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Li-Ion Polymer Batteries

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Li-Ion Polymer Batteries CM0256 Pervasive Computing Lecture 8 – Power Sources Tom Goodale [email protected] Lecture Outline In this lecture we: Examine power sources for mobile devices What power sources are there ? What are their characteristics ? What are their limitations ? Power Sources Mechanical e.g. clockwork Electrical mains power solar power batteries fuel cell Radiation ? Batteries A battery is a device to store energy and make it available in electrical form. Electricity is produced by a chemical reaction, producing electricity, and some by-products, such as heat or gases. In rechargable batteries this chemical reaction is reversible. Battery Arrangements Strictly, an electrical “battery” is an interconnected array of one or more similar “cells”. In current English usage, however, it is more common to call a single cell used on its own a battery than a cell. For example, a hand lamp (flashlight) (torch) is said to take one or more "batteries" even though they may be D cells. A car battery is a true "battery" because it uses multiple cells. Multiple batteries or cells may also be refered to as a battery pack, such as a set of multi-cell 12 V batteries in an electric vehicle. Battery Arrangements In almost any device that uses batteries, you do not use just one cell at a time. You normally group them together serially to form higher voltages, or in parallel to form higher currents. In a serial arrangement, the voltages add up. In a parallel arrangement, the currents add up. The upper arrangement is called a parallel arrangement. If you assume that each cell produces 1.5 volts, then four batteries in parallel will also produce 1.5 volts, but the current supplied will be four times that of a single cell. The lower arrangement is called a serial arrangement. The four voltages add together to produce 6 volts. Battery Arrangements Parallel arrangements suffer from the problem that, if one cell discharges faster than its neighbour, current will flow from the full cell to the empty cell, wasting power and possibly causing overheating. Even worse, if one cell becomes short-circuited due to an internal fault, its neighbour will be forced to discharge its maximum current into the faulty cell, leading to overheating and possibly explosion. Cells in parallel are therefore usually fitted with an electronic circuit to protect them against these problems. In both series and parallel types, the energy stored in the battery is equal to the sum of the energies stored in all the cells. Battery Capacity The capacity of a battery to store charge is often expressed in ampere hours (1 A·h = 3600 coulombs). If a battery can provide one ampere (1 A) of current (flow) for one hour, it has a real-world capacity of 1 A·h. If it can provide 1 A for 100 hours, its capacity is 100 A·h. Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current, the duration of the current, the allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors. Battery Capacity Battery manufacturers use a standard method to determine how to rate their batteries. The battery is discharged at a constant rate of current over a fixed period of time, such as 10 hours or 20 hours, down to a set terminal voltage per cell. So a 100 ampere-hour battery is rated to provide 5 A for 20 hours at room temperature. The efficiency of a battery is different at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates. This is Peukert's Law. Rechargeable and disposable batteries Batteries can be generally divided into two main types - rechargeable and non-rechargeable (disposable). Disposable batteries, (primary cells) are intended to be used once, until the chemical changes that induce the electrical current supply are complete, at which point the battery is discarded. These are most commonly used in smaller, portable devices with either low current drain, only used intermittently, or used well away from an alternative power source. By contrast, rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be re-charged after they have been drained. This is done by applying externally supplied electrical current which causes the chemical changes that occur in use to be reversed. Disposable (primary cell) Zinc-carbon battery low cost - used in light drain applications Zinc-chloride battery similar to zinc carbon but slightly longer life Alkaline battery alkaline/manganese "long life" batteries widely used in both light drain and heavy drain applications Silver-oxide battery commonly used in hearing aids Disposable (primary cell) Lithium battery commonly used in digital cameras. Sometimes used in watches and computer clocks. Very long life (up to ten years in wristwatches) and capable of delivering high currents but expensive Mercury battery commonly used in digital watches Zinc-air battery commonly used in hearing aids Rechargeable (secondary cell) Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) mature and well understood but relatively low in energy density. The NiCd is used where long life, high discharge rate and economical price are important. Main applications are two-way radios, biomedical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. The NiCd contains toxic metals and is not environmentally friendly. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) has a higher energy density compared to the NiCd at the expense of reduced cycle life. NiMH contains no toxic metals. Applications include mobile phones and laptop computers. Rechargeable (secondary cell) Lead Acid most economical for larger power applications where weight is of little concern. The lead acid battery is the preferred choice for hospital equipment, wheelchairs, emergency lighting and UPS systems. Lithium Ion (Li-ion) fastest growing battery system. Li-ion is used where high-energy density and light weight is of prime importance. The Li-ion is more expensive than other systems and must follow strict guidelines to assure safety. Applications include notebook computers and cellular phones. Rechargeable (secondary cell) Lithium Ion Polymer (Li-ion polymer) a potentially lower cost version of the Li-ion. This chemistry is similar to the Li-ion in terms of energy density. It enables very slim geometry and allows simplified packaging. Main applications are mobile phones. Reusable Alkaline replaces disposable household batteries; suitable for low-power applications. Its limited cycle life is compensated by low self-discharge, making this battery ideal for portable entertainment devices and flashlights. Characteristics of Common Rechargeable Battery Chemistries NiCD NiMH Li-ion Li-ion polymer Reusable alkaline Gravimetric energy 45 - 80 60 - 120 110 - 160 100 - 130 80 (initial) density (Wh/kg) Cycle life (to 80% 1500 300 to 500 500 to 1000 300 to 500 50 of initial capacity) Self discharge 20% 30% 10% ~10% 0% /Month (room temperature) Cell Voltage 1.25 V 1.25 V 3.6 V 3.6 V 1.5 V (nominal) The Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Battery Alkaline nickel battery technology originated in 1899, when Waldmar Jungner invented the NiCd battery. The materials were expensive compared to other battery types available at the time and its use was limited to special applications. In 1932, the active materials were deposited inside a porous nickel-plated electrode and in 1947, research began on a sealed NiCd battery, which recombined the internal gases generated during charge rather than venting them. These advances led to the modern sealed NiCd battery, which is in use today. NiCd The NiCd prefers fast charge to slow charge and pulse charge to DC charge. All other chemistries prefer a shallow discharge and moderate load currents. The NiCd is a strong and silent worker; hard labour poses no problem. In fact, the NiCd is the only battery type that performs best under rigorous working conditions. It does not like to be pampered by sitting in chargers for days and being used only occasionally for brief periods. A periodic full discharge is so important that, if omitted, large crystals will form on the cell plates (also referred to as 'memory') and the NiCd will gradually lose its performance. NiCd Among rechargeable batteries, NiCd remains a popular choice for applications such as two-way radios, emergency medical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. Over 50 percent of all rechargeable batteries for portable equipment are NiCd. However, the introduction of batteries with higher energy densities and less toxic metals is causing a diversion from NiCd to newer technologies. NiCd Advantages Fast and simple charge even after prolonged storage. High number of charge/discharge cycles if properly maintained, the NiCd provides over 1000 charge/discharge cycles. Good load performance the NiCd allows recharging at low temperatures. Long shelf life in any state-of-charge. Simple storage and transportation most airfreight companies accept the NiCd without special conditions. NiCd Advantages Good low temperature performance. Forgiving if abused the NiCd is one of the most rugged rechargeable batteries. Economically priced the NiCd is the lowest cost battery in terms of cost per cycle. Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options most NiCd cells are cylindrical. NiCd Limitations Relatively low energy density compared with newer systems. Memory effect the NiCd must periodically be exercised to prevent memory. Environmentally unfriendly the NiCd contains toxic metals. Some countries are limiting the use of the NiCd battery. Has relatively high self-discharge needs recharging after storage. The Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Battery Research of the NiMH system started in the 1970s as a means of discovering how to store hydrogen for the nickel hydrogen battery. Today, nickel hydrogen batteries are mainly used for satellite applications. They are bulky, contain high-pressure steel canisters and cost thousands of dollars each.
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