Jenny Rosalie Cecilia Busk from Baltimore was the first American female student to enroll. While female student enrollment began slowly, American women outnumbered men in 1872, and their number soared again in 1885, 1892, and 1895. Enrollment numbers for both American men and women decreased in the 1910s, but male numbers decreased more, due to their service in the military during an approaching time of war. Figure 5.2 shows that even though American female enrollment was slow in the beginning, men and women appeared

253Von Glahn, The Sounds of Place: Music and the American Cultural Landscape, 23. 97 equally in the Conservatory registration documents from the 1870s and forward, with more women than men enrolling at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Figure 5.2: American Male/Female Students Enrolling at the Leipzig Conservatory

The ages of American students upon entry in the Leipzig Conservatory varied greatly.

The youngest students were 10 years old, and the oldest was 49. The majority of American students were in their mid- to late teens or in their twenties. Table 5.1 shows the totals of

American students at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1843 and 1918, grouped by age range.

The following graph, Figure 5.3, presents chronological data within those same age groups over the span of several years, showing growth and decline of various groups. While the very young and much older age groups (i.e., 14 and under, and 30 and up) do not demonstrate any sizable growth throughout the years, there does appear to be a slight shift in the teenage population versus students in their twenties. Both groups were represented equally in the 1850s and 60s, but there is a general increase in the number of students in their twenties in the 1870s and beyond.

Perhaps this small change reflects a shift in American culture and thought that encouraged students to remain longer in general studies back home before traveling abroad. It could also

98 reflect the rise of American conservatories and the fact that younger students made the choice to study music at American institutions first, before pursuing further studies in Europe.

Table 5.1: Totals of American Students at the Leipzig Conservatory Divided by Age Range

Number of Age ranges American Students 14 and under 58 15 to 19 492 20 to 29 864 30 and up 100

Figure 5.3: Ages of American Students Enrolling at the Leipzig Conservatory Each Year

Knowing the ages of American students entering the Conservatory suggests the possible background and experience the average American student had when traveling to Germany.

Students in their late teens may have had very little institutional musical training in America before sailing for Germany, and much of their instruction was probably from private tutoring. On

99 the other hand, students in their twenties entering the Leipzig Conservatory may already have begun or completed musical studies at a higher educational institution in the United States, and they may have been seeking further, more advanced instruction in Leipzig, based on stories and recommendations from their instructors.254 The rise in the number of students in their twenties compared to students in their teens could be explained by the emerging conservatories and schools of music in the United States, allowing students to study first at home and then complete further studies in Leipzig. This shift corresponds chronologically with the rise of several

American musical institutions such as Oberlin Conservatory (1865), the New England

Conservatory (1867), and others.255

In addition to the variety of ages represented, students came from many different states within the United States. In fact, forty-six states (as well as the District of Columbia and the

Virgin Islands) were represented among the Americans enrolled in the Leipzig Conservatory between 1843 and 1918. Every state is represented in Table 5.2 except for Idaho, Vermont,

Wyoming, and Alaska, the latter not an official state until 1959. Some of these states were mere territories when the students left, admitted as official states of the United States between the mid- nineteenth century and the mid-twentieth century. Table 5.2 lists the states and their respective

254Some American students are listed in the Inskriptionen as having been a student of various Oberlin and NEC professors prior to entering the Leipzig Conservatory. For example, Lucretia Celestia Wattles and John Haraden Pratt, were students of John Morgan (Oberlin, New York, Oakland) before studying at the Leipzig Conservatory. Leipzig students from NEC include Justus Edwin Butler and Frank Marshall, students of Ernst Perabo; William Henry Frances Metcalf, student George W. Chadwick; and Frederic Hamilton Watson (no specific instructor mentioned). Students from Oberlin include Edgar G. Sweet, student of Calvin Brainard Cady; Alice Mary Heald, a student of Lucretia C. Wattles; Leona Geneva Hottenstein, student of Fenelon Rice; and William Albert Rounds, student of Charles P. Doolittle, as well as George Hastings, Friedrich Lehmann, and Charles J. H. Mills (no specific instructor mentioned). Additionally, Oberlin Conservatory was responsible for the fees for Alfred Edward Heacox. Alice M. Mills was a student of William Sherwood in Boston, who was not affiliated with NEC. Also John Paul Morgan (Oberlin, New York, Oakland) and John Demuth (Oberlin) sent their own children to the Leipzig Conservatory. 255Other American conservatories that were opened in the nineteenth century include the following: Cincinnati Conservatory (1867), Chicago Musical Academy (1867), Peabody Conservatory (1868), Philadelphia Music Academy (1870), Cleveland Conservatory of Music (1871), Philadelphia Conservatory of Music (1877), Cincinnati College of Music (1878), Cleveland School of Music (1884), Chicago Conservatory of Music (1885), American Conservatory of Music in Chicago (1886). See Fitzpatrick, “The Music Conservatory in America,” 416–20, 428–33, 477–84. 100 student enrollment numbers, ordered by the largest student populations at the Conservatory. It is no surprise perhaps that New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and Illinois were represented with student enrollment numbers above 100, given the big cities in these states and their early development in America’s history. One surprising number within the top five states is Ohio; the large numbers of students enrolling at the Leipzig Conservatory can be attributed not only to the developing city of Cincinnati but also to the close relationship maintained between Oberlin

Conservatory and the Leipzig Conservatory.256 California’s enrollment numbers are also somewhat remarkable, since students from California had a much further distance to travel than their counterparts who lived in east-coast states.

Table 5.2: Student Enrollment at the Leipzig Conservatory from Each State (1843–1914)

New York 327 District of Columbia 23 Arkansas 5 Pennsylvania 151 Rhode Island 17 Mississippi 5 Ohio 143 Maryland 15 New Mexico 4 Massachusetts 116 Kentucky 14 North Dakota 4 Illinois 107 Louisiana 13 West Virginia 4 California 73 Washington 13 Florida 3 Connecticut 50 Tennessee 11 New Hampshire 3 Missouri 50 Virginia 11 North Carolina 3 Wisconsin 49 Kansas 9 Arizona 2 Iowa 46 Georgia 8 Hawaii 2 Michigan 35 South Carolina 8 Oklahoma 2 Indiana 33 Alabama 7 U.S. Virgin Islands 2 Minnesota 29 Maine 6 Utah 2 New Jersey 29 Montana 6 Delaware 1 Texas 25 Nebraska 6 Nevada 1 Colorado 24 Oregon 6 South Dakota 1

256More on that relationship will be discussed in Chapter 6. 101

Another factor that might have influenced the numbers of students studying in Leipzig from each respective state could be whether these students were immigrants or children of immigrants, particularly immigrants from German-speaking countries. Since immigrants of the same country tended to settle in common cities, some states held a greater population of German- speaking immigrants than others. For example, even though the enrollment numbers in Table 5.2 represent the states from which these students came before traveling to Leipzig for musical study, the Conservatory Inskriptionen also recorded birth places, and some of these “American” students were born in Germany or Austria. In a few cases the Inskriptionen indicated that their parents were German, but such notes about parental origin were sporadic in the records and not consistent. Of the 1,526 American students enrolling at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1843 and 1918, 172 of them (11% of total American population) were born in other countries, and 107 of those immigrants (7% of total American population) were born in German-speaking countries

(i.e., Germany, Austria, Switzerland). Figure 5.4 shows the percentages of all immigrants

(including those from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland), contrasted with the percentages of only German-speaking immigrants. German-speaking immigrants from America were well represented in the early years of the Conservatory, however, they seem to have appeared on

Leipzig registrar documents in a smaller percentage in the mid-1870s and following.

Finances also played an important role in the type of student who enrolled at the Leipzig

Conservatory. Expense reports detailing the costs for study in Germany are recorded by

Alexander Wheelock Thayer, an American musicologist and Beethoven biographer,257 who studied in Berlin (1858), and J. C. D. Parker, an organist, teacher, and composer, who studied in

Leipzig and Münich (1882/83), respectively. The journey to Germany by boat was an expense in

257Thayer wrote an extensive biography on Beethoven: Ludwig van Beethovens Leben, 1–3, ed. and trans. H. Dieters (Berlin, 1866–79, rev. 1910–17 by H. Riemann); iv–v, ed. H. Riemann (Leipzig, 1907–8); Eng. orig., ed. H.E. Krehbiel (New York, 1921), rev. E. Forbes as Thayer’s Life of Beethoven (Princeton, NJ, 1964, 2/1967). 102 itself, and enrolling as a student meant that one was responsible for tuition payments, travel, room and board, heat, applied music lessons (separate from tuition), instrument rentals (for pianists and organists), laundry, and concert tickets. Thayer even lists a separate monthly cost for the piano rental versus the piano pedal attachment.258 Since the Conservatory met in the modest

Gewandhaus quarters in the early years, the Gewandhaus building only provided spaces for teaching and performing; students had to make practice space in their own apartments, resulting in their having to rent pianos at still additional monthly charges.259 The expenses that Americans faced upon arriving and settling in Germany limited the number and type of students who could afford the training. It could be assumed, then, that American students at the Leipzig

Conservatory came from families with sufficient wealth and means, and who were supportive of their musical endeavors. On the other hand, many students had to fund at least part of their expenses; as several of them earned money by writing letters back home describing their experiences, which editors then published in local American newspapers.260

Figure 5.4: Percentages of Immigrants within American Student Population at Leipzig

258Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 33–35. 259Bomberger relays the following comical story about the prevalence of students and amateurs renting and playing pianos in Germany in their apartments: “The annoyance over piano-playing was so widespread in nineteenth- century Germany that a law was passed forbidding the playing of the piano near an open window during certain hours. In 1882 a case came to court in Bamberg involving a young woman who played the same three pieces by an open window from 8 PM to 10:30 PM. The neighbors called the police and she was taken to court, where the judge found in favor of the long suffering neighbors. Testimony in the trial included earwitness accounts of her limited repertoire, her “awful” [furchtbar] playing, and the acoustical properties of the street where she lived” (19–20). 260Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 37–38. 103

What type of instruction were American students seeking as they flocked to Germany for musical study? Many pursued studies in Leipzig based on the reputations of the instructors. A number of American students pursued compositional study there due to Mendelssohn’s legacy and the highly-qualified faculty. While there are no records of each student’s declared

Hauptfach, or major area of study, the Zeugnis (certificate of examination) records provide signatures and comments by each student’s instructor(s). Almost all Conservatory students were regularly enrolled in composition/harmony/theory classes, as well as piano and singing classes, in accordance with the Conservatory’s philosophy to train complete musicians. A lesser number took applied music in cello/bass, Italian language (most likely voice majors), organ, violin, and winds. While it is not feasible to ascertain the students’ varying concentrations (i.e., composition, piano, singing, violin, etc.), it is possible to see what kinds of applied instruction these students sought, assuming that all took composition/theory/harmony and almost all took piano and singing. Table 5.3 shows the total numbers of students taking applied instruction in various subjects, excluding composition/theory/harmony and basic singing. It is important to note that the piano numbers are quite high, since all students had to take piano, and there are no records to distinguish those who were concentrating on piano from those who were merely taking it for proficiency. Furthermore, while singing classes were given to all students, those who took Italian were most likely concentrating on voice. Figure 5.5 displays a line graph of the top four areas of applied instruction (i.e., piano, violin, organ, Italian). Growth in these areas tends to follow the natural curve influenced by fluctuation in student population. Bomberger suggests that the low numbers in voice students may have been due to the common practice in nineteenth-century

Germany of charging vocal/opera students higher tuition fees than instrumentalists.261

261Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 37. 104

Table 5.3: Applied Study Areas by American Students at the Leipzig Conservatory

Applied Study Area Totals of Students from 1851 to 1917 Piano 1273 Violin 343 Organ 191 Italian Language (Singing) 124 Cello/Bass 40 Winds 30

Figure 5.5: Applied Study Areas by American Students Over Time (1851–1917)262

Accommodations and Opportunities for American Students

In order to be admitted to the Leipzig Conservatory, students had to demonstrate musical talent as well as fulfill a number of other requirements, such as sufficient German language skills and a record of good moral behavior. The 1843 Catalog for the Leipzig Conservatory lists seven requirements for being admitted to the Conservatory:

262The dates in this chart correspond to the entrance dates of students. Numbers of applied instruction have been determined from the signatures on each student’s Zeugnis. As a result, the numbers of applied lessons here are approximations and do not claim to reflect a precise accounting of the applied instruction within each year. 105

a) Sie müssen so viel allgemeine a) They must have attained sufficient Schulbildung erlangt haben, dass sie im general education to be able to Stande sind, einen geordneten Vortrag zu understand and to follow a regular fassen and demselben zu folgen lecture. b) Ausländer müssen der deutschen Sprache in so weit mächtig sein, als nöthig ist, die b) Foreigners must have acquired the in deutscher Sprach zu haltenden German language to such a degree as to Vorträge zu verstehen. Die jenigen, bei be able to understand the lectures, which denen dies nicht der Fall ist, haben sich are in that language. Those who are desshalb durch Privatunterricht in der unable to do this must acquire that deutschen Sprache diese Fertigkeit zu knowledge by means of private lessons. erwerben. c) Sie müssen wirkliches Talent und die zur c) They must possess real talent, and Aufnahme erforderlichen musikalischen preliminary musical knowledge (notes, Vorkenntnisse besitzen (Noten-, voice leading, and understanding of Tonleiter- und Taktkenntniss, einige rhythm, some skill in piano or violin or Fertigkeit auf dem Pianoforte, oder voice), and if possible, foreigners in Violine oder im Gesange), worüber particular are to bring with them namentlich von Ausländern wo möglich certificates of skill from their former Zeugnissse der frühern Lehrer instructors. beizubringen sind. d) Diejenigen, welche sich dem höhern d) Those only who possess a good and Gersange vorzugsweise widmen wollen, promising voice, are allowed to devote müssen eine gute und bildsame Stimme themselves to the higher branches of haben. Ueber die Zulassung zu den singing. Overall the admission of singing Gesangübungen hat, bei zweifelhaftem instruction is based a state of health and Gesundheitszustande, so wie bei doubtful voice mutation, and if necessary eingetretener Stimm-Mutation, can be decided by the Institute Doctor. nöthigenfalls der Instituts-Arzt zu entscheiden. e) Noch nicht selbstständige Schüler haben e) Pupils who are not yet of age must before vor ihrer Aufnahme die schriftliche admission, bring with them, written Erlaubniss ihrer Aeltern oder Vormünder permission of their parent or guardians beizubringen. (Siehe das Formular, am (see the form at the end of these pages). Ende dieser Blätter.) f) Es muss sich jeder Schüler über sein f) Each student must submit verifiable früheres sittliches Verhalten durch documentation to prove a good moral glaubhafte Zeugnisse seiner Aeltern oder behavior record by his parents or former frühern Lehrer auf Verlangen ausweisen teachers. können. g) Auswärtige Schüler haben sich mit einem g) Foreign pupils must be provided with a auf die Dauer ihres hiesigen aufenthaltes passport or similar document, valid for ausgestellten Passe oder sonstiger the duration of their stay.264 Legitimation zu versehen.263

263Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig, Das Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig ([Leipzig, 1843]), 5. 264English translation taken from an English version of the Leipzig Conservatory Prospekt published in 1901: The Royal Conservatory of Music (Leipzig, 1901), 13. The present author has made several adjustments to the translation, in order for the translation to be more faithful to the original. 106

No further details are given in the above list that would indicate the repertoire specifications or the actual degree of talent that new students had to possess to gain admittance to the

Conservatory. In the absence of pre-screenings and the ability to send recordings across the ocean, one can only imagine that American (and other foreign) students bore the additional risk of having spent considerable resources to arrive in Germany, only to be rejected at the admittance audition for any number of reasons. Other conservatories in Germany had preparatory levels and lower divisions for such students, but since Leipzig did not, the instructors would often accept students for private study who were not formally enrolled at the institution.265

One of the most difficult challenges for Americans was sufficient proficiency with the

German language and the ability to understand lectures (in German). Leonard Phillips remarks that during periods of high American and British concentration (1880s and 1890s), English was probably the second language at the Conservatory.266 His statement is supported by the surviving

English literature published at the Conservatory in the early twentieth century. Beginning in

1901 the Conservatory catalog archives began preserving two versions of the catalog, one in

English and one in German. Since the catalog contained important information about policies and institution rules, having this document in English protected the Conservatory from any language-based misunderstandings from their English-speaking students. Even with these provisions, however, some students, such as Alice Olivia Alderman of Boston, enrolled at the

Conservatory in 1869 but was sent away in the same year as a result of her insufficient language skills.267 Bomberger notes that due to the large immigrant population in America in the second half of the nineteenth century, some American students could learn German more easily at home, if they lived near a German settlement or knew German families.268 Others who did not have

265Bomberger, Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 15–16. 266Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory: 1843–1881,” 223. 267Hochschule für Musik und Theater „Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy“ Leipzig, Bibliothek/Archiv, A, I.2, 1598. 268Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 20–21. 107 such opportunities at home struggled more with the language and needed to secure private tutors while in Germany.269

In contrast to the challenges of language acquisition, American students were delighted at the concert opportunities available to them in Germany. Students regularly had the chance to attend operas, orchestral concerts at the Gewandhaus, and special concerts featuring world- renowned soloists such as Joseph Joachim, Jenny Lind, Franz Liszt, Clara Schumann, and others.270 Opportunities to hear famous soloists in America were not as plentiful and depended on whether the soloist was willing to travel across the ocean and embark on rigorous concert tours in the United States. As a consequence, Leipzig and other musical centers in Germany boasted a very appealing concert life, which provided an important educational supplement to the instruction students received in the classroom. As the first American conservatories arose in the

1860s and 1870s, this aspect of German music study was one of the greatest differences between the experiences of students studying at home and abroad. The educational opportunities outside the classroom were significantly richer and more numerous in Germany than in the United States during the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Further Impact of American Students at the Leipzig Conservatory

Students from the United States who studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries hailed from all over the country and with great diversity in both age and gender. Some had deeper roots and ties to Germany than others, and some struggled more with language mastery than others. All in all, these students possessed sufficient musical talent to gain entrance into the Conservatory, and they impacted the life of the

Conservatory through the high concentration of English-speaking students, prompting the

269Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 22. 270Bomberger, “The German Musical Training of American Students, 1850–1900,” 27. 108 institution to produce English-based literature in some cases. Furthermore, their financial background was somewhat uniform, in that they possessed considerable wealth and family support for their passage to Germany as well as for tuition and living expenses abroad, limiting the range of socio-economic status of the typical American student studying at the Leipzig

Conservatory.

Among both the common aspects and the variety within the American student population at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1843 and 1918, one characteristic allowed these students to make an indelible impact on the future generations of American education, and they eagerly shared their experiences with friends and family back home, as well as other readers, as is evident from the letters and newspaper articles that they wrote. Many of these Leipzig

Conservatory students returned to America with new musical knowledge and experiences, and they impacted the musical life of the country in significant ways, most especially by founding and teaching at various American conservatories and institutions of higher learning. Others established themselves as distinguished performers and administrators, bringing ideas back from

Germany and the Leipzig Conservatory that eventually took root in America’s music education and concert life in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The stories of these students and their significant contributions will be further discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.

109

CHAPTER 6

IMPACT OF LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY GRADUATES IN AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION

As American students gained valuable musical training and education at the Leipzig

Conservatory, many of them returned home to the United States to share what they had learned.

These Leipzig graduates brought with them a distinct type of training, based on the principles and music promulgated by their Leipzig Conservatory professors. Many of these students served in America’s musical conservatories and other institutions of higher musical education. Among the numerous American students who studied at the Leipzig Conservatory John P. Morgan

(Oberlin) and James C. D. Parker (New England Conservatory) were two who were powerfully impacted during their years at the Leipzig Conservatory and thus chose to share these pedagogical approaches back home. At the forefront of this cross-continental exchange was the founding of Oberlin Conservatory (1865) and the New England Conservatory of Music (1867).

Both Oberlin and the New England Conservatory had direct links to the Leipzig Conservatory at their establishment which continued through the visionaries who started them, the instructors who served them, and the literature and pedagogical texts that supported them. While many

Leipzig graduates were concentrated in administrative and teaching positions at Oberlin and

NEC, many other Leipzig graduates continued to assume positions at other institutions of higher learning. This generation of American musicians had a far-reaching impact on the early years and establishment of music studies in American conservatories and universities.

The Oberlin Conservatory of Music

The founding of Oberlin Conservatory of Music was initiated by John P. Morgan and

George W. Steele, two childhood friends who had grown up in Oberlin. Morgan had recently

110 returned from studying at the Leipzig Conservatory, and while Steele had remained in Oberlin during Morgan’s absence, he also left for study at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1867, two years after the founding of the Conservatory.271 Morgan only remained at Oberlin for a year. When

Steele returned 1869, he invited two colleagues from the Conservatory, Fenelon and Helen Maria

Rice, to join the faculty. They accepted and led the Conservatory through the turn of the century.272

From its foundation the leaders of Oberlin unapologetically based their design and curriculum on the Leipzig Conservatory. The 1866 Oberlin College catalog includes an announcement about the Conservatory, which refers to a Leipzig/European influence in three separate instances: (1) in the leadership of the Conservatory, (2) in the system of piano instruction based on that of Louis Plaidy, instructor at the Leipzig Conservatory, and (3) in the textbook to be used for theoretical instruction—John P. Morgan’s translation of E. F. Richter’s

Lehrbuch der Harmonie. In terms of leadership, the catalog stated that J. C. Fillmore from the

Leipzig Conservatory would be teaching in George Steele’s absence, while Steele was studying at Leipzig:

The Oberlin Conservatory of Music has recently been brought into connection with Oberlin College. Mr. George W. Steele, has been appointed Professor of Music in the College with leave of absence to pursue further Musical Studies in Germany. Mr. J. C. Fillmore, directly from the Conservatory of Music at Leipzig, Germany, has charge of the Conservatory in his absence. This institution has been very successful the past year. The number in attendance has steadily increased with every term.273

Regarding piano instruction, Louis Plaidy, instructor at the Leipzig Conservatory, was lauded as a paragon to be emulated for his technical pedagogical approach:

271Ernest Barrett Chamberlain, The Music of Oberlin and Some Who Made It: In Tribute to the Centennial of the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music, 1867–1967 (Oberlin: The Oberlin Historical and Improvement Organization, 1968), 25–26. 272Chamberlain, The Music of Oberlin and Some Who Made It: In Tribute to the Centennial of the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music, 28–29. 273Oberlin College, Catalog of Oberlin College, 1866, as cited by Willard Warch, Our First 100 Years: A Brief History of the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music ([Oberlin: 1967]), 10. 111

The system of Piano Instruction has for its aim the development of the mechanical ability of the pupils as the only means of enabling them to express adequately the compositions of ancient and modern masters. It is the system founded and taught by Louis Plaidy, well known as the most thorough and successful piano teacher in Europe.274

Finally, the catalog announced an official theoretical textbook for the Conservatory as a translation of E. F. Richter’s textbook used at the Leipzig Conservatory:

The theoretical instruction will be equally thorough, using the textbook of E. F. Richter, the well-known theorist and teacher in the Leipzig Conservatory; of which a faithful translation has been made by Mr. John P. Morgan.275

Influence of the Leipzig Conservatory was fully apparent through Oberlin’s leadership and curriculum, but it went much deeper; it modeled itself on the German philosophy of education and Mendelssohn’s goal to create complete and well-rounded musicians. This philosophy is clearly explained in the 1869–70 Catalog, where George and Lottie Steele and Fenelon and

Helen Rice are listed as the primarily instructors. Words such as science and art figure predominantly in the discussion, stressing the importance of viewing music education as a science, which was noteworthy in nineteenth-century America, where thinking was more dominated by practical, rather than academic, values in education. This concept is one of the primary ideas that Mendelssohn argued in order to establish his National Conservatory of Music in Leipzig, based on the German ideas of education. Here American music educators also chose this line of reasoning to establish Oberlin as a musical institution of enlightenment:

This Conservatory was established for the purpose of advancing Music, by furnishing systematic and thorough instruction at low rates, and encouraging the investigation and prosecution of Music both as a science and an art. We submit this, our first Catalogue, to the people, trusting that some, who peruse it, may be led to inquire into the science of Music more earnestly, and that they may be led to make the effort necessary to secure such a knowledge of this science as shall fit them for places of influence. It is believed by those having the institution in charge, that the course of study should be so classified and systematized, that the culture and development received in pursuing it, shall produce thorough and well-balanced Musicians instead of superficial and one- sided ones. Just as the course of study laid down in our Colleges and Seminaries of

274Oberlin College, Catalog of Oberlin College, 10. 275Oberlin College, Catalog of Oberlin College, 10. 112

learning, is intended to give a knowledge not of Language alone, or of Mathematics, or of Natural Science, or of Metaphysics, but such a comprehension of them all as will form a substantial basis for all future attainments; so in the Course here presented, it has been the aim to give each pupil an acquaintance not with Singing, the Piano Forte, the Organ, or Harmony alone, but a broad and comprehensive knowledge of all these branches.276

In addition to emphasizing the scientific basis of music in creating a well-rounded musician, the Oberlin founders also promoted the class approach to pedagogy and applied musical instruction that had distinguished the Leipzig Conservatory. Starting as early as 1869 the

Oberlin Conservatory Catalog included a statement about the educational benefits of class instruction as opposed to private lessons alone. Between 1898 and 1902 they even included a quote attributed to Felix Mendelssohn, which was taken from the annual Leipzig Conservatory

Catalogs between 1843 and 1901 and signed by the Directorium. Their explanation regarding the importance of class instruction of applied studies started as early as 1869 and continued to appear as late as 1902:

There are several important reasons which have led to the adoption of the Class System. It brings within the reach of the average student better teachers than he could otherwise afford. The criticism or approval, explanation or illustration given by the teacher to one student, are valuable alike to all. Discouragement on the part of any one pupil is very largely avoided, since he finds that the difficulties which he thought peculiarly his own, are shared by his classmates. The opportunity to study the faults of others, and the best methods of overcoming them, is especially valuable to those who expect to teach. Young and timid or self-conscious pupils improve greatly in their ability to perform before listeners. Finally, a wholesome element of emulation enters into class instruction. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy [sic] says: “The Class System has the advantage over the private instruction of the individual that by the participation of several in the same lesson and in the same studies, a true musical feeling is awakened and kept fresh among the pupils; that it promotes industry and spurs to emulation, and is a preservative from one-sidedness of education and taste.”277

276Oberlin Conservatory 1869–70 Catalog, 1. Oberlin College Archives. 277Oberlin Conservatory 1902–03 Catalog, 14–15. Oberlin College Archives. Compare with the Leipzig Conservatory English Catalog from 1901: “An Institution such as the Conservatorium…offers great advantages over private tuition. Through participation of several students in the same lesson industry and emulation is promoted. True musical feeling is engendered and kept alive, the best preventive of one-sidedness in education and taste against which every musician should be on his guard from his early student years.” Leipzig 1901 English Catalog, 9–10, German text appears verbatim in all Catalogs prior, including [1843] Catalog. 113

Thus there was a direct relationship between these two institutions, as Oberlin sustained the spirit and pedagogy of the Leipzig Conservatory in America.

This is additionally evident in the repertoire assigned to Oberlin students, as well. Many of Oberlin’s course catalogs distributed in the 1870s listed the repertoire that the leadership selected as integral to honing a student’s skill in piano, organ, and violin, respectively. For example, in the 1874 Catalog of the Oberlin Conservatory a long list of literature is provided for pianoforte, beginning with numerous technical etudes and finishing with a list of actual performance repertoire:

Duvernoy’s Etudes in Mechanism op. 120. Czerny op. 336. Krause op. 2. Heller op. 46. Spindler op. 141. Czerny op. 299 (Studies in Velocity). Heller op. 45 and 16. Jensen op. 32. Cramer’s Forty-two Studies. Clementi’s Gradus ad Parnassum. Czerny op. 740. Mayer op. 305. Moscheles op. 70. Sonatas by Kuhlau, Clementi, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven; and selections from Bach, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Chopin and others.278

The names Moscheles, Schumann, and Mendelssohn represent Leipzig faculty members, and other composers including Kuhlau, Clementi, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Bach also reflect the more conservative tastes of the Leipzig Conservatory being passed to Oberlin. A similar list is produced in the same 1874–75 Catalog for Organ, with technique books first and organ performance repertoire following:

Selections from Rink’s and Ritter’s organ schools Pedal Technics,—Thayer. Pedal Studies,—Volkmar. Studies in Pedal Phrasing,—Buck.

278Catalogue of the Conservatory of Music, Oberlin College, 1874–5 (Cleveland: Leader Printing Company, 1874), 17. Oberlin College Archives. 114

Trios op. 20, Richter, and op. 39, Merkel. Fugues from the Well-tempered Clavier, arranged by Van Eyken,—Bach Selections from Bach’s Organ works. Mendelssohn’s Six Sonatas, Three Preludes and Fugues, Ritter’s Sonatas. Miscellaneous selections from the works of Buck, Smart, G. Ad. Thomas, Best, Freyer, Richter, Hesse, Ritter, and others.279

Once again the Leipzig composers Richter, Bach, and Mendelssohn figure prominently in the suggested works Oberlin organists learned throughout their course of study.

Violin studies were added to the catalog in 1876 with a clear acknowledgment of

Ferdinand David, an esteemed violinist, a close friend and colleague of Felix Mendelssohn, and a founding faculty member of the Leipzig Conservatory:

In this department the School of Ferd. David is used as the basis of work. Pupils receive careful instruction as to the correct manner of holding the violin, using the bow, and producing a good tone. The course comprises, besides David’s School, Etudes by Wichtel, Kayser, Kreutzer, Prume, etc., with selections from Dancla, Wichtel, Alard, Rode. De Beriot, Campagnole, Spohr, Lafont, and Schumann, and Sonates by Schubert, Weber, Mozart, and Beethoven.280

The esteem and admiration for Leipzig’s teachers and pedagogical principles were undeniable as the numerous references to master teachers from Leipzig attest. For violin instruction to appear first in the Oberlin catalogs in 1876, with a distinct nod to Ferdinand David’s pedagogical work, shows again that the Oberlin leadership respected the training at the Leipzig Conservatory and desired to emulate it, and especially in new courses of study within their school.

This relationship was not only apparent at the founding, but it continued for years and decades. The number of Oberlin faculty who studied at the Leipzig Conservatory is impressive

(see Table 6.1). A close look shows that Oberlin was directed by Leipzig students from its foundation (Morgan/Steele) until 1924 (Rice, then Morrison). Many of these faculty members also remained for several years at Oberlin, some for several decades. This further demonstrates

279Catalogue of the Conservatory of Music, Oberlin College, 1874–5, 18. 280Catalogue of the Conservatory of Music, Oberlin College, 1876–7 (Toledo: Blade Printing and Paper Company, 1876), 18. Oberlin College Archives. 115 the rich relationship that Oberlin shared with the Leipzig Conservatory, one that spanned almost eighty years.

Table 6.1: Oberlin Faculty Members Who Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory281 Years at Faculty Member Role at Oberlin Oberlin Morgan, John Paul founder, director of sacred music 1865–66 Steele, George founder, director of secular music 1865–71 Fillmore, John Comfort interim instrumental instructor 1867–68 Rice, Fenelon director, piano, organ, harmony, and composition 1869–1901 Rice, Helen Maria voice 1869–1903 Wattles, Lucretia Celestia piano, secretary of faculty 1871–1915 Cady, Calvin Brainard piano, harmony 1874–79 Davis, Frank piano, violin 1875–86 Morrison, Charles N. director, piano 1876–1924 Sweet, Edgar G. piano, voice 1883–1922 Hall, Jay Rollin Piano 1892–96 Heacox, Arthur E. harmony, counterpoint 1894–1935 Hastings, George piano, organ 1900–25 Lindquist, Orville Alvin Piano 1901–39 Lehmann, Friedrich J. theory, golf 1903–32 Davis, Bruce H. piano, organ, accompanist 1903–43

Many of these faculty members also attended Oberlin as students before studying in Germany and returning to teach at their alma mater, and several of these professors sent their own students to study in Leipzig. Table 6.2 shows Oberlin students who completed studies in Leipzig after studying at or having a prior connection to Oberlin. Faculty members from Table 6.1 who also appear in Table 6.2 have been marked with an asterisk.

281While this table is the author’s original compilation, specific dates and roles served have been confirmed by referencing Chamberlain, The Music of Oberlin and Some Who Made It: In Tribute to the Centennial of the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music, 40–41. 116

Table 6.2: Students of Oberlin Who Later Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory Year left Student Connection to Oberlin Leipzig Bartlett, Joseph Edgar student of Morgan and Steele 1869 Penfield, Smith Newell born in Oberlin in 1837; A.B. in '58 and A.M. '61 1869 Cady, Calvin Brainard* studied at Oberlin 1874 Smith, Jenny Mary Folsom student of Oberlin 1880–81 1884 Sproule, Iva Maria student of Oberlin 1880–81 1884 Morrison, Charles N.* graduate of Oberlin in 1880 1884 Hottenstein, Leona Geneva student of Fenelon Rice 1886 Heald, Alice Mary student of Wattles 1887 Sweet, Edgar G.* student of Cady at Oberlin 1887 Hall, Jay Rollin* Studied at Oberlin 1888 Demuth, Lotte father John Demuth, teacher at Oberlin 1899 Rice, Louis M. father Fenelon Rice 1899 Hastings, George* graduate of Oberlin in 1900 1900 Heacox, Arthur Edward* graduate of Oberlin in 1893 1900 Rounds, William Albert student Charles P. Doolittle at Oberlin 1900 Lehmann, Friedrich* studied at Oberlin for 3 years 1901 Mills, Charles J. H. graduate of Oberlin in 1897 1903 Demuth, Frederick Joseph father John Demuth, teacher at Oberlin 1905 Davis, Bruce H.* graduate of Oberlin in 1903 1906

The dates these students studied at the Leipzig Conservatory extend from Oberlin’s early years up until the early twentieth century. Just as the professors at the Leipzig Conservatory continued to hold Mendelssohn’s principles and pedagogical vision decades after his death in high esteem,

Oberlin continued an ongoing relationship with the Leipzig Conservatory for years after its founders left to establish and teach at other schools. Oberlin students and faculty held the Leipzig

Conservatory in high regard for a long period of time. It is not unreasonable to assume that this relationship declined only as a result of World War I and a general retreat of Americans from

German institutions.

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New England Conservatory of Music

The New England Conservatory was founded in Boston in 1867, two years after the end of the Civil War. While Oberlin was founded directly by Morgan and Steele, who both studied in

Leipzig, the New England Conservatory (NEC) was founded by Eben Tourjée, a man who had traveled and visited many schools of music in France and Germany, but whose name does not appear in any of the Leipzig Conservatory records. Nevertheless, Tourjée certainly knew of the

Leipzig Conservatory, as a lengthy section in the 1868 NEC Catalog is devoted to explaining the benefits of “The Class System,” and the compiler of the NEC Catalog attributes a statement to

Mendelssohn, a slight paraphrase to the original statement in the Leipzig Catalog:

Leipzig Catalog NEC Catalog An Institution such as the An institution such as a Conservatory, has this Conservatorium…offers great advantages advantage over the private instruction of the over private tuition. Through participation of individual, that by the participation of several several students in the same lesson industry in the same lessons and in the same studies, a and emulation is promoted. True musical true, musical feeling is awakened and kept feeling is engendered and kept alive, the best fresh among the pupils; that it promotes preventive of one-sidedness in education and industry, and spurs on to emulation, and that taste against which every musician should be it is a preservative against one-sidedness of on his guard from his early student years.282 education and taste—a tendency against which every artist, even in the student years, should be upon his guard.283

In a flyer announcing the Conservatory opening scheduled on Monday, 18 February 1867, some closing remarks identify Leipzig specifically as one of the European institutions that the leadership wished to emulate:

It is the ambition of the Directors and Professors of the New England Conservatory of Music to further the true interests of the musical community, and they will perseveringly devote themselves to establish, on a secure foundation, an institution which they mean shall be equal in rank with the renowned Conservatories of Leipzig, Paris, Stuttgardt [sic], Prague and others.284

282The Royal Conservatorium of Music Leipzig, 1901, 9–10, German text appears verbatim in all Catalogs prior, including [1843] Catalog. 283Annual Catalogue and Circular of the New England Conservatory of Music, 1868, 21. 284New England Conservatory of Music, pamphlet announcing the opening of the Conservatory, 1867. 118

Leipzig’s position at the head of this list may indicate that the Conservatory there was at the forefront of the directors’ minds.

In the first surviving programs of the New England Conservatory in 1867 musical tastes are somewhat similar to those in Leipzig, featuring composers including J.S. Bach, Beethoven,

Chopin, Gounod, Mendelssohn, Rossini, and Schumann, but there are also several lesser-known composers who figure prominently, including Arditi, Boildieu, Le Prevost, Rink, Southard,

Spindler, Thalberg, and Robert Goldbeck.285 This reveals a preference for the same

“conservative” tastes promulgated by the Leipzig Conservatory, but it also shows an interest in lesser-known works, including some by American composers. A further comparison of concert programming between Leipzig, Oberlin, and NEC follows later in this chapter.

As at Oberlin, there was a constant flow of Leipzig students assuming leadership positions at the New England Conservatory. The longest term of a Leipzig graduate teaching at

NEC was George W. Chadwick, director at NEC from 1897 to 1930.286 Even before Chadwick, however, there were several faculty members at NEC who came from Leipzig (see Table 6.3), and several were German immigrants who had settled in America and subsequently taught there

(German immigrants are marked in italics). In one instance, piano instructor Louis Maas was a faculty member from the Leipzig Conservatory (marked in SMALL CAPS), bringing an even more direct and convincing pedagogical influence from Leipzig. One of the NEC faculty members,

James C. D. Parker, also translated E.F. Richter’s Lehrbuch der Harmonie, just as Oberlin’s John

P. Morgan had done years earlier. While there are no official Conservatory records specifying a theoretical text used at NEC, it is likely that Richter’s book was also used at NEC.

2851867 NEC Programs, NEC Archive. 286Eleanor Miller, “The History and Development of The New England Conservatory of Music,” 260–61. Robert Goldbeck helped Tourjée direct the Conservatory in its first year. 119

Table 6.3: Faculty Members at the New England Conservatory Who Studied/Taught at Leipzig287

Faculty Role Barnett, Clara Kathinka instructor, 1860 Buck, Dudley instructor, 1871–c1875 Chadwick, George W. harmony, composition, theory, director Dannreuther, Edward George instructor Elson, Louis C. harmony, composition, theory Emery, Stephen A. piano and harmony instructor, 1867–1890 Hill, Junius (James) W. instructor Hopekirk, Helen piano instructor Howard, George H. instructor

MAAS, LOUIS PIANO INSTRUCTOR Parker, James C.D. piano instructor Petersilia, Carlyle piano instructor, c1868 Rohde, Wilhelm Instructor

In addition to the faculty influence at NEC, just as at Oberlin, there were also several students who were encouraged to study at Leipzig after studying with instructors at NEC. Table

6.4 shows a small selection of these students:

Table 6.4: Students of NEC Who Later Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory Year left Student Connection to NEC Leipzig Butler, Justus Edwin student of Perabo 1869 Lind, Georg studied violin at NEC 1879 Willard, Susanna took lessons from NEC faculty 1879 Marshall, Frank studied with Perabo for 3 months 1880 Metcalf, William Henry Frances student of Chadwick 1885 Watson, Frederic Hamilton studied at NEC 1902

287Italics indicates that person immigrated to U.S. from Germany. SMALL CAPS indicate that person was a faculty member at Leipzig Conservatory and not a student. 120

Perhaps one reason the NEC student list is much smaller than Oberlin’s is that the New England

Conservatory was much larger than Oberlin and founded with the goal of equaling the merits and education of conservatories abroad.288 Presumably the New England Conservatory would have claimed that American students could thus complete a well-rounded musical education in the

United States at that institution, without having to travel outside of the country.

General Comparisons at Leipzig, Oberlin, and NEC

Oberlin and NEC both exhibited unique institutional characteristics, yet both also had inescapable connections to the Leipzig Conservatory through faculty, pedagogical structure, and curriculum/repertoire. Table 6.5 presents a brief comparison featuring the Leipzig Conservatory, the Oberlin Conservatory, and the New England Conservatory side by side, based on the earliest sources and catalogs available at each institution. It is evident that while Oberlin and NEC each had distinctive qualities, much of their initial organization can be attributed to their desire to emulate the pedagogical framework of the Leipzig Conservatory.

To summarize some of the important points in this table, the early mission statements of both Oberlin and NEC call upon the idea to train the “complete” musician, who is not merely a skillful performer, but a rather, a knowledgeable musician in theoretical practice as well as a trained musician and performer. This philosophy stems from the Leipziger notion that music should be considered scientific because of its intellectual basis in addition to its practical side.

The administration founding Oberlin and NEC understood and emulated the tenets of the Leipzig

Conservatory to the very core by representing the Leipzig pedagogical philosophy within their mission statements.

288“New England Conservatory of Music, Commencing Monday, February 18th, 1867,” [4], NEC Archives. 121

Table 6.5: A Comparison of General Characteristics in the Foundation of Musical Institutes New England Conservatory Leipzig Conservatory (1843) Oberlin Conservatory (1865) (1867) “shall produce thorough and well- “whose aim is the cultivation of the providing “a complete music education” at balanced Musicians instead of Mission/Purpose theoretical and practical study of music” a higher institutional level superficial and one-sided ones” Early Board of Directors consisting of co- Co-directors Eben Tourjée and five directors who formed the Directorium founders John P. Morgan and George W. Leadership of Robert Goldbeck the Institution Steele secular institution; sacred music branch and secular music secular institution; Sacred/Secular faculty held church positions branch faculty held church positions 3-year theory and composition study 3-year theory and composition study 4-terms (one year) in harmony and 4-terms Program of (harmony and part writing in first year; (harmony and part writing in first year; (one year) in theory of music for all harmony and counterpoint in second year; harmony and counterpoint in second students studying piano, organ, voice, or Study harmony, double counterpoint, and fugue in year; harmony, double counterpoint, and orchestral instruments; written third year) fugue in third year) examination in harmony and theory Major piano, organ, violin, flute, all other “practical” solo and choral singing, piano, organ, voice, piano, organ, choral singing; orchestra instruments, voice and solo violin, declamation violin added in 1876 Areas of Study singing (at foundation) instruction in class-style, including instruction in class-style, including all instruction in class-style, including practical instruction practical instruction Class Style practical instruction (some private lessons given) (private lessons available at high fee) No specific textbook listed; Possibly used E.F. Richter, Lehrbuch der Harmonie John P. Morgan’s translation of E.F. James C.D. Parker’s translation of E.F Textbooks (1857) Richter’s textbook (1867) Richter’s textbook (1873) new courses (terms) begin around Easter spring, summer, fall, and winter spring, fall, and winter (12-week) terms Academic Year (April) and Michaelmas (29 September) (10-week) terms Prüfungen each spring open to the public; “Rehearsal” and “Matinées” available for opportunities to perform orchestra music at Regular Wednesday evening Performance students to perform for friends and Abonnement Concerts or large church “Rehearsal” for students to perform for relatives; orchestral and chamber Opportunities presentations; less formal week concerts at other students and faculty opportunities Conservatory: Abendunterhaltungen Men and men and women taught in separate classes except for ensemble playing and solo and co-educational classes men and women taught in separate classes Women choral singing

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The similarities continued among the three institutions, particularly in terms of theory instruction. Both Oberlin and NEC created an analogous theory program to what they were taught a Leipzig, even going so far as to translate Richter’s theory textbook to English. It should be noted that the textbook was translated twice, once by Oberlin’s John Paul Morgan, and later by NEC’s James C. D. Parker. Richter’s textbook left an indelible mark on these former Leipzig students and would leave a similar mark on their own students.

Weekly performance opportunities were provided at all three institutions. Less formal conservatory concerts allowed students to gain performance skills on a more regular basis and under less pressure. The practice of weekly recitals continues at American conservatories and music schools today; the current study shows the deep roots of this tradition. Leipzig named these informal recitals Abendunterhaltungen (Evening Entertainments), whereas NEC named their weekly conservatory recitals Pupils’ Recital or Thursday Recital, and Oberlin named theirs

Students’ Recital.

The institutions also presented numerous public concerts featuring student performers, with the model being Leipzig’s Hauptprüfungen (Main Examinations). The Leipzig

Hauptprüfungen functioned both as final performance exams for students and as concerts for the public to gain an understanding of the quality of teaching and activities of the Conservatory.

These Leipzig Conservatory concerts occurred around Easter (April), with a series of public performance exams involving multiple solo student performers per recital, often divided by instrument. Depending on the term, the Leipzig Conservatory hosted three to fifteen

Hauptprüfungen public recitals each term. As the number of students at the Conservatory grew, the Hauptprüfungen began encompassing the months of March, April, May, and sometimes June.

That framework of a final public exam was not replicated identically in Leipzig’s

American counterparts, but rather both Oberlin and NEC programmed individual student solo

123 recitals that were open to the public, often given before a student graduated from the institution.

At the close of a term, numerous solo recitals were given featuring a single student (with an accompanist, except in the case of keyboard recitals), akin to senior “capstone” recitals. This practice shows the roots of current-day senior recitals or junior recitals that function as public performances for the community and also as a final performance assessment for the graduating student. This is one particular instance in which the American institutions separated from the

Leipzig Conservatory practices. Leipzig’s Hauptprüfungen were official institutional graduation recitals featuring multiple performers, whereas Oberlin and NEC capstone recitals featured a single student on the program. This change in practice seems to reflect one aspect of cultural differences between Germany and America: the American practice representing the idea of individualism celebrated in the United States. Despite the deep veneration that faculty and administrators at Oberlin and NEC held for the Leipzig Conservatory, there were areas in which cultural differences between the countries overcame their inclination to mimic Leipzig’s program.

Continuing the dichotomy of individual versus collective pedagogy, the American conservatories took a different turn in the way they dealt with applied, or practical, instruction of instruments or the voice. It is common practice for theory, history, and literature classes to be taught to several students meeting together with one instructor, but the Leipzig Conservatory’s concept of the class system as applied to practical instruction was a distinguishing component of

Mendelssohn’s pedagogical philosophy. Classes for practical instruction in Leipzig were not large, but rather, two to four students meeting together to learn artistry from a master teacher.

Students may have studied different repertoire or the same repertoire, and the philosophy was that students could learn by watching their colleagues and listening to what the instructor shared with their colleagues. The idea that watching a peer’s instruction was just as beneficial as

124 receiving private instruction was what grounded the Leipzig class system. Today’s music institutions offer occasional master classes that embrace this concept, but for students enrolled at the Leipzig Conservatory in the nineteenth century this was the typical format of their applied instruction. Both Oberlin and NEC also adopted this class-style of applied instruction in the first several decades of their operation, and they always defended this choice by pointing to the success of the Leipzig Conservatory, giving full credit to their German model. Some private lessons were given and simultaneously available at the American institutions in these early years, but the class approach to applied instruction was strongly encouraged on the basis of developing more complete and well-rounded musicians. These American institutions thus chose a European model based on collective pedagogy in spite of culture differences that emphasized the individual as well.

Among these three institutions, Oberlin differed from NEC and Leipzig through its religious affiliations. While early instructors, particularly organ faculty, at both Leipzig and NEC held positions in local churches, Leipzig and NEC were secular institutions and did not have a sacred music track in their curricula. On the other hand, Oberlin offered separate sacred music and secular music branches. This is in large part because the Oberlin Conservatory was still a part of Oberlin College and Seminary, whereas Leipzig and NEC were both free-standing institutions. Oberlin also began as a smaller institution, first offering applied instruction in voice, piano, organ, and choral singing, and later offering violin in 1876 and other orchestral instruments to follow. Despite Oberlin’s smaller size at the beginning, it is quite notable that it fostered such a vibrant and growing musical program in those early years, given its location in the Midwest. Cities such as Boston and New York were thriving metropolitan centers for cultural development, musical life, and art. Given that Oberlin did not have as many cultural resources in

125 the Midwest as its eastern counterparts, the success of the Conservatory was especially significant.

Oberlin’s classes were co-educational, while Leipzig and NEC at first separated men and women for class sessions. It was common for men and women to participate in separate classes during the mid-1800s in both Europe and America. Oberlin’s opting for co-educational classes may have been due to the fact that its student population was smaller and thus did not support the luxury of creating multiple classes. It could also be due to Oberlin’s progressive history of actively supporting other civil rights activities, such as its strong stand against slavery.

Concert Programming at Leipzig, Oberlin, and NEC

Concerts and programming reveal a great deal about a musical institution’s values, and so it is informative to study what students were performing in their weekly and public recitals, as well as what they were exposed to in faculty and guest artist recitals. Students at the Leipzig

Conservatory had many opportunities to hear faculty perform, as well as guest artists through concerts in town, especially at the Gewandhaus Concerts, which would feature world-class

European soloists. Students at Oberlin and NEC also had the opportunity to hear accomplished soloists, mainly through faculty performances, but guest performers also traveled to NEC and

Oberlin frequently, allowing the students to experience musical worlds and tastes outside of the conservatory walls. Some notable artists who came to NEC included the Beethoven Quintette

Club, the Mendelssohn Quintette Club. NEC faculty members who appeared in recitals included

George E. Whiting (organ), Henry M. Dunham (organ), Carlyle Petersilea (piano), Charles F.

Dennée (piano), Louis Maas (piano), Edwin Klahre (piano), Augusto Rotoli (vocal), Alfred de

Sève (violin), Emil Mahr (violin), Benjamin Cutter (violin), Wulf Fries (cello), and many others.

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The Boston Symphony also provided a rich musical scene in Boston, allowing students to hear major orchestral works as well as prominent guest soloists.

Whereas Leipzig and Boston had major symphony orchestras that could provide musical enrichment through concert series, guest soloists, and even faculty, Oberlin’s location demanded that they bring in more guest soloists to provide their students with a similarly rich musical and cultural experience. In addition to the Oberlin faculty who performed solo recitals at Oberlin concerts, some NEC faculty came to perform at Oberlin: Louis Maas, Otto Bendix, and Helen

Hopekirk. Other prominent guest soloists who visited Oberlin included the Mendelssohn

Quintette Club, the Boston Philharmonic Club, the Kneisel Quartet, Julie Rivé-King, William H.

Sherwood, Edouard Reményi, Maud Powell, Constantin Sternberg, Lillian Nordica, Alfred

Grünfeld, Adolph Brodsky, Fannie Bloomfield Zeisler, Vladimir de Pachmann, Xaver

Scharwenka, Henri Marteau, Alexandre Guilmant, W. S. B. Mathews, Teresa Carreño,

Alexandre Siloti, Adele aus der Ohe, Rafael Joseffy, Edward MacDowell, Olga Samaroff,

Ferruccio Busoni, Efrem Zimbalist, and Percy Grainger. In additional to guest soloists, Oberlin even hosted numerous guest orchestral concerts with visiting orchestras such as the Chicago

Orchestra (Theodore Thomas, conductor; Frederick Stock, conductor), the Metropolitan

Orchestra of New York (Anton Seidl, conductor), the Paur Symphony Orchestra (Emil Paur, conductor), the Pittsburgh Orchestra (Victor Herbert, conductor; Carl Bernthaler, conductor), the

Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra (Frank van der Stucken, conductor; Leopold Stokowski, conductor), and the New York Symphony Orchestra (Walter Damrosch, conductor).

Oberlin’s rich list of guest soloists and orchestras allowed them to provide engaging musical performing opportunities regardless of their location which lacked a professional resident symphony orchestra. Their program archive thus catalogs not only student and faculty performances, but also guest performances, whereas the program archives of Leipzig and NEC

127 catalog primarily student and faculty performances within the conservatories, leaving other performances throughout the city (i.e., Leipzig Gewandhaus or Boston Symphony) to those city and institutional archives.

In order to delve deeper into the pedagogy of the three institutions, I spent time in the archives of the three respective institutions, gathering and studying concert programs and logging them into a database to discover trends and popularity among various composers who were programmed frequently at the institutions. By studying the works their students and faculty were performing, as well as works by guest performers, it is possible to glean information about what composers were being taught and promoted the most at each institution. One can gain insight into the pedagogical and programmatic practices at each school and the kinds of composers/compositions the faculty valued and wanted to share with their students.

The sample size for this study varied according to the conservatory, its size and growth, and the programs collected in their archives. For the Leipzig Conservatory, I chose to focus primarily on the Hauptprüfungen and official Conservatory programs that bore the name of the

Conservatory in the program title. I did not catalog the numerous weekly handwritten programs classified as Abendunterhaltungen or the extra concert programs for the Gewandhaus and other institutions within Leipzig. The Leipzig program archives were separated according to type of program. Programs for the Oberlin Conservatory and New England Conservatory were not separated by student recitals vs. other conservatory recitals/concerts. With the American institutions I logged a combination of weekly recitals, end-of-semester recitals, guest and faculty recitals, and conservatory ensemble concerts. This allows for a comprehensive study of the sounds and types of music the students heard and studied. There were a few gaps in coverage at each institution: Leipzig’s program output diminished tremendously at the start of World War I in 1914, and the Oberlin archives have an unexplainable gap in coverage in 1904; NEC has no

128 programs to consult during the years 1901 to 1903, due to a move. Since no particular national catastrophe occurred in those years, it is assumed that those records were merely lost. Finally,

NEC had a few years with very large numbers of programs archived (i.e., 1884, 1885, 1888,

1889, and 1891), providing more data for those years. One might assume the archivist at that time was particularly dutiful. Table 6.6 summarizes the differences in the raw data used in the study, and Figures 6.1 to 6.3 show a visual representation of the number of programs logged for each conservatory.

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Figure 6.1: Number of Programs Archived per Year at the Leipzig Conservatory

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Table 6.6: Concert Program Archives Used in the Present Study

Leipzig Oberlin New England

Conservatory Conservatory Conservatory Program 1844 to 1918 1865 to 1918 1867 to 1918 collection dates primarily Hauptprüfungen combination of weekly combination of weekly with some student recitals, solo student recitals, solo Conservatory student recitals, student recitals, faculty Program type concerts faculty recitals, guest recitals, conservatory commemorating artist recitals, and ensemble recitals, and Mendelssohn and conservatory ensemble some guest artist other institutional recitals programs celebrations Number of archived 747 1912 2395 programs logged in total some years represented more than others (i.e., consistent grows consistently numerous programs from Gaps in throughout; tapers with conservatory 1884, 1885, 1888, 1889, coverage of around 1914; growth; gap in archive 1891), gap with no WWI in 1904 records between 1901 and 1902; part of 1903

After cataloguing the frequency of composers appearing on the 747 programs from the

Leipzig Conservatory, the 1912 programs from Oberlin Conservatory, and the 2395 programs from the New England Conservatory, I produced a list of most frequently performed composers at each of the conservatories. Table 6.7 displays these results below. It is notable that five of the top six composers programmed at each of the institutions are the same: Mendelssohn,

Beethoven, J. S. Bach, Schumann, and Chopin. This commonality is perhaps due to the popularity of these composers in both Europe and America, but it also reveals the conservative musical tastes that were encouraged at the Leipzig Conservatory. Four of these five composers were German, and three (Mendelssohn, Bach, and Schumann) lived and worked in Leipzig.

Mozart appears in the top five in only one list; he is no. 4 at the Leipzig Conservatory. Mozart in

131 turn ranks no. 19 at Oberlin and no. 7 at NEC. In place of Mozart in their top six, Franz Liszt ranks no. 3 in both Oberlin’s and NEC’s lists. Liszt appears in the Leipzig list as no. 14, just after

Spohr. Composers of the New German School such as Liszt and Wagner received less attention at Leipzig, whereas they were popular at the American conservatories due in part to the

American taste for impressive virtuosity. Such similarities among the musical institutions are fascinating, and yet their differences underline their cultural variety.

Table 6.7: Most Frequently Programmed Composers and Number of Performances289

Rank Leipzig Oberlin NEC 1 Mendelssohn 581 Chopin 1013 Chopin 1256 2 Beethoven 405 R. Schumann 683 Beethoven 1112 3 J. S. Bach 238 Liszt 655 Liszt 924 4 Mozart 224 Beethoven 626 Mendelssohn 827 5 R. Schumann 218 J. S. Bach 613 R. Schumann 712 6 Chopin 164 Mendelssohn 493 J. S. Bach 710 7 C. Reinecke 140 Schubert 452 Mozart 596

8 Brahms 138 MacDowell 449 Schubert 468 9 Moscheles 138 Grieg 405 Brahms 357 10 C. M. v. Weber 129 Brahms 388 Saint-Saëns 344 11 F. David 109 Saint-Saëns 350 Handel 333 12 Schubert 101 Wagner 350 Rubinstein 284 13 Spohr 96 Rubinstein 328 Grieg 254 14 Liszt 85 Tchaikovsky 258 Chadwick 243 15 J. Haydn 76 A. Guilmant 248 Gounod 242

It is also notable that Mendelssohn appears in the number one position of the Leipzig programming, whereas Chopin appears at the top of the Oberlin and NEC programming. While

289See Appendix C for a more comprehensive list of the most frequently programmed composers at the three institutions. 132

Chopin was quite popular during this time, this may be a consequence of the fact that there were numerous piano students at Oberlin and NEC, forming perhaps a greater percentage of the total student population than at Leipzig. On the Leipzig Conservatory rankings, three other Leipzig instructors appear in the top fifteen: Carl Reinecke, Ignaz Moscheles, and Ferdinand David. This supports a hypothesis that Leipzig faculty were accomplished composers who frequently used their own music to teach their students. The only faculty member featured on NEC’s top fifteen is George Chadwick, which is to be expected, since he taught at and later directed the

Conservatory for nearly half a century, from 1882 to 1930. Chadwick’s presence on the New

England Conservatory list also represents a strong lineage of American composers supported at

NEC. On the other hand, Oberlin programmed Edward MacDowell quite frequently, gaining him a rank of no. 8 on the Oberlin list.

Studying the nationality of these composers reveals that Leipzig’s top-fifteen composer list only features two non-German composers: Chopin and Liszt. This is no surprise, as one of the goals in establishing the Leipzig Conservatory was to provide a national conservatory in

Germany that could support education in German music. The Oberlin and NEC lists are much more diverse in nationality. Each list from the American institutions represents one American composer (MacDowell and Chadwick, respectively), Chopin (Polish), Liszt (Hungarian), Grieg

(Norwegian composer and graduate of the Leipzig Conservatory), and Anton Rubinstein

(American-Polish). On Oberlin’s list, Tchaikovsky (Russian) assumes rank no. 14, and French composers appear on both lists (Camille Saint-Saëns on both; Alexandre Guilmant on Oberlin’s and Charles Gounod on NEC’s). While Oberlin and NEC do show a veneration for the same composers Leipzig valued, their top-fifteen lists include only seven and eight German composers, respectively. This reveals a definite connection to the Leipzig Conservatory but also an independent streak for each institution that reflected cultural differences and institutional

133 preferences. For example, the quantity of music written by American composers in the nineteenth century could not parallel the national music available at any of the European conservatories, which could explain the more diverse programming choices at the American conservatories. Furthermore, Americans were more interested in embracing European high art culture generally rather than one specific nation’s music culture. Nevertheless, throughout the nineteenth century, German-speaking composers held a venerated position in the minds of

American music lovers.

Figures 6.4 to 6.6 show a visual comparison over time of the six composers who were most frequently performed at each of the institutions. Mendelssohn’s frequency in programming rose to the top in the founding years of both Oberlin and NEC. Other composers began to rival his popularity in the late 1870s and early 1880s, but the appearance of his works never fell away completely at either institution. At the Leipzig Conservatory, Mendelssohn programming remained very strong, even into the late 1890s. Students and faculty were keenly aware of

Mendelssohn’s founding influence, and they were quick to program and value his music.

Mendelssohn’s frequency on programs may also be due to the fact that the Leipzig Conservatory commemorated their founder’s life and music every year in a program given on the anniversary of his death, 4 November, titled “Zum Gedächtniss Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdys.” Based on the program archives, this began in 1865 and continued until 1897, perpetuating the memory of

Mendelssohn their founder and keeping his music on their minds.

Even after Mendelssohn’s death, the Leipzig Conservatory faculty that Mendelssohn had recruited remained faithful to his vision, and for decades they continued to honor his legacy through their teaching. Many of these faculty members held true to Mendelssohn’s veneration of past masters such as J. S. Bach and Mozart, reflecting an aesthetic preference that respected the master composers of the past. When Oberlin and New England faculty and students performed

134 works by faculty members from the Leipzig Conservatory, they were reinforcing the styles and teaching from that institution.

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Bach Beethoven Chopin Mendelssohn Mozart Schumann

Figure 6.4: Top 6 Most Frequently Performed Composers at Leipzig

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Figure 6.5: Top 6 Most Frequently Performed Composers at Oberlin

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Figure 6.6: Top 6 Most Frequently Performed Composers at NEC

Many of the Leipzig faculty members were also composers, and their works are also featured regularly on Leipzig Conservatory programs. Figures 6.7 to 6.9 focus on the most frequently performed Leipzig faculty composers at these three institutions. Other Leipzig faculty, such as Niels Gade, Moritz Hauptmann, Ferdinand Hiller, and Louis Maas, were also found in the programs of all three institutions, but not to the same degree as Ferdinand David, Felix

Mendelssohn, Ignaz Moscheles, Carl Reinecke, and Robert Schumann. Mendelssohn’s initial popularity is apparent at all three institutions, with Schumann’s repertoire taking the lead in the late nineteenth century at both Oberlin and NEC. Repertoire frequency for David, Moscheles, and Reinecke rarely rivals that of Mendelssohn and Schumann at the American institutions, but

Moscheles was programmed frequently in the early years at Leipzig, and Reinecke near the turn of the century. David, Moscheles, and Reinecke did not enjoy the same frequency in the America conservatories as did Mendelssohn and Schumann. Figure 6.7 shows that performances of works by Mendelssohn and Schumann rose sharply after their respective deaths.

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Figure 6.7: Leipzig Conservatory Faculty Programmed at the Leipzig Conservatory

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Figure 6.8: Leipzig Faculty Programmed at Oberlin Conservatory

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David Mendelssohn Moscheles Reinecke Schumann

Figure 6.9: Leipzig Faculty Programmed at New England Conservatory

The Leipzig Conservatory was particularly known for its conservative programming, especially in its first several decades. In response to the abundant programming of Conservatory faculty compositions, Iain Quinn posits, “In the case of Leipzig though, the death of

Mendelssohn appears to have consciously or unconsciously created a museum culture, alongside a climate of self-promotion among the faculty.”290 Furthermore, Margaret Menninger observed that in the 1850s and 1860s, the Gewandhaus Orchestra also “gained a reputation for musical conservatism and a stubborn allegiance to the works of the early nineteenth century.”291 Many faculty members of the Leipzig Conservatory were also members and supporters of the

Gewandhaus Orchestra.

290Iain Quinn, The Genesis and Development of an English Organ Sonata (London and New York: Routledge, 2017), 74. 291Margaret Eleanor Menninger, “The Serious Matter of True Joy: Music and Cultural Philanthropy in Leipzig, 1781–1933,” in Philanthropy, Patronage, and Civil Society: Experiences from Germany, Great Britain, and North America, edited by Thomas Adam, 120–37 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 126–27. 138

Both Oberlin and New England faculty esteemed Leipzig Conservatory faculty highly in the compositions they gave their students to study and in the pieces they performed. These

Leipzig professors taught many of the Oberlin and NEC faculty, and the American instructors passed down a pedagogical tradition by teaching their students these works. This situation begs the question whether Oberlin and New England programming featured their own faculty’s compositions. A comparison of Oberlin faculty to the composers programmed in their programs reveals a sparse selection of Oberlin faculty members and their compositions featured in Oberlin programs. George Andrews, organ professor at Oberlin from 1882 to 1931 (composition professor from 1892), is the only notable Oberlin faculty member to have his compositions featured regularly in Oberlin programs (see Figure 6.10 below). This is largely because Oberlin faculty members were more performers than composers. Even if some of them did experiment with composition, they were more comfortable championing the works of past and contemporary composers.

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Figure 6.10: Oberlin Faculty (George Andrews) Programmed at Oberlin Conservatory

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On the other hand, several of the New England Conservatory faculty were well-versed in composition, and NEC programs frequently featured the works of faculty composers as well as the great masterworks. NEC composers such as George Chadwick, Charles Dennée, Henry M.

Dunham, Louis Maas, James C. D. Parker, Frank A. Porter, Augusto Rotoli, A. D. Turner, and

George E. Whiting were among the most frequently performed faculty composers at the

Conservatory, as shown in Figure 6.11. The majority of these NEC composers were pianists and organists, but Augusto Rotoli was a vocal professor at NEC, and Chadwick wrote for a number of genres, including mixed ensembles and orchestra. As Director of the New England

Conservatory from 1897 to 1931, Chadwick’s prominence at the institution is shown though the multiple performances of his works that were given there. He also directed and conducted the

Conservatory Orchestra for a significant portion of his tenure, allowing him to influence the concert programming of symphony concerts and perhaps other performing aspects of the

Conservatory. This explains the great increase in Chadwick programming during his years as

Director. Having a composer as the Director of the Conservatory most likely encouraged other members of the institution to celebrate and promote composition within the Conservatory as well.

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Chadwick Dennée Dunham Maas Parker, J.C.D. Porter Rotoli Turner Whiting

Figure 6.11: NEC Faculty Programmed at NEC

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Earlier a comparison of the three institutions and their top fifteen composers listings revealed that both Oberlin and NEC featured two French composers in their lists. Saint-Saëns was shared as a beloved French composer at both institutions, and Alexandre Guilmant was listed as No. 15 at Oberlin and Charles Gounod as no. 15 at NEC. American musicians in the nineteenth century had both respect and curiosity for French music, and they were particularly drawn to French organ music. Figures 6.12 and 6.13 show a comparison in the popularity of

French composers programmed in Oberlin and NEC programs. Saint-Saens’s music was a favorite at both institutions in the early twentieth century. The general rise in French music in twentieth-century Oberlin and NEC programs can also be explained by the increasing political tension between the United States and Germany with the approach of World War I. Given mounting tensions between the two nations German music was often omitted or excised from

American programs, and German composers were shunned and treated poorly in many instances.292 While German compositions were still featured at both American institutions during the early twentieth century, American exploration of French music grew during this period, as well.

The majority of the pedagogical exchange in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries consisted of a one-way transfer, from the Leipzig Conservatory to the American institutions. As a result, it was a rarity to find American composers featured on Leipzig programs, but rather, the opposite was often true. Even with a palpable German influence,

American musicians did celebrate American composers. Just as the Leipzig Conservatory was originally formed with the goal of showcasing German music and composers, American

292For more descriptions of the treatment of German composers and music in American during World War I, see Lucy Claire Church, “Music, Morality, and the Great War: How World War I Molded American Musical Ethics” (Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 2015), Edmund A. Bowles, “Karl Muck and His Compatriots: German Conductors in America during World War I (And How They Coped),” American Music 25, no. 4 (Winter 2007): 405–40, and Tolzmann, The German-American Experience (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2000). 141

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Debussy Fauré Franck Godard Gounod Guilmant Massenet Saint Saëns Widor

Figure 6.12: French Composers Programmed at Oberlin

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Figure 6.13: French Composers Programmed at NEC

conservatories such as Oberlin and NEC sought to establish comprehensive centers of higher learning in music by introducing Europeans masters, but they also gave a voice to American musicians and composers. Oberlin and NEC programs thus contained American compositions

142 frequently, with American composers featured increasingly in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (as shown in Figures 6.14 and 6.15).

Other American composers also found a place in the history of these American institutions, as well. For example, Dudley Buck enjoyed a long success as a frequently programmed American composer at both schools for two decades, from the early 1870s to the early 1890s. Amy Beach, Arthur Foote, and Horatio Parker also claimed program space in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Even though they are programmed less frequently than Chadwick and MacDowell in the figures below, they had substantial programming and recognition at these American schools as representatives and pioneers of American music.

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Beach Buck, Dudley Chadwick Foote Gottschalk MacDowell Parker, H.W.

Figure 6.14: American Composers Programmed at Oberlin

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Beach Buck, Dudley Chadwick Foote MacDowell Parker, H.W.

Figure 6.15: American Composers Programmed at NEC

Having examined several graphs that represent each institution, it is possible to compare

Mendelssohn’s popularity at all three institutions in Figure 6.16. Mendelssohn was continually revered and performed at his own Conservatory, decades after his death, but it is noteworthy that he was equally loved at Oberlin and NEC where both institutions consciously modeled themselves on the Leipzig Conservatory, particularly in their early years. Administrators and instructors at both Oberlin and NEC made no secret of their veneration of the philosophies and pedagogical practices associated with the Leipzig Conservatory. American students and faculty at Oberlin and NEC were aware of the roots of their respective institutions, and Mendelssohn’s music maintained a prominent role at both of these schools due in part to Mendelssohn’s general popularity in the United States but also to the deep admiration the early American music professors held for Mendelssohn. Much of this respect stemmed from their own years as Leipzig

Conservatory students who had caught the fervor for advanced musical study and returned to the

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United States with a desire to emulate and honor the precepts and spirit of the Leipzig

Conservatory. Felix Mendelssohn and his music were truly a large part of the spirit of the

Leipzig Conservatory, evidenced through its history, philosophies, and concert programming in the first several decades of the Conservatory’s existence. A decline in Mendelssohn programming occurs at the Leipzig Conservatory in the twentieth century. This could be attributable to the greater time elapsed from its foundation (and founder), the anti-Semitism in

Europe that impacted German performances of Mendelssohn’s works, and/or competition from other composers. In contrast, Mendelssohn programming at the American conservatories seemed to thrive during the years of World War I.

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Figure 6.16: Frequency of Mendelssohn Programmed at Leipzig, Oberlin, and NEC

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Other American Conservatories and Music Schools

Oberlin and New England Conservatories are exemplary institutions for the concentrated influence the Leipzig Conservatory exerted in early and even later years. Many other institutions were also created and influenced by students who studied at the Leipzig Conservatory. Table 6.8 lists those where Leipzig students later held positions of leadership. The chart covers fifty-five different institutions that were impacted by students specifically from the Leipzig Conservatory, from founders, to directors, to faculty members and instructors.

While some of the institutions featured below no longer exist, others continue to thrive.

Notable institutions featured below that are still active today include Boston Conservatory,

Cincinnati Conservatory, Cleveland Institute (then Conservatory) of Music, Eastman School of

Music, Peabody Conservatory, and the University of Michigan. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries boasted of numerous Leipzig Conservatory graduates filling faculty positions within the musical education scene in America. A glance at the location of these conservatories and schools of music reveals that these Leipzig graduates were not restricted to New England

(Boston) and Ohio (Cincinnati, Cleveland, Oberlin). Rather, Leipzig students founded and taught at music schools and conservatories in California, Oregon, Colorado, Minnesota, Wisconsin,

Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and New York. They had the potential to influence music pedagogy and practices from the east coast to the west coast. Even three teachers at southern institutions are recorded: Constantin Sternberg at the College of Music in Atlanta,

Georgia, Theodor Luther Krebs at the Noble Institute in Anniston, Alabama, and Smith Newell

Penfield at the Savannah Conservatory of Music in Savannah, Georgia.

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Table 6.8: American Institutes of Advanced Learning Impacted by Leipzig Conservatory Students293 Institution City Leipzig Student Role of Leipzig Student Head of Theory Department, 1891; Director, American Conservatory Chicago, Illinois Frederick Grant Gleason 1900–03 American Institute of Applied Music New York Henry Schradieck Professor of Music, 1912– Arion Conservatory of Music Brooklyn, New York Smith Newell Penfield founder, 1882 Boston Conservatory Boston, Massachusetts James Madison Tracy Professor of Music, 1867–88 Brooklyn Conservatory Brooklyn, New York Max Spicker Professor of Theory, 1895; Director, 1888–95 Chicago Academy of Music Chicago, Illinois Florenz Ziegfeld founder, 1867 (Chicago Musical Academy) Chicago College of Vocal and Chicago, Illinois Albert Eduard Ruff founder, 1883 Instrumental Art Chicago Conservatory Chicago, Illinois Calvin Brainerd Cady Professor of Music, 1888–94 Chicago Conservatory of Music Chicago, Illinois Albert Eduard Ruff founder, 1885 Chicago Musical College Chicago, Illinois Louis Falk Professor of Music, 1877–1925 Cincinnati College of Music Cincinnati, Ohio Bushrod Walton Foley Chairman of Choral Department Cincinnati College of Music Cincinnati, Ohio Henry Schradieck Professor of Music, 1883–89 Cincinnati Conservatory Cincinnati, Ohio Frederick Shailer Evans Professor of Music Cincinnati Conservatory Cincinnati, Ohio Henry Otto Singer Professor of Music, late 19th century Cleveland Conservatory of Music Cleveland, Ohio Frank Bassett piano and theory instructor, 1881 College of Music in Atlanta Atlanta, Georgia Constantin Sternberg director, 1885–89 Columbia University Teachers New York Calvin Brainerd Cady Professor of Music, 1907–10 College Eastman School of Music Rochester, New York Christian August Sinding Professor of Music, 1921 Fort Wayne Conservatory of Music Fort Wayne, Indiana Adolph Martin Förster Professor of Music, 1875 Pittsburgh, Geneva College Adolph Martin Förster Professor of Music Pennsylvania German Conservatory of Music New York Julius Lorenz Professor of Music Hamline University St. Paul, Minnesota Farwell Wilder Merriam music director Hartford Conservatory of Music Hartford, Connecticut George W. Steele

293Names in blue reflect German immigrants who settled in America. 147

Table 6.8—continued Institution City Leipzig Student Role of Leipzig Student Hershey School of Music Chicago, Illinois Frederick Grant Gleason Professor of Music, c1877 Illinois Conservatory of Music Jacksonville, Illinois David Morris Levett Director of Piano Department, 1878 Institute of Musical Art New York Calvin Brainerd Cady Professor of Music, 1908–13 Lehmann Violin School New York George Lehmann Director, 1916 Benjamin Coleman Leland Stanford University Stanford, California Organist and Choir Director, 1904 Blodgett Liszt School of Music Denver, Colorado James Madison Tracy founder, 1910 Metropolitan Conservatory of Music New York Albert Ross Parsons Professor of Music, 1886– Milwaukee College for Women Milwaukee, Wisconsin John Comfort Fillmore Professor of Music, 1878–84 Milwaukee Music School Milwaukee, Wisconsin John Comfort Fillmore founder and director, 1884–95 Musical College Ziegfeld Chicago, Illinois Florenz Ziegfeld founder, 1867 Music-Education School Portland, Oregon Calvin Brainerd Cady founder, 1913 National Conservatory of Music New York Rafael Joseffy Head of Piano department, 1888–1906 (Jeannette Thurber) National Conservatory of Music New York Anton Siedl Professor of Music (Jeannette Thurber) New Brunswick, New New Brunswick Conservatory David Morris Levett Professor of Music, 1876 Jersey Professor of Music (harmony and composition), New York Conservatory New York Otis Bardwell Boise 1870–76 New York Conservatory New York John P. Morgan Professor of Music, 1866–73 Noble Institute Anniston, Alabama Theodor Luther Krebs Professor of Music, 1886 Oakland Conservatory of Music Oakland, California John P. Morgan founder, 1873 Olivet Conservatory Olivet, Michigan George H. Howard Professor of Music Professor of Music (theory and composition), Peabody Conservatory Baltimore, Maryland Otis Bardwell Boise 1901–12 Peabody Conservatory of Music Baltimore, Maryland Fritz Fincke Professor of Music (voice and choral conducting) Pennsylvania Female College (now Pittsburgh, Adolph Martin Förster Professor of Music Chatham College) Pennsylvania Petersilea Academy of Music, Boston, Massachusetts Carlye Petersilea founder, 1871 Elocution and Languages 148

Table 6.8—continued Institution City Leipzig Student Role of Leipzig Student Philadelphia, Philadelphia Music Academy Rudolph Hennig co-founder, 1869 Pennsylvania Pittsfield, Benjamin Coleman Pittsfield Music School founder, 1870 Massachusetts Blodgett Pomona College Claremont, California John Comfort Fillmore Professor of Music, 1895–98 Ripon College Wisconsin John Comfort Fillmore Professor of Music, 1868–78 San Jose Conservatory San Jose, California John Haraden Pratt Professor of Music, 1881 Savannah Conservatory of Music Savannah, Georgia Smith Newell Penfield founder, 1890 Smead School Toledo, Ohio Arthur Kortheuer Professor of Music, 1884 Northhampton, Benjamin Coleman Smith College School of Music Professor of Music, 1878–1903 Massachusetts Blodgett Philadelphia, South Broad Street Conservatory Henry Schradieck Professor of Music, 1899–1912 Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Sternberg School of Music Constantin Sternberg founder and director, until 1924 Pennsylvania The Hotchkiss School Lakeville, Connecticut Friedrich W. Riesberg piano instructor The New York College of Music New York David Morris Levett piano instructor University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Calvin Brainerd Cady Professor of Music, 1880–88 University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Albert Augustus Stanley Professor of Music University of New York New York Smith Newell Penfield Music director, 1885 professor and director of music department, Wellesley College Boston, Massachusetts Junius Welch Hill 1884–97 Nellie Morten Taylor Wells College Aurora, New York piano instructor, 1879–82 [Dannreuther]

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The reach of these Leipzig graduates was significant in the early years of American conservatories. Music instruction, akin to other craftsman disciplines, is often based on passing down one’s experiences and knowledge gleaned from prior teachers, and it is clear that

American students of the Leipzig Conservatory who returned to America to establish their own schools carried with them the basic values and precepts they gained at the Leipzig Conservatory.

These included the idea of educating the complete musician, specific theoretic and compositional principles, as well as certain tastes for music as shown in the programming charts and studies above. American students attending any of the American conservatories listed below, like the students at NEC and Oberlin, were following in the lineage of Leipzig Conservatory pedagogy, whether they traveled to Germany for their education or not. Numerous Leipzig graduates brought Leipzig Conservatory pedagogy to American music schools, and American music instructors sought to teach a style of music education that blended their German heritage and their American identity, greatly influencing the history of American music pedagogy and

American institutions of advanced learning.

Lasting Pedagogical Impacts in the United States

The Leipzig Conservatory had a long-lasting effect on German music pedagogy but perhaps an even more sustained impact across the Atlantic. The conservatories at Oberlin and

New England are two early American institutions that were founded upon pedagogical practices in place at the Leipzig Conservatory. It is significant that these American institutions were not simply started by a mere catalyst, but rather there was a continual pattern of Leipzig students serving in positions of leadership at both institutions; their students also traveled to Germany to experience the source of this admired instruction. In addition to the adaptation of theoretical literature, class-style instruction, and other facets of pedagogy at the Leipzig Conservatory, a

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“conservative” taste for Germanic tonal repertoire was also conveyed. With both institutions, this relationship lasted for decades, leading these conservatories into the twentieth century. Other

Leipzig graduates took positions and founded other conservatories and schools of music in

America, disseminating the influence of Leipzig Conservatory practices.

While Oberlin and NEC developed into distinctive institutions, eventually reflecting indigenous American influences and distinct features based on the respective communities that they served, their foundations on Leipzig Conservatory teaching principles were especially important to the development of American advanced musical education, as some of the first conservatories on American soil. Likewise, as Oberlin and NEC drew extensively from Leipzig, numerous other institutions throughout the United States experienced the impact of Leipzig

Conservatory pedagogy, which was imprinted in the foundation of the nation’s approach to musical education of the most professional kind.

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CHAPTER 7

IMPACT OF THE LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY GRADUATES IN AMERICAN MUSICAL LIFE

The numerous American students who studied at the Leipzig Conservatory had a significant cumulative impact on advanced music education and conservatories in late nineteenth-century America. But their contributions to American musical life extended to other aspects of the nation’s musical life as well, including performance, composition, and other music careers, such as music journalism. While many of these performers, composers, and writers were also well-established teachers, instructors, and professors of music and involved in the music education scene in some way, a number specialized primarily in other careers. Several of these musicians were born in America and returned to their home after studying at the Leipzig

Conservatory to share the pedagogy and musical principles they learned abroad, deepening and enriching musical culture in the United States for those who could not travel. Some American musicians who had leading roles in shaping the musical culture were not American by birth, and they immigrated just before or after their years of study at the Conservatory.294 This chapter discusses some representative Leipzig Conservatory students who shaped American musical life through their performances, compositions, foundations, and writing.

American Students from the Leipzig Conservatory: Performers

Nineteenth-century Americans were eager to attend concerts by visiting musicians as well as performers who had returned from studying abroad, and many Leipzig Conservatory graduates shaped American musical life by giving performances to share their musical talents

294See Appendix D for tables that list numerous Leipzig students, both American and non-American, who served as pioneer members in early American symphony orchestras, thus impacting orchestral life in the United States. 152 and training. Table 7.1 provides brief information about several Americans who became prominent performers in America after their musical studies at the Leipzig Conservatory.

Individuals are listed alphabetically in the chart for ease of reference, although are they discussed chronologically according to the years they spent at the Leipzig Conservatory.

James Cutler Dunn Parker (1828–1916)

James C. D. Parker’s position as Professor of Music at the New England Conservatory

(1871–97) gave him considerable presence in the world of organ studies, but his performances in

Boston and elsewhere were equally influential. Having studied at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1851 and 1853, Parker subsequently settled in Boston and founded the Parker Club in

1862 with the aim of presenting the works of Mendelssohn and Schumann. He also served as organist for the Handel and Haydn Society and played the organ frequently in the Harvard

Symphonic Concerts.295 The Handel and Haydn Society had been founded in 1815, with its main purpose to educate the public and present performances of sacred music by both old and new composers, particularly Handel and Haydn, but also other composers of sacred music.296 Parker wrote his St. John cantata for the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Handel and Haydn Society and performed it with the Society as organist. During part of the time that he was teaching at NEC, he served as the organist for Trinity Church (1864–91).297 Parker’s performance engagements and compositional output reflected the conservative and traditional tastes taught at Leipzig

Conservatory in those years.

295Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 183. 296Courtenay Guild, History of the Handel and Haydn Society (founded A. D. 1815), vol. 2, no. 3 (Boston: Alfred Mudge and Son, 1893), 83. 297Robert Stevenson, "Parker, J(ames) C(utler) D(unn)," Grove Music Online. 153

Table 7.1: American Students Who Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory and Later Became American Performers

Years at Performer Profession Affiliations Notable Accomplishments Leipzig Allen, Heman Aloysius 1861–62 violinist, University of Organized volunteer choir at the Cathedral of the (1836–1893) pianist Pennsylvania; Holy Name, reintroducing Gregorian and Chicago Caecillian music; played in transcontinental concert tour under Theodore Thomas; Member of Chicago Quintette Club Arnold, Richard 1864–67 violinist New York concertmaster of the New York Philharmonic (1845–1918) Philharmonic Society (1885–1909); worked closely with Gustav Society Mahler Blumenschein, William 1869–72 conductor, Conservatory of Principal of Conservatory of Music at Dayton, Leonard organist Music at Dayton, Ohio; directed several German singing societies in (1849–1916) Ohio Ohio; President of the Ohio Music Teacher’s Association (1888) Ehrgott, Louis 1879–82 pianist, Cincinnati Conductor of Harugari Männerchor (1885), (1858–1938) conductor Corryville Gesangverein (1886), Musikverein (1887); accompanist for the Apollo Club Epstein, Marcus Isaac 1872–74 pianist St. Louis Known for piano duets with brother Abraham I.; (1855–1915) impresario with brother to bring popular operas to St. Louis; composed piano music Falk, Louis Anton 1867–69 organist Chicago Music Organist at Dr. Collyer’s Unity Church (1862); Rudolph Fridolin College original member of Chicago Music College (1848–1925) faculty; popularized organ concerts in the West Fleissner, Otto Carl 1877–78 organist San Francisco Organist at First Presbyterian Church William (1858–1944) Heyman, Henry 1870–76 violinist Oakland College Founder of the Philharmonic Society Orchestra (1850–1924) (i.e., University of (est. 1881); founded Henry Heyman String California at Quartet; recipient of Saint-Saens Elegie, op. 143 Berkeley) dedication; knighted to the Royal Order of the Star of Oceania by King Kalakaua of Hawaii

154

Table 7.1—continued Years at Performer Profession Affiliations Notable Accomplishments Leipzig Laer, Charles Eugen van 1873–76 organist Rochester; Unitarian Leading teacher of piano and organ in Rochester (1854–1919) Church upon his return to America; composer Parker, James Cutler 1851–53 organist Handel and Haydn Professor at NEC; founded Parker Club for Dunn (1828–1916) Society; Harvard presentation of Mendelssohn and Schumann works Symphonic Concerts (1862); organist for Handel and Haydn Society; organist for Harvard Symphonic Concerts Perabo, Julius Ernst 1862–65; pianist Boston Known for Beethoven concerts and Schubert solo (1845–1920) 1878–79 recitals; piano teacher of Amy Beach; wrote several piano pieces and transcriptions Powell, Maud 1881–82 violinist Most famous American violinist at the time; (1867–1920) challenged gender ideas about classical performers; pioneered outreach concerts to rural communities; premiered many works by American composers; first instrumental soloist for the Victor wax cylinder (Red Seal label) Schellschmidt, Alfred 1877–80 violinist Indianapolis Concertmaster in string orchestra in New York and Herbert (1863–1883) Italian Opera (1880) Schnecker, Peter August 1874–75 organist West Presbyterian Organist at West Presbyterian Church and St. (1850–1903) Church; St. Thomas Thomas Church; composed several hymns, Church (NY) (1879) including “My Faith Looks Up to Thee” Wild, Harrison M. 1878–79 organist, The American Concert organist who taught at the American (1861–1929) pianist Conservatory Conservatory (Chicago) Wollenhaupt, Bruno 1851–54 violinist New York Gave several performances in Leipzig and Emil (1833–1903) received mention in a Neue Zeitschrift für Musik article (40/1, Jan. 1, 1954, 8–9) Zech, August Friedrich 1876–80 conductor San Francisco Music director of the Arion Singing Society and (1857–1891) numerous other German singing societies in San Francisco

155

Bruno Emil Wollenhaupt (1833–1903)

Bruno Wollenhaupt studied at the Leipzig Conservatory during the same years as Parker

(1851–54) and settled in New York upon returning from his studies abroad. Wollenhaupt was a popular private violin teacher, teaching about fifty violin students, even into his late seventies.298

Wollenhaupt gave several violin performances in Leipzig and even received mention in a Neue

Zeitschrift für Musik article in 1854 regarding his performance of second and third movements of the Vieuxtemps Concert No. 2.299 In addition to his performing and teaching engagements,

Wollenhaupt was a music critic for the Ditson Company. His 1903 obituary in the New York

Times reports the sad story that Wollenhaupt was found dead in his apartment, with his violin in his hands. The police concluded that he died alone at about 80 years of age while practicing, killed by an unknown gas leak in his New York apartment.300

Heman Aloysius Allen (1836–1893)

Heman A. Allen was a violinist and pianist who studied at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1861 and 1862. As a violinist he played in a transcontinental concert tour under the direction of Theodore Thomas. He was recognized for organizing a choir at Chicago’s Cathedral of the Holy Name in 1871 with the goal of reintroducing listeners there to Gregorian and

Caecilian music.301 He was also a member of the Chicago Quintette Club, a chamber music organization.302 Allen’s bent toward sacred music and historical music performance distinguished him as a music pioneer in America in the late nineteenth century. The idea of

298“Died Playing the Violin. Aged Music Writer Overcome by Gas During Lonely Solo,” New York Times (July 21, 1903), 9, https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-jul-21-1903-p-9/ (accessed September 8, 2018). 299“Kleine Zeitung,” Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, vol. 40, no. 1 (January 1, 1854), 8. 300“Died Playing the Violin,” New York Times. 301W. S. B. Matthews, ed., A Hundred Years of Music in America: An Account of Musical Effort in America (Chicago: G. L. Howe, 1889), 300–02. 302Florence Ffrench, Music and Musicians in Chicago: The City’s Leading Artists, Organizations, and Art Buildings (Chicago: Florence Ffrench, 1899), 24. 156 learning from historic compositional processes and genres was a characteristic interest of the

Leipzig Conservatory as well.

Julius Ernst Perabo (1845–1920)

Although German-born, Julius Perabo immigrated to the United States as a boy in 1852 and returned to Germany to attend the Leipzig Conservatory twice, from 1862 to 1865 and again from 1878 to 1879. At the time of his first entrance into the Conservatory Perabo was listed as coming from Chicago; on his second entry Perabo’s place of residence was given as Boston, confirming that he settled in Boston after his first studies. Perabo was a concert pianist who performed frequently in Boston. Some argue that he was best known for his Beethoven concerts,303 while others emphasize the importance of his solo Schubert recitals.304 He became an influential piano teacher in Boston where his most famous piano student was Amy Beach. In addition, Perabo arranged many piano pieces and wrote some of his own, including several short piano works, two concert fantasies of Beethoven’s Fidelio, opp. 16 and 17, and several transcriptions including, Schubert’s “Unfinished Symphony,” and Rubinstein’s “Ocean

Symphony.”305 Beethoven, Schubert, and Rubinstein were important composers for study at the

Leipzig Conservatory and featured prominently on the programs there (see Chapter 6). Perabo had a tremendous impact on Boston musical life.

303Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 185. 304Joseph Rezits, "Perabo, (Johann) Ernst," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000021279 (accessed August 20, 2018). 305Rezits, "Perabo, (Johann) Ernst," Grove Music Online. 157

Richard Arnold (1845–1918)

Born in Eilenberg, Germany, Richard Arnold immigrated to the United States at a young age. He entered the Leipzig Conservatory when nineteen and was a violin student of Ferdinand

David from 1864 to 1867. When he returned to the United States, Arnold was appointed as a first violinist in the Theodore Thomas Orchestra. In 1876 he became a member of the New York

Philharmonic Society and was appointed concertmaster in 1885; he continued leading the orchestra through 1909. He also directed the Society (President, 1879–95; Vice President, 1895–

1918) and was instrumental in Gustav Mahler’s appointment as the music director of the New

York Philharmonic in 1909, as Arnold was the primary correspondent with the revered composer and conductor.306

Louis Anton Rudolph Fridolin Falk (1848–1925)

Louis Falk was also born in Germany but immigrated to the United States when he was two years old. His family settled in Chicago, but he went back to Europe to study at the Leipzig

Conservatory from 1867 to 1869. Following his studies, Falk became the organist at Dr.

Collyer’s Unity Church in Chicago (1869). He was also an original member of the Chicago

Music College faculty. Falk made his greatest impact on American musical life through his commitment to giving organ performances and popularizing the idea of solo organ concerts in

Chicago.307 This platform gave Falk an opportunity to introduce the American public to the rich literature of organ concert music. At the Dedication Concert of the Farrar Memorial Organ for the Chicago Seminary in 1901, Falk played his own memorial fantasia, featuring the favorite

306“Richard Arnold,” The New York Philharmonic, https://nyphil.org/history/online- exhibits/~/media/pdfs/archives/PastConcertmastersbios.pdf (accessed November 4, 2018). 307Matthews, A Hundred Years of Music in America, 258, 260. 158 three hymns of Mr. Arthur Farrar. Later in the same Dedicatory Concert, Falk performed works by Mendelssohn, Handel, Avensky, Hofman, Liszt, Borowski, and Eugene Thayer.308

William Leonard Blumenschein (1849–1916)

Born in Germany and having immigrated to the United States at a very young age,

Blumenschein studied at the Leipzig Conservatory from 1869 to 1872. Upon returning to

America, Blumenschein contributed to the music culture in Dayton, Ohio, becoming the organist at Third Presbyterian Church (1878) and the conductor of the Dayton Philharmonic Society

(1878–1907). The Dayton Philharmonic Society was a group of 100 musicians whose performances focused on works by Handel, Haydn, Mendelssohn, and others. Blumenschein also composed sacred works and many pieces for piano.309 His conducting career and music leadership went beyond Dayton, as he also conducted the choir at the Cincinnati Festival (1891–

96),310 directed the Portsmouth Ohio Harmonic Society, and conducted multiple Ohio

Sängerfests (1882, 1884). He also served as President of the Ohio Music Teachers Association

(1888).311 Throughout his conducting career, Blumenschein championed a number of the composers (i.e., Handel, Haydn, and Mendelssohn) most valued at the Leipzig Conservatory. He therefore fostered the love for German composers among the American public.

308“Farrar Memorial Organ: Service of Dedication and Opening Concert (May 6, 1901),” The Chicago Seminary Quarterly, 1, no. 2 (July 1901): 31–34. Based on the spelling of “Hofman” in the program, it is not certain whether this is Heinrich Hofmann or another composer with a derivative of Hofman, Hoffmann, or Hofmann. The piece was a Barcarolle played as an organ solo. 309William Osborne, "Blumenschein, W(illiam) L(eonard)," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-1002087236 (accessed August 20, 2018). 310Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 130. 311Matthews, A Hundred Years of Music in America, 258, 260. 159

Henry Heyman (1850–1924)

A student of Ferdinand David at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1870 and 1876 and a recipient of the Conservatory’s Mendelssohn Scholarship, Henry Heyman had an eclectic and notable career as a violinist. While still in Germany, he served as the quartet leader and solo violinist to the Duchess of Bernburg. He returned to the United States in 1877 and made San

Francisco his home. There he founded the Philharmonic Society Orchestra (est. 1881) and served as concertmaster. He also established the Henry Heyman String Quartet, which gave numerous performances in San Francisco. When Camille Saint Saëns visited California, the revered composer appreciated Heyman’s hospitality (May to July 1915) and later dedicated his Élégie, op. 143, to Heyman in gratitude. Heyman also served King Kalakaua as Royal Hawaiian Solo

Violinist for a brief period and was then knighted to the Royal Order of the Star of Oceania.312

Heyman’s varied musical career points to his brilliant musical talent as well as his winsome personality, which endeared him not only to Saint Saëns and the King of Hawaii but also to San

Francisco concertgoers.

Marcus Isaac Epstein (1855–1915)

Marcus I. Epstein studied at the Leipzig Conservatory from 1872 to 1874 and is most often associated with his brother Abraham I. Epstein in their musical endeavors together in St.

Louis. They presented many piano duet concerts and also acted as impresarios in order to bring popular operas to music lovers in St. Louis. Marcus also composed some minor works for piano.313

312“Sir Henry Heyman—Knighted Jewish Violinist of Pioneer San Francisco,” Jewish Museum of the American West, http://www.jmaw.org/heyman-jewish-violin-san-francisco/ (accessed September 8, 2018). 313Matthews, A Hundred Years of Music in America, 166. 160

Charles Eugen van Laer (1854–1919)

As organist of the Unitarian Church in Rochester, New York, Charles van Laer established himself not only as an acclaimed organist but also as a leading piano and organ teacher, when he returned from Leipzig. At the Leipzig Conservatory between 1873 and 1876 van Laer studied with Oscar Paul, Theodor Coccius, Johannes Weidenbach, E. F. Richter, Alfred

Richter, and Jadassohn.314 He also wrote both sacred and secular compositions published by

Schirmer. Upon returning to America in 1876, van Laer taught at the Granger Place School for young women (Canandaigua, New York). In 1882 he became a private piano and organ teacher in Rochester and held church music positions at several local churches. He also directed choral societies in Canandaigua. Van Laer was esteemed as a popular teacher, although he was not associated with a conservatory or university.315

Peter August Schnecker (1850–1903)

Peter Schnecker was a German-born organist who immigrated to the United States as a teenager in 1865, a little less than ten years before returning to Germany to study at the Leipzig

Conservatory between 1874 and 1875. Schnecker returned to New York following his studies and continued an active career in church music and playing the organ. Prior to his studies in

Leipzig, Schnecker had already held the position of music director and organist of West

Presbyterian Church in New York, and he continued to hold that position for over twenty-five years after his return to New York.316 He also served for a short period as the assistant organist

314Rochester and the Post Express: A History of the City of Rochester from the Earliest Times (Rochester: The Post Express Printing Company, 1895), 127–28. 315“C. E. Van Laer Dies after a Long Illness,” The Auburn Citizen (Monday, May 1, 1919). 316Helen Kendrick Johnson, et al., The World’s Best Music: Famous Songs and Those Who Made Them, vol. 2 (New York: The University Society, 1904), 388. 161 of the musically important St. Thomas Church in New York (1879).317 Schnecker composed piano music and church music. As a hymn composer he is often identified as “P. A. Schnecker.”

One of his most notable hymns is “My Faith Looks Up to Thee.” Serving as a church organist for the majority of his life, Schnecker also fostered and contributed to the American hymnody tradition.

August Friedrich Zech (1857–1891)

August Zech came from a musical family where his father was a piano maker who had made 494 instruments by 1867. After studying at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1876 and

1880, August established himself as a conductor in San Francisco. Zech was the music director of the Arion Singing Society and other German singing societies in San Francisco.318 He also conducted symphonic concerts in San Francisco and was known as a piano teacher for advanced students.319 As music director and conductor of German singing societies, Zech continued to promote musical traditions that originated in Germany.

Otto Carl William Fleissner (1858–1944)

Also a San Francisco musician, Otto Fleissner studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in

1877 and 1878, likely knew August Zech while in Leipzig, and became the organist of the First

Presbyterian Church upon his return to San Francisco. In 1901 Fleissner’s name appeared in the

San Francisco Call with the identification “organist of the First Presbyterian Church,” in relation to his being the victim of an armed masked robbery. While walking along the street together at 9

317“The Organists,” Saint Thomas Church, http://dev.saintthomaschurch.org/music/organists/past (accessed September 10, 2018). 318John A. Emerson and Robert Commanday, "Zech family," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000048025 (accessed September 8, 2018). 319Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 220. 162 pm one evening, Fleissner and a friend were ordered to give up their valuables at gun point but

Fleissner left his friend and ran out of sight from the robbers and reported the incident to the nearest police station. His report assisted the authorities in apprehending the robbers.320 While little criticism is reported in the same newspaper regarding Fleissner’s work as an organist, one can assume that he was successful at his post as church organist as well and stayed at First

Presbyterian Church for a large part of his life. He was still leading musical programs at First

Presbyterian in 1907.321

Alfred Herbert Schellschmidt (1863–1883)

Alfred Schellschmidt came from a musical family in Indianapolis. He had six siblings, who were all musical and who studied music in Europe as well, playing violin, cello, harp, and piano.322 Alfred was a violinist and studied at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1877 and 1880.

He earned excellent marks in his final examinations at Leipzig and later became the concertmaster of a string orchestra and an Italian Opera company in New York (1880).323 Since

Alfred died quite young, at 20 years old, little else is known about him; these accomplishments are remarkable in light of his short life.

Harrison M. Wild (1861–1929)

One of the leading organists in the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Harrison Wild studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1878 and 1879. In addition to his

320“Masked Robber Quickly Caught,” San Francisco Call 90, no. 156 (3 November 1901), 36. 321“Christmas Anthems and Sermons to be Heard in Churches Today,” San Francisco Call, vol. 103, no. 22 (22 December 1907), 26. 322Sharon Butch Freeland, “Historical Indianapolis Mailbag: Musical Families in Early Indianapolis,” Historic Indianapolis.com (9 December 2014), https://historicindianapolis.com/hi-mailbag-musical-families-in-early- indianapolis/ (accessed September 8, 2018) 323Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 197. 163 concertizing career, Wild taught piano and organ at the American Conservatory in Chicago.324

He was also musical director of the Apollo Club in Chicago (1898), the Mendelssohn Club in

Chicago (1902), and the Mendelssohn Club (Männerchor) in Rockford (1905).325 These singing societies reinforced the popularity of Mendelssohn in America as well as that of German singing societies. Having studied at Mendelssohn’s Leipzig Conservatory, Wild was thoroughly equipped to lead these choirs and singing groups in programming music that reflected conservative German musical tastes.

Louis Ehrgott (1858–1938)

Another conductor of multiple singing societies, Louis Ehrgott impacted the Cincinnati region after his time as a Leipzig student between 1879 and 1882. Ehrgott conducted the

Harngari Männerchor and Festival Chorus in Cincinnati (1886) shortly after his return to the

United States, and he also served as an accompanist for the Apollo Club in Cincinnati and the conductor of the Cincinnati Music Society (1887).326 Additionally he was music director of the

Corryville Gesangverein (1886). Prior to his studies in Leipzig, Ehrgott had taught as a music professor at the State University of Kansas.327

Maud Powell (1867–1920)

Maud Powell studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1881 and 1882 and spent more time in Europe beyond that pursuing further musical studies. When she returned to the United States, she became the most famous American violinist of the time. She is particularly significant for

324W. S. B. Matthews, ed. “Musical Centers of Chicago: The American Conservatory,” Music: A Monthly Magazine, vol. 7, no. 6 (April 1895), 170–02. 325Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 217. 326Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 140. 327Matthews, A Hundred Years of Music in America, 604, 606. 164 having challenged gender notions about classical performers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. She was a pioneer of scheduling “outreach” concerts to rural communities through which she traveled on her way to big cities during her concert tours, and she championed and premiered numerous works by American composers. When the Victor Company wanted to produce a celebrity artist series (Red Label Seal) on their wax cylinder technology, they chose

Powell to be the first instrumental soloist for their recording.328 Powell was also a featured guest performer at several Oberlin Conservatory recitals over the course of her career as a concert violinist.

American Students from the Leipzig Conservatory: Composers

Several of the American performers mentioned above also composed music, but their performing careers were more prominent than their composing careers. Table 7.2 presents a small list of Leipzig students who became well known for their composing careers when they returned to the United States. They found a distinct niche in American composition. Chadwick is a familiar name to the present study due to his leadership at New England Conservatory, but

Charles Converse and Oscar Weil were known less in academic and performing circles and more for their compositions. These American composers will be discussed below in the order that they studied at the Leipzig Conservatory.

Charles Crozat Converse (1832–1918)

Charles Converse studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in the latter part of the decade following Mendelssohn’s death, during 1856 and 1857. Unlike many of his colleagues, Converse

328Karen A. Shaffer, “Maud Powell: A Pioneer’s Legacy,” reprinted from The Maud Powell Signature: Women in Music, vol. 1, no. 1 (Summer 1995), http://new.maudpowell.org/home/MaudPowell/MaudPowell,ViolinPioneer.aspx (accessed September 9, 2018). 165 did not pursue another musical profession beyond composing, but rather he was an attorney at law. He is best known for the church hymns he wrote, often under the pen name Karl Reden. He wrote several children’s hymn books as well as both the text and music of the well-known hymn

“What a Friend We Have in Jesus.”329 As a hymn composer, Converse emphasized the melody in the soprano line with a restricted harmonic texture of less interesting parts for the other voices.

Some of his hymns have more tuneful melodies than others. The melodic range of the tune is generally a sixth or seventh, and occasionally an octave. The texts that he used for his music concern a variety of topics, including the intimate relationship with Jesus (i.e., “What a Friend

We Have in Jesus”), coming home to Jesus (“Kneeling at the Threshold”), as well as texts based on Biblical stories (i.e., “the Prodigal Son”). These hymns were used for home worship as well as corporate worship, with tunes that children and adults could learn easily and remember throughout the week.

Oscar Weil (1839–1921)

Entering the Leipzig Conservatory a couple of years after Converse, Oscar Weil studied there from 1859 to 1860. Many of his compositions were vocal, including English and German songs, comic operas, and oratorios. As a piano teacher, Weil also wrote some piano pieces and left a manuscript volume titled Harmony Exercises, containing exercises he had written and corrected for students. Among his comic operas are Pyramus and Thisbe (1879), War-Time

Wedding (1892), and The Seven Old Ladies of Lavender Town (1910). He wrote the oratorio

While Shepherds Watched Their Flock for children’s voices. In addition to his life as a composer,

Weil also contributed to music education, co-founding the San Francisco Institute of Music and creating and promoting San Francisco’s first concert series. He also served as a music critic for

329“Charles C. Converse,” Hymnary.org, https://hymnary.org/person/Converse_Charles (accessed September 9, 2018). 166 the Argonaut.330 Weil succeeded in putting together a varied musical career of teaching, writing, and composing.

Table 7.2: Leading American Composers Who Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory Composer Years at Profession Compositional Famous Compositions Leipzig Output Chadwick, George 1878–80 composer; operettas; Rip Van Winkle (1879); Whitfield teacher; choral; Symphonic Sketches (1854–1931) critic orchestral; (1895–1904) chamber; songs Converse, Charles 1856–57 attorney; church hymns “God for us, our nation’s Crozat composer hope”; “What a friend we (1832–1918) have in Jesus”; “Yield thy heart to Jesus”; children’s hymn books Dana (Smith), 1870 composer songs and “By the Rivers of Babylon”; Charles Henshaw anthems “Marguerite”; “The (1846–1883) Troubadour” Weil, Oscar 1859–60 composer; songs (English Pyramus and Thisbe (1879); (1839–1921) teacher; and German); War-Time Wedding (1892); critic comic operas; The Seven Old Ladies of oratorios; Lavender Town (1910) piano pieces

George Whitfield Chadwick (1854–1931)

George W. Chadwick’s studies at the Leipzig Conservatory occurred much later than those of the composers previously discussed, from 1878 to 1880. Chadwick’s position as

Professor, and then Director, of the New England Conservatory gave him many opportunities as teacher, conductor, and other areas of influence, but his role as an American composer was even more significant in the broader musical history of the United States. Chadwick’s output as a composer was vast, comprising operettas, choral works, orchestral works, chamber works, and

330William Osborne, "Weil, Oscar," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-1002088287 (accessed September 9, 2018). 167 songs. Two of his best-known compositions were Rip Van Winkle (1879) and Symphonic

Sketches (1895–1904).331 Due to his numerous conducting engagements at the Conservatory and elsewhere, Chadwick had the opportunity to hear his works performed more often than the typical American composer, especially in terms of large-scale orchestral works.

Historians consider Chadwick a member of the “Second New England School” of composers, along with John Knowles Paine, Arthur Foote, Horatio Parker, and Amy Beach.

These composers lived and worked in the same area and shared common musical values; they also knew each other’s works and were often friendly with one another.332 Historically composers of the Second New England School were known as the “Boston Classicists.” H.

Wiley Hitchcock proposed the name “Second New England School” to avoid the classical/conservative overtones in the name, and later Gilbert Chase proposed, “Conservative

Eclectics,” due to the variety of influences that these composers exhibited.333 Regardless of label, these composers’ works bear classical and conservative tones through harmonic language and genre, stemming from the European training many of them received, and Chadwick was no exception. Bill Faucett explains that “Chadwick’s art emanated from a long European tradition of which he was both proud and protective.” It included “mastery of certain technical aspects of composition: harmony, counterpoint, and orchestration.”334

Nevertheless, many “American” elements that diverge from the “German conservatory” style can also be heard in Chadwick’s compositions alongside the nineteenth-century European harmonies. These American elements include, but are not limited to, parallel fourths and fifths in

331Steven Ledbetter and Victor Fell Yellin, "Chadwick, George Whitefield," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000005356 (accessed August 19, 2018). 332Bill Faucett, George Whitefield Chadwick: The Life and Music of the Pride of New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2012), 5. 333See Hitchcock, Music in the United Sates: A Historical Introduction, 3rd ed., 143. See also Chase, 379. 334Faucett, George Whitefield Chadwick, 317. 168 voice leading, pentatonic melodies, and syncopated rhythmic patterns.335 Chadwick’s compositional style thus bears evidence of his Leipzig conservatory-training but also contributes to the individual American musical voice that many late-nineteenth-century American composers were striving to discover and create during that time.

Charles Henshaw Dana (Smith) (1846–1883)

Charles Henshaw Dana originally attended the Leipzig Conservatory in 1870 as Charles

Henshaw Smith, and he later took the name of his stepfather John A. Dana. Charles Dana was an organist who studied under Robert Papperitz at the Conservatory. He wrote his first anthem, “By the Rivers of Babylon,” in Stuttgart while serving as organist at St. Catherine’s. He continued musical studies in Paris and returned to United States in 1875. He then made his American debut as an organist with the Worcester County Musical Association, performing Mendelssohn’s

Concerto in G minor. He also served as the organist and director of the Church of the

Immaculate Conception in Boston, Massachusetts.336 As a composer Dana composed several anthems and popular songs for voice and piano.

American Students from the Leipzig Conservatory: Other Music Careers

Aside from the numerous talented Leipzig students who impacted American music life as composers and performers, several made an impact in the American music culture through other musical careers, such as writing, lecturing, and managing and founding organizations. Many of these musicians were performers and teachers as well, but they made their greatest impact on

American music life through careers outside of the academy and outside of the concert stage.

335Ledbetter and Yellin, “Chadwick, George Whitefield,” Grove Music Online. 336“Charles Henshaw Dana,” MusOpen, https://musopen.org/composer/charles-henshaw-dana/ (accessed November 4, 2018). 169

Table 7.3 suggests the importance of other music careers not related to teaching, performing, and composing; the lives and careers of those individuals are further described below.

John Comfort Fillmore (1843–1898)

J. C. Fillmore has already had an important place in this study as one of the early faculty members of the Oberlin Conservatory. While he was very involved in music education at institutions of higher learning (Oberlin, 1867–68; Ripon College, 1868–78; Milwaukee College for Women, 1878–84; Pomona College, 1895), his career as a music writer was equally significant. Fillmore studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1866 and 1867. As a writer, Fillmore was a pioneer in the study of Amerindian music, writing about how major and minor triads could be found in this music just as in Western art music. Even though his assumptions about

Amerindian music were far from accurate, his writing incited the interest of others in this repertoire. Fillmore also authored several music history textbooks, including Pianoforte Music:

Its History with Biographical Sketches and Critical Estimates of its Greatest Masters (1883),

New Lessons in Harmony, to which is Added “The Nature of Harmony” by Dr. Hugo Riemann

(1887), and Lessons in Musical History (1888).337 As a writer of textbooks, Fillmore had the opportunity to influence generations of music students beyond his own lifetime; his interest in musical history is evidence of his Leipzig training.

Albert Ross Parsons (1847–1933)

Albert Parsons was another educator mentioned previously, who served as Director of the piano department at the Metropolitan Conservatory of Music in Dayton, Ohio,338 music teacher

337Sue Carole DeVale, "Fillmore, John Comfort," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-0000009645 (accessed August 19, 2018). 338Phillips, “The Leipzig Conservatory, 1843–1881,” 234. 170 at the Metropolitan College of Music in New York (1885), and President of the American

College of Musicians (1893). Parsons studied at the Leipzig Conservatory from 1867 to 1869 and married a fellow Leipzig Conservatory student, Alice van Ness, in 1874.339 Parsons was a pianist, organist, teacher, composer, and finally, an accomplished writer on music who was particularly known for translating important German texts and making them available to

American readers. He translated Wagner’s Beethoven, edited Kullak’s Chopin (American edition), and published Science of Pianoforte Practice, a translation of Holländer’s edition of

Schumann’s piano works. In addition, Parsons was known as a lecturer on music giving frequent lectures on the relationship between art and Christianity, Wagner, and pianoforte music.340

Parsons’s translations eliminated the language barrier by allowing American students and musicians to read texts by well-known masters in Europe that dealt with Beethoven, Chopin, and

Schumann, all frequently performed composers on Leipzig Conservatory programs.

Friedrich Horace Clark (1860–1917)

Friedrich Clark studied at the Leipzig Conservatory from 1877 to 1878 and between 1885 and 1914 wrote several essays about piano playing. Although he was born in Chicago and moved back to Boston after his Leipzig studies, with his pianist wife Anna Steiniger (1848–1890),341

Clark and Steiniger’s piano school did not succeed in Boston; he eventually relocated to

Valparaiso, Indiana, and later Berlin and Zürich. Clark’s essays about piano playing were intellectual, philosophical, scientific, and spiritual in nature, and they most likely exaggerated his friendships and unconfirmed conversations with Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms. In terms of

339Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 184. 340Matthews, A Hundred Years of Music in America, 556. 341Clark’s wife Anna Steiniger was a well-known Prussian pianist. They were married in 1882 before moving to Boston together in 1885. See Robert Andreas, “Clark (-Steiniger), Frederic Horace (1860–1917),” in The Piano: An Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., edited by Robert Palmieri (New York: Routledge, 2003), 74. 171

Table 7.3: Americans Who Studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in Music Careers

Years at American Student Profession Affiliations Notable Accomplishments Leipzig Clark, Friedrich Horace 1877–78 writer wrote essays about piano playing (1885–1914) (1860–1917) Fillmore, John Comfort 1866–67 writer on Oberlin (1867–68); early faculty member at Oberlin; one of the first (1843–1898) music Ripon College (1868– American writers to pursue Amerindian music 78); Milwaukee (believed Amerindian music had major and minor College for Women triads); wrote textbooks on Western music: (1878–84); Milwaukee Pianoforte Music (1883), New Lessons in Harmony School of Music (1887), and Lessons in Musical History (1888) (1884–95); Pomona College (1895) Lichtenstein, Victor 1894–96 music St. Louis Symphony first violinist in St. Louis and San Francisco (1871–1940) lecturer Orchestra; San symphonies, gave numerous music appreciation Francisco Symphony lectures known as “Symphonylogues” and Orchestra “Operalogues” Parsons, Albert Ross 1867–69 pianist; translated Wagner’s Beethoven; edited Kullak’s (1847–1933) organist; Chopin (American edition); published Science of teacher, Pianoforte Practice; gave lectures on art and composer, Christianity, Wagner, and pianoforte writer Presser, Theodore 1878–80 writer; The Etude; Theodor wrote and published The Etude magazine; founded (1848–1925) founder Presser Company; the Presser Foundation, supplying scholarships to Presser Home for musicians to the present day Retired Music Teachers; Presser Foundation

172 historical significance, Clark was a pioneer in writing about the shift in piano technique that occurred as a result of Liszt’s piano playing and compositions as well as acknowledging the acoustical discoveries of Hermann Helmholtz. He was one of the first writers to give pictoral illustrations and explanations of the rolling motion a pianist makes with the arm and wrist in his

Lehre des einheitlichen Kunstmittels beim Klavierspiel (Doctrine of the Unified Art of Piano

Playing, 1885). Clark was also an inventor and patented his Harmonie-Piano (1913; German

Patent no. 225, 367), an instrument with two parallel keyboards that could be played by a single pianist with arms outstretched on either side at shoulder height. Clark believed that this instrument allowed the pianist to have better posture with spine aligned and arms outstretched, exemplifying the Greek “Golden Mean” principle, and supporting many of Clark’s spiritual and scientific notions.342 Even though Clark’s writings were less accessible to many American students and musicians because he wrote in German, he still made an impact in the greater scholarship of music criticism and was also an inventor.

Theodore Presser (1848–1925)

Theodore Presser impacted American music life as a founder of several music institutions. Presser studied at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1878 and 1880; Table 7.4 lists four of the most influential organizations that he founded. Presser was a writer, a publisher, a businessman, and a philanthropist. While both of Presser’s parents were German,343 he was born in America and following his Leipzig studies invested greatly in the music life of the United

States. Presser’s first publishing endeavor was The Etude (est. 1883), a popular monthly magazine containing articles, compositions, and general musical advice. In 1884 Presser created

342Andreas, “Clark (-Steiniger), Frederic Horace (1860–1917),” 73–75. Refer to Robert Andreas article for a picture and further description of Clark’s Harmonie-Piano. 343Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 188. 173 the publishing firm of Theodore Presser Company, which continued to publish The Etude until

1957.344 In addition to publishing his own magazine, the Theodore Presser Company published the music and works of numerous American composers, including William Bolcom, Ruth

Crawford, Charles Ives, Vincent Persichetti, George Rochberg, Carl Ruggles, Peter Schickele,

Roger Sessions, Leopold Stokowski, and Ellen Taaffe Zwilich.

Table 7.4: Organizations That Theodore Presser (1848–1925) Founded Year Organizations Description Founded The Etude 1883 Monthly music magazine with compositions, articles, and music Theodore Presser Company 1884 Continued publishing magazine until 1957 Presser Home for Retired Music 1906 Retirement home fully funded for aging Teachers music teachers Presser Foundation 1916 Scholarships and funds for musicians

In 1906 Presser founded the Presser Home for Retired Music Teachers in Philadelphia, to give aging music teachers a retirement home. Presser modeled this idea after Casa di Riposo per

Musicisti (House of Rest for Musicians), a similar home built in Milan funded by a stipulation in

Giuseppe Verdi’s will. As a successful businessman Presser wanted to extend this same generous contribution to the American musicians whose activities had enabled him to thrive as a music entrepreneur. Aging musicians in good health could apply to stay at the home with all expenses covered. Residents could come and go as desired. Accommodations were made for practice rooms, access to Steinway pianos, trips to the symphony, and other special needs that were individual to musicians.345 Presser continued his philanthropic endeavors when he established the

Presser Foundation in 1916 to support projects such as the Presser Home for Retired Music

344Smith and Schleifer, "Presser, Theodore," Grove Music Online. 345Charles B. Fowler, “A Visit to the Presser Home for Retired Music Teachers,” Music Educators Journal 59, no. 3 (1972): 63–65. 174

Teachers and to award scholarships and endowments to music students, teachers, and institutions. The Presser Foundation continues to thrive in the present day, with the mission “to provide scholarships for promising students; to increase the value of music education by erecting suitable buildings; and to administer aid to worthy teachers of music in distress.”346 Theodore

Presser’s legacy and influence on musical education and musical life in America has continued impacting American music nearly a century after his death.

Victor Lichtenstein (1871–1940)

Victor Lichtenstein was a resident of Saint Louis, Missouri before attending the Leipzig

Conservatory between 1894 and 1896. He studied with violin professor Hans Sitt in Leipzig and played in the Gewandhaus Concerts under Arthur Nikisch. Before returning to St. Louis,

Lichtenstein studied under Ysaye and Dupont in Brussels. Lichtenstein invested immediately in the St. Louis music culture when he returned to the United States and became known as a violin teacher and viola soloist. In 1903 his standard solo repertoire is listed in the Mercantile,

Industrial, and Professional Saint Louis as consisting of the sonatas of J. S. Bach, pieces by

Rubinstein, Grieg, and Brahms, concertos by Spohr, Wieniawski, Vieuxtemps, Tchaikovsky,

Bruch, Saint-Saëns, and show pieces by Sarasate, Hulay, and Miszka Hauser.347 These composers were also favored in Leipzig concert programs and reflect a more traditional approach to harmony. Lichtenstein played with the Saint Louis Symphony for eleven years and then focused on bringing chamber music concerts to St. Louis. He was also a noted lecturer and music critic who gave numerous music appreciation lectures for general audiences. In 1914

346“About the Presser Foundation,” The Presser Foundation, http://www.presserfoundation.org/ (accessed September 9, 2018). Currently the Presser Foundation makes available an award of $10,000 each year to the College of Music at The Florida State University to fund a graduate student research project. 347E. D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial, and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, MO: Nixon Jones Ptg. Company, 1903), 357. 175

Lichtenstein held a series of five lectures at a local St. Louis high school, attended by 2000 listeners, on the history of the symphonic orchestra, with the St. Louis Symphony performing his musical illustrations.348

After spending many years investing in the musical life of St. Louis, Lichtenstein moved to San Francisco and joined the San Francisco Symphony as a violinist and violist. He continued his music lectures in San Francisco, which became known as “Symphonylogues” and

“Operalogues.” One newspaper writer described his lecture style as “an easy and enjoyably [sic] informal style of discourse,” that would engage listeners even if they did not have a musical background.349 As an accomplished violinist of both the Saint Louis and San Francisco symphonies, Lichtenstein found a niche as a music lecturer that contributed greatly to the cities in which he resided and worked.

Leipzig Conservatory Students Who Immigrated to the USA: Performers

Other musicians in America did not necessary enter the Leipzig Conservatory as

American students but after leaving the Leipzig Conservatory settled in the United States and contributed to American musical life through their performances and musical leadership. Table

7.5 introduces some of these individuals with information on their countries of origin, approximate immigration years, and affiliations. The chart and descriptions below illuminate only a few of the more prominent Leipzig student immigrants who impacted the American musical culture in these years. The discussion below does not include visiting foreign musicians who did not call America home. For example, musicians such as Otto Goldschmidt, who accompanied his wife Jenny Lind on her concert tour to the United States (1851),350 or Max

348“Exponent of Chamber Music in Saint Louis,” Musical America 24, no. 9 (July 1, 1916): 37. 349Herb Klein, “Lichtenstein Will Give Explanatory Talk on Symphony,” The Daily Palo Alto 38, no. 64 (January 25, 1926): 3. 350Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 148. 176

Fiedler, who conducted Beethoven concerts in Boston (1908–12),351 contributed to American musical life in powerful ways, but they did not settle and remain in the United States to invest wholly in the culture. The musicians discussed below did immigrate and settle in the United

States, and they primarily hailed from Germany, England, and Canada.

Table 7.5: Leipzig Students Who Immigrated to America and Became Performers

Years at Immigration Profession Origin Affiliations Performer Leipzig Year

Mills, Sebastian 1857–58 pianist Cirencester, 1859 New York Bach Gloucester (1839–1898) Mouchel, 1869–70 organist Montreal, 1872 St. Paul’s Church Leandre Arthur Canada (Oswego, NY); du Cathedral of the (1841–1915) Immaculate Conceptions (Albany, NY) Read, Angelo 1876–77 conductor, St. 1894 D’Youville McCallum organist Catharines, College of Buffalo (1854–1926) Canada (Buffalo, NY) Rosenbecker, 1866–69 violinist Heinfurth, 1869 Theodore Thomas Adolphe Germany Orchestra; Chicago (1851–1919) Conservatory Spicker, Max 1878–79 conductor; Königsberg, 1880s Beethoven (1858–1912) organist East Prussia Maennerchor (NY); Temple Emanu-El (NY); Brooklyn Academy

Sebastian Bach Mills (1839–1898)

Sebastian Bach Mills was a pianist from Cirencester in Gloucestershire, who came to

New York in 1859, one year after his studies at the Leipzig Conservatory. Mills was a well-

351Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 144. 177 respected concert pianist in the United States. He represented the school of Liszt in America, performed frequently in New York, and wrote several piano pieces.352 Mills taught Julie Rivé-

King, a famous American pianist who also later studied at the Leipzig Conservatory. On eighteen consecutive seasons between 1859 and 1877, Mills was a featured soloist with the Philharmonic

Society in New York. He was known for giving many American premieres of piano concertos.353

Mills impacted American music life, especially in New York, through challenging traditional notions of piano technique and by his numerous performances and recitals.

Adolphe Rosenbecker (1851–1919)

Adolphe Rosenbecker a violinist from Heinfurth, Germany, came to the United States immediately after his Leipzig studies. While in Leipzig, Rosenbecker was a violinist in the

Gewandhaus Orchestra, and upon coming to America, he joined the Theodore Thomas Orchestra where he remained for eight years. In addition to performing as an orchestral violinist,

Rosenbecker also conducted the Turner Hall Concerts and was violin teacher at the Chicago

Conservatory.354 Rosenbecker represents the many immigrant musicians who impacted

American musical life by filling positions in symphony orchestras throughout the United States in the latter half of the nineteenth century. See Appendix D for other Leipzig students who held positions in early American orchestras.

352Matthews, A Hundred Years of Music in America, 660, 662. 353Bruce Carr, and Javier Albo, "Mills, Sebastian Bach," Grove Music Online, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo- 9781561592630-e-1002087459 (accessed August 20, 2018). 354Matthews, A Hundred Years of Music in America, 441–44. 178

Leandre Arthur du Mouchel (1841–1915)

Studying at the Leipzig Conservatory between 1869 and 1870, Leandre du Mouchel entered the Conservatory as an organist from Montreal. Mouchel then immigrated to United

States in 1872 and became a leading American organist. He served at St. Paul’s Church in

Oswego, New York, beginning in 1872, and later enjoyed a long tenure as the organist for the

Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Albany, New York) from 1876 to 1915. Mouchel also contributed to the repertoire of organ literature through his composition of several Masses and hymns.355

Angelo McCallum Read (1854–1926)

Angelo Read was another Leipzig student from Canada, coming from St. Catharines. He studied music in both Canada and the United States before pursuing organ and composition at

Leipzig Conservatory in 1876 and 1877. Upon completion of his studies, Read continued to invest in the musical life of both Canada and the United States teaching at Ridley College (St.

Catharines) and d’Youville College of Buffalo (New York). Read eventually settled in Buffalo and became the music director of the Buffalo Conservatory in the 1920s.356 He conducted choirs in Buffalo and was a guest conductor in several other cities as well.357 Read is identified as an

Anglo-Canadian composer in a period when there were not a lot of active composers. He wrote several sacred works for choir, such as A Song of the Nativity, op. 12 (1899), David’s Lament, op. 15 (1902), and It is Finished, op. 17. He also had a short career as a music writer, debuting

355“Passed Away—Léandre A. Du Mouchel,” Musical America, edited by John C. Freund, vol. 29, no. 12 (January 18, 1919): 43. 356Helmut Kallmann, “Angelo Read,” Historic Canada, https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/angelo- read-emc/ (accessed September 10, 2018). 357Wasserloos, Das Leipziger Konservatorium der Musik im 19. Jahrhundert, 190. 179 with an article “The North American Indian and Music” in Musical America (vol. 6, no. 9,

1907).358

Max Spicker (1858–1912)

Max Spicker was from Königsberg, East Prussia, and studied at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1878 and 1879. In Germany he was an opera conductor in Heidelberg, Cologne, Potsdam, and

Hamburg. He came to the United States during the 1880s, following his studies at Leipzig.

Directing the Beethoven Männerchor in New York as early as 1882, Spicker also served as organist and choir director at Temple Emanu-El (1891). At Temple Emanu-El, Spicker wrote synagogue anthems and collaborated with Cantor William Sparger to arrange his own compositions and others into two-part liturgical settings. He was additionally the Director of the

Brooklyn Academy from 1888 to 1895.359 Spicker thus served a distinct role in contributing to the American-Jewish musical heritage in the United States through his writing, editing, and publishing.

Contributions to American Musical Life through Varied Musical Activities

The previous discussion represents only the most famous Leipzig Conservatory students who impacted American music life as performers, composers, writers, lecturers, impresarios, inventors, music advocates, philanthropists, publishers, and many other varied musical careers.

As is the case in the present day, many musicians cannot be pigeonholed as only performers, or only teachers, but rather as musicians who regularly engage in a variety of musical activities.

Many of the musicians described above were well respected in multiple musical circles, and they

358Kallmann, “Angelo Read,” Historic Canada. 359Neil W. Levin, “Max Spicker, 1858–1912,” Milken Archive of Jewish Music, https://www.milkenarchive.org/artists/view/max-spicker/ (accessed September 10, 2018). 180 are categorized here only to underline some of their more individual contributions to nineteenth- century American musical culture. Their collective stories confirm that upon returning to the

United States and contributing to their individual cities and regions, Leipzig Conservatory students had a far-reaching impact on American musical life. These musicians brought German and European musical preferences and training to the choirs and orchestras they conducted, to the American public who read their articles and thoughts on music, to the students and musicians who played their new compositions, to the places of worship that employed them, and to the audiences who were influenced by the virtuosic performances and selection of repertoire. The dynamic lives of these musicians bear lively witness to the transfer of Leipzig Conservatory pedagogical principles to the greater American musical culture.

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CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSIONS

The pedagogy and musical life practiced at the Leipzig Conservatory merit close attention from American music scholars because of the Conservatory’s numerous American students who experienced both. They gained faculty positions in various American music departments and conservatories and influenced their music communities in myriad ways. This dissertation has investigated the musical traditions of two countries and their approaches to music education. The narrative therefore begins with the cultural and musical landscapes of both the United States and Germany, prior to the founding of the Leipzig Conservatory, and continues through the Conservatory’s early years. It then follows the story of Leipzig students who returned or immigrated to the United States and the impact they had on American musical life.

Summary

Early nineteenth-century American musical culture exhibited an eclectic combination of

American eighteenth-century practices and European musical influences brought to the country by the many immigrants who settled in America. As is common with other aspects of American culture, numerous viewpoints about early music education were expressed and practiced. Lowell

Mason and others helped introduce music education to public schools in the late 1830s, and

Americans began to take music education more seriously. Exposure to European music also grew throughout the nineteenth century with numerous visiting opera troupes from the continent.

Several European immigrants shared their performance skills in newly founded ensembles and symphonies, and there were also opportunities to hear visiting European soloists. In the midst of the general fascination with German musical culture, there were several American musicians and

182 composers, such as William Henry Fry, who spoke against the European influence and challenged Americans to stand against the European traditions and develop a national musical voice. As more Americans began recognizing the importance of their developing and changing musical culture, however, many of them still looked toward Europe, and especially to Germany, when considering examples of high-quality musical art and education.

Simultaneously, in Germany, music educators sought to create a national system for music education that would strengthen the national identity while also developing “complete” musicians who were well-versed in not only the practical side of music making and technique, but also the “scientific” and intellectual side of theoretical studies and composition.

Enlightenment education philosophers such as Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Johann Bernhard

Basedow influenced these early efforts by introducing systematic music educational processes.

These processes were used to establish early musical instruction in Prussian schools. Wilhelm von Humboldt’s concept of Bildung and his work with the German folk music movement encouraged a national component in German music education. Carl Friedrich Zelter, a prominent bearer of the Bach tradition, notable song composer, and highly regarded pedagogue (well known as the composition teacher of Fanny and Felix Mendelssohn), led many reforms in the

Prussian schools, including establishing music curricula, while serving as the Professor of Music at Akademie der Künste (1809) in Berlin. As musical educational thought was shared and advanced, many educational leaders developed proposals for higher-level German music schools that could train talented musicians with a more academic approach that emphasized instructing the complete musician through theory, harmony, and singing, in addition to practical studies.

Many plans and proposals failed, but Mendelssohn’s Leipzig Conservatory arose as Germany’s first successful institution of professional musical learning.

183

Among the factors contributing to the success of the Leipzig Conservatory were its location, its funding, Mendelssohn’s personality, and the academic character of the institution.

Mendelssohn’s persistence in procuring funding for the institution as well as recruiting renowned and accomplished faculty to serve at the Conservatory allowed the institution to thrive up to the present day. Despite Mendelssohn’s untimely death, many of the early faculty members continued his legacy through their commitment to teaching counterpoint, traditional harmony, and respect for the masters of the past. Nonetheless some faculty members, such as Franz

Brendel and Salomon Jadassohn, espoused the compositional techniques of Wagner and Liszt of the New German School, and in that way, they acted as foils to the majority of the more conservative faculty members. Strongly articulated in early Conservatory documents written by

Mendelssohn and the institution’s Direktorium, the Leipzig curriculum emphasized the “science” of music through thorough theory and counterpoint study, as well as the “artistry” of music through applied instruction. Class instruction for performers was also a distinctive component of the Leipzig Conservatory educational experience. Throughout the latter half of the nineteenth century and beyond, the Leipzig Conservatory enjoyed a reputation for offering a rigorous, if conservative, musical education for the “complete” musician with the opportunity for students to study under highly esteemed faculty.

The reputation of the Leipzig Conservatory reached American musicians, and between

1846 and 1918 hundreds of Americans traveled to Leipzig to study under the renowned

Conservatory faculty. Both men and women were well represented among the American students. While many students were in their late teens or early twenties, students of all ages were welcome. Students had to show considerable talent to be accepted and needed proficiency in

German in order to understand the lectures and instructions from their professors. Studying abroad was also quite costly, including expenses for traveling, room and board, concert tickets,

184 and renting pianos for practice, among other fees. While few American students entered the

Leipzig Conservatory in the early years, American attendance reached surprising highs in the

1870s, 80s, and 90s, encouraging the Conservatory to translate some of their registration documents into English. Students came from cities all over the United States, and upon the completion of their studies, they shared what they had learned in Leipzig, ultimately influencing

American music culture.

The first two conservatories established in the United States were Oberlin Conservatory of Music (1865) and New England Conservatory of Music (1867). The founders of both institutions appointed faculty who embraced the pedagogical practices of the Leipzig

Conservatory. In many cases, many of their faculty members were former students at the Leipzig

Conservatory. Foundational statements from NEC and Oberlin catalogs that referred to the

“science” of music and aims to provide students with a thorough musical education hearkened back to foundational principles associated with Leipzig. The class pedagogy system practiced there was adopted by both NEC and Oberlin and celebrated for the same reasons as those touted in Leipzig.

Analysis of concert programs revealed the frequency with which certain composers appeared on Leipzig, Oberlin, and NEC programs, respectively. These concert programs offer insight into the pedagogy of the individual conservatories through the composers favored and taught by Conservatory faculty, as well as those whose works they conspicuously avoided.360 In addition to the strength of the Leipzig influence at NEC and Oberlin, many other music schools were impacted by Leipzig graduates, in their capacities as teachers, professors, administrators, and founders.

360In regard to composers who were avoided, Richard Wagner does not appear on Leipzig Hauptprüfungen until 1889, six years after his death, even though his compositions were enjoying great success during his lifetime. French composers such as Debussy or Delibes never appear on Leipzig Hauptprüfungen, yet they appear on NEC and Oberlin programs. 185

Leipzig graduates not only influenced educational institutions in America, but they also worked in other music careers, as music writers, performers, concert managers, sacred musicians, composers, and conductors. These individuals influenced numerous aspects of

American musical life and shaped American thinking about music performance, music writing, and music entrepreneurship. In this way they introduced and reinforced European, and specifically Leipziger, musical tastes among American audiences.

Significance of This Study

As previously discussed in the introduction, other studies about Leipzig Conservatory have preceded mine in researching Americans at the Leipzig Conservatory: Edward John

Fitzpatrick’s dissertation on music conservatories in America (1963), Leonard Phillips’s dissertation on the Leipzig Conservatory in general (1979), and Elam Douglas Bomberger’s dissertation on American musical study in Germany (1991). These scholars piqued my interest and provided a foundation for my own research. In each of the previous studies, only certain chapters dealt with the intersection of Americans at the Leipzig Conservatory and the impact of these students upon returning to America. On the contrary, my primary purpose has been to study the interactions of Americans specifically with the Leipzig Conservatory and to trace their musical careers back to the United States.

The focus of my study was driven by individuals—Leipzig students, Leipzig faculty,

American students, American faculty, various performers, writers, teachers, and other influential musicians—with the goal of understanding how their training at the Leipzig Conservatory influenced their continuing musical pursuits. This required compiling numerous lists of

American students at Leipzig, American performers, administrators, teachers, and writers, as

186 well as influential immigrants on American soil who also shared a connection to the Leipzig

Conservatory.

Another defining aspect of my study has been the extensive collection of data on concert programs. While Leipzig professors Moritz Hauptmann and Ernst Friedrich Richter wrote theory textbooks that shed light on their teaching, little is known about the pedagogical philosophies and practices of many of the other Leipzig faculty members. A study of the concert programs at the Leipzig Conservatory and comparison with those at NEC and Oberlin reveals the musical tastes that were passed down from the Leipzig-trained faculty to their American students.

Moreover, since the music of individual composers reflects distinct style choices, the favoring of one composer over another, or of a group of composers, can point to some pedagogical preferences of the faculty. Once again, my program data collection was individual-focused, illuminating specific composers who frequently appeared on these concert programs. The charts and graphs that show the popularity of specific composers at various institutions over a range of time have enabled me to track the changes in style and composer preferences.

Since my study has taken place in the twenty-first century, newer technology has been available to me that was not available to previous researchers. While I was in Leipzig, I had access to several digitized resources in the Databank of the Hochschule für Musik und Theater

“Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy” Leipzig, which was finalized only in 2005. The HMT Databank allowed me to search for individuals by place, name, and many other delimiters, producing quick retrieval of data and information. While researching in the HMT Archiv, I was able to access scans of student Zeugnis records and other primary documents digitally, allowing me to retrieve data related to each student in an efficient manner. In addition to the technological advances in

Leipzig, the New England Conservatory also scanned and digitized their archived Conservatory

187 concert programs in 2016 and 2017, thus actually during the period of my study, providing future researchers access to those concert programs remotely.

Understanding the history of these American institutions offers reasons for the origins of current music education practices. For example, today’s American music schools and conservatories administer “juries,” or final performance examinations, a practice well- established historically through the Leipzig Hauptprüfungen and other early European conservatories. On the other hand, applied instruction in current American music schools typically involves one-on-one lessons between the instructor and student, deemphasizing the group instruction paradigm advocated by Mendelssohn and the Leipzig Conservatory. Many music schools in the United States, however, still offer piano group classes for non-piano majors, studio performance classes for individual faculty studios, group method courses for music education students, and masterclasses that seek to expose numerous students to a renowned performer while only a few perform for the class. The idea that students can learn artistry and technique from watching one another perform and be instructed is still an accepted concept in current American music pedagogy. Ideas about educating the “complete” musician with required courses in history, theory, and music literature are still active components of a music degree at many American universities, in addition to applied performance and technique instruction.

Further, the great body of performance literature, with a respect to counterpoint and the master composers of the past, has been passed down through the generations and is still an important aspect of a student’s education at universities and conservatories, with German composers and other great masters appearing frequently on current conservatory and university programs. Today emphasis is also given to American composers, contemporary composers, or other styles and genres, but Bach, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and others frequently appear in today’s concert programs, as well.

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Opportunities for Further Research

The pedagogy of the Leipzig Conservatory was one of many factors influencing

American musical culture in the latter half of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century. Other European and American institutions as well as performers, writers, and composers also contributed to the American musical landscape in these years. Some resisted the German influence and advocated for a distinctly Americann music, uninhibited by European traditions.

This study focuses specifically on the Leipzig Conservatory pedagogy and repertoire choices and their impact on American musical culture, especially on the teaching traditions of Oberlin and

NEC.

Due to the parameters of my study and the finite period of time studied (1843 to 1918), there is therefore room for further studies into other European and American institutions and their contributions to musical life in the United States, specifically following World War I, due to the increase of French and vernacular styles in America music and education. Following

World War I Americans drew on many other musical sources of influence. Alan Howard Levy argues that American composers departed from German “orthodoxy” and established a national music identity in the twentieth century through the “breakdown of the established tradition of distinguishing as separate genres the art music and vernacular elements in American music.”361

He further explains,

One of the principal causes of these developments was the shifting of international ties in American art music from 1865 to 1930. The chief shift was the decline of German influences and the rising importance of France in music education and compositional style. The Czech composer Antonin Dvořák was also important here and at times Russian music, particularly through Igor Stravinsky. Most important, however, was France, for it was there that Americans first encountered a tradition that did not reinforce the separation of art and vernacular music.362

361Alan Howard Levy, Musical Nationalism: American Composers’ Search for Identity (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983), ix. 362Levy, Musical Nationalism, ix. 189

Levy mentions frequently the 1890s as the years when French impressionism was being introduced, and also the 1910s, when American reliance on German traditions was fading in support of French and vernacular influences.363 This also corresponds with political tensions between German and the United States, as well as the close of my study. A further research opportunity could involve broadening the parameters of the study and observing the declining impact of the Leipzig Conservatory on American musical education following 1918, especially in light of the other vernacular influences and other music institutions that offered an alternative to German conservatism.

Other opportunities for further research exist within the data I obtained for the current study. In the course of studying the impact of the Leipzig Conservatory, I have been able to gather large amounts of data from all three conservatories: Leipzig, New England, and Oberlin.

Due to the limits of the study, some of these materials were not directly germane to the current project, yet these may be interesting and useful for future research projects. Since both compilation of program data and stories of individual musicians were the cornerstone elements of my study, I believe that further research could be pursued in both of these areas.

Program Research

The Leipzig programs that I scanned and studied were mostly for the Hauptprüfungen, the official public concert examinations of the Conservatory. The HMT Archiv also has several years of their informal weekly concerts (Abendhaltungen), that were attended by Conservatory students and faculty. Most of these weekly concert program lists are handwritten, and they do not necessarily represent all of the years of the institution. Since both Oberlin and NEC also had weekly conservatory concerts (with programs mostly printed, not handwritten), it would be

363Levy, Musical Nationalism, 14, 23. 190 revealing to compare the weekly concert programs of the three institutions. Since the programs of NEC and Oberlin weekly concerts were printed and intermixed with those of their other public concerts, that data is already included in my study. The Leipzig Abendhaltungen were separated from the public Conservatory concerts and only concentrated in certain years and consequently were not included here. A further examination of concert programs, organized to distinguish weekly concerts from public events among the three conservatories, may reveal layers of difference concerning public versus private presentations.

My program repository recorded in Excel spreadsheets also contains potentially fruitful data for individuals seeking to find the performance history of more obscure composers or performers. When recording individual programs, I noted various visiting performers, who can be easily searched throughout the spreadsheets. I also recorded all the composers listed in the programs, whether well-known or less familiar. This data could be useful for future researchers who are looking to study the performance history of a particular performer or an obscure composer.

While I did produce separate graphs on German composers and French composers and conservatory faculty, there is still room for more focused program research divided by individual instruments and/or voice study. My data compilation recorded composers, rather than specific pieces or instrumentation, as sometimes the instrumentation was not apparent on the programs. A more detailed program analysis of these institutions could be conducted with further research in the future, separating the piano compositions/composers, violin compositions/composers, orchestral works, and other instruments, revealing the frequency of compositions and composers within specific instrumental groups and genres.

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American Individuals

In the course of my research on American students at the Leipzig Conservatory, I also recorded more data than I used for the current study. While researching at the HMT Archiv, I accessed the digital scans for the Zeugnisse of each of the American students at the Leipzig

Conservatory and recorded which Leipzig faculty members signed the student’s respective

Zeugnis. In the future there could be a more detailed look at which Americans studied with which Leipzig professors, including broadening that search to non-American students and drawing conclusions as to whether some Leipzig professors taught more American students than others. This could possibly reveal which professors and pedagogies at the Leipzig Conservatory had a greater impact on the American students.

Also focusing on the individual students, it would be interesting to uncover the

Hauptfach, or major area of study, each American student pursued at the Leipzig Conservatory.

This is hard to determine, because the Leipzig Conservatory emphasized educating the

“complete” musician, requiring that every student complete theory, harmony, and singing studies. Many students also pursued more than one applied study, for example, piano and violin.

Since their Zeugnis includes comments and/or signatures from all the professors who oversaw their studies, determining a student’s Hauptfach becomes guesswork in some cases while it is more apparent in others. Between 1898 and 1899 the Leipzig Conservatory changed the system for recording students (Inskriptionen) when they first entered the institution and actually asked them to name their Hauptfach as well as their secondary studies. The Hauptfach is therefore clear for students entering the Conservatory in 1899 and after, but it may take some guesswork for those who entered before 1899. Determining the Hauptfach for these American students could show what particular areas of study drew more Americans to study at the Leipzig

Conservatory.

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Impact of Leipzig Conservatory Pedagogy on American Musical Life

The story of nineteenth-century American students at the Leipzig Conservatory reveals the roots of deep-seated practices and convictions regarding American values and traditions. In the midst of America’s budding musical culture, European musical influence was highly esteemed, especially German musical practices. Professors and administrators at American conservatories who had traveled to Europe for their education were especially respected, as were

German immigrants. Schools such as the New England Conservatory and Oberlin proudly modeled themselves on the Leipzig Conservatory and other European schools. During this finite period of time, the majority of American high music culture was content to build upon European models and examples. Each student who crossed the Atlantic to study at the Leipzig

Conservatory reinforced the notion that great musical culture in America could be built on

German music culture. Known as an institution of conservative musical values, the Leipzig

Conservatory gained popularity among Americans throughout the late nineteenth century, creating an American bent for classicist music and a respect for historical music and technical mastery. This greatly shaped roots of American musical culture and education prior to 1918. The pedagogy of the Leipzig Conservatory continued to have an impact on American music education and American music life even in the years following 1918, as it was passed down through the lives and teaching of American students from the Leipzig Conservatory.

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APPENDIX A

LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY FACULTY MEMBERS FROM 1843 TO 1918

Between 1843 and 1918 many Leipzig Conservatory faculty members taught at the

Conservatory for the duration of their careers, establishing a consistent pedagogy at the institution. The supplementary Excel spreadsheet shows Leipzig Conservatory faculty members and the duration of their tenure at the Conservatory. One can scroll left and right and up and down to explore the various faculty members teaching during specific years.

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APPENDIX B

LEIPZIG CONSERVATORY CURRICULUM AS GIVEN BY THE LEIPZIG PROSPEKTE

[1843] Conservatorium der Musik zu 1901 Leipzig Conservatory Catalog, Leipzig Prospekt364 translated to English365

Das Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig The Royal Conservatorium of Music of Leipzig

§. 1. §. 1. Das mit königlicher Genehmigung The object of the Conservatorium of Music at errichtete Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig established with Royal authority and Leipzig bezweckt die höhere Ausbildung in support, is the higher education in Music. The der Musik, und der zu ertheilende Unterricht instruction it imparts, embraces, theoretically erstreckt sich theoretisch und praktisch über and practically, all branches of Music, alle Zweige der Musik als Wissenschaft und considered as an Art and a Science. Kunst betrachtet.

§. 2. §. 2. Der theoretische Unterricht besteht in The Theoretical Instruction consists of a einem vollständigen Cursus der Theorie der complete course of the Theory of Music and Musik und der Tonsetzkunst, welcher in 6 Composition, which extends over three years. Classen ertheilt und in drei Jahren vollendet Every year at Easter and Michaelmas a new wird. Mit jedem Jahre beginnt zu Ostern und course commences, so that pupils can enter Michaelis ein neuer Cursus, so dass alljährlich regularly twice every year. (See §. 9. regelmässig zweimal neue Schüler und Foreigners.) Schülerinnen eintreten können. (cf. §. 9. Those pupils who already possess Ausländer betreff.) sufficient preliminary theoretical knowledge, Solche Schüler, welche schon hinlängliche and are sufficiently capable in other respects, theoretische Vorkenntnisse besitzen und sonst so that upon their admission they can at once dazu befähigt sind, können jedoch, wenn sie be place into the upper classes, can complete bei ihrer Aufnahme gleich in die obern their theoretical Studies in a shorter time than Classen eingewiesen werden können, das three years. If, nevertheless, it is thought Studium der Theorie in kürzerer Zeit als drei necessary, these pupils will be required to Jahren beendigen. Doch sind dieselben attend at the same time the lessons in the nöthigen Falls gehalten, als Repetition auch lower classes as “repetitions,” so as to die Lehrstunden der untern Classen zu become thoroughly acquainted with the whole system of teaching in its full extent.

364Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig, Das Conservatorium der Musik zu Leipzig [Leipzig, 1843], 5–13. For a translation of the curriculum as published in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (25 December 1843) see Iain Quinn, The Genesis and Development of an English Organ Sonata, 77–80. This version only includes the first 11 sections. 365Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig, The Royal Conservatory of Music (Leipzig, 1901), 13–22.

195 besuchen, um das ganze Lehrgebäude im The Theoretical Instruction comprises gehörigen Zusammenhange kennen zu lernen. the following subjects: Der theoretische Unterricht begreift a. Harmony. Counterpoint, Canon and folgende Gegenstände in sich: Fugue. a. Harmonielehre in 6 Classen (im b. Form and Composition, by oral ersten Jahre: Harmonielehre und instruction and exercises, which Stimmführung.—Im zweiten Jahre: include the following subjects: Vocal Fortsetzung der Harmonielehre und and Instrumental Composition in their Contrapunkt.—Im dritten Jahre: various forms and treatment; Fortsetzung der Harmonielehre, Instruction and Practice in doppelter Contrapunkt, Fuge). compositions; Analysis of classical b. Formen- und Compositionslehre, in musical works. Vorträgen und Uebungen, welche c. Playing from Score. folgende Gegenstände behandeln: d. Italian Language for those who Gesang- und purpose devoting themselves to the Instrumentalcompositionen in ihren higher branches of Solo-Singing. verschiedenen Formen und deren The Theoretical Instruction further Behandlung; Analyse classischer includes, courses of Lectures on Musical Musikwerke. subjects varying annually such as, the History c. Partiturspiel; Directionskenntniss of Ancient and Modern Music, Aesthetics of d. Italienische Sprache fur diejenigen, Music, Metrics, &c. welche sich vorzugsweise dem höhern Special classes are arranged for the (Solo-) Gesange widmen. instruction of lady pupils in Harmony and Zu dem theoretischen Unterrichte gehören Composition, to enable their completing the ferner: jährlich wechselnde Vorlesungen über course in two years. musikalische Gegenstände, z. B. Geschichte der Musik älterer und neuerer Zeit, Aesthetik der Musik, Akustik, verbunden mit Experimenten u. s. w. Für die Schülerinnen bestehen besondere für ihre Bedürfnisse eingerichtete Classen der Harmonielehre und Composition, die ihren Cursus im Laufe zweier Jahre vollenden können.

§. 3. §. 3. Der praktische Unterricht bezweckt die The Practical Instruction aims at Ausbildung der mechanischen Fertigkeit auf developing technical execution on one or einem oder mehren Instrumenten, und im several instruments, and in singing. It Gesange, wird ebenfalls in verschiedenen comprises the following subjects: Classen ertheilt und befasst sich mit a. Instruction in Singing (Solo and folgenden Gegenständen: Choral, thorough training for the Opera-stage a. Unterricht im Gesange (Solo- und and method of teaching). Chorgesang) in 4 Classen und b. Instruction in Instrumental Playing: mehrern Neben-Classen. 1. Pianoforte. b. Unterricht im Intstrumentenspiele: 2. Organ. c. Pianoforte, in 8 Classen und mehrern 3. Violin and Viola. Neben-Classen. 4. Violoncello.

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d. Orgel, in 2 Classen. 5. Doublebass. e. Violine (Solo-, Quartett- und 6. Wind-Instruments i. e. Flute, Orchesterspiele), in 5 Classen und Hautboy, French Horn, Clarionet, mehrern Neben-Classen. Bassoon, Horn, Cornet, Trombone. f. Declamation (für Sängerinnen und 7. Recitation Sänger) in 2 Classen 8. Practice in Quartett- and g. Violoncellospiel in 2 Classen. Orchestra Playing. Auch in allen übrigen 9. Solo-playing, with Orchesterinstrumenten (Violoncello, accompaniment, and Ensemble- Contrabass und in allen Blasinstrumenten) playing. wird unter Aufsicht des Directoriums von 10. Practice in Public Performance. geschickten Musikern des hiesigen Orchesters, gegen ein besonders zu erlegendes billiges Honorar, auf Verlangen gründlicher Unterricht ertheilt.

§. 4. §. 4. Ausserhalb der Anstalt bieten sich den Beyond the walls of the Institution the Schülern noch folgende Bildungsmittel dar: following further opportunities of musical a. Die auch im Auslande berühmten 20 education are offered to the pupils: Abonnement- oder sogenannten a. The twenty-two Gewandhaus Concerts Gewandhaus-Concerte und deren (which have attained a reputation even Proben. in foreign lands) and their Rehearsals. b. Die Quartett-Aufführungen, welche By kind permission of the directors ebenfalls in jedem Winter Statt finden. pupils of the Conservatorium are c. Die von dem bekannten Thomaner- admitted gratuitously to these Chore wöchentlich Sonnabends und Rehearsals. Sonntags aufzuführenden kirchlichen b. The Quartett and Chamber Music Musiken. Concerts, which likewise take place d. Die Vorstellungen der städtischen every winter. Oper. c. The Church Music performed on Nächst diesen musikalischen Saturdays and Sundays by the Choir of Bildungsmitteln geben die hiesige Universität the Church of St. Thomas. und sonstige Bildungsanstalten den Schülern d. The Performances in the City Theatre, Gelegenheit zu weiterer wissenschaftlicher and Ausbildun jeder Art. e. Numerous Concerts and Recitals. In addition to these means of musical education, the University and the other institutions afford the pupils an opportunity of extending their studies in every direction.

§. 5. §. 5. Um sich im Orchesterspiel zu üben und zu The Public Practice Evenings which, as a vervollkommnen, werden die dazu befähigten rule are held once or twice a week, afford the Schüler von Zeit zu Zeit bei Aufführungen pupils an opportunity of practice in public von Ouvertüren, Symphoieen etc. in den performance. Abonnement-Concerten und bei grössern

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Kirchenmusiken mitzuwirken veranlasst warden. Denen, die sic him Sologesange oder im Solospiele auszeichnen, wird Gelegenheit gegeben, sic hunter Aufsicht der betreffenden Lehrer zu öffentlichen Vorträgen heranzubilden.

§. 6. §. 6. Die obere Leitung und Verwaltung des The supreme direction and administration Instituts steht unter fünf Directoren, welche of the Institution are in the hands of the das Directorium bilden. Directors named at the end of this prospectus Der Unterricht ist für jetzt denjenigen who form the Council. Lehrern anvertraut, deren Namen und The staff of Masters at present consists of Lehrfächer am Ende dieser Blätter angegeben those whose names and the branches they sind. Ausser diesen ist noch ein besonderer teach are given at the end of these pages. Inspector des Instituts angestellt, dessen Besides these, an Inspector is appointed, Obliegenheit es ist, dafür Sorge zu tragen, whose duty it is to see that all the orders of dass alle Anordnungen des Directoriums und the Council and Masters are strictly carried Lehrercollegiums pünktlich ausgeführt, dass out, that the lessons are regularly attended to die Lehrstunden regelmässig von den by the students, and that order is preserved in Schülern besucht und überhaupt, dass in allen the working of the Institution. Angelegenheiten des Instituts möglichst Ordnung gehalten werde.

§. 7. §. 7. Der Unterricht der Schülerinnen ist (mit Lady pupils are instructed in separate Ausnahme der allgemeinen Uebungen im classes, excepting, of course, the general Solospiel, Solo- und Chor-Gesang,) von dem practice of Ensemble Playing, Choral der Schüler völlig getrennt. Singing, Orchestral Performances etc. etc.

§. 8. §. 8. Der vollständige Cursus der Theorie der The complete course of the Theory of Musik dauert, wie oben (§. 2.) erwähnt wurde, Music, as mentioned in §. 2., occupies three 3 Jahre, und es kann dieser Zeitraum nur unter years, which time can be reduced only under den daselbst angeführten Bedingungen the conditions there stated. For the duration of verringert werden. Für die Dauer des practical instruction no fixed time can be praktischen Unterrichts lässt sich, der Natur named, for the greater or less amount of der Sache nach, kein bestimmter Zeitraum general and technical progress depends angeben, indem die grössere oder geringere entirely, upon the talent and diligence of the Ausbildung und Fertigkeit lediglich vom pupil. Talent und Fleisse des Schülers abhängt. No pupil, however, will be admitted for a Für kürzere Zeit als ein Jahr kann jedoch shorter period than one year; and those who kein Schüler aufgenommen werden, und leave the Institution for any reason whatever derjenige, welcher das Institut aus irgend (except in case of sickness to be certified by a einem Grunde, mit Ausnahme von ärztlich Physician) before the expiration of that time, bescheinigten Krankheitsfallen, früher must pay the fee for the whole year, to do verlassen sollte, hat das festgesetzte Honorar which jointly with their parents or guardians,

198 für das ganze Jahr zu bezahlen, wozu er sich they must bind themselves upon admission, nebst seinen Aeltern oder Vormündern bei der according to the form of declaration appended Aufnahme verbindlich machen muss. (Siehe (see p. 23). das beigefügte Formular.)

§. 9. §. 9. Nur zu Ostern und Michael eines jeden Pupils as a rule, can be received into the Jahres, zu welcher Zeit für alle untern Classen Institution at Easter and Michaelmas only, at immer ein neuer Cursus beginnt, können in which terms a new course commences in all der Regel neue Schüler in das Institut the lower classes. The day of preliminary eintreten, und es wird der Tag der Aufnahme examination, and reception is each time made und der vorhergehenden Prüfung jedesmal in known through the principal home and den gelesensten in- und ausländischen foreign newspapers and music journals. Zeitungen und musikalischen Journalen Foreigners, however, living at a distance, will bekannt gemacht. Fern wohnenden be admitted at other times, provided they have Ausländern soll der Eintritt jedoch auch zu already acquired sufficient theoretical and anderer Zeit gestattet sein, wenn sie so viel practical knowledge to enable them to join the theoretische Kenntnisse erlangt haben, dass classes at the point already reached. sie im Stande sind, sich dem schon vorgeschrittenen Unterrichte anzuschliessen; für solche Fälle bestehen Hülfselassen, in welchen neben dem regelmässigen Unterricht, die noch fehlenden Kenntnisse nachgeholt werden Aüssen.

§. 10. §. 10. Von den aufzunehmenden Schulern und Pupils, who desire to be admitted must Schulerinnen werden folgende Erfordernisse have the following qualifications: verlangt: a. They must possess sufficient general a. Sie müssen so viel allgemeine education to be able to understand and Schulbildung erlangt haben, dass sie to follow a regular lecture. im Stande sind, einen geordneten b. Foreigners must have acquired the Vortrag zu fassen and demselben zu German language to such a degree as to folgen be able to understand the lectures, b. Ausländer müssen der deutschen which are in that language. Those who Sprache in so weit mächtig sein, als are unable to do this must acquire that nöthig ist, die in deutscher Sprach zu Knowledge by means of private haltenden Vorträge zu verstehen. lessons. Diejenigen, bei denen diess nicht der c. They must possess real talent, and Fall ist, haben sich desshalb durch preliminary musical knowledge. Privatunterricht in der deutschen d. Those only who possess a good and Sprache diese Fertigkeit zu erwerben. promising voice, are allowed to devote c. Sie müssen wirkliches Talent und die themselves to the higher branches of zur Aufnahme erforderlichen singing. musikalischen Vorkenntnisse besitzen e. Pupils who are not yet of age, must (Noten-, Tonleiter- und Taktkenntniss, before admission, bring with them, the einige Fertigkeit auf dem Pianoforte, written permission of their parents or oder Violine oder im Gesange), guardians. (See form p. 23.)

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worüber namentlich von Ausländern f. Foreign pupils must be provided with a wo möglich Zeugnissse der frühern Passport, or similar document, valid for Lehrer beizubringen sind. the duration of their stay. d. Diejenigen, welche sich dem höhern g. No impediment is placed in the way of Gersange vorzugsweise widmen those who, being of more advanced wollen, müssen eine gute und age, or married, desire to visit the bildsame Stimme haben. Ueber die Royal Conservatorium of Music with a Zulassung zu den Gesangübungen hat, view to cultivate their love for music, bei zweifelhaftem either technically, theoretically, or Gesundheitszustande, so wie bei both. eingetretener Stimm-Mutation, nöthigenfalls der Instituts-Arzt zu entscheiden. e. Noch nicht selbstständige Schüler haben vor ihrer Aufnahme die schriftliche Erlaubniss ihrer Aeltern oder Vormünder beizubringen. (Siehe das Formular, am Ende dieser Blätter.) f. Es muss sich jeder Schüler über sein früheres sittliches Verhalten durch glaubhafte Zeugnisse seiner Aeltern oder frühern Lehrer auf Verlangen ausweisen können. g. Auswärtige Schüler haben sich mit einem auf die Dauer ihres hiesigen aufenthaltes ausgestellten Passe oder sonstiger Legitimation zu versehen.

§. 11. §. 11. Ein jeder, der sich als Schüler des Every pupil applying for admission to the Conservatoriums meldet, hat vor der Conservatorium must first undergo an Aufnahme eine Prüfung vor einer besondern examination by a Commission appointed for Prüfungscommission zu bestehen, aus that purpose, by whom it will be ascertained welcher sich ergeben wird, ob er Talent und whether he (or she) possesses the talent and die zur Aufnahme erforderlichen education necessary for reception, and who musikalischen Vorkenntnisse besitzt, und will determine which classes the student is to welchen Classen er zuzutheilen ist. Zur join. To enable the Examiners to form their Beurtheilung praktischer Leistungen hat judgment, each pupil must bring and play desshalb jeder Angemeldete möglichst gut some well-practiced pieces of music not eingeübte Musikstücke (Pianoforte-, Orgel-, necessarily of great difficulty. Those who Violin- oder Gesangstücke) mitzubringen, um have already made attempts at composition, dieselben vor der Prüfungscommission should send copies of their productions to the auszuführen. Diejenigen, welche sich bereits Council (post-free) before their admission, or, in schriftlichen musikalischen Arbeiten und at least, lay them before the Examiners at the eignen Compositionen versucht haben, haben preliminary examination. dieselben vor der Aufnahme portofrei an das Directorium einzusenden, oder wenigstens bei der Prüfung vorzulegen.

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§. 12. §. 12. Jeder aufzunehmende Schüler hat sich Every pupil when admitted has to submit folgenden Disciplinar-Anordnungen zu to the following rules, and must pledge unterwerfen auch die Kenntniss und Erfüllung himself (herself) orally and in writing to make derselben bei seiner Aufnahme durch himself (herself) acquainted with them and to Handschlag und seine eigenhändige observe them. Each pupil will receive on his Namensunterschrift zu bestätigen und (her) admission a pass-card, which must be anzugeloben. preserved, and returned on leaving the institute. In the event of such a pass-card being lost, the fact must forthwith be notified to the Council. A fee of one Mark has to be paid for a duplicate. Disciplinar-Reglement. Disciplinary Rules. 1. Kein Zögling des Conservatoriums 1. No pupil of the Conservatorium is darf ohne genügende Entschuldigung allowed to miss any of the lessons eine Unterrichtsstunde versäumen. without sufficient excuse. 2. Jeder Zögling hat sich den 2. Every pupil has to submit Anordnugen des Directorium und der unconditionally to the orders of the Lehrer unbedingt zu unterwerfen. Council and the Masters. 3. Jeder Aufgenommene hat, abgesehn 3. The Council has to decide which davon, welchem Instrumente (Clavier, classes each pupil is to join; the Violine, Orgel) er sich vorzugsweise pupils, therefore, have no right to widmen will, jedenfalls an dem choose their masters for themselves, Unterrichte im Generalbass, nor can they demand to have lessons Clavierspiel und Gesang regelmässig from two different masters in the same Theil zu nehmen. Hiervon kann nur branch of instruction. das Directorium in besonders dazu 4. Every pupil (whatever the instrument geeigneten Fällen dispensiren. may be to which he [she] especially 4. Unterricht im Solo-Gesang erhalten devotes himself [herself] must also nur die, welche sich zu Solo-Sängern regularly attend the instruction in und -Sängerinnen ausbilden wollen Harmony, and Class or Choral und, nach dem Urtheile der Lehrer und Singing, these branches of instruction des Instituts-Arztes, sich dazu being obligatory. The study of Piano qualifieiren. is obligatory for those pupils only who 5. Kein Zögling darf, so lange derselbe devote themselves to Solo-Singing, an dem Unterricht im Conservatorium and of course for those whose Theil nimmt und aus letzterem noch principal object is the Piano. All other nicht förmlich entlassen ist, an irgend pupils may attend the lessons of Piano einem öffentlichen Orte, wo es auch or not. As soon as those pupils who sein möge, weder im Orchester, noch receive instruction in playing als Solospieler, noch als Sänger orchestral instruments (stringed and auftreten. Hiervon kann nur das wind-instruments) are declared Directorium nach Vernehmen mit den competent by the Directors to take betreffenden Lehrern, und nur in part in orchestral performances or seltenen Fällen dispensiren. greater or minor importance arranged 6. Da der Ruf und das Gedeihen des by the Institution, such pupils are Instituts wesentlich mit von dem bound to join the orchestra. This sittlichen Benehmen der Zöglinge

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desselben abhängt, so hält das cooperation in orchestral Directorium sich für verpflichtet, die performances is compulsory. Zöglinge auch ausserhalb der Anstalt 5. Instruction in Solo-Singing will be nicht aus den Augen zu lassen. given to those only who, in the Unsittliches Verhalten und sonstige opinion of the Masters and, if Uebertretungen obiger Vorschriften necessary, of a Physician, are werden vom Directorio mit Ernst considered qualified. geahndet und nach Befinden im 6. No pupil, whilst belonging to the Wiederholungsfalle mit Entfernung Conservatorium, and who has not aus dem Institut bestraft werden. been formally granted permission, is 7. Ausser Obigem macht sich noch jeder allowed to take part, in any public Schüler und Schülerinn bei Verlust performance, wherever it may be, des Abgangszeugnisses verbindlich, either as a solo-player or a solo-singer, den dereinstigen Abgang aus dem nor is he (she) allowed to perform in Conservatorium ¼ Jahr vorher dem any other orchestra, or to sing in any Directorium anzuzeigen. Choral Society. The Council along can dispense with the observance of this rule when they and the Masters may think I advisable. 7. The pupils are strictly forbidden to take private lessons from outside masters in those branches in which they are instructed at the Conservatorium. 8. Should any performance at the Public Practice Evenings call forth applause, it must be kept within the bound prescribed by the circumstances of the case. No pupil is permitted to respond to a recall. 9. As the reputation and prosperity of the Conservatorium depends in a great measure upon the conduct of the pupils, the Council feels bound to exercise a strict watchfulness over all the members of the same, not only in the Institution, but also in their respective homes. In case of any moral irregularity or infringement of the preceding rules (see 1 to 8) the offender will be seriously reprimanded by the Council, and immediately expelled, if the nature of the offense renders that course advisable. In that case the testimonial usually given on leaving the Institution will be withheld and any fees paid in advance forfeited.

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10. All pupils are required to give three months’ notice before leaving the Conservatorium, under penalty of forfeiting the customary testimonial of their abilities on their departure. The terms for leaving the Institution are Easter and Michaelmas (See §. 8.) 11. No dispensation can be granted of the summer term with the effect of acquitting pupils from the obligation of paying the fees for the summer half year. Any pupil leaving the institution at Easter, can only be readmitted at Michaelmas of the same year on condition of paying the fees for the past half year.

§. 13. §. 13. Der Unterricht dauert das ganze Jahr The lessons continue throughout the year, hindurch, mit Ausnahme der Sonn- und with the exception of Sundays and Holidays, Festtage und folgender festgesetzter Ferien: and of the vacations to be fixed by the a. Zu Ostern, vom Gründonnerstag an Council. For the present these vacations are as bis zum Ende der Osterwoche. follows: b. Sommerferien 4 Wochen, gewöhnlich a. At Easter, from Monday–Thursday to im Juli und August. Der Anfang the end of Easter-Week. derselben wird in jedem Jahre näher b. Whitsuntide, from Saturday until bestimmt. Wednesday inclusive. c. Zu Michaelis 8 Tage, vom 1. bis mit c. Summer-Holidays: 2 months, August dem 7. October. and September. d. At Christmas: from December 23rd to d. Zu Weihnachten 8 Tage, vom 24. nd December bis 1. Januar. January 2 inclusive. Denjenigen Schülern, welche die Ferienzeit The Summer-Term begins as before on nicht zu Reisen benutzen, werden, um sie Monday after the Easter-Week and closes at the end of July; the Winter-Term begins on nicht unbeschäftigt zu lassen, von den st betreffenden Lehrern Aufgaben gegeben, the 1 October and ends on Wednesday welche sie während dieser Zeit auszuarbeiten before Easter. oder einzuüben haben. Auch finden während Exercises will be provided by the Masters eines Theiles der Sommerferien (b) for those pupils who may wish to continue wöchentlich musikalische Gesammtübungen their studies during the holidays. für sämmtliche anwesende Schüler und Schülerinnen im Conservatorium statt.

§. 14. §. 14. Am Ende eines jeden Halbjahres, Towards Easter of each year Public gewöhnlich gegen Ostern und Michaelis, Examinations will be held, in some of which finden in Gegenwart des Directoriums und the compositions of advanced pupils will be der sämmtlichen Lehrer privatim und performed. Musical connoisseurs and critics will be invited to be present, so that the public

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öffentlich allgemeine Prüfungen Statt, um at large may become acquainted with the nach denselben die Forschritte der Schüler results of the training at the Institution. beurtheilen zu können, was zugleich Veranlassung geben wird, die fleissigen zu beloben und die lässigen zum Fleisse aufzumuntern. Zu diesen Prüfungen, in welchen immer einige Compositionen der fähigsten Schüler zur Aufführung kommen, werden von dem Directorium Freunde und Kenner der Musik eingeladen, um auch das grössere Publikum mit den Leistungen des Instituts bekannt zu machen.

§. 15. §. 15. Beim Austritte aus dem Institute erhalten On leaving the Institution the students in der Regel jeder Schüler und jede Schülerin receive from the Council a testimonial (§. 12. (cf. §. 12,7.) ein von dem Directorium ¶ 10.), in which the time spent at the ausgefertigtes Zeugniss, in welchem die Zeit Conservatorium, their attention to study, the ihres Aufenthalts im Institute, ihr auf das progress made, as well as their moral conduct Studium verwendeter Fleiss, und der Grad during the time of their stay at Leipzig are von Ausbildung, welchen sie erreicht haben, faithfully stated. A fee of three Marks is der Wahrheit gemäss angegeben ist. charged for this certificate which contains in Keiner, dem ein solches Zeugniss extensor the remarks of all the teachers. mangelt, wird für einen in der legalen Form No pupil who leaves without such a aus der Anstalt entlassenen Schüler derselben testimonial, is recognized by the Institution. anerkannt.

§. 16. §. 16. Das Honorar für den gesammten The fee for the whole course of instruction Unterricht, mit Ausnahme der unter §. 3 is 360 Marks a year, payable in advance to the erwähnten Orchesterinstrumente, beträgt Treasurer of the Institution in three jährlich 80 Thaler im 14 Thaler Fusse, installments of 120 Marks each, at Easter, welches vierteljährlich pränumerando mit 20 Michaelmas, and Christmas. Each pupil has Thalern an die Casse des Instituts zu also to pay on admission an Entrance-Fee of entrichten ist. Ausserdem hat jeder Schüler 10 Marks. Those who devote themselves to und jede Schülerin bei der Aufnahme 3 Thaler organ-playing, may have hours assigned to Receptionsgeld ein für allemal, und 1 Thaler them for practice on of the Instruments, jährlich für den Institutsdiener zu bezahlen. belonging to the institution for a charge of 50 Pfennig an hour.

§. 17. §. 17. Für Sachsen bestehen sechs von Sr. Pupils have to find their own instruments, Majestät dem Könige gestiftete Freistellen, music, and books necessary for their studies; welche immer auf ein Jahr vergeben, und bei but the instruments used in the besonders befähigten und fleissigen Schülern Conservatorium for the lessons are provided auf zwei und drei Jahre verlängert werden. by the Institution. Foreigners who do not Die Freischüler, welche ein besonderes bring a pianoforte of their own can easily hire Zeugniss ihrer Bedürftigkeit beizubringen one in Leipzig.

204 haben, erhalten den sämmtlichen Unterricht unentgeldlich und haben nur bei ihrer Aufnahme 3 Thaler Recptionsgeld und jährlich 1 Thaler für den Institutsdiener zu bezahlen. Die Freischüler stehen in Allem mit den übrigen Schülern gleich.

§. 18. Ein jeder Schüler hat sich die zu seinen Privatübungen nöthigen Instrumente und Musikalien, so wie die erforderlichen Lehrbücher auf eigene Kosten anzuschaffen, wogegen die von den Lehrern in den Unterrichsstunden zu brauchenden Instrumente und Musikalien von dem Institute besorgt werden. Auswärtige, welche kein eignes Pianoforte mit hieher bringen, können ein solches Instrument aus einer der hiesigen Instrumenten-Leihanstalten miethweise erhalten.

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APPENDIX C

MOST FREQUENTLY PROGRAMMED COMPOSERS AND NUMBER OF PERFORMANCES: LEIPZIG, OBERLIN, NEC

Rank Leipzig Oberlin NEC 1 Mendelssohn 581 Chopin 1013 Chopin 1256 2 Beethoven 405 R. Schumann 683 Beethoven 1112 3 J. S. Bach 238 Liszt 655 Liszt 924 4 Mozart 224 Beethoven 626 Mendelssohn 827 5 R. Schumann 218 J. S. Bach 613 R. Schumann 712 6 Chopin 164 Mendelssohn 493 J. S. Bach 710 7 C. Reinecke 140 Schubert 452 Mozart 596

8 Brahms 138 MacDowell 449 Schubert 468 9 Moscheles 138 Grieg 405 Brahms 357 10 C. M. v. Weber 129 Brahms 388 Saint-Saëns 344 11 F. David 109 Saint-Saëns 350 Handel 333 12 Schubert 101 Wagner 350 Rubinstein 284 13 Spohr 96 Rubinstein 328 Grieg 254 14 Liszt 85 Tchaikovsky 258 Chadwick 243 15 J. Haydn 76 A. Guilmant 248 Gounod 242 16 Handel 67 Rheinberger 229 Haydn 215 17 M. Bruch 57 Godard 220 Raff 214 18 Rubinstein 51 Schuett 213 Wagner 196 19 Rheinberger 48 Mozart 210 A. Guilmant 182 20 Grieg 46 Handel 202 C. M. v. Weber 179 21 J. N. Hummel 43 Moszkowski 182 Moszkowski 164 22 Saint-Saëns 42 Gounod 162 MacDowell 162 23 E. F. Richter 40 R. Strauss 145 Debussy 156 24 M. Hauptmann 38 Chaminade 140 Rossini 152 25 R. Volkmann 38 R. Franz 140 Rheinberger 150 26 F. Hiller 35 Massenet 133 G. Verdi 136 27 Wagner 34 Jensen 130 Tchaikovsky 121 28 H. Sitt 32 Haydn 128 Donizetti 107 29 Tchaikovsky 30 Sinding 126 Meyerbeer 107 30 Vieuxtemps 30 Debussy 121 Whiting 104 31 Gade 26 Dvořák 121 Widor 101 32 Goltermann 25 Raff 116 Porter 100

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Rank Leipzig Oberlin NEC 33 J. Klengel 24 Fauré 93 Godard 95 34 Rossini 23 Rachmaninoff 93 Massenet 88 35 B. Molique 21 C. M. v. Weber 93 C. Franck 85 36 M. Reger 21 Gade 91 R. Franz 85 37 R. Franz 20 A. Beach 88 C. Reinecke 82 38 F. Holstein 20 G. Verdi 87 Fauré 78 39 Marschner 19 H. Wieniawski 84 Paderewski 77 40 J. Rietz 19 C. Franck 83 H. M. Dunham 72 41 N. Paganini 18 G. W. Andrews 79 W. T. Best 71 42 R. Strauss 18 D. Buck 73 H. Wieniawski 70 43 S. Jadassohn 17 Leschetizky 73 Lemmens 65 44 Gluck 15 Widor 66 Rotoli 65 45 C. Löwe 15 Arensky 65 Vieuxtemps 63 46 C. Davidoff 14 Foote 64 C. F. Dennée 62 47 A. Henselt 14 Goring Thomas 63 A. D. Turner 62 48 Lipinsky 14 Chadwick 62 Spohr 61 49 Popper 14 Paderewski 62 Tosti 61 50 J. Raff 14 H. W. Parker 62 Schütt 60 51 H. Wieniawski 14 Nevin 61 A. Beach 56 52 de Beriot 13 Hahn 59 Böhm 56 53 H. Ernst 13 Tausig 59 Gluck 56 54 Kreutzer 13 Kreisler 58 Jensen 56 55 Meyerbeer 13 M. Bruch 57 X. Scharwenka 54 56 H. Wolf 13 von Fielitz 55 R. Strauss 54 57 C. F. Becker 12 F. Ries 55 de Beriot 53 58 Cherubini 12 Rossini 54 G. Merkel 53 59 A. Jensen 12 M. T. Salter 54 Scarlatti 53 60 A. Klughardt 12 X. Scharwenka 54 Chaminade 52 61 Ritter 12 Henschel 53 Dvořák 52 62 Bellini 11 G. Merkel 53 Foote 51 63 F. Hermann 11 Delibes 52 Heller 50 64 O. Nicolai 11 C. Reinecke 52 J. N. Hummel 50 65 X. Scharwenka 11 Henselt 51 H. W. Parker 50 66 J. Field 10 L. Lehmann 51 Popper 49 67 H. Götz 10 Bizet 47 Goring Thomas 49 68 Gounod 10 Gluck 47 Bizet 48 69 K. Grammann 10 Elgar 46 Bellini 47 70 A. Lortzing 10 G. Sgambati 46 Henselt 45

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Rank Leipzig Oberlin NEC 71 G. Verdi 10 Bemberg 45 Cowen 43 72 D’Albert 9 Scarlatti 45 Rachmaninoff 43 73 W. S. Bennett 9 H. Wolf 45 D. Buck 41 74 Donizetti 9 Lassen 44 Tausig 41 75 A. Guilmant 9 Lemare 43 Bemberg 39 76 A. Thomas 9 L. Ronald 43 D’Albert 37 77 E. Lalo 8 Sjögren 41 F. Ries 37 78 G. Merkel 8 C. Löwe 40 M. Bruch 36 79 A. Stradella 8 Hildach 39 Brassin 34 80 C. Piutti 7 Böhm 38 Gade 33 81 Servais 7 Dubois 38 H. Smart 33 82 C. Baermann 6 Vieuxtemps 36 Dubois 31 83 F. Grützmacher 6 Coleridge Taylor 35 Dancla 30 84 J. Joachim 6 E. Lalo 35 Sgambati 30 85 E. Kretschmer 6 H. Hofmann 33 Goldmark 29 86 F. Lachner 6 Svendsen 33 Vannuccini 29 87 Lindner 6 J. H. Rogers 32 Pergolesi 28 88 Moszkowski 6 de Beriot 31 Ponchielli 27 89 R. Papperitz 6 D’Albert 30 Sullivan 27 90 Rachmaninoff 6 Balakirev 30 F. Hiller 26 91 Bazzini 5 German 30 Moscheles 26 92 Busoni 5 Spohr 30 Clementi 25 93 Dussek 5 Wilhelmj 30 Mattei 25 94 Dvořák 5 F. Hiller 29 Mercadante 25 95 Fuchs 5 M. Lang 29 Arensky 24 96 Halévy 5 C. Scott 28 Leschetizsky 24 97 S. Liapounow 5 J. A. Carpenter 27 Tours 24 98 L. Maurer 5 W. Mason 27 Lefébure Wély 24 99 Méhul 5 Sibelius 27 Batiste 23 100 A. Piatti 5 Smetana 27 Boellmann 23 101 B. Romberg 5 Meyerbeer 26 Delibes 23 102 G. Bizet 4 Pierne 26 Henschel 23 103 P. Cornelius 4 Popper 26 Rink 23 104 F. von Flotow 4 M. Reger 26 H. Sitt 23 105 J. Gallus 4 Brassin 25 Baermann 22 106 B. Godard 4 Goldmark 25 Costa 22 107 W. Herfuth 4 Hubay 25 Kreisler 22 108 F. Herther 4 Leroux 25 Servais 22

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Rank Leipzig Oberlin NEC 109 G. Kissig 4 N. Paganini 25 Sibelius 22 110 A. Maillart 4 A. Thomas 25 Sinding 22 111 F. Ries 4 Boisdeffre 24 L. Vierne 22 112 F. W. Rust 4 Bungert 24 Sarasate 21 113 J. Schneider 4 Pergolesi 24 Schytte 21 114 G. Schreck 4 Sarasate 24 115 T. Vitali 4 Stojowski 24

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APPENDIX D

LEIPZIG STUDENTS IN EARLY AMERICAN SYMPHONY ORCHESTRAS

Below are the numerous Leipzig students for served in early American symphony orchestras, presented by orchestra. Some individuals appear multiple times within more than one orchestra.

Boston Symphony, founded 1881366

Country of Residence Leipzig Student Instrument Years Served before attending Leipzig Conservatory Bayrhoffer, Carl violoncello 1881–1882 Germany Fritzche, Otto George bass clarinet 1901–1907 Germany Gantzberg, Julius violin 1888–1891 USA Hahn, Frederick E. violin 1892–1897 USA Kloepfel, Louis F. trumpet 1898–1927 Germany Kneer, Joseph violin 1887–1890 USA Kurth, Richard violin 1883–1891; 1892–1926 Listemann, Fritz violin 1881–1885 Germany Sauer, George Frederic viola 1890–1892; 1894–1909 Schmidt, Ernst Kleber violoncello 1882–1885 USA Schmidt, Louis Adolph violin 1882–1885 USA

366Information taken from Mark A. De Wolfe Howe, The Boston Symphony Orchestra, 1881–1931, Semicentennial ed. (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1931), 230–42 and Larry Huffman, The Stokowski Legacy, http://www.stokowski.org (accessed October 28, 2018). 210

Chicago Symphony, founded 1891367

Country of Residence Leipzig Student Instrument Years Served before attending Leipzig Conservatory Demuth, Frederick Joseph violin 1909–1911 USA Ferner, Walter violoncello 1915–1919 USA Friedrich, Oscar bassoon; 1910–1912 USA contrabassoon Jennison, Paul violoncello 1895–1896 USA Meyer, Hans clarinet 1895–1897 USA Pottag, Max Paul horn 1907–1946 Germany Schmidt, Ernst Kleber violin 1896–1898 USA Unger, Walter G. A. violoncello 1891–1919 Germany

Cincinnati Symphony, founded 1895368

Country of Residence Leipzig Student Instrument Years Served before attending Leipzig Conservatory Eich, Heinrich (Henry) violin 1909–1911 USA

Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, founded 1883369

Country of Residence Leipzig Student Instrument Years Served before attending Leipzig Conservatory Seidel, Anton conductor 1885–1897 Hungary

367Information taken from “Former Members of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra,” https://cso.org/uploadedFiles/8_about/History_-_Rosenthal_archives/former_musicians.pdf (accessed October 28, 2018). 368Information taken from Louis Russel Thomas, “A History of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra to 1931” (Ph.D. diss., The University of Cincinnati, 1972), 737. 369Information taken from Huffman, The Stokowski Legacy. 211

New York Philharmonic Society, founded 1842370

Country of Residence Leipzig Student Instrument Years Served371 before attending Leipzig Conservatory Arnold, Richard violin; 1876–1909 USA concertmaster Bernstein, Adolf violin 1891–1892 USA Reitzel, John Charles violin 1891–1892 USA Schmidt, Louis violin 1891–1892 USA Skalmer, Mark violoncello 1917 USA Wenzel, Charles violoncello 1917 USA

Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, founded 1895372

Country of Residence Year Service Leipzig Student Instrument before attending Began Leipzig Conservatory Brosky, Frank violin 1907 USA Friedrich, Oscar double bass 1902 USA Hahn, Charles violin 1898 USA Irwin, Henry violin 1896 USA Jennison, Paul bassoon 1896 USA Leventhal, Samuel violin 1900 USA Listemann, Franz violoncello 1896 USA Listemann, Paul violin; 1896 USA concertmaster Lund, Otto violin 1902 USA Parker, Charles violoncello 1896 USA Saylor, Herbert Franklin violin 1905 USA viola 1909 Wenzel, Charles R. violin 1897 USA cello 1900

370Information taken from Henry Edward Krehbiel, The Philharmonic Society of New York: A Memorial (New York: Da Capo Press, 1979), 173, and Huneker, 37. 371Duration of service is uncertain for New York Philharmonic Society members, but musicians did appear on these specific rosters for the season. 372Information taken from Hax McCullough and Mary Brignano, Play On: An Illustrated History of the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh Symphony, 2011), 182–89. 212

Philadelphia Orchestra, founded 1900373

Country of Residence Leipzig Student Instrument Years Served before attending Leipzig Conservatory Beck, William violin 1906–1909 USA Bransky, Isador Aaron viola 1919–1920 USA Ebann, William (Wilhelm) violoncello; 1901–1902 USA principal Frey, Nathan viola 1921–1924 USA Friese, (Paul) Alfred percussion 1901–1905 Germany Hase, Albert double bass 1901–1904 Hennig, Rudolph violoncello; 1900–1901 Germany principal Horner, Anton horn 1902–1945 Bohemia Jakob, Joseph A. horn 1909–1910 USA Minsel, Robert horn 1901–1904 Germany Mueller, Otto F. violin 1907–1914 Germany Pottag, Max Paul horn 1901–1902 Germany Querengaesser, Karl Theodor double bass 1901–1915 Then Germany; now Poland Rhodes, John (Johann viola 1901–1902 USA Friedrich) Rice, Louis M. (L. M.) viola 1902–1903 USA Rich, Thaddeus violin; 1906–1926 USA concertmaster Saylor, Herbert Franklin violin 1904–1905 USA Sokoloff, Isador violoncello 1914–1918 USA Wenzel, Charles R. violoncello 1904–1906 USA

373Information taken from John Ardoin, ed., The Philadelphia Orchestra: A Century of Music (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 222–27, and Huffman, The Stokowski Legacy. 213

Saint Louis Symphony, founded 1880374

Country of Residence Leipzig Student Instrument Years Served375 before attending Leipzig Conservatory Ammann, Walter Robert (W. R.) violoncello 1925–1926 USA Lichtenstein, Victor violin 1905–1907 USA

San Francisco Symphony, founded 1911376

Country of Residence Leipzig Student Instrument Years Served before attending Leipzig Conservatory Ferner, Walter violoncello 1921–1925 USA Hidden, Reginald L. violin 1913–1926 USA Lichtenstein, Victor viola 1921–1938 USA Nielsen, Albert W. violoncello 1911–1916 USA Persinger, Louis H. violin; 1915–1925 USA concertmaster Rosenbecker, Adolph violin; 1912–1916 Germany concertmaster Roth, Paul horn 1912–1934; Germany 1935–1950

374Information taken from Katherine Gladney Wells, Symphony & Song: The Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra (Tucson, Arizona: The Patrice Press, 1980), 17–27. 375Duration of service is uncertain for Saint Louis Symphony members, but musicians did appear on these specific rosters for the season. 376Information taken from Huffman, The Stokowski Legacy. 214

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Joanna Pepple earned the Master of Music degree in Music in Theory/Composition from

East Carolina University (2012), Master of Music in Violin Performance from Appalachian State

University (2010), and Bachelor of Music in Violin Performance from Mercer University (2008).

In 2014 and 2015 she was awarded grants from the DAAD (German Academic Exchange

Service) for Language Study and Short-Term Graduate Research, respectively. She has presented her research at both national and regional conferences of The College of Music Society. She has also written a book chapter on William Bradbury and his hymns, to be published in A Legacy of

Hymnists: Historical and Theological Introductions (Cascade Books, 2019).

At Florida State University, Joanna served as a Graduate Teaching Assistant, teaching music history courses for undergraduate music majors. She also taught undergraduate music theory and fundamentals at East Carolina University, and created and managed a music theory lab for tutoring undergraduate music majors. As a violinist she has served as a contract player with the Albany Symphony, Macon Symphony, and Western Piedmont Symphony. At

Appalachian State University, Joanna served as a Graduate Assistant in the Hayes Graduate

String Quartet, playing both violin and viola.

Joanna is a co-founder of the Tallahassee Homeschool String Orchestra, an organization consisting of six ensembles comprising about 100 homeschool string students, and she is currently directing the orchestras in their fifth year. She completed training and is certified as a

Suzuki violin teacher in Books 1 through 10. Currently, Joanna teaches violin and viola at both

Thomasville Road Academy of the Arts and independently in her home studio. Joanna loves working with students and sharing her passion for learning and music.

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