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URBAN TRANSPORTATION : & PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 11.540, Fall 2020 Friday 2:00-5:00 PM

Jim Aloisi MIT Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning Lecturer | Transportation Policy + Planning [email protected] | 1-229 | (617) 877-7583

Special Lecturer - Fred Salvucci MIT Center for Transportation & Logistics Urban Studies and Planning 1-229 | (617) 253-5378 [email protected]

Teaching Assistant: Rubén Grayson Morgan [email protected]

Course Purpose This course seeks to explore the full meaning of the term Sustainable Mobility and through that process develop an approach to transportation planning that responds to contemporary mobility needs and values, with an emphasis on justice. The course examines transportation policymaking and planning, its relationship to social and environmental justice and its relationship to the realities of politics, governance structures and institutional behavior. Inevitably, we will discuss planning and policymaking in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic, which brings an unprecedented level of uncertainty and complexity to the policy context. We will ask and try to answer the fundamental question: how can planners and policymaker participate in crafting a Response to COVID-19? We will also address the relationship of the transportation sector to Climate Change, and explore the tension between the legitimate focus on the pandemic and the need to address Climate Change as the existential threat to life as we know it.

Through the lens of history and current events, we will explore how attitudes and behaviors are influenced, and how change happens. We will examine the tensions and potential synergies among traditional transportation policy values of individual mobility, system efficiency, and business alliances with those of and communitarian values and long-term economic growth. Special emphasis will be placed on interpreting sustainability in the context of Livable Communities, both because that is where sustainability is actually experienced, and as a mechanism for building the political will to improve sustainability. The course will be taught through a Boston-oriented lens, which in my experience is not limiting but enlightening.

Class Structure Each class meeting will include a lecture and an interactive discussion of the readings and at least one lecture. Active participation in class discussion is an essential component of this class. We all learn from one another. Class discussion will integrate lectures, readings and assignments. Guest lecturers are chosen for their expertise and relevance to the course.

The classes are organized thematically in a manner that (hopefully) fits into a logical progression toward the ultimate goal: to advance our understanding of Sustainable Mobility and fit that understanding into a framework for contemporary, justice-oriented transportation planning and policy making.

Conducting the class online is a (hopefully temporary) reality that we need to collectively embrace. We will strive to make our interactions and discussions vibrant, engaging and unfettered by the artificiality of a virtual classroom experience. This is a journey we will navigate together in a collegial and collaborative experience.

Readings Students are expected to come to class having read the required readings and to participate actively in class discussions. There are three categories of readings.

Weekly Readings are an essential part of the course. They inform weekly discussion and interaction and, together with their respective Reading Responses, comprise an important (40%) component of your grade. These readings may be supplemented by occasional additions (usually recent news articles). You are expected to look at and be familiar with the assigned readings before each class; use your judgment about where to read in detail and where to skim.

Assignment Readings are meant to be read as a way to inform or illuminate the Assignments.

Omnibus Readings should be read at your own pace. Those that are marked “optional” are just that – they are here for your reading pleasure at your convenience during this class or at some other time, or never at all. Please note: I reserve the right to replace readings currently listed on the syllabus, or remove or add readings, in order to ensure that we are moving forward together in a manner that best sustains the momentum of the class. That does not mean you should expect wholesale changes, but please do not be surprised at the occasional departure from what is listed in the syllabus. Very little in life is perfectly linear.

Reading Responses You are required to submit a brief one-or-two-paragraph response to the readings each week by 3:00 PM Thursday. Please submit on the Canvass site in pdf format. The responses are not meant to be formal, but instead to help you engage with the class material and to help inform the class discussion. You should not spend more than 30 minutes each week on your Reading Response. Responses will count toward class participation. In your Response you should feel free to submit a question that you would like to discuss in class about the readings.

Walking Tour: bowing to the realities of the moment we will unfortunately forego our traditional walking tours. In their place, we will offer one or two videos for your viewing pleasure. Watch at your leisure & bring your own popcorn.

Attendance and Participation Students are expected to attend all classes and meaningfully contribute to class discussions. See Reading Responses, above, outlining specific requirements regarding class readings. Walking tours are optional unless I inform you otherwise. Attendance and the quality of class participation (including Reading Responses) will be 40% of the final grade.

Office Hours I will conduct zoom-based office hours (1) on Tuesday afternoons from 3pm-5pm, and (2) by appointment. I will also make myself available for a period of time after each class in the event students wish a one-on-one chat.

Current Events “All politics is local” as the late House Speaker Tip O’Neil used to say, and it is very important to follow one’s locality intensely. You are encouraged to read the New York Times, the Boston Globe and Commonwealth Magazine https://commonwealthmagazine.org. I also encourage you to check out websites for local transportation advocacy groups, including TransitMatters which is a technical advocacy group that is known for using data to influence progressive transit-oriented . http://transitmatters.org

Course Materials All required course readings will be distributed via Canvass.

Academic Integrity It goes without saying (even though I’m about to say it) that plagiarism and cheating are not tolerated, and that anyone caught cheating on an assignment will be reported in line with recognized university procedures. Of course, discussing, sharing and exchanging ideas and insights with your classmates is encouraged and is a key part to the learning experience of this course – even when it comes to individual assignments. However, when preparing your individual submissions please be honest with yourself and the other students: use your own words, give appropriate credit to the ideas of others, and always cite your sources.

Assignments The Assignments are focused on planning challenge and opportunity of the moment: revitalizing urban transit and encouraging a safer, more -resilient public realm. Specifically with respect to transit, the task is to identify policies and interventions that have the goal of increasing transit mode share by ten percent every five (5) years over the next twenty (20) years. “Transit” for purposes of this exercise includes all bus, subway, trolley and intercity (commuter) rail operated by the MBTA.

You should read through the Assignment Readings before beginning the first Assignment.

Each Assignment will build upon the other. However, you are free to change your opinion or emphasis or recommendations during the process of moving from Assignment to Assignment, based on your (potentially) changing views as the course proceeds.

1. The first assignment asks you to draft a detailed outline of a to revitalize urban transit and encourage a safer, more health-resilient public realm, as described above. You have the choice of being a planner working for the Boston Transportation Department or the MBTA. Once you make this choice you will stay with it through Assignments 2 and 3. Your outline will make an initial attempt to identify policies and interventions (short-term measures and longer term capital investments) that achieve the stated objectives. You should take into account proposed policies and interventions that your agency has direct control over as well as policies and interventions that another agency has control over, and you should consider and identify where funding will come from (e.g. existing federal or state programs, shifting existing funding, new funding from new sources). You should identify the stakeholders (federal, state, , community, advocacy groups, business community, residents and impacted commuters [all modes]) who will need to support your proposal. The outline should be ~3 pages.

2. For the second assignment, you will develop your Assignment 1 outline (taking into account any feedback received) into a “rich outline” – a significantly more developed narrative that begins to detail each element of your plan. This rich outline is the document that begins to flesh out the details of your proposals, demonstrating that you have thought through and can explain the full range of issues your boss will want to thoughtfully consider, including their efficacy, cost, funding viability, impacts on each mode and proposals to mitigate negative impacts, likelihood to gain necessary stakeholder and political support, impacts of any alterations to MBTA service , uses of and synergies among various transport modes, and potential or likely impacts on a broad spectrum of residents and stakeholders.

3. The third assignment is the final recommendation memo which should be a well-reasoned and fully developed memorandum to either the Mayor of Boston or the Chairman of the MBTA Board (depending on the choice you made in Assignment 1), making the case for a set of policies and interventions that help the city move toward a “new normal”. This memo may include graphics, illustrations, and other aides to making the case for the policies and interventions you propose. You should identify the broad range of stakeholders impacted by your recommendations and include recommendations regarding how to generate political will and develop consensus or buy-in among the various stakeholders. A realistic timeline for implementation, taking into account factors such as necessary or advisable public processes, applicable federal, state or local regulatory approvals, securing funding, and (if applicable) the design, construction and implementation of certain interventions, should be included in this memo.

We will have Review Sessions following submission of each Assignment, and students will be asked to lead presentation and discussion explaining/defending what they submitted.

Assignments In-Class Grading Due Discussion Introductory Assignment September 30, 4pm n/a - Assignment 1 – Draft a detailed outline of a plan to revitalize urban transit and encouraging a safer, more health- resilient public realm, as described in 10% October 13, 4pm October 16 more detail above.

Assignment 2 – Develop your Assignment 1 outline (taking into account any feedback received) into a “rich outline” according to the 20% October 27, 4pm October 30 instructions above.

Assignment 3 – Draft a Final recommendation Memorandum following the instructions above. December 1, 4pm December 4

30%

Participation (class discussion and 40% reading responses)

Assignment Readings The following readings and resources are meant to inform or illuminate the Assignments. You should use them to leverage other materials that may help you develop your thinking. 1. MBTA Quarterly Ridership Updates 2. Salvucci, F., “Boston Public Transit History” (2015) 3. Leinberger, C. and Lynch, P., “The WalkUp WakeUp Call: Boston” George Washington University School of Business. 4. MBTA Open Data Portal: https://mbta- massdot.opendata.arcgis.com/search?collection=Dataset 5. https://www.massdottracker.com/wp/?p=2879 6. Aloisi, J. Memo on the Sustainability Response to COVID-19 (2020) 7. Aloisi, J. “Getting to the New Normal” Commonwealth Magazine (2020) https://commonwealthmagazine.org/opinion/getting-to-the-new-normal/ 8. Transit Center, “Five Recommendations to Power a Fair Recovery” https://transitcenter.org/five-recommendations-for-better-bus-service-to-power-a-fair- recovery-in-nyc/ 9. National Association of State Transportation Officials (NACTO) COVID-19 Response Center https://nacto.org/program/covid19/ 10. TransitMatters Mobility Hub Initiative http://transitmatters.org/mobility-hubs 11. Livable COVID Response https://www.livablestreets.info/covid_19_response 12. Institute for Transportation & Development Policy (ITDP), various publications https://www.itdp.org/publications/ 13. Kryvozub, P., “Future of Urban Form”, Medium (2018). 14. Public and Stakeholder Engagement in Chicago Transit’s COVID-19 Response, Memo to RTA Board of Directors from Chicago advocacy groups, April 2020. 15. English, J., “The Commuting Principle That Shaped Urban History”, City Lab (2019). 16. Lynch, K. “Good City Form” Chapter 10 (1984). 17. Sengupta, S., and Popovich, N., “ Worldwide are Reimagining Their Relationship With ”, New York Times (November 2019). 18. Peters, A., “What Happened When Oslo Decided to Make Their Downtown Basically - Free?” Fast Company (2019).

Omnibus Readings. The following Omnibus Readings help inform the course themes. Most are designated “optional”; the 8 that are not so designated are strongly recommended.

1. History of Urban Transportation Planning (Weiner) 2. Lewis and Sprague. Federal Transportation Policy and the Role of Metropolitan Planning Organizations in California. Chapters 1 and 3. 3. Sperling, D., & Gordon, D. (2009). (Adapted summary) In Two Billion Cars: Driving Toward Sustainability. New York, NY: Oxford University Press 4. Vuchic, W. “City-Transportation Relationship”, Chapter 2 in Transportation for Livable Cities, Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University (pp. 23-80). 5. Calvino, Italo, “Invisible Cities” (1972) pp: 8-16 6. Lynch, K. “The Image of the City” (1960) pp: 1-13 7. Egalitarianism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013). 8. Black, E., “IBM and the Holocaust”, NY Times (2018). 9. https://padailypost.com/2019/06/08/state-sen-scott-wiener-makes-his-case-for-sb50-in- palo-alto/; https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/12/7/18125644/scott-wiener-sb- 50-california-housing; https://www.lamag.com/citythinkblog/sb-50-explainer/ (optional) 10. Grunwald, Michael. Overpasses: A Love Story. Politico. July 22, 2015. (optional) 11. Saval, Nikil, “The Plight of the ”, The New Yorker November 2019. (optional) 12. Heller, Nathan. “Was the Automotive Era A Terrible Mistake?” The New Yorker July 2019 (optional) 13. Congestion in the Commonwealth: Report to the Governor 2019 https://www.mass.gov/files/documents/2019/08/07/MassDOT_ConReport2019.pdf (optional) 14. Block-Schachter, D. “Hysteresis and urban rail: the effects of past urban rail on current residential and travel choices.” PhD Dissertation 2012 (Abstract & Introduction). (optional) 15. Jenkins, J & F. Salvucci, “Agglomeration Benefits and Transportation: Theory, Measurement and Application to Crossrail” 2010. (optional) 16. Geels, Frank W. (2012) "A socio-technical analysis of low-carbon transitions: introducing the multi-level perspective into transport studies." Journal of Transport 24: 471-482. (optional) 17. Cole, Matt, Meeting of the Minds blog, “10 Objectives for Assessing Mobility as a Service” (2018). (optional)

Week 1: September 25 - Introduction Mutual introductions. Overview of syllabus; course expectations; review of the “run of class”.

Thumbnail Histories: US Transportation History & History of Boston (with a Transportation perspective).

“Sustainable Mobility”: a working definition. We will be asking whether the elements that comprise Sustainable Mobility have continued relevance, force, vitality and resonance in a time when we seek to recover from the impacts of a global pandemic. We will introduce the challenge of crafting a Sustainability Response to COVID-19.

Introductory Assignment: Write (1) a short (one-page max) description of yourself, your interests and background in transportation and/or the environment (please include a digital photo of yourself.), and (2) provide a short definition of Sustainable Mobility as you understand the term today, and a brief statement of its importance. Upload pdf to Canvass by 4pm, Wednesday September 30.

Week 2: October 2 –The Entwined Tragedies of the Concrete & Green Commons; The Role of Public Transportation

Readings: 1. Hardin, G. (1968). “The Tragedy of the Commons”, Science, 162 (3859), 1243-1248. 2. Ostrom, E (1991). Governing the Commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. (pages online) 3. Coughlin, J. F. (1994). The Tragedy of the Concrete Commons: Defining as a Public Problem. In D. A. Rochefort, & R. W. Cobb (Eds.), The Politics of Problem Definition: Shaping the Policy Agenda (pp. 138-158). Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 4. Florman, Samuel The Existential Pleasures of Engineering, pp.11-17; 191-192. (1976) 5. Kolbert, E. “Human Nature: Hundredth Anniversary of Rachel Carson’s Birth”, The New Yorker (2007) 6. Walker, Jarrett Human Transit – pp. 13-35. 7. Faulkner, W. “The Bear” (1942), pp.288-295.

Week 3: October 9 - Planning Fundamentals: 4-Step Model or 19 Steps? The Notion of Access Readings: 1. Meyer, M. and Miller, E. “Urban Transportation Planning” Chapter 1 (pp. 1-45); Chapter 2; Chapter 3, Sections 3.0 and 3. (pp. 1-26). 2. Martens, K. Transport Justice, Part 1, Chapters 1 and 2 (pp. 1-31). 3. Beimborn, E., and Kennedy, R., “Inside the Blackbox: Making Transportation Models Work for Livable Communities”. 4. Wachs, Martin, “Forecasting versus envisioning: A new window on the future.” (Part of the Symposium: Putting the Future in Planning) Journal of American Planning Association, Autumn 2001 (pp. 367-372). 5. Wachs, Martin, “When Planners Lie With Numbers”. 6. Levinson et al; “Elements of Access”, Chapter 1. 7. Dodson, J., Burke, M., Sipe, N. & Perl, A. “The Social Meaning of Access” Chapter 4 (pp.40- 49) in Sclar, Lonnroth,& Wolmar, Improving Urban Access (2016). 8. Sclar, E. “Towards a Political-Economics of Finance for Urban Access”, Chapter 2 (pp.11-42) in Sclar, Lonnroth,& Wolmar Urban access for the 21st Century, (2014).

Assignment 1: Due October 13, 4pm.

Week 4: October 16 - Baumol’s Cost Disease; Agglomeration Effects Assignment 1 In-class Review & Discussion Readings 1. Zureiqat, Hazem. Baumol’s Cost Disease in Public Transit. (pp 1-17) 2. Sarriera J.M. Productivity and Costs in the Transit Sector: The Impact of Baumol’s Cost Disease. (pp 1-40) 3. Salvucci, F. “Reflections on the usefulness of accessibility as a lens through which to consider the evaluation of transportation and policies and projects.” Selections from Chapter 8 in “Urban Access for the 21st Century”, ed. Sclar, Lonnroth and Wolmar, (2014), pp. 204-220. 4. Zhao, J. and Sarriera, J., “Worse than Baumol’s Disease: The Implications of Labor Productivity, Contracting Out and Unionization on Transit Operation Costs.” Transport Policy (2017). 5. Kothari, T., “A Comparative Financial Analysis of the Automobile and Public Transportation in London”, MIT Master Thesis (2007) (Abstract and Section 2). 6. Walker, J., “Can Fares be Fair?” in Human Transit (2012). 7. Shoup, D. “The High Costs of Free Parking:” American Planning Association Press, 2006, Chapter 1. 8. “The Transportation Dividend”, A Better City (2018). 9. Mattioli, G., et. al., “The Political Economy of Car Dependence”, (2020)

Week 5: October 23 – Climate & Automobility

Readings: 1. Paehlke, Robert. Environmental Sustainability and Urban Life in America. 2. Dutzik, T. Frontier Group, “The transportation Decarbonization Pyramid”, (2019) https://frontiergroup.org/blogs/blog/fg/transport-decarbonization-pyramid 3. Dutzik, T. Frontier Group, “50 Steps Toward Carbon-Free Transportation: Rethinking US Transportation Policy to Fight Global Warming.” (2016) 4. Gillis, J. and Thompson H, “Take Back The Streets From The Automobile”, New York Times June 20, 2020). 5. https://projects.iq.harvard.edu/covid-pm and https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/hsph- in-the-news/air-pollution-linked-with-higher-covid-19-death-rates/ 6. Travaglio, M. and others, “Links Between Air Pollution and COVID-19 in England”, University of Cambridge (UK) (April 2020). 7. Caiazzo, F. et.al, “Air Pollution Linked to Early Mortality”, MIT Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment (2013). 8. Small, A. “EVs Alone Won’t Stop Climate Change”, CityLab (2019). 9. Schwartz, H., “America’s Aging Vehicles Delay Fleet Turnover”, The Fuse (2020). 10. Kitman, J., “The Secret History of Lead”, The Nation (2000). (optional)

Assignment 2: Due Tuesday October 27, 4pm.

Week 6: October 30 – Cognitive Barriers to Change; Funding Transportation; Taxing vs. Pricing Assignment 2 In-class Review & Discussion Readings: 1. McFadden, Daniel. (2007). The Behavioral Science of Transportation. Transport policy 14.4: 269-274. 2. Shu, L. L., & Bazerman, M. H. (2010). Cognitive Barriers to Environmental Action: Problems and Solutions. 26. 3. Gossling and Cohen. Why policies will fail: EU climate policy in the light of transport taboos. Journal of (2014) (p. 1-6 only) 4. Manville, Shoup and King “The Political Calculus of ”, Transport Policy 14 (2007) (pp. 111-123). 5. Howitt, A. M., & Altshuler, A. (1999). The Politics of Controlling Auto Air Pollution. In J. A. Gomez-Ibanez, W. B. Tye, & C. Winston (Eds.), Essays in Transportation Economics and Policy. 6. Antos, J. “Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual and the Possible.” Master’s Theses 2007. (Abstract and Introduction: pp. 3 & 11-20). 7. “Funding Transportation Solutions”, A Better City (2019). (optional) 8. Baxandall, P., “The Pros and Cons of Higher Gas Taxes, and How They Could be Offset for Lower-Income Families”, MassBudget Policy Center (2019). 9. Gwilliam, K, “Lessons from Economics: Mechanisms for Financing Mobility” Chapter 6 in Sclar, Lonnroth,& Wolmar, Improving Urban Access (2016), pp.89-102. 10. Caro, R., The Power Broker, (1976), pp. 525-539, 730-735. 11. Salvucci, F., “Accessibility and Transportation Funding”, selections from Chapter 9 in “Urban Access for the 21st Century”, ed. Sclar, Lonnroth and Wolmar, (2014), pp. 221-231. 12. Joselow, M. “Cap & Trade for Cars: It Gets Pretty Complicated”. E7E News July 10, 2019 https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060718039 13. Nivola, P. S., & Crandall, R. W. (1995). The CAFE Conundrum. In the Extra Mile: Rethinking Energy Policy for Automotive Transportation (pp. 22-42). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Week 7: November 6 – How Change Happens (or not). Tony Seba video JFK Rice University Readings: 1. Accuradi, Z., “Derailed: How Nashville’s Ambitious Transit Plan Crashed at the Polls – And What Other Cities Can Learn From It.” TransitCenter (2019). 2. Getz, M. “Critique of Nashville’s Transit Improvement Pan”, (2017). 3. Manville, M., “Measure M and the Potential Transformation of Mobility in Los Angeles”, University of California Institute of Transportation Studies (2019). 4. Feffer, John. “The Case for a Coercive Green New Deal”, The Nation July 30, 2019 5. Wachs. M. “Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution”, Access No. 22, Spring 2003 (pp. 9-15). 6. https://lcc.org.uk//pages/holland-in-the-1970s 7. Turner, R., “Birth of the Greenway” The Boston Globe (2007). 8. Thompson, D., “Where’s My Flying Car?”, The Atlantic (Jan/Feb/. 2020). 9. Murphy, C., “Before Zuckerberg, Gutenberg”, The Atlantic (Jan/Feb/. 2020). 10. Fulton, Mason and Meroux, UC Davis and ITDP, “Three Revolutions in Urban Transportation”.

Week 8: November 13 – Transport Justice Part 1 Readings: 1. Martens, Karl (2017). Transport Justice Chapter 8 “Transportation Planning Based on Principles of Justice” (pp. 150-180). 2. Sheller, Mimi, Mobility Justice: The Politics of Movement in an Age of Extremes, Chapter 1 pp.20-43. 3. Nall, Clayton, “The to Inequality: How the Federal Program Polarized America and Undermined Cities.” pp. 1-16; pp. 23-50 4. Holder, Sarah “A City Planner Makes a Case for Rethinking Public Consultation”, CityLab August 2019. 5. Cadogan, G. “Walking While Black”, Literary Hub (2016). 6. Purdy, J. “Environmentalism’s Racist History”, The New Yorker (2015) 7. Lowe, K., “Bypassing Equity: Transit Investment and Regional Transportation Planning”, Journal of Planning & Research, Vol 34 (1) pp. 30-44.

Week 9: November 20 – Transport Justice Part 2 Readings: 1. Dickens, Charles, “Monseigneur in Town”, A Tale of Two Cities (1859), Part 2, Chapter VII. 2. Aloisi, J. “Massport at 60” (2017) pp: 56-101. 3. Caro, Robert (1975), The Power Broker, pp. 317-321, 951-954. 4. Crockett, K. People Before Highways (2018) pp: 105-134. 5. Vasconcellos, Eduardo, “: The Challenges of formal and informal systems”, Chapter 7 in Sclar, Lonnroth & Wolmar, Urban Access for the 21st Century. 6. Lee, R., Sener I., Jones, S.N., “Understanding the Role of Equity in Active Transportation Planning in the United States” (2017) in Transport Reviews. 7. Karner, A., & Niemeier, D. (2013). Civil rights guidance and equity analysis methods for regional transportation plans: A critical review of literature and practice. Journal of Transport Geography, 33, pp. 126–134. 8. https://commonwealthmagazine.org/environment/chelsea-and-east-boston-deserve- true-transit-equity/

Friday, November 27: Thanksgiving Break

Assignment 3: Due Tuesday December 1, 4pm.

Week 10: December 4 -Transport Justice Part 3 Assignment 3: In Class Review and Discussion Readings: 1. Florida, R. “The Changing Demographics of America’s ” (2019). 2. Aloisi, j. & Johnson, J, “The Transportation Equity Conundrum: Improving Mobility Without Displacement”, Meeting of the Minds Blog (2018). 3. Perez, J., “The Los Angeles Freeway and the History of ”, Toro Historical Review (2017). 4. Golub, A., Marcantonio, R.A., Sanchez, T.W., 2013. Race, Space, and Struggles for Mobility: Transportation Impacts on African Americans in Oakland and the East Bay. Urban Geogr. 34 (December 2014), 699–728. 5. Tehrani, S., Wu, S., and Robert J., “The Color of Health: Residential Segregation, Light Rail Transit Developments and in the United States”, International Journal of Environmental Research and , Vol. 16 (2019). (2016). 6. https://usa.streetsblog.org/2020/05/29/rush-hour-transit-demand-craters-due-to- covid-19-but-midday-demand-doesnt/ 7. Salvucci, F., “How Can Planners Learn From Mistakes?”. 8. Mattioli, G. “Transport Needs in a Climate-Constrained World: A Novel Framework to Reconcile Social & Environmental Sustainability in Transport”, Energy Research & (2016).